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The Investigation and Identification of a Sixteenth-Century Shipwreck

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Solving a Sunken Mystery: The Investigation and Identification of a Sixteenth-Century Shipwreck By Corey Malcom A thesis submitted to the University of Huddersfield in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Huddersfield School of Music, Humanities, and Media March 2017 2 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT I. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns any copyright in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Huddersfield the right to use such Copyright for any administrative, promotional, educational and/or teaching purposes. II. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts, may be made only in accordance with the regulations of the University Library. Details of these regulations may be obtained from the Librarian. III. The ownership of any patents, designs, trademarks and any and all other intellectual property rights except for the Copyright (the “Intellectual Property Rights”) and any reproductions of copyright works, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property Rights and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property Rights and/or Reproductions. 3 ABSTRACT In the summer of 1991, St. Johns Expeditions, a Florida-based marine salvage company, discovered a shipwreck buried behind a shallow reef along the western edge of the Little Bahama Bank. The group contacted archaeologists to ascertain the significance of the discovery, and it was soon determined to be a Spanish ship dating to the 1500’s. The investigation of the shipwreck was entrusted to the author, working for the Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage Society (MFMHS), a not-for-profit research center based in Key West, Florida. Under the agreement, the collection of recovered materials will remain as an intact collection housed in both Key West and The Bahamas. Between 1992 and 1999, the MFMHS conducted six excavations to examine and document the shipwreck. Approximately 1,500 artifacts were recovered, along with many more olive jar sherds, iron fasteners, and barrel hoop fragments. Careful analysis of the materials found on the shipwreck, along with clues provided by the remains of the ship itself, shows that the sizeable vessel sailed between 1555 and 1575 and had touched at Tierra Firme (Colombia and Panama) before sinking during a return voyage to Spain. By comparing the archaeological evidence to the historical record, it becomes clear that the St. Johns shipwreck can be none other than the Santa Clara, a 300-ton Carrera de Indias trader owned by the famed Spanish mariner Pedro Menéndez de Avilés. While returning to Spain in October of 1564, it grounded on a reef in the western Bahamas and could not be freed. Its cargo of silver and the people on board were safely removed to an accompanying ship, and the Santa Clara was abandoned. Santa Clara comes from a time when the Spanish colonial system had largely shifted from the exploration and conquest of the Americas into a new stage of settlement and commercial development. The physical remains of the ship, combined with its history, reveal a material culture in use as the Americas began to be systematically exploited, as well as the sorts of people who sailed with these ships and what they were doing. With the identity and specific circumstances of the shipwreck now known, it can serve as an important touchstone in the understanding of the early Spanish colonial system. Word Count: 114,921 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The realization of this study has been the result of the many. Without the additional vision, effort, and support on many levels, from a number of individuals, groups, and corporations, over a period of years, this investigation could not have been attempted, let alone completed. First and foremost, the men of St. John’s Expeditions, Mr. John P. Browning, Jr., Mr. C.J. “Whitey” Keevan, Mr. Milton “Gene” Evans, and Mr. Richard MacAllister deserve credit for the discovery of this long-lost shipwreck and the direction in which it was taken. It was their decision to keep this piece of history within the public realm. Their patience and perseverance was crucial to any success. The St. Johns shipwreck project has been conducted under the auspices of the government of The Bahamas, and the fieldwork was ably monitored and administered by Mrs. Maureen Wilson of the Ministry of Transport, Mr. Mark Edgar of the Ministry of Finance, and Dr. Grace Turner of the Department of Archives. Petty Officers Leslie Forbes, Derek Richardson, Whitfield “O.B.” Neely, and Rupert Flowers of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force served as field representatives. Dr. Keith Tinker, Dr. Michael Pateman, and Ms. Kim Outten-Stubbs of The Bahamas Antiquities, Monuments, and Museums Corporation have followed the post-fieldwork progress of the project. All have ensured that this research has followed and met the standards of the government of The Bahamas. Material and financial support for the project came from a number of generous sponsors. Thanks go to John P. Browning, Jr., Mel and Dolores Fisher, Kim Fisher, George E. Robb, Jr. of the RPM Specialist Corporation, Hans Schmoldt of Anode Systems, Inc., Gwin “Dick” Whitney, Eric Whitney, Ikelite, Inc., Oceanic Inc., and Sea Resources, Inc. Others who have worked to further this endeavor are Dr. Edgardo Alvarado-Vazquez, Korinn Braden, Lyle Buss, James Crandall, Dr. Amerigo Falciani, Cameron Hutchins, Blake Johnston, Dr. Eugene Lyon, Courtney Platt, Dr. Sylvia Scudder, Dr. Roger Smith, KC Smith, Dr. Elizabeth Wing, Lower Keys Medical Center Radiology Department, the staff of Jack Tar Marina, Robert and Grace Rhinehart, Dick Schutz, the staff of the Star Hotel, the crew of R/V Stenella, and the crew of R/V Wren of Aln. The men and women of the various field crews who participated in the excavation of this ship endured many long days and nights, both above and below the water, for what often seemed to be a nebulous goal. Thanks to Michael “White” Bassett, Monica Brook, Robert Cummings, Ed Hinkle, Jeff Keiser, Dylan Kibler, Don Kincaid, John M. Leeper, Abraham López Cruz, Rachel S. McGraw, Anne Meyers, Janice Mitchell, David D. Moore, Mira Negron, Joy Rech, Robert Scott, Cristian Swanson, Heather Swanson, and Vincent Trotta for giving their all. Thanks to the staff of the Mel Fisher Maritime Heritage Society, especially Executive Director Melissa Kendrick and former Executive Director Dr. Madeleine Burnside, both of whom always supported the years of research and made sure the bills were paid. A very special thanks to Conservator Monica Brook for such exacting work in bringing the artifacts back to life, and to Registrar Dylan Kibler for making sure the collection is always in good order. You are as much a part of this work as anyone. Finally, to my family – Lisa, Cameron, Robert, and Alexandra – thank you for understanding when I was maybe too focused on events from centuries ago. Your love and support have been key to this work. 5 Table of Contents Copyright Statement ...………………………………………………………………………………………….....………………………….….............2 Abstract........................................................................................................................................................................3 Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….................4 Chapters........................................................................................................................................................5 List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5 List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................................6 Chapters 1 Literature Review……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15 2 Discovery and Excavation of the St. Johns Shipwreck………………………………………………………………………….50 3 Hull Structure, Rigging, and Ballast……………………………………………………………………………………………………..76 4 Artillery…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….110 5 Harquebuses…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….153 6 Crossbows…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………169 7 Pole Arms………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….195 8 Swords and Daggers…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………205 9 Armour…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….218 10 Hand Tools……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..225 11 Ceramics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………235 12 Glassware……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….270 13 Coins and Silver………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………279 14 Fauna and Flora………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………290 15 Miscellaneous Objects…...………………………………………………………………………………………………………………300 16 The Identification of the St. Johns Shipwreck………………………………………………………………………………….323 17 An Account of the 1563-1564 Tierra Firme Fleet…………………………………………………………………………….347 18 Conclusions and Future Research……………………………………………………………………………………………………370 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………374 List of Tables Table 3.1. Measurements of iron fastener types found on the St. Johns Wreck……………………………….……………….. 90 Table 3.2. The volume of ballast removed during the 1992-1999 excavations of the St. Johns wreck…………………
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