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Nood Breekt Wet? Nood breekt wet? Eindrapport TERRORISTISCHE DREIGING, NOODTOESTAND EN MAATSCHAPPELIJKE EFFECTEN 2 november 2017 Nood breekt wet? Terroristische dreiging, noodtoestand en maatschappelijke effecten In opdracht van het WODC kernteam: Prof.dr. Mirko Noordegraaf (projectleider) Dr. Marie-Jeanne Schiffelers (uitvoerend projectleider) Scott Douglas DPhil Mr.dr. Jan Willem van Rossem Niels Terpstra MA & Prof.dr. Beatrice de Graaf Prof.dr. Henk Kummeling Eindrapport 30 november 2017 COLOFON Titel: NOOD BREEKT WET? Terroristische dreiging, noodtoestand en maatschappelijke effecten Auteurs: Mirko Noordegraaf, Marie-Jeanne Schiffelers, Scott Douglas, Jan Willem van Rossem, Niels Terpstra, & Beatrice de Graaf en Henk Kummeling Studentassistenten: Sandrine Lafay en Lieke Wouterse Opdrachtgever: Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek- en Documentatiecentrum (WODC) van het Ministerie van Justitie en Veiligheid Begeleidings- prof. mr. dr. Adrienne de Moor- Van Vugt (voorzitter), commissie dr. Jelle van Buuren, drs. Michael Kowalski, mr. Maaike Daams en drs. Theo van Mullekom Utrecht, november 2017 Foto: © Istock/Darwel © 2017 Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek- en Documentatiecentrum. Auteursrechten voorbehouden. Niets uit dit rapport mag worden verveelvoudigd en/of openbaar gemaakt door middel van druk, fotokopie, microfilm, digitale verwerking of anderszins, zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van het WODC. USBO advies 3 Samenvatting 7 Lijst van afkortingen 11 Hoofdstuk 1 Introductie 13 1.1 Inleiding 13 1.2 Doel en vraagstelling 14 1.3 Leeswijzer 15 Hoofdstuk 2 Analysekader 17 2.1 Inleiding 17 2.2 Noodtoestand en noodmaatregelen 17 2.3 Context 20 2.4 Interventievermogen 21 2.5 Performativiteit 23 2.6 Uitkomsten 25 2.7 Onderlinge verhoudingen gehanteerde begrippen 26 Hoofdstuk 3 Onderzoeksopzet 29 3.1 Opzet op hoofdlijnen 29 3.2 Casusselectie 29 3.3 Gebruikte bronnen 30 Hoofdstuk 4 Historische context (tussen 2000 en 2015) 33 4.1 Samenvatting 33 4.2 Inleiding 33 4.3 Terroristische dreiging tussen 2000 en 2015 34 4 Nood breekt wet? 4.4 Reactie op de terroristische dreiging tussen 2000 en 2015 35 4.5 Belangrijke thema’s t.a.v. de reacties op dreiging 38 Hoofdstuk 5 Casus Frankrijk 39 5.1 Samenvatting 39 5.2 Context Frankrijk 39 5.3 Tijdlijn van gebeurtenissen 47 5.4 Interventies 48 5.5 Interventievermogen 53 5.6 Performativiteit 66 5.7 Uitkomsten/effecten 70 Hoofdstuk 6 Casus België 75 6.1 Samenvatting 75 6.2 Context België 75 6.3 Tijdlijn van gebeurtenissen 79 6.4 Interventies 81 6.5 Interventievermogen 89 6.6 Performativiteit 94 6.7 Uitkomsten/ effecten 98 Hoofdstuk 7 Casus Duitsland 103 7.1 Samenvatting 103 7.2 Context Duitsland 103 7.3 Tijdlijn van gebeurtenissen 107 7.4 Interventies 109 7.5 Interventievermogen 110 7.6 Performativiteit 113 7.7 Uitkomsten/effecten 116 USBO advies 5 Hoofdstuk 8 Conclusies en implicaties 121 8.1 Samenvatting 121 8.2 Verschillende reacties op noodsituaties 122 8.3 Rol open Europese ruimte 129 8.4 Effecten en performativiteit 130 8.5 Lessen voor Nederland 133 Bijlagen 137 Figuren behorende bij H1 137 Projectteam 139 Overzicht respondenten expert interviews 143 Topiclijst expert interviews 144 Referenties 147 Bronnen per casus 149 6 Nood breekt wet? USBO advies 7 Samenvatting Nood breekt wet? Dit onderzoek analyseert de ervaringen van Westerse en vooral West-Europese landen met het uitroepen van de noodtoestand naar aanleiding van terroristische dreigingen. Dit gebeurt met het oog op relevante lessen die daaraan voor Nederland te ontlenen zijn. De hoofdvraag luidt: “Wat zijn de politieke en maatschappelijke gevolgen van het uitroepen van de noodtoestand door overheden, in het bijzonder als gevolg van terroristische dreigingen?” Uit de analyse blijkt vooral dat het ‘uitroepen van de noodtoestand’ als tegenovergestelde van de ‘normaal toestand’ een te simplistische categorisering is. De situatie in andere landen leert dat er gradaties van noodtoestand zijn, én dat naast het uitroepen van de noodtoestand noodmaatregelen getroffen kunnen worden. Bovendien, zelfs zonder formele (de iure) noodtoestand c.q. formele noodmaatregelen kunnen feitelijke noodmaatregelen worden genomen, die de facto een ervaren ‘toestand van nood’ kan laten ontstaan als er iets ‘uitzonderlijks’ plaatsvindt. Dit alles betekent dat de overheid over een breder handelingsrepertoire kan beschikken. Hoe dat repertoire eruit ziet is wel sterk afhankelijk van juridische en institutionele randvoorwaarden, die van land tot land verschillen. Vervolgens blijkt uit de analyse dat het benadrukken van de ‘uitzonderlijkheid’ van de situatie, en het afkondigen van ‘nood’, in welke vorm dan ook, niet zonder meer doeltreffende handelingen zijn. Overheden blijken een beperkte controle te hebben over de effecten van hun acties. Enerzijds levert de noodtoestand c.q. leveren noodmaatregelen niet meteen een beperking van de terroristische dreiging op, anderzijds is het (politiek) erg lastig om de situatie van ‘nood’ weer tot beëindigd te verklaren. Om te voorkomen dat de overheid zichzelf als het ware vastzet door de lastig te controleren gevolgen van haar eigen acties, is het van groot belang om te streven naar een palet aan genuanceerde en gespecificeerde maatregelen gericht op dreigende situaties. Naast een brede reflectie op ervaringen van Westerse landen met de noodtoestand, door de afgelopen jaren heen, bestudeert dit onderzoek de ervaringen van drie West- Europese landen – Frankrijk, België en Duitsland – in de diepte. Daarbij staat het jaar 2016 centraal, een jaar waarin deze landen geconfronteerd werden met verschillende 8 Nood breekt wet? terroristische aanslagen. Op basis van beleidsrapporten, wetenschappelijke studies en interviews met (lokale) experts, schetst het rapport per land de context, de terroristische dreiging en de genomen maatregelen die op de een of andere manier aan ‘nood’ te relateren zijn. Vervolgens analyseert het rapport in hoeverre de maatregelen hebben geholpen om doelgericht te opereren, om tevens legitiem (legaal en met maatschappelijke steun) en robuust (met voldoende capaciteit en uithoudingsvermogen) op te treden, en in hoeverre deze interventies effect hebben gehad op de dreiging, rechtsstaat en samenleving. Daarbij gaat bijzondere aandacht uit naar de performatieve werking van overheidsinterventies, inclusief taal, communicatie en symboliek. De ontwikkelingen in Frankrijk, België en Duitsland ondersteunen het eerder geschetste beeld. Overheden hebben keuzeruimte in hun reacties op een dreigende situatie in termen van: a) de specificiteit dan wel algemeenheid van maatregelen; b) de mate van afwijking van de reguliere rechtsorde en beleidspraktijk; c) de duur van uitzonderlijke interventies; d) de retoriek waarmee de maatregelen worden omkleed. De keuzeruimte van de overheid wordt niet alleen beperkt door de aard en intensiteit van dreiging, die in meer of mindere mate als ‘uitzonderlijk’ en als ‘nood’ kan worden geduid, maar tevens door de juridische en institutionele omgeving van het desbetreffende land, inclusief de bestuurlijke structuur en cultuur. In het gecentraliseerde presidentiële Franse stelsel kan bijvoorbeeld steviger worden ingegrepen, met steviger communicatie en maatregelen, dan in de meer decentrale Duitse en Belgische stelsels, die juridisch gezien tot meer terughoudendheid nopen. De drie cases laten zien dat de overheid geen algehele controle heeft over de door- en uitwerking van de ingezette acties. Het voorkomen van een aanslag en het wegnemen van een concrete dreiging hebben een concreet positief effect op de rechtstaat en samenleving. Maar de noodmaatregelen hebben ook onverwachte en onbeheersbare effecten op de terroristische dreigingen, rechtsstaat en samenleving. Formele en zware maatregelen hebben soms weinig maatschappelijke impact, terwijl beleidsmatige en specifieke maatregelen grote effecten kunnen sorteren, bijvoorbeeld op de handelingsvrijheid van burgers. De breed-opgetuigde noodtoestand heeft in Frankrijk veel politiewerk opgeleverd, maar heeft het sociale leven beperkt geraakt. Een gerichte maatregel in België om anonieme simkaarten te verbieden betekende dat twee miljoen prepaid gebruikers hun kaart moesten registeren. Met de komst van sociale media en protestpartijen is er bovendien een schare van ‘makelaars in angst’ bijgekomen, die de dreiging van terrorisme gebruiken voor eigen politieke agenda’s. In de onderzochte USBO advies 9 landen zijn gedurende de dreigingsperiode strenge wetten aangenomen, waarvan het de vraag is of ze in een ander, minder dreigend klimaat zouden zijn gerealiseerd. Hoewel het nemen van maatregelen en het wegnemen van de dreiging gewenst blijft, laten de ervaringen van de drie onderzochte landen zien dat de dreiging door het invoeren van deze maatregelen niet zonder meer kan worden weggenomen, terwijl de effecten ervan op de democratie en rechtsstaat substantieel kunnen zijn. Het interventievermogen van de overheid ten opzichte van de dreiging wordt in eerste instantie versterkt door de extra maatregelen en door de expliciete en impliciete maatschappelijke steun daarvoor, maar doelgerichtheid, legitimiteit en robuustheid blijken op termijn kwetsbaar. De dreiging wordt niet weggenomen; NGO’s, advocaten en opinieleiders tekenen verzet aan en het op nood gerichte handelen door diensten vergt veel van de diensten en hun professionals. De door ‘nood’ ingegeven impact op rechtsstaat en samenleving wordt al snel meer permanent, omdat het terugdraaien van de noodmaatregelen vooral politiek gezien lastig is. Deze ervaringen bieden lessen voor Nederland. 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