The Iran–Iraq War: a Military and Strategic History Williamson Murray and Kevin M

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-06229-0 - The Iran–Iraq War: A Military and Strategic History Williamson Murray and Kevin M. Woods Index More information

Index

Abadan, Iraqi focus on 138 and Karbala 4 battle 294–295 Abu Hassan, on war with Iran 48 planning for 1988 Fao offensive 320–321 Adnan, General, on Kurdish opposition and Saddam’s fear of military conspiracy 255 287 Aﬂaq, Michel 16 al-Hussein missile, range of 317 attitude to Western civilization 16–17 al-Jaf Kurdish group 148 Ahvaz al-Janabi, Lt General Ala Kazim 248 Iranian offensive against 181 al-Kabi, Lt General Abid Mohammed losses in 182 200–201 Iraqi defense of 180–182 al-Khafajiyya, see Susangard and Khuzestani oil 138 al-Khazraji, General Nizar, on battle of lessons from battle 182–183 early 1987 299–300 air control, advantages of Iraq 217, 257 al-Majid, Ali Hassan (Chemical Ali), and see also Iranian oil exports; Iraqi Air Force suppression of Kurds (al-Anfal al-Anfal Campaign, see al-Majid campaign) 253, 301, 310–311, 333 al-Assad, Hafez and chemical weapons use 278, 315 and 1973 war with Israel 58 reaction to Saddam’s order to ease Iraq’s support for coup against 208 pressure 333–334 negotiations with Saddam 27 al-Qadir, Major General Mohammed Abd, Saddam’s contempt for 289 on effectiveness of Iranian deception al-Bakr, Ahmed Hassan 20, 43 272–273 al-Duri, Izzat al-Qasim al-Khoei, Abu 66 accusations of treason against 179 al-Qurnah, and Operation Khyber 228 and Saddam’s favoritism 184, 196 al-Rashid, General Maher Abd al-Duri, Major General Sabar al-Aziz, on Karbala 4 exaggerations 293 US conspiracy against Iraq 280 links with Saddam during war 303 al-Duri, Major General Tala 138, 145 al-Rawi, General Ayad Fayid, and incompetence of 63 Republican Guard 302–303 and Karbala 4 exaggerations 293 support from al-Rashid 303 Alexander the Great 10 al-Sadat, Mushammad Anwar al-Gaylani, Rashid Ali, and pro-Nazi coup and Camp David Accords 28–29 13, 53–54 encouragement for military Algiers Agreement 22–23, 48, 62, 74 professionalism 56 see also Shatt al-Arab al-Sadr, and Dawa Party 44 al-Hamdani, Lt General Ra’ad Majid al-Tikriti, Brigadier General Ahmed 261 Rashid 57 Andimeshk, Iraqi attacks on 220 appointment of Al-Rawi 302 anti-Semitism, in Ba’ath ideology 16 failure to recapture Fao 270 and Jewish–Persian connection 17 Iranian build-up before Dawn 8 offensive see also Zionism 265–267 Arab military effectiveness 54 Iraqi morale and attempts to regain against Israel in 1940s 55 Halabjah 316 and Six-Day War 56

385

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-06229-0 - The Iran–Iraq War: A Military and Strategic History Williamson Murray and Kevin M. Woods Index More information

386 Index

Arafat, Yasser, and Israeli bombing of PLO Bakr University for Higher Military Studies HQ 260 59 Archidamus 7 Bandar-e Khomeini, strikes at 199–201, Argosy, Iraqi attack on 330–331 218, 237–238 Asaad, Brigadier General Juwad, execution Bani-Sadr, Abu al-Hasa 45 of 184 attacks on ayatollahs in French media in Assyrian minority, suppression of 13 1981 218 Ataturk, Kemal 37 defeat of government 71 atomic weapons, and Mohsen Rezai 288 and Pasdaran 81–82 see also Hussein, Saddam; Zionism political pressure from religious leaders AWACS, sale to Saudi Arabia 161 143–144, 149, 160 Aziz, Tariq 15 premature attack on Iraqis 144 and attack on USS Stark 308 Barcelona, Iraqi attack on 330–331 attempted assassination by Shi’a radicals Barzani, Mullah Mustafa, and Kurdistan 44 Democratic Party 21 Iran–Contra affair 281 Basij e-mustazafin, part-time religious on Iranian failure to recognize reality militia 79 187–188 expansion after Khorramshahr 186 justification of use of chemical weapons fanaticism of 80, 263 276–277, 339 fewer volunteers in 1988 317 and Soviet weapons supplies 155 human-wave assaults 2 on Syria and Zionists 208–209 lack of cooperation with regular army and US arms sales to Iran 162, 260 210 on victory of 1988 Fao offensive and losses from Operation Khyber 230 effect on Israel 322–323 Operation Badr 245 warnings over arms dealers 154 temporary demobilization of 233 use of gas masks 271 Ba’ath Party Basra, attitude to West 16–17 Iranian attacks on 236, 291, 293, 304 control of Iraq and Tikritis 19 defense of, after Badr 250 effect of Six-Day War on 56 and Karbala 4 274–275 and Islam 17, 51 and Karbala 5 293 military coups by 15 Saddam’s restraint on use of chemical and military professionalism 57, 63 weapons 295–296 pan-Arabic ideology 16, 51 fortification of 192 and the People’s Army 59, 61, 66 importance of capture to Iran 274 Proclamation No. 1 57 importance to Iraq 299–300, 302 purge of military 6–7 and Iraqi offensive (1988) 325–326 and Saddam 16, 19, 290 collapse of Iran’s positions 326–327 survival of 338 extent of Iranian defeat 327 see also Hussein, Saddam Saddam’s deception tactics 326 Babylonian pessimism 10 Bazargan, Mehdi, and Khomeini’s Badger bomber, Iraqi use in war on tankers revolution 38 305 Beheshti, Ayatollah Seyyed Mohammad Baghdad Hosseini 171 air defenses 252 Bell, Gertrude, and British Middle Eastern importance of 244 policy 11–12 missile attacks on 196, 236, 259, 317 bin Shaker, Zaid 198 Saddam’s response to 317 Bonaparte, Napoleon, and 18 Brumaire 4 Bait al-Moqaddas, infiltration of defenses Bostan, Iranian recapture of 174 177–178 Britain al-Duri’s conspiracy theories 179 control of Shatt al-Arab 20 Iraqi withdrawal to Khorramshahr defense of RAF base at Habaniya 53–54 178 establishment of army in 1920s 52–53 military assessment of failure 178–179 training in England 53

Index 387

and Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq 12 crude oil exports, and attacks on shipping imperial ideology in Iraq 52 (1987) 279 maintenance of Iraqi status quo 1941–58 see also War of the Tankers 14 and Nasser’s loss of Sinai to Israel Darband Khan Lake, and Iraqi withdrawal 55 from Khurmal 313 Dawa Party, killing of spiritual leader 46 C-601 Kraken air-to-surface missile, use of Dawn Offensives 211–213, 227–228 330 deserters 232, 297, 309 casualties of war 2, 241, 251–252, Dezful, attacks on 220, 236 287–288 Dhannoun, Staff Brigadier Abdul Jawad, and chemical weapons 245 and Iranian capabilities 149 in Fao Offensives (1986) 322, (1988) Dujail, executions in 188, 281 and return to attrition strategy after Fao 272 earthen berms, use in Operation Khyber in Halabjah 314–316 230–231 in Karbala 4 275 economic intelligence, and use of Scud in Karbala 5 293–294, 296 missiles 235 in Operation Badr 248 Egypt in Wars of the Cities (1985) 257, 317, Camp David Accords 28–29 (1986/7) (1988) Arab response to 28–29 see also chemical weapons; human-wave casualties in Yom Kippur War 58 attacks Egyptian guest workers, in Iraq 232–233 Chemical Ali, see al-Majid, Ali Hassan loss of Sinai to Israel 55 chemical weapons, use of by Iraq 2, 151, military professionalism 56–57 221 and Soviet Union control 62 on civilians 276–279, 285 Ekéus, Rolf 339 in Fao Offensive (1988) 268–269, 321 Ethiopia; military equipment sales to Iran and Iranian protective gear 245 262 and Iraqi battlefield training 252 ethnographic intelligence, and Scud missile defense against 257 use 235–236 during Karbala 5 295 at Khurmal (1986) 314–316 Fahd Line 239 during Operation Badr 247–248 Fainberg, Anthony, and Israeli attack on during Operation Khyber 229–231 Osirak 169 against Kurds 253–255, 334 Faisal I 12–13 and possible retaliation of enemy 232 Faisal II 14 as psychological weapon 222, 316 Falcon 50, modification of, and attack on Saddam’s view of 295–296 USS Stark 307–308 stockpiling of 221–222 Falklands crisis 191 and War of the Cities (1986/7) Fao Peninsula, Iranian attacks on (1985/6) 276–278 264 see also al-Majid Dawn 8 offensive 885 267–268 China, arms and equipment sales to Iran difficulties of terrain 264, 269–270 217, 262, 292 initial misreading of situation by Iraq Chirac, Jacques, and Iraq’s nuclear 265–266 ambitions 166 Iraqi counterattack 270 Churchill, Winston 54 strategic importance of 264 civilian populations, increased war against Fao Peninsula, Iraq’s Operation Blessed 220, 235 Ramadan (1988) 321–322 see also chemical weapons; Kurds; War of continued focus on area after battle the Cities 325 Clausewitz, Carl von 64 deception campaign in north 320 conspiracy theories 280–281 use of gas 268–269 see also Khomeini; Hussein, Saddam implications of victory 322

388 Index

Fao Peninsula, Iraq’s Operation Blessed Hawr al-Hawizeh, importance to Operation Ramadan (1988) (cont.) Khyber 228 need for major battlefield success 320 Herodotus, description of Persians 72 need to sustain initiative 319–320 Hisham, Colonel, promotion of 63 rewards for bravery 325, 328 Hitler, Adolf 77 role of King Hussein 266 Hulagu Khan 33 Saddam’s direct command of 321 human-wave attacks, Iranian reliance on secrecy surrounding planning 319 186, 210–211 and signals intelligence 321 in Ahvaz area (1982) 180–182 Fish Lake, Iraqi fortification of 192 Badr offensive 245 France, aircraft sales to Iraq 199, 217–218 and Basij 79 and Exocet missiles 237 and children 80 involvement of warships in Gulf 256 Fath al-Mobin, use of Pasdaran, regulars and Iraq’s nuclear ambitions 166 and Basij 176 Operation Bait al-Moqaddas 178 General Military Intelligence Directorate Dawn offensives 213 (GMID) Operation Khyber 229 ability to assess Iranian capability 70 Operation Ramadan 193–194 eavesdropping on military 287 Operation Tariq al-Qods 174 emphasis on Israel 70 see also Pasdaran increase in personnel throughout war 70 Hussein, Lt Kamel 18–19, 317–318 Iran’s dependence on artillery and Hussein, King of Jordan massed infantry attacks 175 attempts to reconcile Iraq and Syria 289 Iranian preparations north of misleading information on Fao offensive Khorramshahr (1982) 177 266 and Karbala 4 274–275 offer of troops to Saddam 197 population targeting of missiles 235 and Operation Dawn briefing 212 problems within Iranian regime 160 and US intelligence 250 report on Iranian Air Force (1981) Hussein, Saddam 198–199 Ahvaz, lessons from defense of (1982) report on Iranian military capability 46–47 183 report of possible attack on Basra 274 air defense, lack of understanding of report on state of Iranian army 65 training needs 217–218 Syrian attitude to Iran 159–160 air force, anger at failure to hit targets 258 Tariq al-Qods, assessment of 175 ambitions of 1 US information of Iranian attack 161, 266 Arab greatness, Iraq’s role in 25–27, 32, and use of chemical weapons 221–222, 41, 298–299 231, 315 on army morale and deserters (1986/7) recommended stockpiling of 221–222 297–298 warning of airstrike on Baghdad from army, complete control of 63–64, 176 naval intelligence 196 assassination attempt on 188 see also Iraq, intelligence service; signals assessment of enemy after Badr 249 intelligence and Camp David accords 28–29 Germany, support for pro-Nazi politicians ceasefire, changing attitude to after Badr in Iraq 53–54 248 Ghazi, King 13 civilian targets, preference for 220 Glaspie, April 284 use of Scud missiles 234–235 governance, in Middle East, and military conspiracy theories 30 power 6 American conspiracies, nature of 282 Gulf States, and provision of finance for connection between Shi’as in Iraq and Iraq 243 Iran 283 and Iraqi characteristics 285 Hadi, Commander Mezban Khider 298 and US and Israel 280–283 Hammadi, Saadoun 23 US arms sales to Kuwait 282–283 and Israeli attack on Osirak 169 and Zionist enemy 285

Index 389

coup of July 1968 55 Mehran, recapture of (1986) 273 decision-making process, amateurism of Mesopotamia, historic role of 18 48–49 military commanders, distrust of 287 demands aimed at breakup of Iran 49 purge of senior officer corps (1979) disloyalty, penalty for 253 62–63 execution of officers in 1981/2 184–185 military cross-border penetrations into familial ties and Ba’ath loyalty, Iran 46 dependence on 18–19, 63–64, 261 military culture, changes to (1984) 223 Fao peninsula, situation in (1986) human-wave attacks 224 265–267 likelihood of decisive battle for Basra insistence on its recapture 270–271 225 spin following its loss 272 need for speed in planning 224, 226 Great Day and Great Harvest battles need to take initiative 225–226 (1987) 299–302 military effectiveness 2–3 guns and butter analysis of costs of war legitimacy of regime 6–7 (1982) 188–189 and myths of culture 5 high command, shake-up of (1987) 302 military organizations, view of 55 ideological belief, more important than military professionalism, support for 286 technology 59 navy, disinterest in 69 and fear 61 nuclear ambitions, and pan-Arab unity and Iran 9 164–165, 169–170 contempt for his own military 140 belief in Israeli collusion with Iran defense of main invasion routes (1983) 168 209–210 challenge to Israelis 166–167 expectation of lengthy war with 150 Israeli attacks on Osirak 167–168 initial military mistakes 138 Organization of the Islamic Conference, intelligence reporting 142, 144 terms of 163 mobilization of additional forces 142 Palestine issue 29 suspicions over Algiers Accords 143 vision of war with Israel 30–31 Iran–Contra affair 281–284 the Zionist entity 29–30 Iranian crude oil exports, pressure of 218 paranoid belief in malign influences 33 on Iraqi weaknesses in complex in international environment 33–34 operations 329–330 Iran–Contra affair 34–35 and Islamic identity 17 of Iran and Zionism 36–37 and Israeli bombing of Arafat’sHQ of Jews and Zionists 34–35 260–261 peace talks, attempts at 186–188, 217 Khayrallah Talfah, influence of 17–18 personality 24 and Khomeini’s humiliation in 1988 postwar military dismissals 342 337 postwar reflections 336 and Khomeini’s regime 31–32, 64–65 Iraqi triumph 339, 341–342 and Khomeini’s unwillingness for peace proposal for monument 342–343 187–188, 241–242 Presidency and purge of rivals 23–24 leadership vision 24–25 reflections on war in 1983 214 necessity for military and political force discussion on death and courage 215 26 education levels of forces 215 position of Iraq in pan-Arab nation focus on retraining of army 216 25–27, 32, 41 importance of principles and idealism logistics priorities 155 for military 215–216 marriage of son to al-Rashid’s daughter worries over Israel benefiting from 303 Iraqi military experience 214–215 Marsh Arabs, cleansing of (1987) 308–309 resource capacity 7 and “successes” of security Saudi Arabia, relations with 28 detachments 309–310 Second Popular Islamic Conference suggestions from General Security (April 1985) 249–250 Directorate 309 Shatt al-Arab, control of 20

390 Index

Hussein, Saddam (cont.) divisions in country before war with Iraq and Algiers Agreement 22–23 44–45 and Soviet Union 156 early losses 185 Stalin, influence of 19 early offensives to regain lost territories strategic competence of 1–2 176–177 survival of 338 focus on war of attrition (1987) 304 Susangard, Iranian recapture of 163 geography, importance of 72 and plan for summer offensive 164 Halabjah battles (1988) 314–316 Syria, relations with 27–28 losses and “volunteer” Afghans and and 1973 war 58 Pakistanis 223 supply of armaments to Iran 208–209 Khorramshahr, importance of capture Syrian and Libyan betrayal 289 180, 185 and UN Security Council, protest after mechanical enciphering machines, attack on Osirak 168–169 change to 174 Warsaw Pact ammunition, purchase of 61 military history 72 and Algiers Agreement 62 military preparation for war 47 withdrawals 175, 226 buildup north of Khorramshahr 177 self-justification for 225–226 morale in last years of war 288–289, 297 see also Ba’ath Party; chemical weapons; national jihad and paramilitary Iraq; Kurds; War of the Cities; War gendarmeries 73 of the Tankers; Zionism Majnun Islands 327–328 psychological balance of war (1988) import of workers, in Iraq 241 318–319 payment of 243 focus on north (1988) 320 India, military effectiveness of 5 and Saddam’s paranoia 34–35 intelligence information, see GMID; Iraq, war aims, restatement of (1982) 190 intelligence service; signals winter offensive (1987), failure of 286 intelligence; US intelligence see also Dawn Offensives; human-wave cooperation attacks; Iranian Air Force/Army/ International Atomic Energy Agency Navy; Karbala Offensives; Pasdaran; (IAEA) 165 Khomeini; War of the Cities; War of Iran the Tankers ancien régime, removal of 32 Iran-Contra affair 34–35, 75, 163, 217, 281 apparent superiority at start of war 72, 74 and Saddam’s proof of US conspiracy arms sales to 161–163 283–284 access to global markets 260, 262–263 Iranian Air Force inferiority to Iraqi weapons systems 262 aircraft losses by end-1984 236 attacks on French government personnel airstrike on Baghdad 196 and interests 218 competence under Shah 68, 75 Ayatollah’s belief in defeat of Iraq 263, condition of by 1986 275 327 early impact of war on 198–199 changed approach to war (1985) 251–252 effect of religious revolution on 75–76 chemical weapons grounding of F-14s after Saddam’s trick access to 257 237 Iraq’s use of 222, 242 and Iraqi attacks on shipping (1987) clerics’ demands for further offensives 279–280 after Khyber 244 retaliation to attacks on cities 236 re-use of Khyber tactics (1985) Iranian Army 244–245 Ayatollahs’ mistrust of officers 82 debates over continuation of war (1985) expansion of 186, 207 233 failure to modernize 72–73 defeat of, reasons for 337 gains by regulars and Pasdaran (1981) belief in religious victory 338 172 military spending and balance of war gap between regulars and Pasdaran 210, 340–341 287

Index 391

geographical problems for troop and concerns of Iran and Israel 164, movements 209 166–167 ground force numbers 317 and Osirak nuclear reactor 166 human-wave attacks, reliance on 210 and Yom Kippur War 165–166 infantry, dependence on infantry 207 ruthlessness of 338–339 and Islamic Revolution 77 Saif Saad, liberation of 49–50 Khomeini’s suspicions of 78 spring offensive (1988) 286 lessons from 1982 attacks 210 expansion of ground and air forces military equipment, sources of 207 290–291 morale after revolution 77–78, 317 increased sophistication of tactical operational changes (1983) 213 operations 286 politicization of military institutions 84 victory, reasons for 339 purge of 78, 81–82 weapons, Iraqi search for under Shah 73–74, 76–77 and arms dealers 154–155 effect of geography on numbers 77 secrecy of 152–153 strategy of 209 tank shipments 153–154 use of Pasdaran in war with Iraq TOW support equipment 154 82–83 Zain al-Qaws, liberation of 49–50 see also Basij; human-wave attacks; see also GMID; Hussein, Saddam; Iraqi Pasdaran Air Force/Army/Navy Iranian Embassy, London, seizure of 46 Iraqi Air Force Iranian Navy airspace command and control weakness equipment under Shah 76 217–218 purge of (1982) 201 attacks on convoys to Bandar-e Khomeini Iraq and Kharg in 1983 218 arms suppliers to 159, 207 attacks on Iran’s cities 220, 235–236 Baghdad meeting prior to war 47 attacks on tankers in May 1983 237 belief in Shah’s expansionist ambition escalation of (1984) 237–238 74 attempt against British base at Habaniya Bostan, loss of 174–175 53–54 costs of war 188–189, 232–233, lack of skill 67–68 284–285 mix of Eastern equipment and Western defeats of spring 1982 187 training in 1980 66–67 efforts in international arena 190–192 purchase of supplies from UK 206 importance of oil for finance 189–190 US estimate of during war 68 defense preparation (1981) 205 see also War of the Cities; War of the advantage of Mesopotamian Valley Tankers road network 209, 214–216 Iraqi Army effectiveness of 212–213 9th Division, dismantling by Saddam expansion of army 205 195–196 supply of weapons 205–206 execution of commander 196 emphasis on defense (1984) 233–234 losses in 195 European military training 12–13 reputation for incompetence 145 firepower, importance of 263 anti-government coups 53 German influence in 13 combined arms operations 303 Hashemite Kingdom 12 continued expansion (1985) 243 intelligence service 70 and foreign equipment 243 Iran, invasion of 48, 50 culture and military effectiveness of 54 lessons of early years of war 240 digging of defensive positions 300 losses sustained in war 173, 185, 338 drain on forces (1985) 251–252 military coups (1936–41) 13 emphasis on obedience to order under al- modern state, creation of 11–12 Rawi 303 and contenders for power 15 expansion early in war 185 morale, strains on 284–285; failure to take Habaniya RAF base 53–54 nuclear ambitions gap between enlisted men and officers 56

392 Index

Iraqi Army (cont.) equipment purchases and long-range infantry radar sites 69 expansion in final two years of war 290 holding of peninsula 268 lessons from Khorramshahr defeats 204 limited war missions 70 morale of 202 retreat during Fao offensive 267 psychological factors 203 Islamic movements, importance of Iranian training 202–203 victory at Khorramshahr 186 junior officers, training levels of 234 see also Khomeini lack of cooperation with Air Force (1986) Israel 274 arms and equipment sales to Iran 208, 262 military effectiveness of 340–341 attack on Arafat’s PLO headquarters 36 morale and numbers of deserters 297 attack on Osirak 167 non-commissioned officer corps, loss of Iraqi protest to UN Security Council 142 168–169 numbers on active duty (1980) 65 combined arms superiority 59 officer corps, casualties of 142 defeat of Nasser’s army in Sinai 55 origins as British enforcement agency invasion of Lebanon (1982) 191–192 52–53 Iranian interpretation of 192 overthrow of Hashemite monarchy 55 military equipment, superiority of 59 planning failures before war with Iran and nuclear weapons 165–166 64–65 Saddam’s Zionist entity 34 politics and military professionalism Six-Day War 56 56–57 support for Kurds 21 purge of senior officer corps by Saddam Yom Kippur War 58 62–63 raised standards (1986) 291 Japan, military effectiveness in world wars 5 and battle around Basra 291 Jordan, financial assistance from League Karbala 5 and high-level incompetence of Arab States 28 293–294 see also Hussein, King superior firepower, discipline and training 296–297 Kadhum, Lt Colonel Mohammed Jawad, rebuilding of defenses after Badr execution of 184 250–251 Karbala Offensives 273–275, 292–293 counterattack 247–248 Kennedy, President John F. 7 report on initial Iranian success 246 Khairallah, General Adnan response to Badr 245–246 appraisal of losses at Fao 272 religious makeup (1980) 66 and enemy’s return to attrition strategy and potential for treason 66 272 Saddam’s total control of 63–64 Khaled, Lt Colonel, promotion of 63 Saddam’s “wisdom,” and learning on Khamenei, Ali, on Karbala 4 275 battlefield 261 Kharg Island, Iraqi strikes at 26, 199–201, Six-Day War with Israel 56 219–220, 237, 305 tactical training (post-1973) 58 Kharkov, defeat of Soviet forces in 145 training levels (1980) 65–66 Khayrallah Talfah, and Saddam 17 use of fear 61 Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruhollah 1 Warsaw Pact equipment 59–60 appeal for Iranian people 83 lack of training for 60 and hostility at start of revolution wartime retraining 216 44–45 weaponry (1980) 65 attempts to overthrow his regime Yom Kippur War 58 171–172, 204 see also Hussein, Saddam; Republican paranoia about 149 Guard and collapse of Shah 38 Iraqi Navy Commander in Chief, dismissal of 327 advantages of Saddam’s disinterest in defeat, reasons for 337 69 exile in Iraq 37

Index 393

expulsion from Iraq at Shah’s behest destruction of Iraq’s 34th Infantry 38 Division 311–313 external isolation of regime 160, 286 and Iran’s best units 320 debates on continuation of war in 1985 Kirkuk oil fields, control of 21, 259 233 see also Algiers Agreement effect on military supplies 217 Kurdistan Democratic Party 21 foreign conflict, use to further political Kurds control 39–41 and al-Anfal campaign 333–334 Imam, use of 40 bid for autonomy in 1968 21 Islamic unity 40 and Algiers Agreement 22–23 Karbala 4 274–275 and support from Shah 21–22 Khorramshahr, significance of its chemical attacks on 253–255, 310–311, recapture 179–180, 185 314, 334 military disarmament 77 political consequences of 335 military purge 42 cooperation with Iran during Dawn and buildup of religious militia 43, offensives 213–214 82–83 escape to Iran and Turkey 315 New Year victory pledge 273–274, in Hashemite Kingdom 12 292–293 Iranian support for 21–22, 33 Operation Ramadan 193 opposition to Saddam 253 Organization of the Islamic Conference and Saddam’s vengeance towards 163 332–333 paranoid view of world 34 see also al-Majid political philosophy of 37, 39 Kuwait revolutionary goals 40, 42 loan to Iraq 159 propaganda after defeats in 1988 336 Saddam’s occupation of 339 religious emphasis 43, 51 tankers, US escort for 35 focus on Iraq 43–44 and lack of military expertise 338 League of Arab States, expulsion of Egypt martyrdom 2 28–29 nationalist approach 52 Libya, arms and equipment sales to Iran and revolution 7 207, 217, 243 and Shi’a movement 44 assistance to Kurds 253 the voice of God 83 Luna missile, and biological warfare USS Vincennes attack on civilian plane, 150–151 reaction to 331 view of Saddam 40–41 Madani, Admiral Ahmad 76 war aims 41–42, 211 Mahmud, Qaduri Jabir 187 military effectiveness 2–3 Majnun Islands motivation of nation 7 Operation Khyber 228, 230 no compromise position 242–243, 248, Pasdaran defense of 327–328 285 recapture of 244, 263, 327–328 strategic competence 1–2 Iranian captives and weapons 328–329 “Westoxification,” rejection of 37, Makki, Major General Aladdin 227 41–42 Marsh Arabs, Saddam’s cleansing of see also Iran; Rafsanjani 308–310 Khorramshahr Mesopotamia Iraqi focus on 138 British policy in 11–12 recapture by Iran (1982) 177–178 civilization in 9 significance of 179–180, 185 and Saddam 18 significance of loss for Iraq 183 invasions of 10 Khurmal/Halabjah, battles for and geography 10–11 and chemical weapons 314–316 military effectiveness, of Iraq 2–3, 54 counterattacks by 10th Armored Division adaption in war situation 3 314 and Arab culture 5

394 Index

military effectiveness, of Iraq (cont.) oil prices 241, 340 influence on Saddam 55 discounts on crude loaded at Kharg 200 Western concepts of 3–5 Operation Badr 245–246 military equipment, of Iraq 152 dominance of Iraqi firepower 247 ammunition and spare parts 61, 153, Iranian defeat 247–248 156–157 Iraqi response to 245–246 artillery systems 157–158 air attacks 247 dependence on single-source supplier report on 246–247 206–207 Western media reports 248 and foreign exchange 158 Operation Bait al-Moqaddas 177–178 inferiority of Warsaw Pact equipment Operation Fath al-Mobin 175–176 59–60 Operation Khyber lack of training in use of 60 Iranian offensive 228 from Soviet Union 62, 155–156 casualty figures 230 transportation difficulties 157 purpose of 228 military institutions Iraqi’s defense of 229 British influence in Iraq 52 use of chemical weapons 229–230 politicization of 52, 84 results of 230 see also Iraqi army; Iranian army Operation Peace of the Galilee 191–192 mines, Iranian use in the Gulf 305–306 Operation Ramadan 193 Mirage aircraft Iranian explanation for failure 193–194 Iraqi relations with France 218 Iranian losses 195 and War of Tankers 304–305 Iraqi losses 195 Montazeri, Ayatollah Hussein-Ali 338 and Pasdaran 194 Mousavi, Mir-Hossein 244 Saddam’s assessment of Iraqi Muni, General Mohammed Fathi, air force performance 194–195 and army cooperation 274 and disbandment of 9th Armored Muslim Brotherhood, assault on Hama by Division 195–196 Syrian troops 208 failure to understand battle 196 Mussolini, Benito, use of chemical weapons 2 Operation Samen al-Ae’mmeh 173–174 Mustafa, Brigadier General Hassan 206 Operation Tariq al-Qods 174–175 Muthana, Abu 198 Organization of Islamic Conference 163 settlement attempts, 151–152, 190 Nasser, Abdul 30, 55 terms of 163 Nebuchadnezzar, Saddam’s attitude to 18 Osirak nuclear facility 166 Nixon, President, sale of weapons to Iran Iranian attack on 167 74 Israeli attack on 167 Non-Aligned Movement, and Iraq’s efforts Ottoman army officers, in Iraqi army 53 at settlement 190–191 Ottoman Empire, destruction of 11 summit meeting in Baghdad 196 North Korea Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza Shah, and engineering expertise for Fao offensive buildup of military 74 264 Air Force 75 equipment sales to Iran 207, 217, 257 Army 76–77 and Iranian air training 252 Navy 76 and Iranian mustard gas capability 316 Pakistan, supply of chemical fertilizer plant long-range Scud missile development 279 to Iran 257 sale of nerve gas to Iran 257 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 165 and League of Arab States 28–29 Nuri al-Said 14–15 Palestine national council, pressure on Jordan 197 oil exports, from Iran pan-Arab unity; and Iran–Iraq war 159–160 attacks on 219–220, 238–239, 255 Saddam’s vision of 170 attempts at retaliation 239, 256 Pasdaran 2, 78, 80, 82–83 see also War of the Tankers amphibian landing on Fao 267

Index 395

belief in martyrdom 263 expansion and training of 243–244, 261, blame for futile war against Iraq 83 291, 293–294 capture of Khorramshahr 179–180 leadership of General Ayad Fayid al-Rawi competition for resources 80 302–303 and Dawn offensive 212, 214 liberation of Majnun Islands 327–328 expansion of after Khorramshahr 186 performance during Badr 247 fall in numbers of volunteers (1988) planning of 1988 Fao offensive 319 317 reinforcements after Iranian success in lack of signals capability 266 Fao offensive 270–271 lack of structure or organization 81 use of artillery 329 losses from Operation Khyber 230 Rezaee, Mohsen 233, 288 Operation Badr 245–246 and victory at Fao 272 Operation Ramadan 193–194 protection against chemical weapons 245, Sa’adun, Dr., and chemical weapons 257 277–278 and regular army 79, 210 Salah al-Din al-Bitar 16 temporary demobilization of 233 attitude to Western civilization 16–17 training for Fao offensive 264 Saleh, Ali Abdullah 328 use in War of the Tankers 305 Salman, Sabah 25 see also human-wave attacks Sami Shawkat 26 Patton, George 5 Sandandaj, Iraqi attack on 330 People’s Mojahedin, campaign against SAVAK 37 Khomeini’s regime 171–172 Sazegara, Mohsen, and Pasdaran 80 Persian nationalism, and Shi’a population Scud missiles 219–220 66 development of Iraq’s domestic industry political structure, military support for 259 3–4 development of longer range (1987) 279 Popular Army 59 economic and population targeting of defeat at Khorramshahr 183–184 234–235, 258 lack of training in 183 Libyan supplies to Iran 258 strategy following defeat 172–173 Scud-B, attacks on Baghdad (1987) 304 Seawise Giant, Iraqi attack on 330–331 Rafsanjani, Hojatoleslam Ali Akbar Second Popular Islamic Conference 249–250 Hashemi Sha’ban, Pilot Lt General Hamid, aims of Karbala 5 296 discussion on use of chemical command of ﬁghting (1988) 327, 338 weapons (1986/7) 278 and Dawn offensive 211, 213 Shahin, General Mahmoud Shukr 63, 266 and diplomatic ending to war 331 Shanshal, General and Khomeini’s New Year declaration defense of Zagros foothills 148 273, 292 on Dawn offensive 212 and Libyan missile supply 258 shortages of equipment and ammunition preference for ending war in 1985 156–157 233–234 Shatt-al-Arab, control over 20–21 push for changes in strategy 288 and Algiers Agreement 22 on Western neutrality 337 defense of 226–227 Rajavi, Massoud, attacks on ayatollahs in Shi’as French media in 1981 218 attempt to assassinate Saddam 188 Rashid, General Hussein, and 1988 Fao conﬂict with Iraqi Sunnis 17 offensive 319–320, 325 expulsion from Iraq prior to war 46 Reagan, President Ronald 308–309 in Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq 12 and Iran–Contra affair 34–35 Iranian aid to 44 religious revolution 7 in Iraqi army 66 Republican Guard 210 and Khomeini’s aims of world revolution collapse of Iran’s positions around Basra 248 (1988) 327 origins of sect 39

396 Index

Shi’as (cont.) Iranian offensives in January 143 religion 10 Iraqi assessment of Iranian tactics 148 focus on Iraq 43–44 Iraq’s failure to build on success return of “Imam” 40 149–150 and Saddam’s cleansing of Marsh Arabs military importance of 149–150 308–310 reports of Iranian fratricide 146 success of Iranian revolution 44 reports to Saddam on effectiveness of and Valayat-e-faqih 37 ground forces 151 “victory of the blood over the sword” Saddam’sreflection on his troops’ lack of 242–243 resistance 146–147 Sidiqi, General Bakr, military coup by 13 see also Organization of Islamic signals intelligence Conference Ahvaz, Iraqi defense of 181–182 Switzerland and Fao offensive 266 chemical supply to Iran 257 help from Soviets 71 military equipment sales to Iran 262 Iranian signals “en-clair” 71 Syria electronic enciphering 71 assistance to Kurds 253 Iraqi advantage in 70 financial assistance from League of Arab and Iran’s 1st Dawn offensive 211 States 28 use by Iraq in 1985 250 and help for Iran 159–160, 162, 207, and Karbala 4 274 217, 243 and Operation Ramadan 193 Saddam’s reaction to 208–209 and ship movements in northern Gulf 201 and Saddam’s paranoia 34 see also GMID and Saddam’s vision of Arab unity 27–28 Sirri Island, and Iranian oil exports 219 and Yom Kippur War 58 1987 attacks on 279 Six-Day War 15, 56 tactics, distinction between Iran and Iraq and Arab nationalism 56 (1985) 251 Slim, Field Marshall Lord 10–11 Talfah, Colonel Adnan Khaivallah 63 Soviet satellite imagery, and Iraq’s Tarfa, General Mizher 71 1988 Fao offensive 321 Thatcher, Margaret, and Iranian Embassy Soviet Union siege 46 and aircraft sales to Iraq 199, 217 Thucydides 1, 7, 9 and supply of weapons to Iraq 155–156, Time, interview with Saddam 241–242 205–206, 219–220 TOW missiles, Iran’s use of 148, 262 Soviet view of Iraqi Air Force 68 Trajan 10 Stalin, and Red Army coup 4 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation Star Ray, Iraqi attack on 330–331 (1972), and Soviet weapon supply to Sunnis, control of Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq 155 Iraq 12 Tudeh Party, Soviet hopes for 155 conflict with Shi’a Persians 17 Super Etendard aircraft, French sales to United Kingdom, involvement of warships Iraq 218 in Gulf (1985) 256 and strikes at Iranian oil 219, 237–238 supply of spare parts to Iraq 206 Super Frelon helicopters, use in naval United Nations warfare 200–201 and Iraq’s efforts at settlement 190–191 Susangard, battle of (1981) 138, 163 Security Council, response to attack on capture of Iran’s tanks and armored civilian Airbus 331 vehicles 147 weapons inspectors, and Iraq’s chemical defense of foothills of Zagros mountains weapons 222 147 United States destruction of Iraqi tanks 145–146 complexity of policy toward Iraq (1985) importance of weather 144–145 250 Iranian attacks near Dezful and intelligence cooperation with Iraq 67–68, Susangard 144–145 161–162, 250

Index 397

satellite imagery and Fao offensive 266, casualties of 257 321 and chemical weapons 338–339 involvement of warships in Gulf (1985) strategic and military effects of 318 256 War of the Tankers 199–202, 237–239, and Saddam’s conspiracy theories 279–280, 306–308, 330–331 34–35 attacks on Kharg 330 seizure of embassy in Tehran 43, 143 attacks on neutral shipping (1987) State Department concerns over possible 305–306 arms deals with Iraq 154 importance for Saddam 332 support for Iran 74–75 escalation of (1987) 304–305 equipment sales to 208 international naval convoys 306 Iran–Contra scandal 262 Iranian confrontation with US (1988) 331 support for Kurds (1974) 21 mistaken attack on Iranian civilian United States Navy, and Iranian mine- Airbus 331 laying 306 as strike at Iraq’s ﬁnanciers 239 USS Samuel B. Roberts, Iranian attack on see also signals intelligence 331 Wavell, Field Marshal Archibald 54 USS Stark, Iraqi attack on 306–308 West Germany, chemical supply to Iran AWACS report 306–307 257 US reaction to 308 USS Vincennes 286 Yom Kippur War (1973) 58, 165–166 mistaken attack on Iranian civilian Airbus effect on Iraqi military training 58 331 Iraqi skill in air 67 USS Wainwright, and Operation Praying Mantis 331 Zionism Upton, Emory, on Persian armies 73 Arab–Iranian ‘fraternity’ 88 Uwayyid, Major General Ali Hussein, and and Iranians 36–37, 191–192, 285 battle at Khurmal 313 and Khayrallah Talfar 17 and Non-Aligned Movement 190–191 valayat-e-faqih 37 and nuclear power 127–128, 167–169 Vietnam, military effectiveness of 5 and Six-Day War 56 and Syria 208–209 war ﬁnance, costs to Iraq 188 and US conspiracy 35 War of the Cities 235–236, 257–260, 276, and “Zionist entity,” working against Iraq 304, 317–318 29–31, 34–35