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Mufdi Colostate 0053A 11227.Pdf DISSERTATION CONSTRUCTING THE COLLECTIVE EXPERIENCE OF BEING ARAB AMERICAN IN POST-9/11 AMERICA Submitted by Jamillah L. Mufdi School of Education In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Summer 2012 Doctoral Committee: Advisor: James Banning Ellyn Dickmann William Timpson Roe Bubar Copyright by Jamillah L. Mufdi 2012 All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT CONSTRUCTING THE COLLECTIVE EXPERIENCE OF BEING ARAB AMERICAN IN POST-9/11 AMERICA The events of September 11, 2001 dramatically changed the lives of Arab Americans. Some lost loved ones in the attacks while others Arab Americans became targets of discrimination and differential treatment because they had names and faces similar to the hijackers or they shared the same religion. Arab Americans defended themselves against accusations of being sympathetic to the hijackers and experienced treatment that indicated Arab citizens were not completely American. Like all Americans, those of Arab descent experienced fear, anger and grief in response to the attacks. Unlike other Americans, Arab Americans experienced fear that blame for the attacks would be place on them and shame that other Arabs committed such atrocities. America came together after the attacks and united as a people. Unfortunately, this unification process seemed to exclude Arab and Muslim Americans. Reports of hate crimes, discrimination and differential treatment climbed sharply and public opinion of Arabs declined steadily. This study examined the experience of navigating post-9/11 America as an Arab American. Findings confirmed that Arab Americans experience differential treatment on a regular basis and that there are commonalities in how the othering occurs. A collective story of the Arab American experience in post-9/11 America was constructed. The findings affirm existing studies regarding the collective experience and treatment of non-dominant groups who exist in America‘s margins. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. James Banning, who guided me every step of the way. He nudged me when necessary and most importantly, he never gave up on my project. Dr. Banning‘s humor and plethora of great stories validated my belief that sharing stories is one of the most valuable tools educators can use. I am indebted to Dr. Ellyn Dickmann who stayed with me on my dissertation journey even after she departed from the university. Dr. Dickmann spent countless hours reviewing my work and giving me invaluable feedback from a thousand miles away. When I think of people I aspire to be like, Drs. Dickmann and Banning always come to mind. Most importantly, I want to thank my family. Thanks to my parents who, in the words of Edward Said, invented me and gave me my story and thanks to my wonderful husband, Odis, who took care of everything so I could write and study. I also extend thanks (and a punch in the arm) to my big brother, Joe, who unintentionally started me on this journey years ago when he nicknamed me ―Dokter Loozar.‖ Any acknowledgement of my wonderful support system would be incomplete if I did not mention Dr. Bill Jones (AKA White Kitty). He is currently eighteen years of age and has assisted me on this project for a full third of his life. His contributions included sitting in front of my computer monitor, defacing many books and papers with hairballs and even making some additions to the text when he sat on the keyboard. His devotion to the project was unwavering. If I was sitting at the computer, so was he. Even when the dogs gave up and stole my spot in the bed, Jones stayed with me working into the wee hours. iii Finally, I wish to give thanks for all the love, support and encouragement I received from so many people. I could not have done this without them. I hope to one day have the opportunity to pay it forward. iv DEDICATION I dedicate this study to my father, Jadallah. It was through his love and stories that I grew up connected to my Arab heritage. I also dedicate this study to my amazing mother, Bennie, who gave me the other half of my history. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................... i ACNKOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................v LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND .............................................................1 Personal Narrative ............................................................................................................................1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................3 Background ......................................................................................................................................3 Purpose of Study ..............................................................................................................................7 Discrimination................................................................................................................................11 Bias Related Discrimination ..............................................................................................16 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................................17 Social Dominance Theory..................................................................................................18 Critical Race Theory ..........................................................................................................19 Collectivity .........................................................................................................................20 Significance of Study .....................................................................................................................21 Significance in the Community .........................................................................................21 Significance in Schools ......................................................................................................22 Definitions......................................................................................................................................24 Summary ........................................................................................................................................26 CHAPTER 2-REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .........................................................................27 Personal Narrative ..........................................................................................................................27 vi Introduction ....................................................................................................................................29 Who are the Arabs? ........................................................................................................................29 History of Arab Immigration to the United States .........................................................................33 Who Are Arab Americans? ............................................................................................................36 History of Discrimination against Arabs in the United States .......................................................39 Lynching and White Supremacy ........................................................................................39 Legally White.................................................................................................................................41 Contemporary Discrimination against Arabs Living in the United States ....................................43 Stereotypes and Negative Portrayals .............................................................................................43 School Curricula/texts ........................................................................................................44 Entertainment .....................................................................................................................44 Television Portrayals .............................................................................................44 Music Lyrics ..........................................................................................................45 Movie Images.........................................................................................................46 Video Games ..........................................................................................................47 News Reporting .................................................................................................................48 Political Cartoons ...............................................................................................................50 Remarks by Government Officials ....................................................................................53 Violence .........................................................................................................................................56 Murders
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