Nagoya Future Culture College
名古屋文化短期大学研究紀要 第40集 2015年3月
『太平經』に見る道教の「無為」の発展
ロバート ジェームズ キング＊
The Evolution of Non-action（Wuwei） in Daoism as Seen in the Taipingjing
Robert James King ＊
Summary: Daoism is a Chinese religion that traces its roots back to the Warring States period in China. Historically it has been divided into two different groups, the philosophical Daoism of the Daojia（道 家） and the religious Daoism of the Daojiao（道教） . However, recent academic research points to Daoism without this division, where Daoism starts with a philosophical movement and then evolves into a religious movement. Both of these share the same terms and trace their creation back to the same source. In this paper I introduce the philosophical concept of non-action（無為） and compare it with the non-action found in the Taipingjing, a religious Daoist text, in order to investigate the changes that occurred in this Daoist evolution. Through this comparison, it is found that the concept of non-action , possibly due to the difficulty in understanding the concept itself, did not evolve in the way that other philosophical terms did, to create religious teachings that were necessary to establish a religious following
Introduction terms, and the line between Daoism and Buddhism In approaching Daoism there are many in China has been difficult to draw ever since. difficulties in establishing a comprehensive, Daoism has most often been recognized as definitive definition of what it encompasses. a philosophy and a religion. This is based on the Daoism has been defined as a philosophy, an two common terms used to describe Daoist texts ethical system and a religion. Its different aspects and movements, Daojia（道家） referring to Daoist have been divided and collected together since it philosophy and Daojiao（道教） referring to the Daoist has been investigated as part of Chinese literature religion. Daojia is a philosophical movement and culture according to research, popular believed to have started in the pre-Qin era and conceptions and foreign influence. Daoism, along little is actually known about its history. Daojiao, with Confucianism, evolved in China and its on the other hand, is a religious movement that influence can not only be seen in various aspects exists today and claims a continuous lineage of Chinese culture, but it also greatly influenced since its beginnings. From its evolvement in the Buddhism when it entered China from the west. later Han dynasty it has been a religious group Buddhist texts were often translated using Daoist with established teachings, beliefs, and there are
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recordings of how it existed in Chinese society at Laozhuang philosophy, the ideas of Yin and Yang, that time. It was active in society, having teaching the five elements philosophy, longevity practices, and beliefs for the layperson, and missionary Chinese medicine, Chinese martial arts such as activities to maintain and increase its numbers. taijiquan, qigong, Chinese astrology, fortune-telling As a philosophy, Daoism is commonly seen as and Chinese alchemy. the teachings of Laozi and Zhuangzi, often termed The relationship between philosophical and as Laozhuang philosophy. These are treated as religious Daoism has been academically analyzed both philosophical texts and historical figures, in three basic variations. The first being that there even though the biographies attributed to them are is no connection between the two movements not necessarily historically correct①. Most of the and that they should be treated as entirely two texts have been examined and assimilated separate entities that only happen to share the to modern ideas, leading to interpretations same name and terms. Next is the view that the that are similar to aspects of new age religions, two movements are related, but that the latter, environmentalism and western religion. Within religious Daoism, is a crude or watered-down form the history of Daoist research, the reexamining of the concepts and ideals of philosophical Daoism. of Daoism while trying to avoid cultural and This view of Daoism can be seen quite often in academic preconceptions is relatively new. early research. The final view is that the direct Comparing translations of the Laozi and Zhuangzi, relationship between the two is acknowledged one can easily see how western thought on and religious Daoism is seen as the evolution of culture and religion has clearly influenced their or a continuation of the philosophical Daoism; translation and understanding. As a religion, therefore, although there are two historically Daoism was long dismissed from the realm of recognized movements, the separation of the two academic studies. Even though the Daoist canon is dissolved and instead there is an evolutionary is a huge collection of texts collected concerning turning point. Essentially they are one lineage all aspects of Daoism, there are actual stories of that has continued for more than two thousand professors in their graduate studies being told years. While there are various arguments for each not to concern themselves with Daoist texts, that of these views I would like to focus on the third there are more valuable areas of study in Chinese and how it may be justified. Both philosophical philosophy and religion. Daoism is of course an and religious Daoism share the same manuscripts organized religion with established teachings and and terminology. When describing either of these, gods as in other religions, but these teachings the main terms chosen for their explanation are develop and evolve without a religious founder or the Dao（道） , virtue（徳） , nature（自然） , and a specific starting point. Also, it can be said that non-action②（無為） . Along with this they share the gods are not the same as gods established in the same claimed founder or beginning, Laozi western religion, for they are not all-seeing and all- （seen both as a text and a historical figure）. power. Daoism may be difficult to categorize, but it Philosophical Daoism itself is not recorded well in includes many aspects of Chinese culture including history, so we cannot know how it existed in China
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at that time but the fact that the teachings of Wuwei in Laozi Laozi and Zhuangzi came to be adopted in the late The beginning of Daoism is traced back to the Han dynasty would suggest that the philosophical Laozi. The dating of the text has been of debate Daoism or some group or movement propagated and is still effected by continued findings in these until this religious evolution occurred. If this China, but it is a strong representation of pre-Qin did happen then there is a lineage, though not philosophical thought. The Laozi is not only a text direct, connecting the two. but also a person（ although the actual existence With this evolution of Daoism into a religion of Laozi the person is subject to much debate.）, group, we see a change to a movement that seeks and both of these are considered the origin and to collect people and lead them to a religious goal the center of Daoism. Non-action, wuwei, is first of peace and long life. This may be the greatest explained in the Laozi and is aligned with nature change in Daoism. To evolve from a group of as a phrase（無為自然） considered to summarize recluses straying from society that have almost and represent philosophical Daoism's teachings. no written history, to an organized religion The Dao that is professed within the Laozi is the that strives to actively change the society their origin of the universe and all things in it, and also predecessors chose to leave behind is truly a the continued source of creation. It is not able to be perfect reversal of thought and direction. Here I perceived or understood by the average person, but would like to continue my investigation on how the Dao's existence and the actions of those aligned such a change could occur and what had to be done with the Dao are described using non-action to successfully redefine Daoism at that time, doing Non-action first appears in Laozi in chapter 2 this through the analysis of shared terms that exist and lays a very strong image of what the sage, one in the central teachings of both Daojia and Daojiao. aligned with the Dao, aims to do（ without aiming）. In this paper I would specifically like to look at the evolution of the wuwei, or non-action, as a concept “ The Sage follows the unspoken teachings and in these two movements in order to consider what maintains the stance of non-action.” changes took place in order to allow for a general 「是以聖人，處無爲之事，行不言之教 .」 reestablishment of the goals or activities of Daojia. To examine this evolution I will first look at non- To be one with the Dao and to live in action as proposed in Laozi and Zhuangzi in order to accordance with the Dao's movements, the sage establish how it was defined in Daoist philosophy, is not concerned with the various teachings, texts and then examine it in the Taipingjing to see how and schools that occur throughout society. The non-action was redefined in order to make clear description of the sage's actions is an example of the changes necessary to establish a religion. how all people should act according to the Laozi. While the dating of the Taipingjing is not definite, it Instead the sage maintains his own through non- is still considered a valuable representation of the action. The first chapter lays the foundation for later Han dynasty thought and an essential part of Laozi with a definition of the Dao, and this chapter the Daoist literature③. then immediately afterwards describes how one
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should live. themselves. If through this people try to rise up, I While non-action is introduced in chapter two, would suppress them through nameless simplicity. the explanation of it is put forth in the following Nameless simplicity is without desire, free from all chapter. external aim. Without desire and at rest, the world and the people will become stable through their “ Therefore the sage's governing includes own actions.” empting the people's minds, filling their stomachs, 「道常無爲而無不爲. 侯王若能守之，萬物將自化. weakening their wills, and strengthening their 化而欲作，吾將鎭之以無名之樸. 無名之樸，亦將不 bones. He continually tries to keep them without 欲 . 不欲以靜，天下將自定 .」 knowledge and with no desire; where there are knowledgeable people, he keeps them from acting While non-action is explained as the state of on this. When actions are those of non-action, the Dao and this is without desire and at rest, we there are no activities that are not successfully can clearly see that the effects of non-action are performed.” the necessary actions throughout society. Even 「是以聖人治，虚其心，實其腹，弱其志，強其骨. though the achievements of a stable society are a 常使民無知無欲，使夫知者不敢爲也 . 爲無爲，則無不 direct result of non-action, the actual changes and 治.」 movements come from the people. Non-action is action without prescribed rules Here in chapter 3 we see the effects of non- or directions. In chapter 43 Laozi recognizes this action. If one is able to maintain a state of non- and then puts forth that this lack of structure is action, they will be able to accomplish whatever the true strength of non-action. they are supposed to. This state is described in the previous sentence, where people have a lack of “ That which has no definite existence enters desire and are not set in their own ways strongly. where there is no crevice. I know through this Non-action is used along with the character for that there are advantages arising from non- action. This is necessary to demonstrate that non- action. There are few in the world who achieve the action is not just the lack of action. unspoken teachings and the advantages coming Non-action is described once again in chapter from non-action.” 37, where it is once again stressed that the key to 「無有入無間，吾是以知無爲之有益. 不言之教，無 governing is non-action. Rulers and sages actions 爲之益，天下希及之 .」 are described as those without directly recognized motives. As with other explanations in Laozi, we are told that the majority of the people of the world will “ The Dao is continuously moving in a state of not come to realize the benefits of acting with the non-action and with this there is nothing that it Dao. This describes not only the difficulty of non- does not do. When princes and kings were able to action, but also the fact that even with the carrying maintain this, all things would be transformed by out of non-action in the world and its governing it
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will not be recognized. what is few as many; to return bitterness with In chapter 48 the path to a state of non- virtue. Measuring the difficult while it is still action is stated as the gradual loss of knowledge, easy, and doing the great while it is still small. All the opposite of Confucianism, which stresses difficulties in the world always arise from their the studying of classical texts. This loss of previous state of when they were easy, and all knowledge may be understood as the lack of great things arise from their previous state when academic knowledge. Only through the lack of they were small. With this, while the sage never this knowledge can one expect to be able to rule performs greatness and due to this, greatness is the world. Once again non-action is not the lack of achieved.” action, but a state of mind to be maintained while 「爲無爲，事無事，味無味 . 大小多少，報怨以徳 . 圖 acting. 難於其易，爲大於其細 . 天下難事必作於易，天下大事 必作於細 . 是以聖人終不爲大 . 故能成其大 .」 “ He who pursues learning increases his knowledge from day to day; he who pursues the In acting with the Dao, the sage is able to see Dao diminishes this from day to day. He diminishes the world as it is and recognize what will become. it and again diminishes it, arriving at non-action. He chooses not perform greatness but achieve With this non-action, there is nothing that he does greatness through non-action. In this the sage not do. In trying to rule the world, one must align is not concerned making a name for himself or himself with non-action. If his actions are with appearing in the center of activity, instead he is desire and strategy or planning, they will not be focused on the seeming trivial and mundane affairs enough to rule the world.” that lead to the larger events in the world. 「爲學日益，爲道日損. 損之又損，以至於無爲. 無 爲而無不爲 . 取天下常以無事 . 及其有事，不足以取天 Wuwei in Zhuangzi 下.」 Zhuangzi is traditionally seen as following Laozi in the Daoist lineage, but its writing style The phrase“ With this non-action, there is and the philosophical ideas put forth vary greatly nothing that he does not do.” Laozi continues to from Laozi. These two texts are paired together portray the completeness of actions that arrives to form Laozhuang philosophy, even though it through actions in the state of non-action. is thought that Zhuangzi may have had little or The final explanation of Laozi's non-action is no exposure to Laozi. Through the imagery and found in chapter 63. Here again we see the results satire that it is famous for, Zhuangzi sets out to of non-action and how one with the Dao perceives free those who are burdened or threatened by the the world and his own actions in it. society that surrounds them. Zhuangzi stresses the separation or distancing of oneself from society “To act with non-action and to perform all affairs in order to follow the Dao, the true essence of as they were without trouble, to taste that without and ideal existence. Self-cultivation and freedom flavor. To see that what is small as great and that are seen as the path of Zhuangzi, which leads
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to a life aligned with the Dao. In Zhuangzi ④ we purpose is a tree that will exist without danger, see non-action mentioned only three times. It is and that this tree could be quite functional in other important to note here that Laozi is roughly five ways that are in fact still necessary for man. The thousand characters long and Zhuangzi is about coupling of a lack of worldly purpose and non- sixty-thousand characters long. Looking at the action here shows the connection between these differences in lengths and the number of times two ideas. non-action is mentioned alone, it can be assumed The next use of non-action is found in an that the importance placed on this concept is quite explanation of the Dao. different. In Zhuangzi there are many explanations about “ The Dao; there it has its own reality and the perception and description of the Dao similar its own signs; however, it is without action（ non- to those ideas found in Laozi, but they are directly action and has no form. It may be handed down, related to how one lives in many cases. This can be but may not be received. It may be achieved, but it seen in the first appearance of non-action, in the cannot be seen. It has its own source and its own end of chapter 1. Here we see Zhuangzi and Huizi root（ base）. Before there were heaven and earth, talking, and Huizi has described the teachings of it existed securely from the days of old.” Zhuangzi as a tree that is useless because it is not 「夫道，有情有信，無為無形；可傳而不可受，可得 straight anywhere and is also knotty and rough. 而不可見；自本自根，未有天地，自古以固存 .」 Huizi's idea of usefulness is based upon the ability to be used. Zhuangzi defends this refutation of his This explanation follows the same ideas as teaching saying: those found in definitions of the Dao in Laozi. The Dao is the origin of existence and the following “ Now sir you have a large tree and are creations and interactions that occur. While it does troubled because it has no use - why do you not exist and may be perceptible to some, its actions plant it in a place where there is nothing else or are those of non-action and it is indefinable in in the wide and open wild? There you can relax space. and do nothing（ non-action） at its side or enjoy The final appearance of non-action is in the untroubled sleep beneath it.” explanation of those who are aligned with the 「今子有大樹，患其無用，何不樹之於無何有之鄉， Dao. Confucius sent Zigong to help with a funeral 廣莫之野，彷徨乎無為其側，逍遙乎寢臥其下？」 for a friend that had recently died. Zigong arrived where the funeral should be and found three men While this passage is not directly focused on doing anything but what the‘ proper’ rituals put non-action, it can be read that the idea of purpose forth. He was shocked and came back to Confucius and non-action are related. Zhuangzi negates the asking just who these strange people were. idea of purpose and likens it to being destroyed for a purpose, which would be the fate of a straight “ Confucius replied, 'They are those who and smooth tree. He sees that a tree without enjoy themselves outside the ways of the world,
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while I enjoy myself in the ways of the world. into existence in the later Han era, a return to the There is no common ground for these ways; and times of a perfect existence for both ruler and the me sending you to console them, I was stupid. ruled. This goal is said to be achieved through the They, however, have become one with the Creator, people, the ruling class, and the rulers themselves seeking enjoyment in the formlessness of heaven returning to and following the Dao. The chaos and earth. They see life to be a protruding tumor that occurs in later Han China is explained as a or a mole, and death to be a removal or release separation from the Dao and the correct behavior of these………Ending and beginning again, they （in relation to the Dao） that existed in ancient have no knowledge of where to start or finish. In times. This diversion from the Dao was gradual idleness they occupy themselves ignorantly and and has led to a long history of sins that has upset vaguely outside the world's dust and dirt, seeking the balance of that once existed and can be once enjoyment in the business of non-action. Why again achieved through proper living, etc put forth should they confusedly involve themselves in the in the Taipingjing. Through the persistent study ceremonies of the common people, and make a of the Dao and the subsequent restoration of this show for the ears and eyes of the multitude?” balance, heaven will respond and heaven and earth 「孔子曰：「彼遊方之外者也，而丘游方之內者也、 will both move towards the great peace through 外內不相及，而丘使女往弔之，丘則陋矣、彼方且與 the graces and benefits of the Dao. The reversal 造物者為人，而遊乎天地之一氣、彼以生為附贅縣疣， back to the great peace is not an instant change 以死為決瘋潰癰・・・反覆終始，不知端倪，芒然彷 but instead a gradual progress to slowly undo all 徨乎塵垢之外，逍遙乎無為之業、彼又 惡能憒憒然為 that has been wrongly done. 世俗之禮，以觀眾人之耳目哉！」」 Non-action and its intended meaning have been misunderstood in modern translations, and Here we see the other-worldliness of the it seems that this misunderstanding is not only philosophical sage. Zhuangzi sees the sage as one limited to modern interpretation. While non-action who is outside the daily activities that occur in is clearly defined in Laozi, it is once again defined our world. People act with specific goals based on in the Taipingjing. In chapter 103 we see: demands and needs. The sage, on the other hand, strays away from this allowing his actions to be “ Non-action is not not acting; non-action arises uncluttered. This uncluttered life, or lifestyle, is with the Dao. Entering the primal regions, there is then defined as non-action. no place that it cannot enter.” 「無為者，無不為也，乃與道連；出嬰兒前，入無間也．」 Wuwei in the Taipingjing The Taipingjing, The Scriptures of Great Peace, The beginning of this definition is taken is seen as one of the earliest Daoist religious from Laozi, and, with the reiteration of this, it scriptures and has been dated back to the later can be assumed that non-action was sometimes Han dynasty. It focuses on the idea of bringing interpreted as not doing anything. This definition back the great peace attributed to ancient times is followed by the phrase‘ the arts of non-action’,
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and is linked to the creation of the world. The of yin prefer killing. Those of yang itself practice confusion concerning non-action arises from other the Dao and those of yin practice punishment. explanations, such as in chapters 120-136（ These Those of yang practice good and this yang helps the are all connected without divisions.） where non- spirits; those of yin practice evil and this yin helps action is grouped with the actual lack of action. the spirits. Accruing good and not stopping causes the Dao to rejoice, making man's day's fortunate. “ The world comes to be in full. Without action Yang is found in the head and yin is found in the and non-action, the world is saved and lives are feet. Therefore the ruler values the Dao and virtue long. Public officials perform this and the reasoning and sees punishment beneath it, choosing laws for for this is ever clearer. The Dao is in everything this. The lower people oppositely see the Dao and and light shines everywhere.” virtue as lowly and value punishment, choosing 「天下興昌．垂拱無為，度世命長．吏民行之，其理 laws for this. Therefore for people the origin of the 日明．凡道皆出，莫不生光．」 Dao is the gods’ long life. If you know its meaning and cultivate this well, you should be able to attain Non-action as a concept is often used in long life.” relation to the Dao Non-action often paired 「天之使道生人也，且受一法一身，七縱橫陰陽，半 with the original essence or energy（元気） and 陰半陽，迺能相成．故上者象陽，下者法陰，左法陽， with nature（自然） in explanations of the Dao. 右法陰．陽者好生，陰者好殺．陽者為道，陰者為刑． According to the Taipingjing, the Dao is and was 陽者 為善，陽神助之；陰者為惡，陰神助之．積善不 and from it comes non-action, and emptiness and 止，道福起，令人日吉．陽處首，陰處足．故君貴道德， nature.（ In Daoist teachings nature does not refer 下刑罰，取法於此．小人反下道德，上刑罰，亦取法於 to the natural world, but instead to the nature of 此． 故人乃道之根柄，神之長也．」 living things and objects.） It can be seen here that governing the people The most common usage of non-action is is put forth as being based on virtue and natural in relation to government. The governing of the order. Non-action is actions that are aligned with people through non-action is a standard of the past the two basic energies, yin and yang. The stories of and a goal for the future. Non-action government ancient peace are throughout the Taipingjing, and （無為之事） is explained in chapters 18-34. phrases including:
“ Heaven's Dao gives birth to man; man “ Superior leaders rule happiness, they use receives one law and one body, yin and yang spread non-action to save the world.” throughout the world- half yin and half yang, thus 「上士治樂，以作無為以度世 .」（ Chapter 113） completely composing the world. Therefore the Ancients followed yang and those who came later “ In ancient times governing was done through followed yin; left follows yang and right follows yin. non-action.” Those of yang itself prefer life and birth and those 「上古所以無為而治」（Chapter 36）
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In this explanation non-action is directly tied “ The Dao is actually the ultimate manuscript. to the happiness of the people. It is important Ancient celestial masters ruled this; using the here to understand that in philosophical Daoism perfected ones as attendants they governed the the ideas of good and evil, happy and sad are not people. Therefore the people did not know that relevant to the human experience. there was an emperor above them. The Dao, nature and non-action were used to govern themselves.” Conclusion 「夫道者，乃無極之經也．前古神人治之，以真人為 Through the excerpts of these three historically 臣，以治其民，故民不知上之有天子也，而以道自然 important texts two different movements, 無為自治．」（Chapters 18-34） philosophical and religious are represented. As has been seen with other terms in Daoism, these The Taipingjing has a clear goal of purporting two movements use the same terms and concepts, the pursuit of the great peace in order to right while the later religious movement has developed the world that was at the time in decline. While the philosophical teaching and it evolved into this goal is being stressed to not only rulers and concepts relative to the common man⑤. Not only those in power, but also to the common man who this, but the philosophical terms are adopted into is suffering and a target for religious recruitment, creation theories that are necessary for religious it would seem that non-action is more aligned with doctrines. This development may be important to the government and the society as a whole. In the keep followers believing in the teachings, to allow numerous passages mentioning non-action there them to have faith in the religion. are almost none that relate to the common man. In Laozi and Zhuangzi , the non-action of The closest example is the effect of non-action on Laozhuang philosophy is that of action without human behavior in chapters 115-116. purpose, where the actions that take place are complete and successful. Purpose is the standard “ This is the law of nature. Therefore happiness by which the world decides to act, but the sage brings goodness, and goodness brings happiness; aligned with the Dao rejects or does not consider evil brings about a taste for fighting, and fighting this common logic. Purpose means having a use, brings evil; non-action brings happiness, and having a use means being of use, being of use happiness brings non-action; fighting brings leads to being used; this then leads to a shortening disorder, and disorder brings fighting; happiness of one's life. Non-action is considered the key to brings singing and dancing, and singing and governing. Non-action is not just the action itself dancing bring happiness; evil brings distress, and but the ability to recognize the appropriate timing distress brings evil.” and situation. It is not easily achieved and it is 「此者，自然之法也．是故樂生善，善生樂；凶凶生 also, by definition, difficult to recognize in practice. 樂武，武生凶；無為生樂，樂生無為；武生亂，亂生武； Examples of non-action are only applicable to that 樂生歌舞，歌舞生樂；凶惡生愁苦，愁苦生凶惡．」 specific time and place and are not universal rules or standards that can be taught or transmitted.
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Non-action is the function of the Dao, that which no interest in the human world to becoming a cannot be grasped fully while pervading all things, god-like figure that watches over the world and and therefore non-action is also all-pervading. judges human behavior to bestow rewards and The Taipingjing makes use non-action with punishments, the development of non-action is similar characteristics, starting with the basic limited its inclusion in the new creation teachings, definition that non-action is not the lack of action. the addition of its relationship to good and evil, This would be necessary when establishing a and the justification of it through its existence in religious movement. If it were defined as letting the peaceful times of the ancients. One reason for world move around you without interaction or this lack of development can be assumed. This connection, the Daoist religion would never have is that the concept of non-action, especially in a come to exist. The non-action here is also one that religious movement that gathered the poor and brings about complete and effective results. The probably uneducated, is not easily understood. It governing deemed necessary in the Taipingjing is recorded that religious Daoist movements had is based on and directly tied to non-action. This their members recite passages of the teachings, governing is recalled from ancient times where and, to the illiterate, the non-action could have it is said that rulers existed without recognition been misinterpreted and followers could view it as and conducted their affairs with virtue through a reason to give up their faith in Daoism and the non-action. Non-action is also incorporated into great peace that it wanted to achieve. creation theory, becoming an ever-existing concept that envelopes the world. This concept is raised to Notes a level that competes with the ideas of the original ① Debates on the authenticity of these historic essence and nature. These three concepts are facts that can be found in the official histories central throughout the following Daoist religious arise from consideration of the Chinese idea development. Finally, non-action develops a that texts from the past and from officials or relationship with the ideas of good and evil. This persons of power are more trustworthy. is the opposite of early Daoist philosophy, and its ② For a more involved explanation of the Dao development is necessary for teaching concerning and other terms, see A Source Book in Chinese non-action to be justified through manuscripts. Philosophy or A Short History of Chinese Philosophy. Looking at the characteristics of these two ③ While the Taipingjing can be traced back to the non-action concepts, it can be said that there is later Han era, there is still much question as little development between the philosophical to whether the text that exists today is the and religious Daoism. Compared to the concepts same even in part as the one mentioned in of nature, which developed from a phrase in historical recordings. There are arguments philosophical Daoism to a concept central to for a later date of the current Taipingjing text, creation and proper living in the religion, and but these arguments are not conclusive and the Dao, which went from a concept of existence are also not clear when taking into account that could almost never be understood and has the possible rearrangement of the text after
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its original creation. Details on the dating of Bibliography the Taipingjing, the history of the arguments １） 王明編『太平経合校』中華書局出版 1997 年 ２） 大濱皓『荘子の哲学』勁草書房 年 concerning its dating, and the problems 1966 ３） 大濱皓『老子の哲学』勁草書房 1962 年 “ involved with its dating can be found in The ４） 郭慶藩『荘子集釈』中華書局出版 1971 年 Date of the Taipingjing” and The Scripture of ５） 高明撰『帛書老子校注』中華書局出版 1996 年 Great Peace. ６） 田所義行『老子の探求』福村書店 1959 年 ７） Beck, B.J. Mansvelt. The Date of the“ Taipingjing.” ④ In this paper I am only examining the inner T’oung Pao, Second Series Vol. 66, 1980. chapters of Zhuangzi, not including the outer ８） Chan, Wing-tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. or mixed chapters. The inner chapters are Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963. ９） considered to be the core of the Daoist writings. Fung, Yu-lan. A Short History of Chinese Philosophy. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1948. ⑤ For an explanation of the development of the 10） Hendrishke, Barbara. The Scripture of Great Peace: Daoist concepts of nature and the Dao, see The The Taipingjing and the Beginnings of Daoism. Evolution of the Dao and Re-examining Ziran in Berkely: The University of California Press, 2006. 11） King, Robert James. Re-examining Ziran in Early Early Daoist Texts. Daoist Texts. 名古屋大学中国哲学論集。Vol.9 2010. 12） King, Robert James. The Evolution of the Dao. 名古屋 大学中国哲学論集。Vol.11 2012.
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