Extreme Stress Events in the Alpine Forests: Management Experiences Based on Recent Occurrences

Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests: management experiences based on recent occurrences

WP6 Handbook

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 2

Table of Contents

Preface ...... 3

Section I – Forest Fires ...... 5

Table I‐1: synoptic table: forest fires extreme events collected within the MANFRED project...... 10

I.2 Glossary of categories and keywords ...... 11

I.3 SUBJECT INDEX ...... 17

Section II – Biotic disturbances ...... 20

Table II‐1: synoptic table: biotic extreme events collected within the MANFRED project...... 22

II.2 Glossary of categories and keywords ...... 23

II.3 SUBJECT INDEX ...... 26

Section III – Abiotic disturbances ...... 28

Table III‐1: synoptic table: abiotic extreme events collected within the MANFRED project...... 31

III.2 Glossary of categories and keywords ...... 32

III.3 SUBJECT INDEX ...... 34

S.III.4 ‐ Abiotic forest stress factors: evaluating windthrow risk sensitivenes in Alpine forests ...... 37

S.III.5 ‐ Abiotic forest stress factors: strategies for storm damage management ...... 45

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 3

Preface

MANFRED project Work Package 6 worked on collecting data all above the Alpine region about disturbance events that damaged forests and in particular about those events considered “extreme”.

This gathering of information has been pursued through different means: numerical data have been collected in a large database, questionnaires have been spread out to catch the notion of memory sifted events from the territory and eventually local experts have proposed their deepenings over some very significant extreme events.

This document is essentially a review and an analytical and synthetic collection of the insights produced on specific case histories by the professionals, researcher and pratictioners who have been involved in the years in the project MANFRED. Scope of the present document is therefore to present a review of the management experiences of so called extreme events, occurred in the recent past over the Alpine region. Of this collection hopefully more researchers and pratictioners will take advantage in developing new solutions and strategies when coping with similar events in the future.

It is possible to find the personal references of these pratictioners or researchers within the case histories documents themselves. The documents can be found as annexes at the end of this paper.

Within the present work, the case histories have been gone over again and analized, trying to catch their conceptual cores, by the mean of pointing out keywords that could define and synthetize their contents and peculiar topics and arranging them into easy reading tables and subject indexes.

The observation of the keywords allowed to organize them into conceptual categories and to produce a subject index of the case histories and the related documents. This dual‐purpose process permits at one time to obtain two results: the first is to point out the main issues that the case histories analysis have dealed with; the second is to share and hopefully make accessible and usable the knowledges desumed and contained in the analysis themselves.

The body of the document has got therefore the pattern described right below, while the case histories, as mentioned before, are enclosed as annexes in the end of the document.

Three different sections are dedicated to the considered stress categories: first section is about forest fires, second one is about biotic disturbances, mainly forest pathogen insects, and the third one is about abiotic disturbances, such as windthrows and heavy snow fellings.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests4

In each one of the sections you can find some common elements:

‐ A map, derived from the MANFRED webGIS (www.manfredproject.eu Æ webGIS), on which it is possible to visualize the geographic location of the considered events;

‐ A synoptic table that shows the collection of the events defined by their main parameters and that highlights the keywords of each of them.

‐ A subject index, reporting the same keywords in alphabetical order and the related categories, referring the words to the related case histories.

‐ A brief gloss about the categories which have been selected to represent the keywords and of the main issues highlighted in the case histories: the conceptual categories represent as a matter of fact the common aspects in the approach to the description of the events, showed by the single authors of the case histories. Some of the keywords are then shortly illustrated in order to guide the user in the reading of the several deepenings here presented and integrating further hints and information derived from expert audition during the Round Tables and conferences organized in the scope of MANFRED project.

Finally, in Section III “Abiotic disturbance”, two documents are presented which deal with pre‐event management1 and post‐event management2 guidelines especially for great storm events.

Note: an identificatory code has been assigned to each event; the code is formed by initials: FF (forest fire),BI (biotic disturbance), AB (abiotic disturbance); the year of occurrence, the nation (in brackets) and eventually a distinctive letter (e.g. FF_07(D), BI_03(SLO), AB_08(I)a, etc.). In the tables and in the annexes the case histories are presented in a chronological order, in order to point out a possible evolution in the material and conceptual issues and the related knowledge and experience.

1 “Evaluating windthrow risk sensitivenes in Alpine forests” proposed by F. Berger – CEMAGREF.

2 “Strategies for storm damage management” proposed by B. You – FVA.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 5

Section I – Forest Fires

Within the project MANFRED, a census of data about forest fires has been carried out at the alpine scale. Furthermore an analysis of those data has been provided and all the results are presented in the project document Alpine Report on extreme fires. Moreover pratictioners and researchers could propose analysis over 20 different case histories from different regions in Italy, Germany (Bavaria) and Slovenia in a timespan going from 1965 to 2010. In the map below it is possible to locate geographically the considered events.The events, their main carachteristics and the distinguishing keywords are summarized in table n.I.1.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 6

Affected Pre‐event Fire Code Region Year Event Season forest type Elevation management Aspect Cause type Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords coordination, fire spread opposite to slope, lack of Larch, Norway Valle Cleve (1500‐ surface, production, roads, monitoring, FF_65(I) 1965 spring Spruce, Scots high stand SW, SE unknown landscape d'Aosta Magne 2000) crown protection reforestation, specialized pine training, steep slope, water deficit

Larch, Norway Spruce, Beech (500‐ high stand, surface, 2672 ha, uncultivated FF_81(I) Piemonte 1981 Quincinetto winter ‐ anthropic protection landscape and other 1500) coppice crown lands broadleaves

coordination, decision making strategies, lack Norway ground, of infrastructure, lack of FF_90(D) Baviera 1990 Herzogstand winter spruce, Pines, 1500 high stand SE anthropic stock, protection ‐ snow, monitoring, Beech crown resources locating, sensing technology abandonment, crop residues burning, forest Valle surface, management, FF_90(I) 1990 Arnad winter Larch 1000 ‐ SW anthropic protection landscape d'Aosta crown information campaign, pastures, specialized training accessibility, drought, Mediterranean hydrogeological hazard, macchia, ground, reforestation, rock falls, FF_97(I) Lombardia 1997 Limone spring 1000 high stand SW anthropic protection landscape Austrian pine crown safety restore, salvage (reforestation) logging, steep slope, strong wind

Norway bark beetle, economic Berzo crown, naturalistic, FF_01(I) Lombardia 2001 winter spruce, beech, 550 coppice W anthropic production loss, infrastructure Inferiore ground landscape chestnut upkeeping

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 7

Affected Pre‐event Fire Code Region Year Event Season forest type Elevation management Aspect Cause type Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords grazing, micro‐collective planting, nitrophilous ground, naturalistic, landscape, vegetation, protected FF_02(I)a Lombardia 2002 Paspardo winter Pastures, larch 550 high stand NE anthropic crown production tourist species, reforestation, safety restore, simultaneity hydrogeological hazard, information campaign, Scots pine, ground, FF_02(I)b Lombardia 2002 Valvestino spring 700 high stand W anthropic naturalistic landscape infrastructure, rock falls, beech crown safety restore, salvage logging accessibility, advanced technology, containment, decision making strategies, earth falls, education, fire to fight fire, fire‐break, guidelines, hydrogeological hazard, information campaign, infrastructure upkeeping, lack of roads, Black pine, surface, lightning strike, out of FF_02(I)c Friuli 2002 Zuc di Santis spring Mugo pine, 1329 high stand ‐ natural crown, protection naturalistic control, preventive Scots pine torching forestry, public awareness, razing, recoinnaissance helicopter, reforestation, rock falls, self‐ protection, sensing technology, snow falls, specialized training, steep slope, timely intervention, training, weather evaluation

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 8

Affected Pre‐event Fire Code Region Year Event Season forest type Elevation management Aspect Cause type Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords coordination, crop residues burning, damaged houses, decision making Valle S. Denis FF_03(I)a 2003 spring Scots pine 1500 ‐ SE anthropic ‐ protection ‐ strategies, d'Aosta Chatillon hydrogeological hazard, infrastructure upkeeping, water reservoirs 37 days, abandoned pastures, coordination, developed manpower, Scots, ground fire, lightning ground, Mountain and W, strike, media, national FF_03(I)b Veneto 2003 Caralte summer 1000 high stand natural surface, tourist naturalistic Black pines, NW park, persistent smoke, crown Beech personnel turnover, public opinion, socio‐ economical impact, steep slope abandoned pastures, changing fire regime, decision making strategies, drought, extended salvage loggings, grazing, heatwave, productive, hydrogeological hazard, FF_03(I)c Piemonte 2003 Bussoleno summer Beech 547 coppice S anthropic surface protection recreational masting, old coppice, politics, post‐fire harvesting, post‐fire management plan, public opinion, regeneration ecology, salvage logging, unburnt pastures

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 9

Affected Pre‐event Fire Code Region Year Event Season forest type Elevation management Aspect Cause type Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords 1075 ha, decision making strategies, drought, extended Pastures, salvage loggings, Beech, grass & surface, productive, heatwave, largest FF_03(I)d Piemonte 2003 Demonte summer Chestnut and 857 shrubs, S anthropic crown, protection recreational wildfire occurred, other coppice torching masting, piooner broadleaves species, politics, post‐ fire harvesting, public opinion, salvage logging 2150 ha, impact Mixed reduction, information Genova coniferous and surface, campaign, prevention FF_05(I) Liguria 2005 winter 200 ‐ E, SE anthropic protection landscape Pegli decidous crown system, sever drought, forest synergies, urban‐forest interface decision making strategies, rare Austrian pine, frequency, special Šumka – ground, naturalistic, FF_06(SLO) Slovenja 2006 summer Oak and 300 high stand SE unknown production intervention roads, Trstelj crown protection broadleaves specialized training, transregional coordination accessibility, hydrogeological hazard, impact reduction, Maritime pine, high stand, FF_07(I)a Liguria 2007 Varazze autumn 250 SW anthropic crown protection landscape information campaign, Oak coppice strong wind, synergies, training, urban‐forest interface, water deficit coordination, decision making strategies, Norway ground, (610‐ monitoring, resources FF_07(D) Baviera 2007 Thumsee spring spruce, Pines, high stand S, SE unknown stock, protection ‐ 810) locating, sensing Beech crown technology, specialized training

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 10

Affected Pre‐event Fire Code Region Year Event Season forest type Elevation management Aspect Cause type Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords

forest management, lack surface, of roads, phytosanitary FF_07(I)b Piemonte 2007 Ornavasso winter Chestnut ‐ coppice ‐ anthropic protection landscape crown conditions, steep slope, water deficit

abandonment, fire Ash, indexes, interface fire, Hornbeam, coppice, lack of snow, media, FF_10(I)a Veneto 2010 San Mauro winter 1126 S unknown surface tourist recreational Beech, pastures meteo stations, national Pastures park, public opinion, thermal inversion abandonment, barrier, ectomycorrizhae, embankment, fire indexes, heavy wire mesh, infrastructure Scots pine, FF_10(I)b Veneto 2010 La Muda spring 598 high stand S anthropic surface protection naturalistic? upkeeping, meteo Larch, Beech stations, power line, preventive forestry, rock falls, safety restore, soil erosion, vegetative season Table I‐1: synoptic table summarizing the case histories for forest fires extreme events collected within the MANFRED project.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 11

I.2 Glossary of categories and keywords 1. Impacts

The most common measure used to report the severity of a forest fires is actually the overall burnt area or the forest burnt area. In some cases the volumes of timber are taken into consideration, especially in order to estimate an economic loss in productive forests.

Another very important unit to be considered in evaluating the economy of an event is the length in days of the fire fighting operations, mainly because of the high daily costs for specialized manpower and machinery, especially when aerial means are involved.

Beside the specific keyword’s category, the impacts have been also considered within the synoptic chart as related to the affected ecosistemic functions of the forest (production, protection, landscape, ecology, recreation, etc.).

Moreover keywords pointing to secondary impacts of the fires have been counted into this category and those highlight in particular two main issues:

• the high risk of an attack by forest pathogens, such as bark beetles, to the disturbed forest and the consequent prevention strategies;

• the high risk as well due to hydrogeological hazard, consequent to the loss of protective function from the wood on slopes and (as suggested by M. Conedera in the occasion of the Round Table dedicated to extreme forest fires in the Alps “Incendi estremi in foreste alpine. Imparare dal passato per meglio gestire il futuro”, held in Milan, February 16th 2012) especially in the case of repetead events insisting on the same territory, to the increased hydrophobicity of the soil which gets hence more vulnerable to superficial erosion

2. Education and information

This category has been created in order to summarize two major issues highlighted by the case histories analysis.

• First one, particularly attractive when a chronologic reading of the events (since the ’60 up to now) is provided, is the importance of a specific training and proficiency in fire fighting strategies and techniques both for qualified personnel and volunteers, along with an optimized coordination of the operation (see also the correspondant keyword in the event management category).

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 12

The statistical analysis of the database of Alpine forest fires produced within the MANFRED project (available in the Alpine Report on extreme fires) suggests than ongoing trends show a general decrease both in the overall frequency of forest fires and in the mean extension of burnt area per single fire occurrence. This decrease have been related to the significant improvement in the efficiency of fire danger forecast services, prevention activities and fire fighting actions at the Alpine scale. We report below 2 charts showing some statistical analysis carried on in the above mentioned Alpine report about fire frequency and the average burnt area per fire. All the trend seems to be decreasing, and especially this last may demonstrate a progressive improvement in fire fighting activities at alpine level (for further information, please refer to the Alpine Report).

2.500 fires

1.500 Number

500 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Year

Figure I‐2. Number of forest fires per year in France (blue line) and Italy.

11 10 (ha)

fire

area per 7

7 7

burnt 6 5 4 4 4 Average 3 3 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Year

Figure I‐3. Annual average burnt area per fire.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 13

• Second major issue that recurs in the case histories is the particular theme of the public impact that some very “visible” events had, also through the media, on local populations. Therefore the issue is as well about the specific management that authorities had to provide for the events with respect to general media and to the feedback they had received from the public opinion. Some case histories show how in certain circumstances the demand of panic control and reassurement of the population facing a large forest fire (or even the impact towards the touristic activity) have been driving the fire fighting operations, with the high related costs, despite a presumable scarce efficiency in the actual extinguishment of the fire. • Moreover, some hints came to the project also from the side of scientific research; in particular researchers who were involved in the project have suggested behaviours that depart from the traditional forestry practice in fire pre and post event management (such as new rules for salvage logging, the role of pioneer species and the use of prescribed fire). As often, new practices require both an attentive and active educational approach in order to be accepted and specific training to be introduced as routines in the operations of forest workers and pratictioners, as well, in some case, as a pressure over the political and decision‐makers level and on the public opion.

3. Event management

This category collects all the technicalities about the fire figthing strategies and gives particular emphasis to the coordination issue (with an interesting highlight on transboundary operations, referring to an event occurred across the national border between Slovenia and Italy) and the decision making strategies. Furthermore it contains a keyword of particular interest in the scope of defining what an extreme event in forest fires would be: “out of control”. Quoting again from the Alpine Report on extreme fires (S. Oliveri): “generally speaking, the definition of what is an extreme event is a quite abstruse plight. Like every relative concept, in fact, it has to do with one’s perception, familiarity and personal sensitivity. In the forestry sector the endeavour to give a straightforward definition of extreme event is even more difficult, especially considering the different technical backgrounds, expertises, experiences and attitudes of each forester potentially involved in the matter. [...]” On the occasion of the Round Table Incendi estremi in foreste alpine. Imparare dal passato per meglio gestire il future, Milan, 16th of February 2012, Giancarlo Cesti (Nucleo Anti‐incendi boschivi, Valle d’Aosta Region) highlighted that extreme fires should be traced back to some general characteristics:

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 14

• Inducing territorial and environmental conditions. Fire behaviour is strictly related to different kinds of factors: vegetational; orographic; climatic and meteorologic; • fire propagation, which can be traced back to: canopy typologies; high fire intensity, even in case of grazing fires; peculiar behaviours of fire; also subterranean fires can induce extreme consequences, especially in case of long lasting occurrences and high sensitivity of forest formations (high rates of secondary mortality); • overall impacts, with specific regard to: long lasting effects on forest stands; severity of impacts on forest stands; long lasting effects on the ecosystem; impacts on man made environment and anthropic communities; extension of the area interested by serious impacts. Sticking to this dynamic definition of extreme event, the keyword “out of control” suggest also the idea that an extreme event might be that occurrence that requires non‐ordinary fire fighting strategies and therefore a further effort on the (often “instant”) decision making strategies. The State Forestry Corps (Corpo Forestale dello Stato) of Liguria region, in Italy proposed the following consideration about this matter. a. Importance of an adequate pre‐event pianificaton, for which the political level is in charge and responsible; b. Importance of locating and allocating resources, such as machinery and adequately trained and specialized manpower on the field, and their timely management in the occasion of the event; c. A suitably prepared territory is less vulnerable: upkeeping of minor viability and of water reservoirs. d. An ordinary management strategy of fighting works well when civil protection issues are null or little: an extra‐ordinary event presents complex characteristics and a high risk of going “out of control”, usually related to the presence of a urban interface and therefore risks for the population.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 15

Obviously presence or absence of good infrastructures and resources could define an event as ordinary or not, because of the fire fighting techniques and strategies they allow exploiting. e. Particular techniques useful in the containment of complex events are the counter fire (or fire‐ to‐fight‐fire) and the possibility of opening “instant” tracks in the wood through the intervention of skidders or caterpillars in order to create fire attack lines.

Eventually it is to be pinpointed again that the statistics derived from theAlpine Report on extreme fires, yet mentioned in the Impacts category, show a decrease of the impacts from forest fires, that can be correlated to the increase in the efficiency of fire fighting strategies.

4. Fire type

The category collects references to the types of fire in case histories. The different class types are already specified in the specific field of the synoptic table. The types mentioned within the keywords highlight instead peculiar characteristics which have somehow defined the events and gave a cue in the analysis. These include in particular the importance given to interface fires forest‐pastures, which refer to the issue of abandoning cultivation that strikes some mountain reality and urban interface situations that represent conditions of particular strategic importance (see also category Event Management).

5. Forestry and pre‐event management

The category has two issues in particular, already mentioned in previous categories: • The diffused conditions of cultural abandonment that characterize many mountain areas in the Alps, where no cares are longer given to wood, brushlands or pastures. At the same time, the traditional habits persist, like crop residue burning, that very often create high risks for forests in critical conditions. • Consideration about the use of prescribed fire in order to decrease the amount of forest or grass fuel are also given, pointing out how fire under fully controlled conditions (compared to residue burning) can have an important role in forest fire prevention. Moreover researchers brought to the attention the role of species and formations ecology in fire prevention: vegetation repeatedly exposed to disturbance receives an evolutive pressure to adaptation, increasing its characteristics of resistance and resilience. The technique of purposely “opening” the wood in order to develop a kind of vegetation suitable to quickly respond to the fire might be particularly important, especially inside mountain drainage

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 16

basins, where the risk of soil erosion and debris flow is very high as a consequence of a forest fire.

Other practices that deal with forestry techniques and guidelines are as well mentioned. In particular, in case of low to medium severity events, researchers have suggested the following prescriptions: • The optimum post‐event forestry management would be to operate a single salvage logging intervention, after a masting year, stimulating by this way the sprout of pioneer species, if the site is suitable; • Shorten the time (maximum 1 year) between marking and logging, thus avoiding iterated damage to the seedlings, providing the supply of deadwood • To forbid any extended and repetead logging on the same parcel of those trees that die in the years next after the fire and fell on the ground • To release coniferous trees that present some characteristic of resistance to fire, good dissemination, covering and direct protection function.

6. Infrastructure and technology

These are the main topics in the present category: • Some keywords stress again the importance of the accessibility for the fire fighting operation and therefore the issue of lack of infrastructure that could trigger a condition of “out of control” in the event (see also the category Event Management for further information). • A continuous and attentive upkeeping both through repairing and monitoring of artificial infrastructure (such as power lines) and maintenance forestry can prevent several cases of forest fires. • The role of new sensing technology, but also the availability of aerial means with reconnaissance functions could dramatically improve the efficiency of the fire fighting strategies.

7. Meteo

This category encompasses all the matters about the relation between meteorological conditions and fire hazard. In particular, it is highlighted the role that the great drought, consequent to the heat wave in summer 2003 have had on the frequency, size and severity of forest fires, as well as the effect of lack of snow on winter events.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests17

Crossing with the Education & Information category, it is also pinpointed the importance of a specific training on weather evaluation and the proficiency of the different sets of fire risk indexes. 8. Morphology

This category collects the remarks about how carachteristics in the morphology of the territory could affect the dynamic of the event and the fire fighting strategies. Also it brings the attention to the importance of a local “consciousness” about the own land morphology, in which features such as the steepness and the water deficit, should press to develop local specific solutions.

I.3 SUBJECT INDEX

KEYWORD CATEGORY EVENTS 1075 ha impacts FF_03(I)d 2150 ha impacts FF_05(I) 2672 ha impacts FF_81(I) 37 days fire type FF_03(I)b abandonment, abandoned pastures, non‐actively forestry & pre‐event managed forests management FF_90(I), FF_03(I)b, FF_03(I)c, FF_10(I)a, FF_10(I)b accessibility infrastructure & technology FF_97(I), FF_02(I)c, FF_07(I)a advanced technology infrastructure & technology FF_02(I)c bark beetle impacts FF_01(I) barrier infrastructure & technology FF_10(I)b changing fire regime fire type FF_03(I)c containment infrastructure & technology FF_02(I)c coordination event management FF_65(I), FF_90(D), FF_03(I)a, FF_03(I)b, FF_07(D) forestry & pre‐event crop residues burning management FF_90(I), FF_03(I)a damaged houses impacts FF_03(I)a FF_90(D), FF_02(I)c, FF_03(I)a, FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d, FF_06(SLO), decision making strategies event management FF_07(D) developed manpower event management FF_03(I)b drought meteo FF_97(I), FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d, FF_05(I) earth falls impacts FF_02(I)c economic loss impacts FF_01(I) forestry & pre‐event ectomycorrizhae management FF_10(I)b education education & information FF_02(I)c embankment infrastructure & technology FF_10(I)b forestry & pre‐event extended salvage loggings management FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d fire indexes meteo FF_10(I)a, FF_10(I)b fire spread opposite to slope fire type FF_65(I) fire to fight fire event management FF_02(I)c fire‐break event management FF_02(I)c forestry & pre‐event forest management management FF_90(I), FF_07(I)b forestry & pre‐event grazing management FF_02(I)a, FF_03(I)c

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 18

ground fire fire type FF_03(I)b guidelines education & information FF_02(I)c heatwave meteo FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d heavy wire mesh infrastructure & technology FF_10(I)b hydrogeological hazard impacts FF_97(I), FF_02(I)b, FF_02(I)c, FF_03(I)a, FF_03(I)c, FF_07(I)a impact reduction event management FF_05(I), FF_07(I)a information campaign education & information FF_90(I), FF_02(I)b, FF_02(I)c, FF_05(I), FF_07(I)a infrastructure infrastructure & technology FF_02(I)b infrastructure upkeeping infrastructure & technology FF_01(I), FF_02(I)c, FF_03(I)a, FF_10(I)b interface fire fire type FF_10(I)a lack of infrastructure infrastructure & technology FF_65(I), FF_07(D) lack of roads infrastructure & technology FF_02(I)c, FF_07(I)b lack of snow meteo FF_10(I)a largest wildfire occurred fire type FF_03(I)d lightning strike fire type FF_02(I)c, FF_03(I)b forestry & pre‐event masting management FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d media education & information FF_03(I)b, FF_10(I)a meteo stations meteo FF_10(I)a, FF_10(I)b forestry & pre‐event micro‐collective planting management FF_02(I)a forestry & pre‐event monitoring management FF_65(I), FF_90(D), FF_07(D) forestry & pre‐event national park management FF_03(I)b, FF_10(I)a forestry & pre‐event nitrophilous vegetation management FF_02(I)a forestry & pre‐event old coppice management FF_03(I)c out of control event management FF_02(I)c forestry & pre‐event pastures management FF_90(I) persistent smoke fire type FF_03(I)b personnel turnover event management FF_03(I)b forestry & pre‐event phytosanitary conditions management FF_07(I)b forestry & pre‐event piooner species management FF_03(I)d politics education & information FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d forestry & pre‐event post‐fire harvesting management FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d forestry & pre‐event post‐fire management plan management FF_03(I)c power line infrastructure & technology FF_10(I)b prevention system event management FF_05(I) forestry & pre‐event preventive forestry management FF_02(I)c, FF_10(I)b forestry & pre‐event protected species management FF_02(I)a public awareness education & information FF_02(I)c public opinion education & information FF_03(I)b, FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d, FF_10(I)a rare frequency fire type FF_06(SLO) razing event management FF_02(I)c recoinnaissance helicopter infrastructure & technology FF_02(I)c forestry & pre‐event reforestation management FF_65(I), FF_97(I), FF_02(I)a, FF_02(I)c

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 19

forestry & pre‐event regeneration ecology management FF_03(I)c resources locating event management FF_90(D), FF_07(D) rock falls impacts FF_97(I), FF_02(I)b, FF_02(I)c, FF_10(I)b safety restore event management FF_97(I), FF_02(I)a, FF_02(I)b, FF_10(I)b forestry & pre‐event salvage logging management FF_97(I), FF_02(I)b, FF_03(I)c, FF_03(I)d self‐protection education & information FF_02(I)c sensing technology infrastructure & technology FF_90(D), FF_02(I)c, FF_07(D) simultaneity fire type FF_02(I)a snow falls meteo FF_02(I)c socio‐economical impact impacts FF_03(I)b soil erosion impacts FF_10(I)b special intervention roads infrastructure & technology FF_06(SLO) specialized training education & information FF_65(I), FF_90(D), FF_90(I), FF_02(I)c, FF_06(SLO) steep slope morphology FF_65(I), FF_97(I), FF_02(I)c, FF_03(I)b, FF_07(I)b strong wind meteo FF_97(I), FF_07(I)a synergies event management FF_05(I), FF_07(I)a thermal inversion meteo FF_10(I)a timely intervention event management FF_02(I)c training education & information FF_02(I)c, FF_07(I)a transboundary coordination event management FF_06(SLO) forestry & pre‐event unburnt pastures management FF_03(I)c forestry & pre‐event uncultivated lands management FF_81(I) urban‐forest interface fire type FF_05(I), FF_07(I)a vegetative season impacts FF_10(I)b water deficit meteo, morphology FF_65(I), FF_07(I)a, FF_07(I)b water reservoirs event management FF_03(I)a meteo, education & weather evaluation information FF_02(I)c

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 20

Section II – Biotic disturbances A census of data of biotic disturbances on an Alpine scale has proved impossible because of the high heterogeneity of the information provided from the different countries. Yet the national monitoring systems had been enquired and a general view about the available data and the state of the monitoring in the various countries can be found in the Regional Reports, downloadable from the MANFRED webGIS (www.manfredproject.eu Æ webGIS). Pratictioners and researchers could propose analysis over 9 case histories from different regions in Italy, Germany (Bavaria) and Slovenia in a timespan going from 1984 to 2011. It must be mentioned that biotic stresses are often events extended over more than a single year. In the map below it is possible to locate geographically the considered events.The events, their main carachteristics and the distinguishing keywords are summarized in table n.II.1.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 21

Affected Pre‐event Code Region Year Agent forest type management Taxonomy Category Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords

Ips biological fight, fast removal, Valle 1984‐ Norway BI_84(I) typographus High stands coleoptera xylophagous protection landscape pheromones, skidding and d'Aosta 1991 spruce (bark beetle) barking, Vivian

bark beetle, diversity, drought, exponential growth, extra‐ range, forest weakness, growth regulator, heat wave, homogeneous structure, IPM High stand programme, local seeds, 1985‐ Cephalcia Norway (monocolture, defoliator no major natural enemies, nematods, BI_85(I) Veneto hymenoptera 1993 arvensis Panzer spruce 60‐90 years (monophagous) impacts nutrient concentration, old) periodical damage, selected genetic material, spatial variability, spontaneous renovation, sticky bands, sylvicultural conditions, voltinism, water stress

drought, forest‐ industrialization, heat wave, largest forest (in Germany), Ips 1990‐ Norway naturalistic, machinery, monitoring, BI_90(D) Baviera typographus High stands coleoptera xylophagous recreational 1994 spruce ecologic monoculture, salvage logging, (bark beetle) shotgun effect, summer of the century, traps, Vivian, Wiebke, windstorm

Mixed biological fight, fast removal, Valle 1994‐ Lymantria defoliator BI_94(I) coniferous High stands lepidoptera protection landscape pheromones, skidding and d'Aosta 1995 dispar (polyphagous) forest barking

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 22

Affected Pre‐event Code Region Year Agent forest type management Taxonomy Category Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords

2000‐ Deciduous import galleries, import/export BI_00(I) Lombardia Anoplophora coleoptera xylophagous ‐ production 2011 plants prophylaxis restrictions, ornamental, urban

Mixed monitoring, natural restraining Friuli broadleaf Lymantria defoliator no major population factors, real damage vs. BI_04(I) Venezia 2004 forest ‐ lepidoptera dispar (polyphagous) impacts alarm population alarm, summer Giulia (Ostrya 2003 carpinifolia)

economic losses, fast spread, 2006‐ import BI_06(I)a Lombardia Dryocosmus Chestnut hymenoptera gall inducing ‐ production fruit yield reduction, 2011 prophylaxis import/export restrictions

cutting and removal, drought, fire damage, galleries, poor 2006‐ Ips Acuminatus soils, quick death, reddening, BI_06(I)b Lombardia Scots pine reforestation coleoptera xylophagous ‐ ‐ 2011 (bark beetle) sawdust, spontaneous renovation, summer 2003, forest weakness

dry storage, fast removal, forest weakness, heat wave, labour force, Lothar, Coniferous monitoring, pheromones, Baden‐ 2000/ forests (N. High stands processing priority, salvage BI_00/04(D) bark beetle coleoptera xylophagous production ‐ Württemberg 2004 Spruce (mainly) logging, skidding and barking, mainly) stand edges, storage capacity, summer 2003, timber merchandising scheme, wet storage Table II‐1: synoptic table summarizing the case histories for biotic extreme events collected within the MANFRED project.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 23

II.2 Glossary of categories and keywords

1. Ecology

This category is particularly important because it encompasses the keywords that best represent the issue of the influence of climate change signals on the physiology and the ecology of the pest agents. Many of the case histories give expert hypothesis on the mechanisms that trigger great infestations of insects in Alpine forests, taking into consideration the ecology of the specific damage agent, but also that of the natural enemies and in general the effect of the climate and weather conditions on the natural factors restraining the stress factor. A change in the voltinism from biennial to annual, in particular, is related to the consequent exponential growth of some insects, as well as the rising in the temperature is taken into account to explain the species range shift. At the same time it is pinpointed once again the major issue of the sanitary condition of extra‐ range forest formations and the role of the outbreak of some pests as natural restoration function towards the weakness of artificial forest populations. The scientific nature of the issue required the solid base of several peer‐reviewed papers that are correctly quoted in the specific case histories bibliography. Nevertheless, it seems convenient to propose here a list of the same articles from which many data and information have been derived, plus other significant publication on the same issue.

• Battisti A., Boato A., Cescatti A., Da Ros N., Masutti L., Stergulc F., Zanocco D., 1994 - Cephalcia arvensis nelle peccete prealpine del Veneto - Regione del Veneto, Assessorato Agricoltura e Foreste, Dipartimento Foreste con Università degli Studi di Padova, Istituto di Entomologia Agraria

• Marchisio C., Cescatti A., Battisti A., 1994 - Climate, soils and Cephalcia arvensis outbreaks on Picea abies in the Italian Alps - Forest Ecology and Management 68 (1994)375-384

• Battisti A., Boato A., Masutti L., 2000 - Influence of silvicultural practices and population genetics on management of the spruce sawfly, Cephalcia arvensis - Forest Ecology and Management 128 (2000) 159-166

• Battisti A., (2004) Forests and climate change – lessons from insects. Forest@ 1 (1): 17-24. [online] URL: http://www.sisef.it/

• Battisti A., Stastny M., Netherer S., Robinet C., Schopf A., Roques A., Larsson S. (2005) Expansion of Geographic Range in the Pine Processionary Moth Caused by Increased WinterTemperatures - Ecological Applications, Vol. 15, No. 6 (Dec., 2005), pp. 2084-2096

• Battisti A., Stastny M., Buffo E., Larsson S. (2006) A rapid altitudinal range expansion in the pine processionary moth produced by the 2003 climatic anomaly - Global Change Biology (2006) 12, 662–671, doi: 10.1111/j.1365 2486.2006.01124.x

• Boisvenue C., Running S.W. (2006) Impacts of climate change on natural forest productivity—evidence since the middle of the 20th century. Glob Change Biol 12:1–21

• Faccoli M., (2009) Effect of Weather on Ips typographus (Coleoptera Curculionidae) Phenology, Voltinism, and Associated Spruce Mortality in the Southeastern Alps - Environ. Entomol. 38(2): 307-316 (2009)

• Lindner M., Maroschek M., Netherer S. et al (2010) Climate change impacts, adaptive capacity, and vulnerability of European forest ecosystems. For Ecol Manag 259:698–709

• Marini L., Ayres M. P., Battisti A., Faccoli M., (2012): Climate affects severity and altitudinal distribution of outbreaks in an eruptive bark beetle. Climatic Change, DOI 10.1007/s10584-012-0463-z • Faccoli M., Battisti A. (in press) Climate change and forest pests: models from the Alps - Canadian Journal of Forest Research

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 24

2. Event management

While other stress factors, such as forest fires and windthrows, are characterized by single events that might eventually induce secondary impacts (due for example to the loss of hydrogeological protective function of the forest or to a worsening of the phytosanitary state of the forest itself after the event), biotic disturbances are often events extended over several years. A proper and timely management of the event can prevent the reiteration or the occurrence of a secondary infestation. This is why the main issues in this category deal with:

• Strategies in the management of an infestation event, mainly dealing with prophylaxis techniques. It is in particular highlighted the importance of operating fast removals of infected or at risk material, hence the role of a adequate mechanization (see also Infrastructure and technology category) or specialized manpower. Particular techniques are mentioned, such as barking in the fight against that group of insects known as “bark beetles” that definitely represent the most frequent agent within the case histories number.

• IPM programs and biological control means. Although more common in agricultural contexts, those methodology are diffused in forestry as well; the use of natural enemies and parasites to struggle pest agents is normally preferred to any kind of chemical action, especially for the selectivity feature of biological means that allows to fight the pathogen without affecting other organisms.

3. Forestry & pre‐event management

The main topic within this category is pointing out once again the remarks of researchers and pratictioner about the weakness of large monocoltural population, extra‐range and artificial (the most representative case is about Norway Spruce). The term forest‐industrialization, although probably more appropriate for the German and Austrian region, well represent the process occurred in the Alpine forests in the last century. Moreover the keyword assumes new meaning in our days, in which most of the experts, pratictioners and politics agree in the negative evaluation about the high stand artificial monocoltures and delineate the necessity of a profound renovation (similar to a great industrial restructuring), facing at the same time the chronic lack of dedicated economical resources.

Main arguments are briefly:

• Issues related to forest weakness and the role of previous and periodical damages in defining the vulnerability of a forest population to secondary pest attacks;

• the importance of biodiversity as an asset, of the use of selected genetic material (negative) versus local seeds (positive), and again the flaws in monoculture and homogeneous structure forests;

• furthermore, some cases of infestation to ornamental trees in urban environment are presented: this cases have been triggered by a (more or less) accidental violation of import/export prophilaxys restrictions and the introduction of new exotic pests. The

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 25

proximity to forest environment and the mobility of the insect may easily constitute a high risk for the natural environment.

4. Impacts

Beside the specific keyword category, the impacts have been also considered within the synoptic chart as related to the affected ecosistemic functions of the forest (production, protection, landscape, ecology, recreation, etc.).

Major issues in this category are the economic costs of sanitary intervention and the losses consequent to the infestations. In the Alpine area, forests can rarely justify the expenses of extra‐ ordinary sanitary intervention with their economic value, especially where conditions of scarce accessibility are given; nevertheless an economic evaluation which would consider also other values (protection function, landscape and recreation, water and air filter action, phitosanitary prophilaxys, etc.) should be integrate when considering the opportunity of pest control policies (Faccoli et al., 2012).

Here are also mentioned some visible symptoms of a bug infestations, in particular in cases where the agent is an exotical organism, recently introduced in the Alpine environment (e.g. Anoplophora chinensis, Dryocosmus kuriphilus Y., etc.). It has to be also noticed that despite the great alarm often aroused by pest outbreaks, in many cases the actual magnitude of the damage to the different functions of the forest is relatively mild, thus bringing to argue about the “mediatic” management of the events and the influence given by public opinion on the decision making levels.

5. Infrastructure and technology

This category briefly summarizes the importance of advanced techniques and technology in the economicity and efficacy of phytosanitary interventions. Some particular techniques, used especially in the case of very large affected volumes, in the north of the Alpice area, are here mentioned, such as wet and dry storage, and the importance of a timely pianification of the response capacity, also in terms of infrastructure available for operation, treatment and storage.

6. Meteo

This category encompasses all the matters about the relation between meteorological conditions and biotic hazard. In particular, it is highlighted the role that the great drought, consequent to the heat wave in summer 2003 have had, as well as the water stress, in triggering pest outbreaks and

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 26

more in general the role of climate change signals in the ecology (see also the Ecology category) of the insects populations. Moreover, major metereological events, such as the storms Lothar, Vivian and Wiebke are taken into consideration as the remote causes of large bark beetle infestations.

7. Morphology

This small category contains mainly some considerations about how the morphology and the spatial variability in the characteristics of a territory may have an influence over the distribution and the dynamic of a pest outbreak, although they might not be immediately related to the pest ecology.

II.3 SUBJECT INDEX

KEYWORD CATEGORY EVENTS bark beetle event management BI_85(I) biological fight event management BI_84(I), BI_94(I) cutting and removal event management BI_06(I)b diversity forestry & pre‐event management BI_85(I) drought meteo BI_85(I), BI_90(D), BI_06(I)b dry storage infrastructure & technology BI_00/04(D) economic losses impacts BI_06(I)a exponential growth ecology BI_85(I) extra‐range ecology BI_85(I) fast removal event management BI_84(I), BI_94(I), BI_00/04(D) fast spread ecology BI_06(I)a fire damage forestry & pre‐event management BI_06(I)b forest weakness forestry & pre‐event management BI_85(I), BI_06(I)b, BI_00/04(D) forest‐industrialization forestry & pre‐event management BI_90(D) fruit yield reduction impacts BI_06(I)a galleries impacts BI_00(I), BI_06(I)b growth regulator event management BI_85(I) heat wave meteo BI_85(I), BI_90(D), BI_00/04(D) homogeneous structure forestry & pre‐event management BI_85(I) import/export restrictions forestry & pre‐event management BI_00(I), BI_06(I)a IPM programme event management BI_85(I) labour force event management BI_00/04(D) largest forest in Germany forestry & pre‐event management BI_90(D) local seeds forestry & pre‐event management BI_85(I) Lothar meteo BI_00/04(D) machinery infrastructure & technology BI_90(D) monitoring event management BI_90(D), BI_04(I), BI_00/04(D) monoculture forestry & pre‐event management BI_90(D) natural enemies ecology BI_85(I) natural restraining factors ecology BI_04(I) nematods event management BI_85(I) nutrient concentration ecology BI_85(I) ornamental forestry & pre‐event management BI_00(I)

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 27

periodical damage forestry & pre‐event management BI_85(I) pheromones event management BI_84(I), BI_94(I), BI_00/04(D) poor soils morphology & environment BI_06(I)b processing priority event management BI_00/04(D) quick death impacts BI_06(I)b real damage vs. population alarm impacts, event management BI_04(I) reddening impacts BI_06(I)b salvage logging event management BI_90(D), BI_00/04(D) sawdust impacts BI_06(I)b selected genetic material forestry & pre‐event management BI_85(I) shotgun effect impacts BI_90(D) skidding and barking event management BI_84(I), BI_94(I), BI_00/04(D) spatial variability morphology & environment BI_85(I) spontaneous renovation forestry & pre‐event management BI_85(I), BI_06(I)b stand edges morphology & environment BI_00/04(D) sticky bands event management BI_85(I) storage capacity infrastructure & technology BI_00/04(D) summer 2003, summer of the century meteo BI_04(I), BI_06(I)b, BI_90(D) ,BI_00/04(D) sylvicultural conditions forestry & pre‐event management BI_85(I) timber merchandising scheme event management BI_00/04(D) traps event management BI_90(D) urban forestry & pre‐event management BI_00(I) Vivian meteo BI_84(I), BI_90(D) voltinism ecology BI_85(I) water stress meteo BI_85(I) wet storage infrastructure & technology BI_00/04(D) Wiebke meteo BI_90(D) windstorm meteo BI_90(D)

Reference:

• Faccoli M., Finozzi V., Gatto P., 2012: Sanitation felling and helicopter harvesting of bark beetle infested trees in alpine forests: an assessment of the economic costs. Forest Products Journal, 61 (8): 675‐680

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 28

Section III – Abiotic disturbances A census of data of abiotic disturbances on an Alpine scale has proved impossible because of the high heterogeneity of the information provided from the different countries. Yet the national monitoring systems had been enquired and a general view about the available data and the state of the monitoring in the various countries can be found in the Regional Reports, downloadable from the MANFRED webGIS (www.manfredproject.eu Æ webGIS). Pratictioners and researchers could propose analysis over 7 case histories from different regions in Italy, Germany (Bavaria) and Slovenia in a timespan going from 1990 to 2009. Moreover this section presents two special contributions, proposed as general guidelines about pre‐event and post‐event management practices for storms and windthrows events.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 29

Affected Pre‐event

Code Region Year Type Event Season forest type Elevation management Agent Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords

1000 fast removal, mixed forest, natural Valle AB_90(I)a 1990 S Blavesse Sp Scots pine ‐ High stands ‐ landscape production evolution, salvage logging, special d'Aosta 1200 spring weather conditions

Norway Valle spruce, hauling (salvage logging), mixed forest, AB_90(I)b 1990 W Introd Wi 1700 High stands Vivian landscape production d'Aosta European natural evolution, natural forestry Larch

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 30

Affected Pre‐event

Code Region Year Type Event Season forest type Elevation management Agent Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords "strom proof" stands, bark beetle, conifer storage, economic loss, financial aids, financial allowances, forest owners's interests, gigantic loss, Coniferous human casualties, insect damages, Baden‐ forests (N. High stands instant‐response strategies, loan AB_99(D) Württem 1999 W Lothar* Wi ‐ Lothar production all Spruce (mainly) interests, manpower shortage, natural berg mainly) regeneration potential, salvage logging, smaller parcels (priority to), timber price decline, valuable deciduous trees, vast event, wet lumberyards, wood market advanced mechanization, amount of timber thrown, bark beetle, decoy plants, dense‐coetaneous formations, disturbed forest, ecological restoration, efficiency and speed, emergency techniques, income generation, largest snowfall, measuring, monitoring, mushroom High stand picking, not frozen ground, production Norway (monocolture production pheromone traps, preliminary survey AB_10(I) Veneto 2010 S Enego Wi 900‐1300 ‐ (mushrooms) spruce 60‐90 years (+/‐) and estimation, promptness, reaction recreational old) plan, reinvested income, renaturation, salvage logging, scarce ecological value, short wood system, soil disturbance (from clearing operations), special administrative procedures, superficial root system, supervisory and control, thin soils, traditional techniques, underexploited timber resources, wet snow

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 31

Affected Pre‐event

Code Region Year Type Event Season forest type Elevation management Agent Impacts (I) Impacts (II) Keywords aerial survey, bark beetle, bark beetle slit trap, crises management team, exchange with neighbouring countries, High stands fast removal, forest health protection, 1000 (old improvements of biotic function, Norway AB_06(SLO) Slovenja 2006 W Jelovica Su ‐ monoculture, ‐ production media, periodically exposed to strong spruce 1400 intensive wind, preservation of growth rate, management) quick‐effective‐objective, reforestation, soil erosion, special logging machines, spruce saplings, technology

aerial survey, appeal on public and authorities, bark beetle, bark beetle slit trap, decidous trees, ecological‐ High stands technical‐economical‐social, equipping (old Norway and training, joint approach, AB_08(SLO) Slovenja 2008 W Črnivec Su 600‐1200 monoculture, ‐ protection social spruce neighborly solidarity, periodically intensive exposed to strong wind, personal management) approach, reforestation, soil erosion, state budget funding, timber price, wood market, work safety

2008 Mugo pine, accessibility, coordinated intervention, AB_08(I) Lombardia ‐ S Valdidentro Au European 1000 High stands ‐ protection ‐ early snowfalls, rockfall hazard, 2009 Larch salvage logging

Legend – Type: S = snow; W = wind – Season: Sp = spring; Su = summer; Au = autumn; Wi = winter

Table III‐1: synoptic table summarizing the case histories for abiotic extreme events collected within the MANFRED project.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 32

III.2 Glossary of categories and keywords

1. Event management

The category presents some very interesting topics that have been developed in the case histories analysis. Abiotic events, such as windthrows and heavy snow fellings, present peculiarities that make them different from both forest fires and biotic infestations. This kind of events is usually very sudden, unpredictable and, depending on the related meteorological event, they could be largely devastating. On the other hand, otherwise fires or pest attacks, they leave large quantities of wood in good condition for commercial purpose. This singularity reflects in the keywords derived from the rich case histories.

The keywords could be divided into 3 subgroups:

• Strategies: here it is highlighted the importance of an integrated management of the event, that would take into account ecologic, economic, technical but also social aspects. The level of success of a post‐event crisis team seems to depend also on its capacity of involving forest owners into the strategies definition as well as technicians and of appealing to both public and authorities in the common recovery effort. The same way the efficiency of an intervention could depend on a good equipping and training of field workers. Moreover, the ability of involving owners and tenants in the event management has proved also favourable in decreasing the costs of the interventio, provided that the administration could set up an adequate policy of financial support, training and work safety.

• Economy: an efficient economical and administrative pianification is utterly relevant in the management of the event and in some case proved even able to turn a devastating occurrence into a positive economic feedback for the local communities. In every case, it seems very important to adopt special measures and special financial instruments in order to resolve the event quickly and to avoid the occurrence of secondary events, such as hydrogeological hazards or pest outbreaks.

• On field techniques: this subcategory stress the importance of a fast removal of the fell trees and in the execution of salvage loggings in order to keep the economic values of the timber and to prevent the occurrence of secondary events. The implementation of special measures in a reaction plan and the use of advanced mechanization (see also Infrastructure and technology category) play a key role in the effectiveness of any intervention.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 33

2. Forestry and pre‐event management

For this category in particular, we refer to the contribution S.III.4 – “Abiotic forest stress factors: evaluating windthrow risk sensitivenes in Alpine forests” and to the concept of “storm‐proof” stands. Anyway another major issue highlighted by the keywords in this category is the one about the huge amount of underexploited timber (and wood) resources found in the Alpine forests that cannot be usually properly exploited, due to the low intrinsic value, compared to the high costs for logging and transportation (see also Impacts category).

3. Impacts

Some of the case histories deal with the issue of how timber price and wood market have been affected by very large events (such as those consequent to Lothar and Vivian storms) and with the policies and strategies implemented to face that aspect of the emergency. In that sense also special techniques are mentioned, such as the wet storage of coniferous logs and others. We also refer for this category in particular to the contribution S.III.5 – “Abiotic forest stress factors: strategies for storm damage management” in which these technical aspects are deepened and work safety issues also taken into consideration.

It is nevertheless interesting to mention here a comparison between the economical aspects of those kinds of gigantic events as regards to the ones of some events considered large or very large on an ordinary scale. In some cases the restoration of the disturbance event could be turned into an income generating activity through an optimized management of all the aspects of the intervention, from the technical to the administrative ones.

Some secondary events are worth taking into consideration for their potential role in the same economy of the event: in the Italian case history of Enego, Veneto, it has been made the hypothesis of a monetary loss, due to the missed mushroom picking allowance (as a consequence of the disturbance given to the soil by the same logging intervention), even higher than the loss in value of the timber.

4. Infrastructure and technology

The category collects the keywords that remark the importance of an adequate modern mechanization that allows working large volumes of timber with remarkable efficiency and speed.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 34

Moreover some particular techniques for timber storage are mentioned (see also Event management category) that proved useful in the modulation of the timber price on the wood market after large scale events.

5. Meteo & Morphology and environment

Within these two categories, they are investigated the connections between the conditions of territory, weather and forest formations, and the primary causes of the throwns. Even though considerations about meteorological features and occurrences are brought, there is scarce or no clue at all of a correlation of windthrows and heavy snow felling with climate change signals, thus suggesting further research on the specific issue.

III.3 SUBJECT INDEX

KEYWORD CATEGORY EVENTS accessibility infrastructure & technology AB_08(I) advanced mechanization infrastructure & technology AB_10(I) aerial survey infrastructure & technology AB_06(SLO), AB_08(SLO) amount of timber thrown impacts AB_10(I) appeal on public and authorities event management AB_08(SLO) bark beetle impacts AB_99(D), AB_10(I), AB_06(SLO), AB_08(SLO) bark beetle slit trap event management AB_06(SLO), AB_08(SLO) conifer storage event management AB_99(D) coordinated intervention event management AB_08(I) crises management team event management AB_06(SLO) decidous trees forestry & pre‐event management AB_08(SLO) decoy plants event management AB_10(I) dense‐coetaneous formations forestry & pre‐event management AB_10(I) disturbed forest morphology & environment AB_10(I) early snowfalls meteo AB_08(I) ecological restoration forestry & pre‐event management AB_10(I) ecological‐technical‐economical‐ social event management AB_08(SLO) economic loss impacts AB_99(D) efficiency and speed event management AB_10(I) emergency techniques event management AB_10(I) equipping and training event management AB_08(SLO) exchange with neighbouring countries event management AB_06(SLO) fast removal event management AB_90(I)a, AB_06(SLO) financial aids event management AB_99(D) financial allowances event management AB_99(D) forest health protection forestry & pre‐event management AB_06(SLO) forest owners's interests event management AB_99(D) gigantic loss impacts AB_99(D) hauling (salvage logging) event management AB_90(I)b

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 35

human casualties impacts AB_99(D) improvements of biotic function event management AB_06(SLO) income generation impacts AB_10(I) insect damages impacts AB_99(D) instant‐response strategies event management AB_99(D) joint approach event management AB_08(SLO) largest snowfall meteo AB_10(I) loan interests event management AB_99(D) manpower shortage event management AB_99(D) measuring event management AB_10(I) media event management AB_06(SLO) mixed forest forestry & pre‐event management AB_90(I)a, AB_90(I)b monitoring event management AB_10(I) mushrooms picking impacts AB_10(I) natural evolution event management AB_90(I)a, AB_90(I)b natural forestry event management AB_90(I)b natural regeneration potential event management AB_99(D) neighborly solidarity event management AB_08(SLO) not frozen ground morphology & environment AB_10(I) periodically exposed to strong wind morphology & environment AB_06(SLO), AB_08(SLO) personal approach event management AB_08(SLO) pheromone traps event management AB_10(I) preliminary survey and estimation event management AB_10(I) preservation of growth rate event management AB_06(SLO) promptness event management AB_10(I) quick‐effective‐objective event management AB_06(SLO) reaction plan event management AB_10(I) reforestation event management AB_06(SLO), AB_08(SLO) reinvested income event management AB_10(I) renaturation event management AB_10(I) rockfall hazard impacts AB_08(I) AB_90(I)a, AB_99(D), AB_08(I), AB_10(I), salvage logging event management AB_06(SLO), AB_08(SLO) scarce ecological value morphology & environment AB_10(I) short wood system event management AB_10(I) smaller parcels (priority to) event management AB_99(D) soil disturbance (from clearing operations) impacts AB_10(I) soil erosion impacts AB_06(SLO), AB_08(SLO) special administrative procedures event management AB_10(I) special logging machines infrastructure & technology AB_06(SLO), AB_10(I) special spring weather conditions meteo AB_90(I)a spruce saplings forestry & pre‐event management AB_06(SLO) state budget funding event management AB_08(SLO) "strom proof" stands forestry & pre‐event management AB_99(D) superficial root system morphology & environment AB_10(I) supervisory and control event management AB_10(I) technology infrastructure & technology AB_06(SLO) thin soils morphology & environment AB_10(I) timber price event management AB_08(SLO) timber price decline impacts AB_99(D)

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 36

traditional techniques event management AB_10(I) underexploited timber resources forestry & pre‐event management AB_10(I) valuable deciduous trees event management AB_99(D) vast event impacts AB_99(D) infrastructure & technology, event wet lumberyards management AB_99(D) wet snow meteo AB_10(I) wood market event management AB_99(D), AB_08(SLO), AB_10(I) infrastructure & technology, event work safety management AB_08(SLO)

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 37

S.III.4 Abiotic forest stress factors: evaluating windthrow risk sensitivenes in Alpine forests by Frederic Berger (Senior Researcher, Cemagref, Groupement de Grenoble, Unité de Recherche Ecosystèmes Montagnard)

In mountain forest, the damages due to the wind (windthrow) are one of the major disturbances which determine and drive forestry interventions. In order to maintain sustainable mountain forest ecosystem services, and principally the protection one, and to avoid important economical losses, the forester has to work for the optimization and sustainability of the forest stands’ stability. In this context, stability expresses the ability of individual trees and forest stands to resist to the effect of winds and more precisely to windstorms.

The stability is in fact the result of the cumulative effect of different factors. The current knowledge is mainly coming from past events back analysis and from assumptions coming from modelling studies. Within the Interreg project Manfred, we have build up a field checklist using all the knowledge available on this thematic, knowledge which has been cross checked with the information coming from the pilot areas of this project.

The aim of this field check list is to give to foresters a simple and quick tool for 1) assessing the risk of windthrow depending on the current dendrometrical parameters, and 2) avoiding future critical situation by given adapted forestry recommendations.

The stability of a forest stand to wind has to be analysed via 4 main parameters. The first two ones are directly depending on the architecture of single trees and are: 1) the aerial part of a tree including the trunk, branches and its crown and 2) the underground part of a tree which is its roots system. The third one is expressing the spatial organization of forest stands (type of edges, thinning and gap regeneration, tree species mix, stand staging). The last one represents the site conditions (topographic and edaphic conditions).

In this checklist we are only presenting the aggravating factors and recommendation for avoiding them so. Due to the lack of knowledge on the interactions between these factors, the compensations or synergies between them have not been studied within the Manfred project. To do so, it’s necessary in the future to develop a specific research project.

Before giving the field checklist, we are firstly presenting the influence of the main relevant factors influencing the forest stands’ stability to wind.

1. Influences of the aerial part of a tree • The tree height The single tree and forest stand sensibility to wind is increasing with the height of the trees. This is the result of two effects:

The increase of the leverage with the height of the obstacle encountered by the wind flow

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 38

The increase of the wind’s speed with the one of the altitude above the ground. This is a direct consequence of the wind flow deviation due to the presence of an obstacle.

Due to these two effects, the highest trees are generally the most vulnerable and trees and stands of low height are more stable.

• Slenderness of a tree The slenderness of a tree is expressed as the ratio (in %) between its height (H in m) and its diameter at breast height (DbH in cm): H/DbH. The scale of variation is between 50% (very stable tree) to 120‐130% (very unstable tree). It has to be noticed that for juvenile stands (such as pole stand of beeches) or coppice stands, values of 130% are not so detrimental for their stability because such stands are characterised by low heights. If a range of value of 80‐90% is commonly accepted in plain areas for defining the limit between stable and unstable trees, in mountainous ones (due to the effect of the topography on the wind acceleration and direction) this range is lower and depending also on the two families of tree species: broadleaves or coniferous one. For broadleaves trees the limit slenderness ratio is 80% and for coniferous is 65%.These values for mountain conditions are coming from the back analysis of the windstorms of 1990, 1999, 2003, 2011 and 2012 in the French department of Haute‐Savoie. In 2001, Riou‐Nivert has made a proposition of formalization (via a table) of the sensibility to wind depending on the slenderness ration indirectly expressed by couples of height and DbH values. We have adapted this table to mountainous forests. The figure 1 is for broadleaves trees and the figure 2 for coniferous ones.

Zones of windthrow risk for broadleave trees

65 60 55 Zone 1 : high stability 50 Individually stable trees 45 low risk of windthrow Zone 2 : low stability 40 Stable forest stands, 35 with individually unstable trees, 30 medium risk of windthrow 25 20 15 Zone 3 : unstable unstable forest stands and indivudallly trees,

Diameter breast at height (cm) 10 high risk of windthrow 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Dominant tree height (m)

Figure 1: zones of windthrow risk for broadleaves trees and stands

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 39

Zone of windthrow risk for coniferous trees

65 60 Zone 1 : high stability 55 Individually stable trees 50 low risk of windthrow 45 40 Zone 2 : low stability 35 Stable forest stands, with individually unstable trees, 30 medium risk of windthrow 25 20 15 Zone 3 : unstable unstable forest stands and indivudallly trees,

Diameter breast at height (cm) 10 high risk of windthrow 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Dominant tree height (m)

Figure 2: zones of windthrow risk for coniferous trees and stands

In these figures 3 zones of stability are identified. The zone 1 corresponds to what is considered as stable trees and stands and so to a very low risk of windthrow. The zone 2 corresponds to what is considered as stable stands but with some unstable individual trees and so to a medium risk of windthrow. At the opposite, the zone 3 is representative of unstable stands and trees and so to a very high risk of windthrow. These figures have to be locally weighted taking also into account the other parameters. They are giving a first and quick estimation of the current stability of single trees and stands.

• Tree’s crown For estimating the probable effect of wind on a tree or on stand, it’s necessary to evaluate the contact surface and its shape. One of the simplest ways to do this is to analyse the tree’s crown. A wide crown will have an important windage, but the presence of lower branches will step down the gravity centre of the tree. So the shape and the ratio between the length of the crown and the total tree height play and important role on the stability of a tree. Usually this ratio expressed in third party. If this ratio is less than 1/3 then the tree is very unstable, between 1/3 and 2/3 the tree has a medium stability and higher than 2/3 then the tree is considered as stable (cf. fig.3). Another way of expressing this indicator is the ratio between the height measured from the bottom of the trunk to the gravity centre of the crown and the total tree’s height, using this factor the stability index becomes : 1/3 = stable tree and ratio higher than 2/3 = unstable tree. For a same crown ratio, a wide crown will decrease the stability and a strait crown will increase it.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 40

Height of the tree Crown ratio

1/3

2/3

-- - + ++ ea2012

Tree stability ©Irst

Figure 3: Schematically representation of the crown ratio (length of the crown/height of the tree) and tree stability to windthrow.

• State of the trunk The trunk of a tree presents some heterogeneities and breaking are usually located at brittle points on the trunk. The presence of forks, decay, internal nodes, tree rings anomalies due to projectile’s impact pr growth perturbation, are brittle points which are decreasing the stability of a tree. This brittle points could also been the result of phytosanitaries problems. Trees which have been recently tilted (previous wind effects, landslides,…),with an angle higher than 20° are very unstable.

2. Influences of the root system • The type of root system This is well known that the root system of a tree is able to fix an important quantity of soil. This action is mainly to the fine roots. The total weight of the root system of a tree, including the soil fixed by it, is about 6 to 8 times the one of its aerial part. This soil anchorage acts as a stabilizing factor against wind’s effects. The action of this anchorage depends on both the soil quality and the type of root system. Root systems are classified in 3 big types (cf. Fig.4): the heart system which combines depth and lateral extensions (the one of the beech), the swivel one which promotes the depth extension (the one of the fir) and the mapping one which promotes the lateral extension (the one of the spruce). These systems are ranked in function of their soil anchorage efficiency: the heart one is the most efficient then followed by the swivel one and finally by the mapping one.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 41

Mapping type Swivel type Heart type ©Irstea2012 - + Anchorage efficiency

Figure 4: Schematically representation of 3 main types of root system and ranking of their anchorage efficiency

• State of the root system As for the trunk the health of the root system is also acting on the tree stability. This health is mainly depending on the physiological aging and on the presence of wounded roots. Trees, as old ones, having dead roots or decaying ones are less stable than the ones having a very dynamic growth.

3. Influences of the forest stand’s structure and forestry interventions • Thinnings All forest managements are based on thinnings, but thinnings if they are used for optimising the growth of selected trees they have also an important impact on trees and stands stability. They are the source of 2 opposite effects:

- A short time one, by a temporary destabilization of a stand due to an opening in it - A long time one, by improving the slenderness ratio due to the enhancement of the growth in diameter of the remaining trees. A thinning made tree by tree is usually generating instability by decreasing the efficiency of the stand block effect.

• Stand’s edges and presence of gaps The aerodynamic characteristics of a stand have a very important effect on the sensitivity to wind. Impervious edges to the wind flow are generating overpressures on the front of the stand and turbulences in the back. These turbulences can have disastrous consequences for the stands below the initial impact point of the wind flow on the edge. Usually the first damages are located at a distance from the edge of 3 to 5 times the height of the average tree present in the impacted stand. Breaks in the canopy, infra and between stands, are also generating turbulences which can produce important damages. These breaks can be the results of previous wind storms, inadequate management or the expression of phytosanitaries attacks. The intensity of the damages depends on the age of these breaks: youngest the break is the higher the damages are.

The presence of gaps with a diameter higher than 1 time the height of the average stem of a stand is an aggravating factor.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 42

• Species composition Pure stands, composed of only one tree specie, are less stable than mix ones. All the species have not the same sensibility to wind. It’s commonly accepted that the ranking (by loss of stability) of the main mountainous trees species according to their stability is the following one: beech > fir > spruce. In mix stand, the proportion of “stable” species (broadleaves and larch) has to be at least of 20%.

• Stand’s staging It’s very important to notice that the stability of a forest stand is not only equal to the sum of each individual tree’s stability. In a stand there is also a block effect due to the interaction of the trees between them. For example: in beech stands, anastomoses between contiguous and different root systems are possible. The trees are acting as a collective with mutual supports of the trees of a same stage by contact between the crown and roots systems. Usually irregular stands are more stable than regular ones due to the presence of different stages and also to the fact that trees are individually more stable.

4. Site conditions • Edaphic conditions One of the key parameters for trees and stands stability is the depth of the soil prospectable by the roots. The presences of superficial water levels or compacted shallow soils are limiting factors to roots prospection and growth.

• Topographic conditions The sensitiveness of forest stands to windthrow depends on the windstorm direction and both on their localization on the slope and on the versant’s topography. Generally, trees are well adapted to resist to the common flow direction, because they have grown up under this constraint. Catastrophic damages to forest stands mainly occur when the flow direction of windstorms are different than the one of the common winds. Stands on slope oriented upwind, on topographic edges and located just below crests are more sensitive to windstorm than the ones on downwind positions.

The following table is a checklist for forest practitioners. This checklist is a helping tool for:

1. the evaluation of the current sensitiveness of trees and of a stand to windthrow risk 2. determining what has to be or could be done in term of forestry interventions in order to increase the stability of the trees and of the stand. The key factors are identified in this checklist.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 43

Factors Aggravating factors Forestry recommendations

23m < H < 30 m : critical For sensitive species (i.g. Height (H) 30m < H : dangerous Spruce) do not let stands growing old Presence of senescent tree

Slenderness Broadleaves H/DbH > 80% ratio (H/DbH) Coniferous H/DbH > 65% Culling or trimming juvenile stands Crown length/Total tree’s height : Aerial part Promoting early thinning <1/3 : dangerous for improving the trees’ Crown shape by decreasing their 1/3 < < 1/2 : critical slenderness 1/2 < < 2/3 : can be critical

Decaying part at the tree’s bottom Sanitary and at the base of forks Minimising logging condition damages Presence of logging damages

Decaying roots Minimising logging Sanitary Rotten areas in the root system Root system damages condition Presence of logging damages Removing tilted trees Presence of tilted trees

Staging progressively the edges Compact external edges Edges Reinforcing the edge’s Impervious edges permeability by promoting Stand the presence of structure broadleaves trees & Limiting the gap Thinning regeneration surface at 0,25 ha Gaps Gap diameter (G ):G > 1 H Implementing gap regeneration taking into account stand’s internal

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 44

green edges

Ranking of the 3 main species depending on their sensitiveness to Species windthrow : Promoting mixed stands and in particular presence Spruce > Fir > Beech of broadleaves trees and larches (20% to 60%) Even Stand composed of sensitive Species mix species

Unstaged stand (mono stratum Staging Promoting stands’ staging stand)

Promoting thinning by gap Thinning Step by step thinning in dense stands taking into account stand’s internal green edges

Not stabilized screes Promoting adapted species Soil Shallow soil to the stational conditions Site Hydromorphic soils conditions Stands located on : upwind position, All the above Topography on summit, on crest and just below a recommendations are to crest be taking into account

References:

Riou‐Nivert P. et al. (2001) Dossier Stabilité des peuplements, Forêt‐entreprise 2001, 139, pp. 16‐41

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 45

Abiotic forest stress factors: strategies for storm damage management by Bin You (Forstliche Versuchs‐ und Forschungsanstalt Baden‐Württemberg‐ FVA)

Storms can cause serious damages and losses to forests, forest owners, and society. Best strategies to deal with storm damage management have been a hot topic among forestry stakeholders. A useful handbook is designed to provide forest practioners, owners, on‐site staffs, authority with feasible and practical technical

Immediate measures after the storm

• Keep calm. No imprudent and precipitous actions • If necessary, alarm rescue services • Support rescue services protecting people/objects and clearing roads and traffic connections (after the storm) • Rough assessement of the amount of timber and forest damaged • Report the assessed amount of damage to the next authority

Damage Survey: Labour Capacity: Forest Protection:

• Type of damage • Personnel on site(foresters, • Especially population (breakage, uprooting) forest workers) density of bark- • Site-condition of the • Number of machines, (type and beetles (mainly lps damaged areas equipment, e.g. tractors for typographus) at the • Overall amount of timber extraction, harvesters, time of the storm damaged timber and in forwarders) event other states • Personnel in the office • General economic (employees) • Share of Norway situation • Office equipment (computers) Spruce-, Silver fir- • Situation on the timber • Capacity of contractors Stem-wood of the market • Capacity of haulage companies damaged timber for timber transportation

Strategy of the forest unit-/ the whole forest enterprise

- Order of harvesting the timber(assortment, forest protection, timber market) - Planned time/timber volume schedule - How to store timber, storage places - Cooperation with other forest owners/forest enterprises

Figure 1: Proceeding of the State Forest Service of Baden‐Württemberg after "Lothar" (Odenthal‐Kahabka, 2005)

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 46

instructions, procedures and suggestions on all aspects to cope with post‐storm managements, including damage survey, salvage logging, timber storage and transportation, forest protection and subsidies and so on. Odenthal‐Kahabka (2005) provided a procedure of coping with storm damages based on the experience of Storm Lothar 1999 (see figure 1).

Draw on the proceedings above and other experience, the key aspects of this handbook to deal with post‐ storm damages shall include, but are not limited to the following points according to various local forest conditions, infrastructure availability and man power. 1. Alert and emergency action 2. First inventory and assessment 3. Salvage logging and work safety 4. Storage of storm woods 5. Marketing of storm woods 6. Forest protection and restoration 7. Financial and institutional supports

1. Alert and emergency action As a precaution action, it is worthwhile to inform relevant professionals and stakeholders and warn them about a potential destructive storm event. So that they can be aware of what they have to do in order to reduce their potential loss in forests, property, and even lives. Some prevention actions shall be put into place to restrict public access to forest in advance. They should themselves stay in a safe place and prepare their post‐storm activities. As soon as the storm occurs and causing significant damages that can be regarded as extreme or severe at local level to local foresters, a crisis management or disaster relief committee shall be formed by local authority, with the aim to manage the storm‐caused damages to forests, houses, roads, electricity, etc.

2. First inventory and assessment Once a storm has occurred, a quick first survey on its damage must be carried out for the first hand, and a rough assessment of direct losses in forests and forest owners that has been incurred shall be estimated. Later on, a relatively more detailed assessment on indirect damages to ecology, economy and society shall also be implemented soon after the first direct assessment, including the impacts on forest multi‐ functionalities, insect outbreak possibility, wood market disturbances, house property damages, infrastructure destructions. This is to provide a foundation to evaluate the total magnitude of the storm damage. If it is an “exceptional” or “extreme” event, some corresponding emergency activities and contingency measures must be taken. Based on this assessment, better salvage logging modes, wood market coordination mechanism, infrastructure restoration actions can be formulated. Three simple but commonly used methods to do the assessment are field survey, aerial survey using GIS and empirical statistical inventory. In order to quantify the total economic losses, the assessment shall be expressed not only by volume or forest area, but more importantly also by monetary terms if possible. This will provide more sufficient basis to formulate appropriate management strategies disaster relief funds.

3. Salvage logging and Work safety Although storm damages are apparent, windthrown timber can still generate considerate revenues to forest owners given appropriate salvage logging strategies, transportation and good storage condition, especially if some relevant wood market coordination mechanism could be put into practice, giving windthrown timber priorities over conventionally harvested timber in certain region.

The harvesting of the storm damaged timber is executed taking into account the local conditions. The practical support of the community and private forests is organised in decentralised way by the state forest 46

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 47

offices. Central institutions restrict themselves to setting goals and priorities and to offer services and support for the local authorities (forest offices and districts) in super ordinate areas (long‐distance sales, timber hauling, technique of wet storage, acquisition of workforce). The strategy of decentralised steering – based on the organisation of the ongoing management activities – has proven to be successful from the point of view of the head of the administration as well as of the collaborators. However, the employees see the necessity to regulate the responsibilities and the support by the central authorities in more clear way and to establish an increased guiding of the collaborators as well as control‐mechanisms (Odenthal‐ Kahabka,2005). Despite timber on the whole forest area, careful harvesting on storm damaged areas is of priority. Rules on how to respect careful harvesting shall be established immediately after the storm. Firstly, no crossings on the total area of storm damaged stands to harvest timber, damaged trees or clear areas – also in difficult situations. Secondly, It shall be prohibited to fall below a distance between strip roads of 20m (flats) or 30m (slopes). Existing strip roads had to be used. The hierarchy of the goals when coping with future storm events has to be more precisely formulated by the forest service and respecting the implemented rules has to be forced.

On the other hand, in which order the damaged timber shall be harvested plays a key role based on the different tree species and forest areas damaged. Odenthal‐Kahabka (2005) emphasized that Valuable timber of hardwoods is harvested before the timber of conifers. Storm broken trees are preferentially harvested. Scattered damaged trees are processed before large storm areas. Broken trees are preferably processed. Ongoing control of live‐conserved forest stands for insect attacks. The harvesting strategy is adapted to the actual situation of forest protection. A large part of the conifers from the state forest is conserved by wet storage and only reaches the timber‐market at a later point in time. Thereby the "non‐ state‐forest" can sell its stemwood early. Take into accout the local condition, the general order of harvest can be followed as: clear the necessary transport and forest roads – start with processing beech and valuable hardwoods – processing of “damage‐nests”, especially with broken spruce and pine – processing of large storm damaged spruce and pine until 15 months after a storm – other conifers – valuable logs and stemwood of oak and poplar – processing of small sized conifer logs (< 20 cm dhb)

Moreover, in order to prevent the casualty or injuries as much as possible during salvage logging, it is extremely important to pay attention to work safety when processing storm damaged timbers in forests. The essential strategies and measures shall be taken timely. Odenthal‐Kahabka (2005) stated several key points in this regard. Firstly, instructions on accident prevention regulation shall be provided before processing storm damaged timber and these instructions shall be periodically repeated by supervisors. Secondly, special courses and training programs on the processing of storm damaged timber for state foresters, communal and private forest owners at forestry education centres and through occupational safety specialists shall be organized. Thirdly, mechanical support shall be offered to increase the utilization of mechanical processing techniques. Fourthly, a rescue chain shall be established, including emergency call system, rescue plans and rescue maps.

4. Storage of storm woods After a big storm event leading huge amount of damaged timbers, it is normally not possible to sell all these storm damaged timber at one time. Thus it is of great importance to conserve logs. The major objective of wood storage is to preserve the timber quality of storm damaged woods by protecting timbers from physical, chemical and biological decomposition. According to the degree of timber moisture, there are several timber storage methods existing: wet storage (timber moisture over 120%), dry storage (timber moisture under 30%). There are also some other special methods for log conservation, like underground storage in mines or tunnels, covering timbers with straw, soil or lime mixture, etc. But the latter options are not commonly used in practice. It is clear that each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, as well as different applicability to different species and local conditions. After Klaus in Landes de Gascogne (France) in 2009, the support given to long‐distance transportation was criticized as the timber resource 47

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 48

was more or less in balance with industrial capacity before the storm and thus could be in short supply in the future. Therefore exports from the affercted region may need to be controlled to limit a likely future shortage.

Therefore, forest practioners must take into consideration several aspects when choosing best suitable storage methods. Based on the experience from “Vivian & Wiebke” in 1990 and “Lothar” in 1999, the following factors should never be ignored (Odenthal‐Kahabka 2005). ∙ Type of storm damage (broken/thrown) ∙ Tree species and assortments and their suitability for storage ∙ Expected quantity of sales and sales markets ∙ Expected duration of storage ∙ Availability of suitable sites (in particular for wet storage) ∙ Matters of permits/regulations (in particular for wet storage) ∙ Availability of manpower and financial considerations

5. Marketing of storm woods Marketing of storm damaged woods is of vital importance to forest owners, especially private forest owners. The price of storm damaged woods might be comprised by two facts. Firstly the timber quality is believed to somewhat worse than conventionally harvest woods although it might be not true. Secondly, a destructive storm will probably bring up too much supply while the demand remains the same within a certain time period and thus leading to lower price of woods. One of the main goals of salvage logging and storage is to reduce the gap between potential supply and demand of woods. However, it is crucial to weight the benefits of long‐term storage against the costs of conservation. Using storage methods with high investment costs and long storage duration in particular, incur high financial costs, which initially have to be paid for by the forest owner. Whether this investment would be re‐paied at later stage is still uncertain is a risky question to any forest owners. On the other hand, if the aim is to keep storage costs as low as possible and thus choose improper storage methods, this would again trigger timber quality risks, such as infestation by insects, decomposition by fungi, or development of stains and discolorations. When this is the case, it is often likely that the revenues from the improperly stored timber would cover only a portion of the storage costs. In this regards, subsidies or other financial support from government is essential to keep the storm damaged and stored timber still competitive in the wood market.

The experience gained in the federal state of Baden‐Württemberg in Germany after the “Lothar” 1999 focused on the priority of private forests and return to the private forest owners. One of the key strategies that were adopted was that stands of private forest owners were processed before community or state forest stands (Odenthal‐Kahabka, 2003). This was to ensure the private forest owners to sell their woods first in good condition with relative high price, so as to generate a quick return on investments. Besides, There was also a restraint of processing woods in state forests just to enable the private forest owners to have the chance to sell their woods first. One year after lothar, these policies generated positive results. 93% of all processed timbers from private forests were sold out. This proportion was much higher than the state forests and community forests, which were found to be 72% and 71%, respectively (Odenthal‐ Kahabka, 2003).

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 49

6. Forest protection and restoration Experience has shown that a range of threats might happen after a destructive storm, such as, pest outbreak, disease, game or fire danger. In general, forest protection measures that need to be executed right after a storm shall be taken in order to protect forests against all these stresses, as well as the restoration of storm affected forests. Among other threats, the insect outbreak is most likely to occur after a storm event, mainly bark beetle calamities. This entails urgent measures to be taken to protect the forests. Odenthal‐Kahabka (2005) came up with an integrated forest protection model after storm calamity with its basic principles as following:

∙ Emphasis on prevention

∙ Combination of silvicultural, biological, mechanical/technical and chemical measures

∙ Utilisation of all ecological effects

∙ Minimise insecticide demand by tapping the full potential of all non‐chemical methods.

Insecticides should only be used if all other means to avert damage are exhausted and extensive damage is expected. In certified stands, application of insecticides may possibly be ruled out. Integrated Forest Protection encompasses three different goals. They have to be distinguished clearly when planning protection measures:

∙ Prevention (Prophylaxis): Measures to minimise the risk of damage occurring (e.g. 'clean' forestry practise, close‐to‐nature silviculture). In the event of storm calamities, this refers to the chosen strategy and/or succession of salvage logging.

∙ Control: Proactive measures to minimise imminent damage and prevent directly impending secondary damage to remaining stands (e.g. quick logging and debarking of standing infested trees). Control aiming for the fast lowering of local beetle populations and thereby the prevention of further damage.

∙ Protection of individual objects: Defensive measures to prevent immediate impending damage to goods worth protecting (e.g. timber storage sites, edges of high value stands). Examples are massive deployment of pheromone traps in beetle hotspots or application of insecticides to timber stacks.

More importantly, it is necessary to prepare and implement a forest sector strategy to restore the forest that could include: foresight studies, restructuring where necessary, regulation of forest restoration, cleaning of compartments and plots, special support for nurseries and regeneration, and restoration of damaged regeneration areas. The forest strategy for regeneration is likely to differ much from one country to another, with consequences for target species, stand composition and structure (Gardiner et al.,2010).

7. Financial and institutional supports Among other supports, financial supports always are the most direct and pragmatic means to help forest owners to recover from their tremendous losses incurred by storm damages, especially for those private forest owners with small forest areas. A single storm event might cause deadly destructions to their lives. Taken into account the large number of costs that forest owners have to bear for salvage logging under more difficult condition, more expensive timber storage, investment for forest restoration and regeneration, it is of vital importance for the state to provide sufficient financial and institutional supports. For example, after lothar 1999, the federal state of Baden‐Württemberg offered small private forests and 49

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests 50

state forests with immediate aids, including direct subsidies for private forests in monetary form, establishment of wet storages in small scale private forests, engagement of service companies, reassignment of foresters from other federal states, and provision of personnel assistance to private forests, as well as sale promotion for storm damaged timber, etc.

On the other hand, fixed amount subsidies shall also be put in place, like pre‐carrige and stack aid, wet storage aid, debarking aid and ground clearing flat rate in terms of euro per cubic meter damaged. More systematically, fiscal measures shall at the same time be taken to ensure more stable financial supports. These measures contains partial remission of income tax for severely affected enterprises, application of reduced tax rates for processing storm damaged timber in future financial years, possibility to subtract expenses of afforestation from current working expenses (Odenthal‐Kahabka, 2005).

Apart from financial subsidies, institutional supports from public agencies play vital roles in minimizing potential losses. Depending on the institutional capacities at local operational level, these supports consists of various aspects, such as waiver of tax, reduction of fees, promotion of sales for storm damaged timbers, special loan programs with low interests, and special traffic laws on load limits. For example, The Forest Damage Compensation Law was passed in 1985 and amended in 1991. Under this law, timber harvest of the current forest year can be restricted in all federal states to avoid excess supply on the timber market. A few specific fiscal relief shall also be regulated by law.

Reference:

Odenthal‐Kahabka, J. 2005: Handreichung Sturmschadensbewältigung. Hrsg. Landesforstverwaltung Baden‐ Württemberg und Landesforsten Rheinland‐Pfalz. http://www.waldwissen.net/waldwirtschaft/schaden/sturm_schnee_eis/fva_strategien_sturmbewaeltigun g/index_EN Online‐Version: Stand: 21.12.2010 Redaktion: FVA, D

Gardiner,B., Blennow,K., Carnus,J.M., et al, 2010, Destructive Storms in European Forests: Past and Forthcoming Impacts, Final report to European Commission‐DG Enviroment.

Odenthal‐Kahabka, J. 2003, Hurricane “Lothar” and the forest of Baden‐Württemberg (Germany) – damages, impacts and effects, http://www.centreacer.qc.ca/PDF/Publications/Colloques/2003/Jutta%20english.pdf

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests

Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests: management experiences based on recent occurrences ‐ Case Histories

ANNEX ‐ WP6 Handbook

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests

Annex I ‐ Forest fires

WP6 Handbook

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_65(I)] Second level analysis on extreme abiotic occurrences

[Cleyves Comagne, Valle d’Aosta, Italy]

Authors: Marta Galvagno ARPA Valle D'Aosta ‐ Loc. Grande Charrière, 44 11020 St. Christophe (AO) Email address: [email protected] Phone.: +39 0165/278554 Ivan Rollet Corpo forestale della Valle D'Aosta ‐ Loc. Grande Charrière, 6/a 11020 St. Christophe (AO) Email address: [email protected] Phone.: +39 0165/527302 Mario Negro Forestazione e sentieristica ‐ Loc. Olleyes, 11020 Quart (AO) Email address: [email protected] Phone.: +39 0165 775722 – 775723

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 5

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 6

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 11/05/1965

- Date of extinction: 15/05/1965

- Name: cleyves Comagne Location of the event

The event is located in the north‐east part of Valle d’Aosta Region and the area affected by the fire (red area in Figure 1) was included in the municipalities of

Brusson, Challand‐Saint‐Anselme and

Emarèse. The area, located between 1200 and 2106 m asl , is highly vegetated with coniferous species as mainly forest type. The event affected both the side of the peak Tete Comagne at 2106 m asl.

287 ha of forest lands have been Figure 1. Location of the event: the red cirle represents the location affected by the fire of cleyves Comagne in 1965. completely destroyed by the fire, but it has been estimated that the overall area interested by the fire was wider (i.e. around0 40 ha).

List of the communities: Brusson, Challand‐Saint‐Anselme, Emarèse

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of the ignition point (UTM, WGS84): 401409 m E, 5068005 m N. The ignition point was never identified precisely

- Site characteristics: aspect: south‐west, south‐ east, altitude: around 1500‐2000 m slm, slope up to 34‐37°.

F igure 2. Detailed image of the area affected by the fire of Cleyves Comagne

- Forest types and pre‐event management:

Municipality Interested area property Forest type

Brusson 95 ha private High forest of coniferous species with prevalence of European Larch (Larix decidua), with a lower precence of Norway Spruce (Picea Abies), and Swiss Pine (Pinus cembra)

Challand‐Saint‐ 180 ha public High forest of coniferous species with prevalence of Norway Spruce (Picea Abies) at higest altitude. Anselme with isolated Larch individuals (Larix decidua) at lower altitude. Some decisuous species at the lowest areas.

Emarèse 12 ha public High forest of coniferous species with prevalence of Norway Spruce (Picea Abies), European Larch (Larix decidua), with a lower precence of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris)

Conditions of the affected area

- The conditions of the affected area coincided with the descriptions of the above sections.

- Mainly the large water deficit of the spring 1965 but also the lack of roads and the difficult terrain contributed to the spread of the fire.

Event description

- Causes: The causes of the fire were never determined certainly. The mainly hypothesis was attributed to the throw of cigarette near a track.

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: the spring just before the fire was particularly dry, with a total amount of precipitation since January to May 149 mm lower ntha the mean for the period in the affected area (276 mm).

- Type of fire: Surface fire and crown fire. The rate of spread was around 20‐30 m min‐1

- Event timing and spatial evolution: Tuesday, May 11th, 1965 : The fire started around 2 pm and, on the basis of local testimonies, it had a fast surface to crown transition with both active and independent spread phases. At 16 pm reached loc. Bouchey at nearly 3 km from the ignition point, also favoured by a strong wind. Wednesday y, Ma 12th, 1965: the fire was contained at late evening Saturday , May 15th, 1965: the operation of fire suppression continued until 8 pm.

Impacts

‐ The fire caused large damages to the woody component with total elimination of the forest in wide areas leading to impacts on the landscape and the productive functions. Moreover the elimination of the forest on the south‐west slope caused hydrological problems with consequences on the protection function.

- The fire destroyed a 104 m‐2 farm and a fire‐fighter got injuries during fire suppression operations - Economic losses: the data available on economic losses reported an estimate of nearly 4330 € (L. 8.330.000 )

‐ This event could be considered extreme because a big surface of the forest has been destroyed or seriously damaged, (287) ha for its spread speed and because it represents a rare case in Aosta Valley during which flames spread opposite to slope with active and independent characteristics.

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocols.

The area was monitored by the local Corpo forestale (Forest Service of Aosta Valley).

- Risk awareness.

The risk was evaluated according to the current weather conditions (drought, wind, vegetation type).

Event ongoing

During the first stages the operators of nearest forestry stations and firefighters from Aosta, Brusson and Challand‐Saint‐Anselme stations have occurred. The subsequent days also other forestry stations and the Alpini (italian alpine army) occurred. A lot of volunteers gave a contribution to the operations. The lack of roads limited the suppression operations mainly to manual means with some small fire trucks.

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management.

The area covered by the fire has been monitored for several weeks in order to prevent new fires. Reforestation operations have been carried out. In detail:

In the municipality of Brusson the first reforestation occurred in 1971 on 25 ha with 40.000 seedlings of Picea abies , Larix decidua and Pinus cembra. Additional reforestation was done between 1975 and 1977 with other 40.000 seedlings of Picea abies, Larix decidua and Pinus cembra.

In the municipality of Challand‐Saint‐Anselme the first reforestation occurred in 1969 on 51 ha with 201.000 seedlings of Picea abies, Larix deciduad an Pinus cembra. Between 1970 and 1984 a new operation with 119.000 seedlings of Picea abies and Larix decidua was done.

In the municipality of Emarèse the reforestation took place in 1975 and 1976 on 7,05 ha with 12.442 seedling of Picea abies, Larix decidua and Pinus mugo. In 1996 a new operation with 7.080 seedling of Picea abies, Larix decidua and Pinus sylvestris was realised.

Lesson Learnt

The spread of the fire depended on many factors:

1) orography (sloping terrain)

2) type of vegetation

3) drought

4) means available.

The example of the cleyves Comagne fire underlined the importance of the wide diffusion of forestry stations on the regional territory coordinated and supported by the central service for fires prevention (Nucleo Antincendi Boschivi). The coordination of the different protection services (Forestry Operators, Fire‐fighters, Volunteers) has demonstrated to be of great importance to improve the activities of fire suppression. The monitoring activity of areas where the risk of fires is higher was highly improved in the last years overall the Aosta Valley territory. Moreover activities of information and training of local people are considered of great value to avoid new fires and also to prevent damages to people themselves.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_81(I)] Second level analysis on extreme abiotic occurrences

[Quincinetto, Piemonte, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 01/01/1981

- Date of extinction: 04/01/1981

- Name: Quincinetto

Location of the event

The event is located on the boarder between Piemonte and Valle d’Aosta region. The fire destroyed overall 2672 ha of which 1100 ha belonging to uncultivated lands and almost 1600 ha to forest lands.

The maximum area covered by the fire is located between

500 and 1500 m asl. Most of the forest were privately owned.

The area affected by fire is included in the municipalities of

Quincinetto, Tavagnasco, Quassolo and Borgofranco.

Figure 1. Location of the event: the red cirle represents the

location affected by the fire of Quincinetto in 1981.

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of the ignition point (UTM, WGS84): N 5048681 m N, 405372 m E.

- Forest types and pre‐event management: The flames have covered various populations as high forests of deciduous and coniferous species and coppice; the species mostly damaged by the fire were European Larch (Larix decidua), Red Spruce (Picea Abies), European Beech (Fagus sylvatica), Silver Birch (Betula Pendula), Chesnut (Castanea sativa) and Alder (Alnus species).

Figure 2. Detailed image of the area affected by the fire of Quincinetto Conditions of the affected area

- The conditions of the affected area corresponded with the descriptions of the above section.

- Forest types and pre‐event management (if different from ignition point conditions): did they affect the spread of the fire? The forest was almost all privately owned so any forest management plans were carried out.

Event description

- Causes: Human causes (Burning of crop residues).

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: the period before the fire was characterized by severe drought.

- Type of fire: surface fire and crown fire in the hardwood forest.

- Event timing and spatial evolution?

The event started on January Thursday 1 th 1981 and lasted 4 days during which the impacts were severe.

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

Impacts

‐ The most important functions compromised are the protection and the landscape functions.

- There were no consequences for people.

- Economic losses of this event are difficult to be estimated and no cost assessment has never been published.

- This event It could be considered extreme because a big surface of the forest has been destroyed or seriously damaged (2150 ha). It is within the biggest fires occurred in Italy.

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocols: The area was monitored by the Corpo Forestale dello Stato (National Forest Service). ‐ Risk awareness - the risk was evaluated according to environmental conditions

Event ongoing

- No data available

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event (or planned) forest management: the area covered by the fire has been monitored for several days in order to prevent new fires.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: It was decided not to do reforestation works

5 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_90(D)] Second level analysis of extreme biotic occurrences

[Forest fire Herzogstand 05.01.1990]

Authors: Sebastian Weist; [email protected]; +49 8161 71 4906

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions at the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions at the affected area ...... 5

Event description ...... 5

Impacts (see chart p. 5) ...... 7

Management ...... 7

Pre‐event ...... 7

Event ongoing ...... 8

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 8

Lessons Learned ...... 8

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 05.01.1990 / 12:45

- Date of extinction: 08.01.1990 / Monday afternoon

- Name: Forest fire Herzogstand 05.01.1990

Location of the event

Fig. 1: large scale image Herzogstand (B)

Ecology and economy of the event

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Fig. 2: detailed image of the burnt area

Conditions at the ignition point

The ignition point was located near state street 11, about 50 meters away from the mountain station of the Herzogstands aerial passenger line (column 4). The site is on a southeast slope above the Walchensee, at an elevation of 1500 meters above sea level. The forests in this area are mainly protection forests, with spruce and pine stands, partly mixed with beech. This is a vegetation type called “Nordalpiner Schneeheide‐ Kiefernwald” (Erico‐ Pinetum mit Calamagrostio‐ Pinetum), vegetation area 15 (according to SEIBERT, 1968, in MÜLLER, 2008). The morphology is described by high summits and steep mountain‐slopes. Coordinates: UTM (WGS84) 32 T 674099 x; 5275100 y

High: approx. 1500 m ASL

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

Due to the lack of infrastructure, the use of heavy fire‐fighting machinery was not possible. The rugged terrain of the area posed an extra risk for the fire fighters, whose safety was protected by the mountain rescue service. In order to reach the ignition point, the fire fighters took the aerial passenger line.

Conditions at the affected area

o The ignition area (the area around the Herzogstand mountain)has the same characteristics as those described for the ignition point ‐ mixed stands of spruce, pine, mountain pine and beech. The lack of snow and the dry grass in the understory promoted the spread of the fire.

Event description

- Causes: Negligence, a teenager lit a firecracker, and the explosion ignited the dry grass.

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: The area was experiencing extremely dry weather, and the ignition point was free of snow, which is not normal for that time of year. The day was sunny and the short‐range forecast predicted snow in the next few hours.

- Type of fire: ground, stock and crown fire

- Event timing and spatial evolution:

From 05.01.1990 12:45 until the afternoon of 08.01.1990, 350 persons from diverse organizations aided by several helicopters fought the fire in an operational area which covered an area of approximately. 70 ‐ 100 ha.

05.01.1990:

‐ At 12:45, the first fire was reported to fire brigades and police

‐ The Walchensee fire brigade reached the burning area first.

‐ At 13:07, fire fighters from Kochel arrived, and at 13:39 they declared a fire alarm level 3 (major fire).

‐ Meanwhile, the control center at Wolfratshausen attempted to locate helicopters, but only one police helicopter from Neubiberg was available, and dense fog prevented the CH53 (Sikorski S‐65) helicopters from Laubheim (Mittleres Transporthubschrauberregiment 25 “Oberschwaben”) from taking off.

‐ The fire was spreading very fast, burnt logs were rolling downhill and igniting new fires and some buildings on Herzogstand were in danger.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

‐ Five firefighters were engulfed by the fire and had to be rescued by helicopter.

‐ By this time, two police helicopters and one helicopter from the German border police were dumping water to prevent the fire’s spread.

‐ Although by early evening efforts seemed to be successful, at 21:00 the fire ignited again, and more fire fighters were ordered to protect the state road and the base station of the aerial passenger line with triple combination pumpers.

‐ After 30 minutes they were sent back, as it had begun to snow and the fire was thought to be decreasing.

06.01.1990

‐ Overnight nearly the whole Fahrenberg (name of the mountain with the Herzogstand) burnt down. All the trees which had been planted there for avalanche protection were destroyed by the flames, the new avalanche protection constructions were completely destroyed, and the aerial passenger line was partially damaged.

‐. On this morning, helicopters were again unavailable because of the dense fog, several points were still burning and the snow was melting.

07.01.1990

‐ By Sunday noon, the fog had lifted enough for CH53 Helicopters to begin watering the burnt area

‐ That evening, several pockets of embers were located by a helicopter with a thermo graphic camera.

08.01.1990

‐ All localized pockets of embers were eliminated.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

Impacts (see chart p. 5)

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

Protection against erosion and avalanches was lost.

- Which are the human consequences (casualties, etc.)?

No fire fighters were seriously hurt, but five were engulfed by the fire and rescued by helicopter in the last minute.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

Statements about the actually destroyed forest area or exact extent of the damage could not be made by the Bavarian state forestry department as yet. In the time frame between 1977 and 1990 the economic losses due to forest fires were approx. 3165,‐€/ha and between 1991 and 2006 2756,‐€/ha (Müller 2008).

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

The fires in the German alpine region are, in general, very small‐scale. A burning area of 70 ‐ 100 ha is extraordinary large and thus considered extreme. The forest fire on Herzogstand was one of the biggest fire events for the Bavarian fire brigades since the 2nd World War. Management

Preevent

• (Art. 17 BayWaldG (Feuergefahr)):

“… It is strictly forbidden to smoke in forests between 1st of March and 31st of Oktober….. It is forbidden to make fire in a distance less than 100 m to the next forest….”

Risk awareness:

Because of the high fire risk at the time in Bavaria, some planes were already in action, monitoring forest areas from the air (330 voluntary pilots with more than 150 planes). In Bavaria 322359 fire fighters are employed. Parking on forest roads is strictly forbidden, and many cars were towed away to keep the forest roads free for fire fighters in a case of emergency.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

Event ongoing

Fire fighting strategy and efforts:

The fire‐fighting strategy was based primarily on the massive operation of helicopters dumping water in the area around the fire in order to prevent its spread. The helicopters were directed accurately to the glow nests by a German border police helicopter equipped with a thermographic camera.

Postevent adopted strategies

Pathbreaking was the deployment of helicopters with external water pods (“Bambi Buckets”) to extinct the fire. In Bavaria Bambi Buckets with 900 l capacity are in use. Lessons Learned The most important issue to improve was noticed in coordinating the activities. The event has shown that it is necessary to improve the system of monitoring the development of the fire, locating the resources (firefighting units, equipment, machinery etc.) – to support quick and effective decisions in headquarters.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_90(I)] Second level analysis on extreme abiotic occurrences

[Arnad, Valle d’Aosta, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 11/03/1990

- Date of extinction: 15/03/1990

- Name: Arnad

- Location of the event

The event is located in the south‐west part of Valle d’Aosta region and the area affected by the fire (red area in Figure 1) was included in the municipality of

Arnad. The area, located between 635 and 2180 m asl, include a good part of

the of the valley near the stream Torrente Và. The area is highly vegetated with coniferous species as mainly forest type. 225 ha of forest (around 122 ha) and unmanaged lands (around 102 ha) Figure 1. Location of the event: the red cirle represents the location affected by the have been completely destroyed by the fire of Arnad in 1990. fire, but it has been estimated that the overall area interested by the fire was wider (i.e. around 400 ha).

List of the communities: Arnad

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of the ignition point (UTM, WGS84): 404343 m E, 5054612 m N

- Site characteristics: aspect: south‐west, altitude: around 1000 m slm, slope: 34‐37°.

- Forest types and pre‐event management: Forests with main species: Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestrys), European Larch (Larix decidua) Red Spruce (Picea abies), Chesnut (Castanea sativa), Oak (Quercus pubescens), European Beech Figure 2. Detailed image of the area affected by the fire of Arnad (Fagus sylvatica), Silver Birch (Betula Pendula), Alder (Alnus species) and shrubs. Most of the forest were privately owned.

Conditions of the affected area

- The conditions of the affected area coincided with the descriptions of the above sections.

- Mainly the sloping terrain (34‐37°) contributed to the spread of the fire, since the wind was weak.

- The forest is almost all privately owned so did not exist any forest management plans. The most affected forest type has been Larch.

Event description

- Causes: Human causes (burning of crop residues).

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: the last rain occurred 23 days before the fire

- Type of fire: Surface fire and crown fire in the hardwood forest. The canopy fire did not destroyed wide forest areas (6.90 ha). The fire has reached progress speed of 30 m min‐1

- Event timing and spatial evolution:

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

Sunday, March 11th, 1990 : The fire started in the early afternoon, with speed of 10 m min‐1 and spread quickly. It reached steep slopes and assumed speed of 30 m min‐1 near the surface. Wednesday , March 14th, 1990: after some spot ground fires, the event was contained.

Impacts

‐ The most important functions compromised are the protection and the landscape functions.

‐ There were no consequences for people.

- Economic losses: the data available on economic losses reported an estimate of nearly 24000 € (L. 44.317.000 )

‐ This event could be considered extreme because it represents the largest fire occurred in Valle d'Aosta after 1981, a wide surface of the forest has been destroyed or seriously damaged (122 ha) and also for its spread speed.

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocol: it mainly concerns the monitoring of weather conditions favourable to fire ignition and the patrolling of burning of crop residues activities.

- Risk awareness: the area was monitored by the local Corpo Forestale (Forestry Service of Aosta Valley).

Event ongoing

- During the fire have occurred: 1) 10 rangers 2) 60 fire‐fighters 3) 90 volunteers 4) 5 tankers 5) 5 helicopters 5 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events6

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management.

The area covered by the fire has been monitored for several weeks in order to prevent new fires.

It was decided not to do reforestation works.

Lesson Learnt The spread of the fire depended on the following factors:

1) orography (sloping terrain)

2) drought

3) type of vegetation

4) organizational system to extinguish fire

5) means available.

The socio‐economic changes of the last decades brought to a progressive abandonment of several rural activities such as the forest management in private areas with an accumulation of plant dead material which favours the spread of fires. Not only the scarcity of wood management but also the abandonment of pastures creates problems (e.g. the diffusion of wild areas populated by grass and brush). For these reason often the burning of crop residues spreads easily to the unmanaged adjacent fields and then up to the forest. At regional level the monitoring activity and prevention actions are carried out constantly to reduce this kind of events. Moreover activities of information and training of local people are considered of great value to avoid new firesd an also to prevent damages to people themselves.

6 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_97(I)] Second level analysis on extreme fire occurrences

[Limone sul Garda ‐ Lombardia Region]

Authors: Bruna Comini, Elena Gagliazzi

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected], [email protected] – 0039.02.67404479

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Limone sul Garda ‐ 1997 ...... 3

Date of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 6

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

Lesson Learnt ...... 7

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Limone sul Garda 1997

Data owners

In Lombardia Region forest fire data are collecting by the National Forestry Corps. After each events the personnel of the National Forestry Corps fill in a form with data concerning fire characteristics of (affected area, weather and territorial conditions, length of time, personnel, means, etc.). The data are then completed into a computerized database, the Territorial Issue.

Data providers

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry.

Date of the event

- Ignition: 04/04/1997

- Extinction: 07/04/1997

- Name: Punta Camino – Dosso Roveri

Location of the event

The area is located in the north‐est of Lombardia region, in Parco Alto Garda Mountain Comunity territory, District of Brescia. Mediterranean vegetation with Austrian pine reforestation.

List of the communities: Lombardia Region; District of Brescia; Municipalities of Limone sul Garda.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of ignition point UTM WGS84 (640000 – 5057000); toponym: Punta Camino ‐ Dosso Roveri.

- Site characteristics: aspect: south‐west; height: 1000m; morphology: slope 50°; forest type: Mediterranean vegetation (Quercus ilea, Pistacia terebinthus, Phyllirea latifolia, Cotinus coggygria, ...).

Conditions of the affected area

- Site characteristics: the climate in the area is Mediterranean, with hot and dry microclimate. The affected area is part of a mountain range which develop from 100 to 1250 m a.s.l. The mountain aspect site is prevalent S‐SE, with very high slope. The predominant vegetation is Mediterranean, with herbaceous vegetation and shrubs (Quercus ilea, Pistacia terebinthus, Phyllirea latifolia, Cotinus coggygria, ...). There are also Austrian pine reforestations, in part already burnt in Seventies.

- The total burnt area was 495 ha (Source: National Forestry Corps). The extension of the affected forest area is 300 hectares; 195 hectares are grassland.

o Most affected forest type: Mediterranean vegetation and Austrian pine.

o Pre‐event management: Austrian pine high forest stand reforestation.

o Forest and brushwood conditions: Mediterranean vegetation mixed with shrub and herbaceous vegetation on limestone

o Property: about 40% of the burnt area is public (State and Local Autority).

o Prevention activities: no activity.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

Event description

- Causes: anthropic – arson fire

- Consideration about meteorological conditions (values of Risk Indexes, if available): spring 1997 was very dry with long time without precipitation. During the event there was also a strong wind from north to south‐est.

- Type of fire: ground fire in Mediterranean vegetation and crown fire in conifer reforestation.

- Event timing and spatial evolution: the fire started on 24/03/204/04/1997 in the evening in the Mediterranean vegetation. The fire developed rapidly, driven to strong wind, moving in crown fire in Austrian pine reforestation. The fire was stopped using aerial mean (helicopter). The fire was stopped at 20.00 on 07/04/1997.

Impacts

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

The prevailing function of the forest that had been compromised by fire are the protective, naturalistic and concerning landscape.

In the area affect by fire, arboreal and shrub vegetation were almost complete destruct, with negative consequences for the stability of slopes.

- Which are the human consequences?

No casualties have occurred, neither during the fire fighting operation, nor during the post‐fire management interventions. The fire was a risk to the population because it has moved near to urbanized areas.

The next summer there was a rockfall as a consequence of strong precipitation, that had involved also many cars.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

No cost assessment has been published so far. The fire fighting effort involved a total of 267 operators, of which 78 by the Corpo Forestale dello Stato. As regard ground means, 30 fire trucks and 5 ground tankers were computed; aerial mean was 1 helicopter.

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

The fire is considered extreme for the large burnet area and the loss in protective functions. After the fire also occurred rockfall with safety problems for the people.

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocols: mainly patrolling. - Risk awareness: The fire was started during the high alert period at regional level. During the spring 1997, several wildfires with large burnt area had already affected regional forests, consequently the risk awareness was high.

Event ongoing

- Fire fighting strategy and efforts: The fire has started during the evening and it has spread very fast as a consequence of the strong wind along the high slope side. During the following days the ground fighting was difficult for the high slope and the difficult accessibility. When the crown fire moved in conifer formation it has been necessary to use aerial means.

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management: In the next years it was made several intervention to restore conditions of security for the urban areas; in detail:

• cutting of conifers dead standing, broken, or severely compromised by fire;

• track re‐establishment,

• thermophile broad‐leaved replanting,

• hydrogeological safety interventions,

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: the interventions cost was ~350.000,00 euro.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

- Secondary events occurred or monitored: after the event hydrogeological hazard and rockfall with safety problem for urban area; after several year from the event the implemented interventions are operative and effective.

Lesson Learnt

The fire occurred has highlighted management difficulties due to high slope, strong wind and difficult accessibility.

Fire on side with very high slopes can easily cause landslides, endangering the safety of people living near the burnt areas.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_01(I)] Second level analysis on extreme fire occurrences

[Berzo Inferiore ‐ Lombardia Region]

Authors: Bruna Comini, Elena Gagliazzi

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected], [email protected] – 0039.02.67404479

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Berzo inferiore 2001 ...... 3

Date of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 6

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

Lesson Learnt ...... 7

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Berzo inferiore 2001

Data owners

Data providers

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry.

Date of the event

- Ignition: 31/12/2001 (h 12.00)

- Extinction: 13/01/2002 (h 17.00)

- Name: Berzo Inferiore – loc. Valle Canile – Ranina ‐ Derocco

Location of the event

The area is located in the north‐est of Lombardia region, in Valle Camonica Mountain Comunity territory, District of Brescia. Main forest types are chestnut, from 500 m to 700 m a.s.l., and coniferous, from 700 m to 1200 m a.s.l. Coppice is the main forest management system concerning chestnut.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

List of the communities: Lombardia Region; District of Brescia; Municipalities of Berzo Inferiore (17017) and Esine (17070).

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of ignition point UTM WGS84 (5085625 – 598750); toponym: loc. Valle Canile – Ranina – Derocco.

- Site characteristics: aspect: west; , height: 550m; morphology: slope 25°; forest type: chestnut; brushwood conditions: dry; type of management: coppice)

Conditions of the affected area

- Site characteristics: the climate in the area is continental. The affected area is part of a mountain range which develop from 500 to 1250 m a.s.l. All the mountain aspect site is E‐NE. Forest types present are: chestnut and black locust at low altitude, spruce and beech.

- The total burnt area was 80 ha (Source: the National Forestry Corps). All burned area was forest.

o Most affected forest type: spruce and beech.

o Pre‐event management: high forest stand.

o Forest and brushwood conditions: chestnut present a widespread structural untidiness, with conifer taking over and old coppice. This situation is due to management not comply with forest planning and also to of forest area.

o Property: public (70 ha) and private (10 ha).

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

o Prevention activities: territorial monitoring during the alert period

Event description

- Causes: anthropic – arson fire (doloso)

- Consideration about meteorological conditions (values of Risk Indexes, if available): winter 2001‐ 2002 was very dry with long time without precipitation.

- Type of fire: crown fire in chestnut and ground fire in conifer

- Event timing and spatial evolution: the fire started at 12.00 of the 31/12/2001 in chestnut forest ad for two days was a crown fire. Then the fire had interested conifer and beech forest and became a ground fire. The fire propagate on the mountain front for ten days and was extinguished at 17.00 of the 13/01/2002.

Impacts

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

The prevailing function of the forest is the productive function for the local communities, which has been compromised in high fire severity areas (chestnut and conifer). The second important function is the naturalistic and landscape one for spruce and beech (death of stands of beech in the next 4‐5 years).

- Which are the human consequences?

No casualties have occurred, neither during the fire fighting operation, nor during the post‐fire management interventions.

During extinction, there was an accident: a Canada Air crashed in the woods, but without any damage to the volunteers and the people.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

No cost assessment has been published so far. The fire fighting effort involved 103 have taken a total of 103 operators, of which 11 by the Corpo Forestale dello Stato. As regard ground means, 4 fire trucks and 2 ground tankers 82 were computed; aerial mean was 1 helicopter ab412.

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

The fire is considered extreme for the large burnet area and the economic damage (loss in value, reduced productivity of chestnut, the cost for reclamation of the area). The event has caused a serious problem in forest management because all the physiognomic‐structural balance of the site of the mountain has been compromised; in addition after the event the conifer wood has been replaced by an infestation of bark beetles.

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocols: mainly patrolling. - Risk awareness: The fire was started during the high alert period at regional level. During the winter 2001‐2002, several wildfires had already affected forests in neighboring areas, consequently the risk awareness was high.

Event ongoing

- Fire fighting strategy and efforts:

The area could be accessible by a road in bed upkeep condition but the fire has developed rapidly to the tops of trees and it was not possible to work from the ground; so the initial strategy has been to use aerial means for fire in the chestnut. The underground fire is difficult to control and this has caused the prolongation of the fire for several days. The final extinction of the fire occurred after 13 days due to changing weather conditions with precipitation.

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management: post‐fire forest management interventions have been carried out along years, in detail:

2003 ‐ Preliminary project concerning recovery and protection of the burned area. The project concerned the structural rehabilitation of the road network serving the area affected by the event, which important element to ensure an adequate control and prevention support system for the volunteers;

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

2005: clean with plant operations to combat and control bark beetle, and reclamation of the area burned, physiognomic‐structural rearrangement of the chestnut;

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: the intervention cost was ~168.300 euro (105.000 euro in 2003 and 63.300 euro in 2005).

- Secondary events occurred or monitored: post‐event nitrophilous vegetation presence (brambles, fern) and ecological‐structural vegetation regression, bark beetle attack (as a result of a tornado occurred on July 23th 2003).

Lesson Learnt Text: (Please report also any specific description element (meteorological, morphological, ecological, etc.), useful to understand the issue)

The fire occurred has highlighted management difficulties due to:

‐ problem with underground fires reclamation

‐ simultaneous presence of multiple fires and unavailability of all men and the means on each event

‐ need to timely intervention to remove the wood and to prevent pest attacks of pathogens

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_02(I)a] Second level analysis on extreme fire occurrences

[Paspardo ‐ Lombardia Region]

Authors: Bruna Comini, Elena Gagliazzi

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected], [email protected] – 0039.02.67404479

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Paspardo 2002 ...... 3

Date of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 6

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

Lesson Learnt ...... 7

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Paspardo 2002

Data owners

Data providers

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry.

Date of the event

- Ignition: 06/01/2002

- Extinction: 09/01/2002

- Name: Paspardo – loc. Malga Zumella

Location of the event

The area is located in the north‐est of Lombardia region, in Valle Camonica Mountain Comunity territory, District of Brescia. Territory are pastures, and at higher altitudes, the most common forest type is the larch.

List of the communities: Lombardia Region; District of Brescia; Municipalities of Paspardo (17135) and Cimbergo (17054).

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of ignition point UTM WGS84 (5100100 – 607900); toponym: malga Zumella.

- Site characteristics: aspect: north‐est; , height: 550m; forest type: ignition point in grassland; brushwood conditions: dry; type of management: high stands)

Conditions of the affected area

- Site characteristics: the climate in the area is continental. The affected area is part of a mountain range which develop from 1600 to 2050 m a.s.l. All the mountain aspect site is N‐E, Aspect 20‐50%. Forest types present are: larch and birch.

- The total burnt area was 150 ha (Source: National Forestry Corps). The extension of the affected forest area is 70 hectares; 80 hectares are grassland.

o Most affected forest type: larch.

o Pre‐event management: high forest stand.

o Forest and brushwood conditions: the larch forest was managed with natural targets

o Property: public (70 ha) and private (80 ha).

o Prevention activities: territorial monitoring during the alert period

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

Event description

- Causes: anthropic – arson fire (doloso)

- Consideration about meteorological conditions (values of Risk Indexes, if available): winter 2001‐ 2002 was very dry with long time without precipitation. During the night when the fire started there was high wind.

- Type of fire: ground fire in grassland and then crown fire in larch.

- Event timing and spatial evolution: the fire started at 21.30 06/01/2002 in the grassland. Grasslanf burnt very fast and during the night fire was arrived on the mountain ridge, involving larch forest. Fire lasted three days and was stopped at 17.00 09/01/2002.

Impacts

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

The prevailing function of the forest that have been compromised by fire are: naturalistic, concerning landscape and touristic. The second important functions are the floristic in the grassland with lost in species number and also in protected species, and the protective function as a result of the fire on the slope side. Furhemore, after the fire, grazing reduces its value and quality because advancing less appetizing specie to livestock.

- Which are the human consequences?

No casualties have occurred, neither during the fire fighting operation, nor during the post‐fire management interventions.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

No cost assessment has been published so far. The fire fighting effort involved 103 have taken a total of 79 operators, of which 4 by the National Forestry Corps. As regard ground means, 3 fire trucks were computed; aerial mean was 1 helicopter.

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

The fire is considered extreme for the large burnet area, high intensity and the loss in value for naturalistic and landscape forest functions.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

Management

Preevent

Event ongoing

- Fire fighting strategy and efforts:

- The area could be easy accessible by a road but the fire has started during the night and it was not possible to make any action, therefore it has developed rapidly in all the grassland involving larch forest with crown fire. In the morning started the fire fighting activities with grow fire reclamation and using aerial mean but the fire was just arrive on the crown of the mountain.

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management: post‐fire forest management interventions have been carried out along years, in detail:

In 2003 it was made an intervention for the recovery of the slopes affected by the fire. It has also carried out a study aimed at understanding the changes of the flogistic composition following the transition of the fire. The project calculated the elimination of the trees affectet by fire or physiologically compromised. The timber was stored and used by local people. It was carried out different type of reclaim, depending on the fire intensity, even with cuts "in high stumps" to prevent the risk of undermining and avalanches detachment. It was also created a selective thinning of small or medium‐impairment trees, to reduce the fire susceptibility and increase the structural complexity.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

Finally it was realized a tree planting to promote recolonization by the main species (larch, birch, scots pine), using the swiss micro‐collective technique: a total of 577 plants in 35 micro‐ collectives.

Overall, the project had a good results with a high percentage of rooting (95%).

beginning the project has given good results, with a high percentage of rooting (95%).but over time problem with not controlled pasture has partially compromised the results. Nevertheless, the pioneer vegetation has recolonised large parts of theburnt area

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: the intervention cost was ~140.000 euro.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored: post‐event nitrophilous vegetation presence, grassland loss in value, hydrogeological hazard, pest on burnt area.

Lesson Learnt Text: (Please report also any specific description element (meteorological, morphological, ecological, etc.), useful to understand the issue)

The fire occurred has highlighted management difficulties due to:

‐ ignition during the night, with the consequent inability to act promptly;

‐ simultaneous presence of multiple fires and unavailability of all men and the means on each event

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_02(I)b] Second level analysis on extreme fire occurrences

[Valvestino ‐ Lombardia Region]

Authors: Bruna Comini, Elena Gagliazzi

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected], [email protected] – 0039.02.67404479

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Valvestino, Armo 2002 ...... 3

Date of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 6

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 7

Lesson Learnt ...... 7

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Valvestino, Armo 2002

Data owners

In Lombardia Region forest fire data are collected by the National Forestry Corps. After each events the personnel of the National Forestry Corps fill in a form with data concerning fire characteristics of (affected area, weather and territorial conditions, length of time, personnel, means, etc.). The data are then completed into a computerized database, the Territorial Issue.

Data providers

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry.

Date of the event

- Ignition: 24/03/2002

- Extinction: 01/04/2002

- Name: Armo ‐ Monte Pralta

Location of the event

The area is located in the north‐est of Lombardia region, in Parco Alto Garda Mountain Comunity territory, District of Brescia. Main forest types are Beech, Scots pine, and hornbeam. High forest stand is the main forest management system.

List of the communities: Lombardia Region; District of Brescia; Municipalities of Valvestino.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of ignition point UTM WGS84 (624250 – 5070319); toponym: Armo ‐ Monte Pralta.

- Site characteristics: aspect: west; , height: 700m; morphology: slope 20°; forest type: Scots pine and hornbeam; brushwood conditions: dry; type of management: High forest stand; propriety: public ).

Conditions of the affected area

- Site characteristics: the climate in the area is continental. The affected area is part of a mountain range which develop from 700 to 1250 m a.s.l. The mountain aspect site is part E‐SE and part W‐NW, with high slope. Forest types present are: scots pine and beech. Vegetation is characterized by different forest types as a function of exposure and altitude: on the south‐facing slope are mainly represented by conifers ‐ Scots pine, Austrian pine and resinous pine (typical of the area), and broadleaf thermophilic (hornbeam, flowering ash), the the north north‐west slopes are characterized by mesophilic broad leave coppice aged , consisting mainly of beech, where there are big saplings.

- The total burnt area was 84 ha (Source: National Forestry Corps). The extension of the affected forest area is 80 hectares; 4 hectares are grassland.

o Most affected forest type: : scots pine and beech.

o Pre‐event management: high forest stand.

o Forest and brushwood conditions:

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

chestnut present a widespread structural untidiness, with conifer taking over and old coppice. This situation is due to management not comply with forest planning and also to of forest area.

o Property: about 90% of the burnt area is public (Foresta di Lombardia Gardesana Occidentale – Regione Lombardia)).

o Prevention activities: territorial monitoring during the alert period

Event description

- Causes: anthropic – arson fire

- Consideration about meteorological conditions (values of Risk Indexes, if available): winter 2001‐ 2002 was very dry with long time without precipitation.

- Type of fire: ground fire in beech coppice and crown fire in conifer forest

- Event timing and spatial evolution: the fire started on 24/03/2002 at 19.00 in scots pine, near Armarolo torrent and along the street that connected Armo and Persone villages. The fire developed rapidly rising on the west side moving in crown fire in Scots pine forest. Then the fire carried on in ground fire in the south in beech coppice. Finally it returned in crown fire in Austrian pine and Scots pine were it was stopped using aerial mean (helicopter). The fire was stopped at 17.00 on 01/04/2002.

Impacts

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

The prevailing function of the forest that had been compromised by fire are the naturalistic and concerning landscape.

In the area affect by crown fire, arboreal and shrub vegetation were almost complete destruct. In aged coppice the fire has greatly compromised the vitality of the saplings beech (specie particularly vulnerable to fire); five years after the events are present bed vegetative condition, with dry rod and progressive loss in specie vitality.

- Which are the human consequences?

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

No casualties have occurred, neither during the fire fighting operation, nor during the post‐fire management interventions.

There was rockfall hazards along the road connected Armo and Persone villages and slope instability with risk for the people along the paths through the burnt area.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

No cost assessment has been published so far. The fire fighting effort involved 103 have taken a total of 97 operators, of which 8 by the Corpo Forestale dello Stato. As regard ground means, 4 fire trucks and 3 ground tankers were computed; aerial mean was 1 helicopter.

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

The fire is considered extreme for the large burnet area and the loss in naturalistic and landscape functions in the burnt area. After the fire also occurred rockfall on the road with safety problems for the people. It lasted eight days.

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocols: mainly patrolling. - Risk awareness: The fire was started during the high alert period at regional level. During the winter 2001‐2002, several wildfires with large burnt area had already affected regional forests, consequently the risk awareness was high.

Event ongoing

- Fire fighting strategy and efforts:

- The fire has started during the night and it was not possible to make any action, therefore it has developed rapidly in crown fire on the mountain with very high slope. The following days there was ground fire in coppice forest and fire fighting was possible with men and ground means. Then the fire moved to the south area and when it has affected a conifer formation it restarted in crown fire, so it has been necessary to use aerial means. 6

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management: In 2008 it was made an intervention to restore conditions of security for the Armo’s village and for the users of woods and tracks; in detail:

• cutting of conifers, with felling of Scots pines and Austrian pines blacks dead standing, broken, or severely compromised by fire and subject to pest attacks,

• safety action on the natural track that runs through the burnet area, with the cutting of deteriorated plants, standing dead, broken and crumbling (both deciduous and coniferous),

• barring and crushing boulders in precarious conditions of stability in the area above the village of Armo, with a total area of 3.5 ectars.

• accommodation and leveling of the paths,

• Organization of two demonstrative days about how to manage forests and woodland safety restore from fire, for workers who must carry out the intervention and technicians,

• installation of educational signs concerning information on the forest fires phenomenon and forest ecosystem damage.

• design and printing n. 5,000 books (such as thematic routes) on the forest fires phenomenon and damage forest ecosystems.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: the intervention cost was ~100.000,00 euro.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored: after the event hydrogeological hazard and rockfall with safety problem for Armo village; after several year from the are present bed vegetative condition, with dry rod and progressive loss in specie vitality

Lesson Learnt

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

Text: (Please report also any specific description element (meteorological, morphological, ecological, etc.), useful to understand the issue)

The fire occurred has highlighted management difficulties due to ignition during the night, with the consequent inability to act promptly.

Fire on side with very high slopes can easily cause landslides, endangering the safety of people living near the burnt areas.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme1 events

[FF_02(I)c] Second level analysis on extreme fire occurrences

[Zuc di Santis ‐ Friuli Venezia Giulia Region (FVG)]

Author: Alessia Merolli UNICAM [email protected] +39 0737‐404517

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme2 events

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 3

Conditions of the affected area ...... 8

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 5

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 8

Management ...... 9

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 10

Lesson Learnt ...... 10

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme3 events

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: The fire was started by a lightning strike on the 24th of March 2012 at 13.30 approx.

- Date of extinction: 03th of April 2012.

- Name: Zuc de Santis ‐ Tramonti di Sotto Friuli Venezia Giulia (FVG)

Location of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

The Zuc di Santis wildfire burned a surface of 376,65 ha at an a altitude of 1329 m. a.s.l. on the rocky, grassed and inaccessible area.

Conditions of the affected area

The geological features of the of the area affected is a rocky substrate of the Dolomia Main Formation (a predominantly pale coloured rock of the foothills of the Carnic Alps) also present are rocks consisting of darker layers interspersed with marble and layers of organic origin (from the Carnian‐Norian period). The floor of the valley contains recent alluvial deposits from which there emerge at various points the silts of a pre‐ historic lake which used to fill the valley of the present day Redona Dam in Comune of Tramonti Di Sopra. Zuc Di Santins zone covers two important tectonic lineaments along an East West axis consisting of two inverted folds which are sliding against each other and supporting the dolomitic formations above ‐ very closet to Zuc there is another unstable fault‐line running North‐East. The density of these tectonic disturbances is responsible for the considerable number of fractures in the rock mass that constitutes the summit of the fire damaged area. The detritus produced by these fractures is clearly responsible for the flows of lava deposits which converge on the edges the water courses and run‐offs covering the steep slopes of the Dolomites.

Some 30 hectares of the area affected by the fire belonged to privates, whilst approx. 347 hectares belonged to the Local Council and who were operating an economic programme for woodland/pasturage properties that is still in place.. The fire damaged stands contained for the most part resinous species such as Black Pine (65%) Mugo pine (20%) and Scots Pine (5%). The forest composition was represented by high mountain Beech forest mixed with Black pine and Scots pine. The remaining vegetation has been planted in accordance with the current economic plan; in the fire area there are different forest formations:

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme4 events

A) the distribution pattern of thermophilic Beech forest simple and irregular, alpine coppicing systems in the north of the Zuc de Santins made up of beech standard trees with a medium trunk diameter about and some local examples of older full moreover the density of coverage is variable with some sparse areas; B) thermophilic beech coppices with hornbeams and pine stands of black pine to the South of the Zuc Di Satins. In the lower areas there was an agamic coppice on Xerand type soil mixed with hornbeam and Manna ash whilst the more northern part showed increased percentages of irregularly distributed scots pine and black pine; C) the middle part of the South‐Eastern slope of Monte Bruso is characterised by the irregular presence of rock faces and very steep slopes containing populations mainly of black pine and scots pine furthermore there are frequent and extensive grassy clearings. The Southern edge of the fire extended to the forest track connecting ‘Tramonti Di Sotto to Comesta‐Tamar’ but no detectable forestry works of a preventive or maintenance nature had been carried out. The current economic plan, given the Xerandic nature of the of the soil, has resulted in forest growth patterns that are outdated from a technological standpoint and do not afford any commercial use in the strict sense of the word and favour uncontrolled growth. The area concerned is mainly for timber production even though in the past coppicing was practised which created an irregular forest structure. The pine stands and the northern zones have not been used for over 50 years despite the economic plan which favours limited areas of planting activity in order to promote low growing forest plant life, especially where beech and pine co‐exist. The Economic Plan envisages an upgrade from a natural history perspective as a result of improving the forest tracks which lead to the various scattered but abandoned hamlets of the area.

Fig. 1 Friuli Venezia Giulia Region, NUTS3 Fig. 2 Typical landscape of the burned area

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme5 events

Fig. 3 Friuli Venezia Giulia Region: Forests and Forest Services

Ecology and economy of the event

Event description

The area affected by the fire is included in the ‘red alert’ ( i.e. maximum danger level) zone in the current Economic Plan for protection of our forest heritage from fire damage. During the periods of maximum, as defined in current procedures, continuous patrols are carried out by the regional forestry corps. Each establishment has at its disposal fire fighting equipment to match the potential demands of the territory in which they operate. Each year a campaign to inform the general public about the dangers of forest fires is launched with big headlines in the press and broadcast on local and regional television stations. From a meteorological point of view – as evidenced by the ‘ Regional weather reports Friuli‐Venezia‐Giulia’ produced every month by the ARPA‐OSMER FVG – March ( 2012) began with an anticyclone over the alpine area which raised temperatures on the plains to some 20°C ‐ in the mountains 15°C was recorded at up to 1,500 m above sea level. The cold fronts experienced in the first half of the month did not serve to mitigate the drought conditions in evidence despite having resulted in a drop in temperatures to levels approaching the seasonal averages.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme6 events

Around the 18th of March the cold winds coming off the Atlantic weakened the anticyclone with a trough which on the following day brought wet winds from the south west to the region which caused widespread showers on the pre‐alpine foothills. However, these showers did not affect the area where the fire broke out. From the 20th of March the anticyclone returned over Italy and brought stable conditions and rising temperatures. The high pressure system continued until the 24th of March until weak depressions from both the West and the North ‐East brought relatively unstable conditions with scattered showers and storms to mountain regions. From the 26th March onwards until the end of the month an anticyclone brought north easterly winds and the return of stable conditions. The last ten days of the month were characterised by extremely high temperatures and a marked lack of rain. The Regional weather reports reveals that the month of March had record levels of intense sunshine. In terms of rainfall a reading of the data received by OSMER reveals not only that a particularly dry winter was experienced, but also that the preceding period had been extremely dry and could, to be classed as exceptional climate event. Temperatures in the month of March were some 3°C above normal, in fact, up 4°C above in the mountains.

Fig. 4 Categories and types forest management.

Fig. 5 Spread of the fire

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme7 events

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme8 events

Fig. 7 Border line of the fire area.

Fig. 8 The fire in the Spruce forets.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme9 events

Fig. 9 Firefighting operation.

Despite the lack of protective measures taken for man made structures due to the rapid spread of the fire, the fire brigades were called out in order to monitor the progress of the fire during the night. Weather changes and an increased level of humidity in the early hours of the morning served to slow down the front’s descent. In the afternoon of the 13th March local breezes caused several torching episodes and as a result of the chimney effect of caused by various water courses, flames of over 50m were observed and convection columns of some 100m were formed which gave rise to descending clouds of smoke which are an unusual phenomenon for fires in this area. At high altitudes where there is no risk to persons some phases of the fire outbreak could be considered to have been out of control. The fire broke out for the most part in inaccessible areas at high altitude where because of the steep terrain and the continuous avalanche of burning hot rocks it was impossible to intervene with operatives on the ground. The formation of new fronts was furthered by secondary outbreaks which subsequently merged with the main fronts which served to further complicate the fire fighting operations.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme10 events

Impacts

In order to calculate the damage to the forests a rapid survey was carried out which divided the area affected by the fire into three distinct categories of forest:

‐ High mountain resinous (approx. 267 hectares) ‐ High mountain broadleaf (approx 20 hectares) ‐ Mixed coniferous coppices (approx 88 hectares) Furthermore field studies were carried out in order to categorise on the basis of assessing the percentages and the costs of timber types that were lost (no. 03 for high mountain resinous, no. 01 for high mountain broadleaf, no. 02 for mixed coniferous coppices). The surveys brought to light the following damage assessments

‐ High altitiude resinous 7551 m3 ‐ Hight altitude broadleaf 587 m3 ‐ Mixed coniferous coppices 4391 m3

The distances from the forest roads of the areas affected make the standing timber value negative. As a consequence the economic damage incurred can be set as nought. Given the orographic nature of the terrain and the lack of good roads it has been decided that there are only two areas (Fig. 9) where some replanting could be considered: ‘Casa Comesta’ and ‘Casa Livignona’. The two areas cover approx. 6 hectares and fall into the coniferous coppice category (20% damaged). The value of the completely damaged timber has not been considered as this can be offset by some felling for firewood given the proximity of tracks that enable mechanised transport . As a result the only costs that have been estimated are the cost of replanting, at some 2,484 euro per hectare.

Fig. 10 The two areas where some replanting could be considered.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme11 events

Potential damage can be expected due to the increased mineral levels in the soil where it is subject to high rates of evaporation, is shallow and generally infertile. Also to be taken into consideration is future loss of tree coverage due to rock, earth and snow falls in higher areas which will lead to temporarily denuded areas. There may also be a possible reduction in bio‐diversity especially in areas where pine stands are adjacent to broadleaf stands where the natural progression towards beach coppices will be slower than usual.

Cost of helicopter procedure for the rapid intervention in high‐altitude zones not served by road. Costs by type of aircraft: ‐Canadair 11000,00 euro/hour 11.000,00; ‐Ecureil AS 305 b3 2000,00 euro/hour ; ‐Sykorsky S64 –F 13000,00 euro/hour ‐ Total estimated costs of air support approx. 650,000 euro. No injuries or deaths were reported as a result of the fire despite its duration and the heavy use of equipment and personnel. There were also no mechanical failures despite the large amount and diversity of equipment used.

Management

Postevent adopted strategies

The nature of the slopes where the fire broke out makes them particularly inaccessible with many rocky outcrops and sheer faces. A lack of road access in the forest makes it impossible to plan any forestry operations. However the replacement of lost, burnt pine stands could, as suggested by the Maniago Forestry corps, be replaced with locally and naturally prevalent broadleaf species. The same Economic Plan only envisages operations to attract tourists and to improve the ecology of the area.

Lesson Learnt The containment and final extinction of the South‐East front prevented an uncontrolled spread of the fire to an area devoid of physical barriers capable of slowing down the advance of the flames. This was entirely due to the efforts on the perimeter where there were sufficient personnel to raze the ground, removing all vegetation and thus creating a fire‐break.

The preparation by the Region for coping with forest fires was shown to be effective and included a good response to requests for help by providing personnel from outside the Province. Nonetheless, some further considerations came out of the briefing:

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme12 events

‐The need to provide the director of fire fighting (DOF) i.e the ‘comandante’ Head of the forestry station for the area with technical personnel capable of supporting him in strategic decision making. ‐The training of personnel specialised in the control of complex and dangerous fire outbreaks with sufficient professional knowledge to be able apply the procedures required to act on the decisions of the DOF. ‐The ability, in case of need, to make a timely call out to the Region’s two helicopters in the case of high altitude fires without first having to overcome objections as to cost. ‐To consider, in the context of any future contracts for the Regional air service, the utility of placing of a small helicopter at the disposal of the DOF in the event of large or complex fires. This would enable him closely and frequently to evaluate events and control the resources available. Not only would such an aircraft have a lower hourly cost than the larger machines, its use would also avoid having to take the latter away from operational duties when required by the DOF for a supervisory role. ‐The creation of decision guidelines at high level in order to support any critical decisions arrived at by the DOF or his staff on the strategies for intervention and monitoring of a fire front. ‐A training programme for the staff of the ‘Corpo Forestale Regionale’ to improve their evaluation of weather conditions and also their knowledge of the ways in which forest fires develop and behave. ‐An increase in the time spent on joint training programmes for the ‘ Forestale’ staff of the various areas. ‐Organise programmes to develop the awareness of the general public so that the idea of self‐protection is adopted in the interface zones – especially as the depopulation of mountain areas brings with it an encroachment of the forest. ‐Carry out preventative forestry activities in the zones most at risk from fire including the removal of all vegetation at the forest edge. ‐A constant and careful updating of the cableways and a careful monitoring of those no longer in use and the provision of works to remove them. ‐The adoption of indirect interventions on the fire front including the use of fire to fight fire. ‐The availability of rotating cameras equipped with special sensors for the visible spectrum and infra‐red for heat detection and other technologically advanced equipment given to the regional ‘Protezione Civile’ in the event of particularly severe fires in order to be able to gather in real time important and useful data to enable a more efficient response. All of the above presupposes the urgent approval and adoption of regional laws regarding the subject of forest fires and the consequent drawing up of a regional plan for the active prevention and response to forest fires.

Fig. 10 Burned landscape 12

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_03(I)a] Second level analysis on extreme abiotic occurrences

[St. Denis‐Chatillon, Valle d’Aosta, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 6

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 6

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 05/04/2003

- Date of extinction: 18/04/2003

- Name: St. Denis‐Chatillon

Location of the event

The event is located in the east part of Valle d’Aosta Region and the area affected by the fire (red area in Figure 1) was included in the municipalities of St. Denis and Chatillon.

The area, located between 800 and 1500 m asl, is highly vegetated with coniferous species as mainly forest type. The event affected several locations between the two municipalities. 260 ha of forest lands have been affected by the fire. A part of the area affected by the fire is classified as Site of Figure 1. Location of the event: the red circle represents the location affected by Communitary Importance (SCI) created for the fire of St. Denis‐Chatillon in 2003. the protection of the flora typical of xeric enivironment and characterised by a large number of orchid species.

List of the communities: St. Denis, Chatillon

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of the ignition point (UTM, WGS84): 387642 m E, 5067650 m N

- Site characteristics: aspect: south‐east, altitude: up to 1500 m slm, slope: steep slope (no data)

Forest types and pre‐event management: Forest of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris)

Figure 2. Detailed image of the area affected by the fire of St.Denis‐ Chatillon

Conditions of the affected area

- The conditions of the affected area coincided with the descriptions of the above sections.

- The strong wind was the principal factor contributing to the spread of the fire. The most affected forest type has been Scots Pine.

Event description

- Causes: Human causes (Burning of crop residues).

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: weather conditions measured the day (05/04/2003) of the fire by a station near the affected locations are reported in the following table:

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

Hour (pm) Temperature Relative Humidity (%) Mean wind speed (Km/h) Max wind speed (km/h) (°C)

4.00 20.00 17 21 48

5.00 19.00 12 37 58

6.00 17.10 12 32 47

7.00 16.30 14 41 58

8.00 15.10 17 42 53

9.00 14.40 20 44 61

10.00 13.60 23 43 58

- Type of fire: crown fire with both active and independent spread phases (and spotting events)

- Event timing and spatial evolution:

Saturday, April 5th, 2003: The fire started around 4 pm near a road and spread quickly upslope. After nearly 15 minutes the fire impact became severe and first protection services occurred. The wind caused the spread of the fire towards east. In few time the fire completely destroyed a large number of Pine individuals. During the evening only a part of the interested area was protected. During the evening another portion of the forest (loc. St. Evence) was destroyed.

Sunday, April 6th, 2003: only few small areas were still interested by the fire. During the evening the strong wind caused the spread of the fire in a new location leading an old house to burn. Monday , April 7th, 2003: the fire was completely controlled

Wednesday , April 9th, 2003: the operation of fire suppression continued until 1.30 pm.

Friday and Wednesday , April 14th and 18th, 2003: two small fires rose again but were quickly controlled

Impacts

‐ The fire caused large damages to the woody component with total elimination of the forest in some areas leading to hydrological problems with consequences on the protection function. These areas are in fact located on sloping terrain characterised by serpentine rocks.

‐ There were no severe consequences for people, but some houses were damaged.

- Economic losses: considering that the fire destroyed not only forests but also infrastructures the economic losses amount to several millions of euro, but no cost assessment has been published so far.

5 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events6

‐ This event could be considered extreme because a big surface of the forest has been destroyed or seriously damaged (260 ha), because of the spread speed and because the flames have dangerous active and independent characteristics.

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocol.

It mainly concerns the monitoring of weather conditions favourable to fire ignition and the patrolling of burning of crop residues activities. A risk index was evaluated by the central service for fires prevention (Nucleo Antincendi Boschivi) and the area was monitored by the local Corpo Forestale (Forestry Service of Aosta Valley).

- Risk awareness.

The risk was evaluated according to Fire Weather Index (FWI) equal to 75.

Event ongoing

The fire fighting effort involved in different stages of the fire can be summarised as: 39 fire cars (Corpo Forestale and Fire‐fighters), 3 tankers of Corpo Forestale, 1 tanker of Fire‐fighters and 7 tankers of volunteers fire‐fighters. The presence of roads facilitated the fire extinction operations with ground means. A water tank of 25000 l was installed in the fire location. Considering aerial means, 5 helicopters of civil protection and 2 helicopters of the national aerial service were used.

- Post‐event adopted strategies

The area covered by the fire has been monitored for several weeks in order to prevent new fires.

- Post‐event forest management.

Considering the soil type it was decided not to do reforestation.

6 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events7

Lesson Learnt

The spread of the fire depended on many factors:

1) orography (sloping terrain)

2) strong wind

3) type of vegetation

Unfortunately the forest fires have often human causes in the Valle d'Aosta region. The fire of St.Denis‐ Chatillon underlined the importance of the highly coordinated fire protection services on the regional territory that guarantees monitoring and fire suppression activities. In detail the patrolling prevention action (associated with the monitoring of risk weather conditions) is considered of greatest importance and it has been improved in the last years. Monitoring and patrolling activities are carried out especially in spring months, during which alpine fires are more frequents. Not only these activities but many others are considered useful to prepare the territory to effective operations of fire suppression, e.g.: recovery and installation of water reservoirs in areas where water deficit is higher and management of mountain tracks and roads in risk areas.

7 MANFRED project –Deepening on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_03(I)b] Second level analysis on extreme fires occurrences

Caralte [Perarolo di Caralte, Belluno] ‐ Veneto ‐ Italy

Authors: Rolando Rizzolo (Funzionario Servizio AIB Regione Veneto) [email protected] Eva Valese (Fire researcher at University of Padova ‐ Dep. TESAF) [email protected] Marco Pregnolato (consultant at Catholic University of Brescia) [email protected] Stefano Oliveri [email protected]

1 MANFRED project –Deepening on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 20/07/2003

- Date of extinction: 30/08/2003

- Name: the event is identified after the name of Caralte, being this the name of the closest toponym. The nearest municipality is Perarolo di Caralte, Province of Belluno.

Location of the event

The area is included in the esalpic phytoclimatic region almost completely. The highest part of this area is distinctly Alpine, with prevalence of forest plant associations typical for mountain altitudes, while at lower altitude the milder climate and the wider extension resulted in a greater urbanization and a more intense agricultural land use, with deep modification of vegetation. The higher slopes are covered by formations of noble deciduous trees, by conifers and by shrubby formations; at lower altitudes, following the regression of agricultural practices in recent decades, kenosis mainly consisting of maples and ash or esotic species have spread, while rural areas are dominated by hornbeam, chestnut and oak. The region of Dolomiti Bellunesi is characterized by diverse landscapes consisting of large high‐mountain prairies, overhanging cliffs sparsely settled by pioneer vegetation, extensive hardwood deciduous forests (mainly beech in the cooler parts, ash and hornbeam along the warmer sides or on scarcely evolved substrates) and conifers. The area of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park had no particular urban developments within it. There are small households now sparsely populated placed mostly to the valley bottom, and some huts and shelters. The area is covered with woods for more than 60% of the surface. Beech woods, Ash and Hornbeam woods and Ahs and Oaks dominate plus anthropogenic formations in the lower part, to which is to be added Mountain pines and Firs in the Dolomites.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

Ignition point coordinates: E: 1759541.07 ‐ N: 5143322.92 - West‐Northwest facing slope, about 1000 m a.s.l. rough and very steep terrain (88% slope). The forest type involved at the ignition point and most affected is an adult Scots pine formation.

Conditions of the affected area

High stand of Scots pine, mixed with Mountain Pine and European Black Pine. Beech is also present. The coniferous formation is mainly an adult irregular high stand, 60 years old tops, with a 70% cover rate. A shrub layer is present as well as a thick layer of undecomposed duff. The area is easily accessible through a forest road but the risk of rock falling was very high during the fire event. The forest in this area had mainly a protection feature and the whole area is subject to hydrogeological regulation; the area falls also within a SCI (92/43/EEC).

Event description

The event was localized in a mountainous area and affected a whole mountainside. The site is very steep and impracticable, with a high risk of rock falling. The fire was originated by a thunder, started from a mid elevation along the hillside and developed until the mountaintop. Altitude ranged from 700 m to 1600 m. The overall burnt area was eventually about 37 ha. The fire started on July the 20th, 2003 due to a thunder (therefore for natural causes) and lasted until August the 25th, burning for about 37 days; this is why the event is considered extreme. Causes: natural (thunder).

Meteorological conditions: Wind intensity had been very variable, but very strong in the beginning, thus spreading the fire around quickly. At the time of the first intervention, the wind was, on the way around, almost completely absent and the persistent smoke created great difficulties to aerial firefighting means. Stack effect was particularly strong into vertical gorges, creating danger for aerial means. A prolonged drought was ongoing since the month of May 2003. Type of fire: underground, surface and crown fire; single hotbed. Event timing and spatial evolution: the event is particularly remarkable because of the very long time burning (about 40 days). Especially the underground fire had kept on burning, limited but never extinguished by the firefighting efforts. The fire was considered over on August the 25th, while the operation was finished on August the 30th, in order to make sure no sub‐superficial hotbeds were left.

Impacts The event had a highly significant socio‐economical impact (on local economy, mainly driven by tourism) mainly because of the exceptional duration and the heavy smoke released that lingered in the valley for such a long time. The fire fighting operation which lasted for the whole period tried to control the development of the smoke veil, but couldn’t really stop the underground fire.

Management

Event ongoing

As previously stated the area would be easily accessible through a forest road but the risk of rock falling was very high during the fire event, thus making ground firefighting operations impossible. On the other hand the great wind variability created difficulties to aerial means. Furthermore the sub‐superficial activity of the fire was particularly hard to fight. Developed manpower: 139 working days by Regional regular staff, plus 168 working days by firefighting volunteers.

Aerial means: - 3 Canadair airplanes (24,5 hours);

- 1 heavy helicopter S64 (14 hours);

- 2 light helicopters (259 hours).

Postevent adopted strategies No emergency or extraordinary forest management has been planned by the local authorities so far (Forestry Regional Service, SFR).

Lesson Learnt The event had lasted for a very long time, stressing the importance of having a number of proficient personnel members large enough to ensure covering all the operations at any time and a reasonable turnover during the days. Moreover, it gets more and more important to have an efficient coordination of the activities of regional staff, State Forestry Corps, volunteers and Fire Brigadiers. For the same purpose, it is important to improve the communication skills and means between ground staff and aerial staff (using GPS and up‐to‐date communication tools such as UMTS and MMS). The event, though never really dangerous for the population, had a big impact through the media: that suggests that such events also need some communication strategy in order to keep the population and the media correctly informed and to have an optimized economical management of the event itself.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_03(I)c] Second level analysis on extreme biotic occurrences

[Bussoleno‐Chianocco]

Author: Davide Ascoli, Dep. Agroselviter, University of Torino (IT)

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 3

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 6

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 7

Lesson Learnt ...... 7

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 29/08/03

- Date of extinction: 07/09/03

- Name: Bussoleno‐Chianocco Location of the event

The area is located at the western limits of the Piemonte Region, in the Susa valley, District of Torino, in the Alpi Cozie. Main forest types are chestnut, up to a quote of 1200 m a.s.l., and beech, from 1200 m to 1600 m a.s.l. The main forest management is coppice carried out by owners (mainly private) and local firms. Old coppices are converted to high stands, mainly in public land and with public fund. Grazing is still conducted but it is less extensive in comparison with the past, consequently pastures have been abandoned with important consequences for vegetation fuels build‐up and forest connectivity at the landscape scale.

List of the communities: Piemonte Region; District of Torino; Municipalities of Bussoleno and Chianocco. Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of ignition point (UTM WGS84: 353,746.271 5,001,224.147 m);

- Site characteristics: aspect: south; height: 547 m; remarks on morphology: gentle slope; forest type: pasture; pre‐event management: grazing; property: private.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Conditions of the affected area

- Site characteristics: the climate in the area is continental with a mean annual precipitation of 750 mm (series 1991‐2008). The affected area is part of a water catchment which develop from 500 m to an altitude 1896 m a.s.l. Pastures, oak and chestnut stands cover southern slopes up to 1200 m a.s.l. and beech from 1200 m up to 1850 m a.s.l. cover all aspects within the water catchment mixing with larch and Scots pine.

- Affected forest types and extension: beech (258.7 ha); maple (69.8 ha); oak (44.0 ha); pastures (38.9 ha); abandoned agricultural land (46.4 ha); others (26.1);

o Most affected forest types: beech;

o Pre‐event management: old coppice;

o Forest and brushwood conditions: pastures were long unburnt (15‐20 yrs); beech forest was mainly constituted by old coppice (~55 yrs old) with an average of 1567 stems ha‐1, and a mean diameter, basal area and volume of 21.7 cm, 52.4 m‐2 ha‐1, 651 m‐3 ha‐1, respectively.

o Property: public and private;

Event description

- Cause: anthropic.

- Consideration about meteorological conditions (for Risk Indexes see Arpa – Regione Piemonte): the heatwave in summer 2003 which affected Central Europe interested also this mountainous area causing a prolonged drought. Considering a period of 1 month before the fire event, the average‐max‐min air temperatures1 at the ignition site were 25, 33, 18°C, respectively. The cumulated precipitation was 11.6 mm. The ignition day (29/08) the average air moisture was below 60%; during the following days it progressively decreased to the lower level of 30%, and only the 03/09 it raised above 60%. This pattern was mainly determined by strong winds from North‐West (Foehn wind) with frequent gusts ranging from 30 to 40 km hr‐1 up to the 02/08.

- Type of fire: the fire was mainly a surface fire in broadleaved litter fuels, with a rate of spread in the head fire phases ranging from 5 to 25 m min‐1 and a flame length from 0.5 to 5 m.

- Event timing and spatial evolution: according to the CFS report the fire started the night of the 29/08 and after an initial control the 30/08 morning, probably as a consequence of a spot fire, the fire passed the Rio Moletto and started a new run towards Est pushed by the strong Foehn wind

1 Data are from the Borgone weather station, 7 km apart from the site, positioned at a quote of 400 m a.s.l.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

(~25 km hr‐1, with gusts up to 40 km hr‐1) coming from West; the afternoon of the same day a secondary head entered in the Comba delle Foglie valley and assumed the character of a topographic fire, while the main front continued its run toward Est.

The morning 31/08 it passed the Colletto ridge entering in the Municiplaity of Chianocco. The night of the 31/08 until the 2/09 backfires were moving downslope both on the Chianocco and Bussoleno side until the. Mop up operation lasted up to the 7/09. Fire propagation was simulated, after fuel model calibration, using Wildfire Analyst (Tecnosylva Sl 2011). The main fire paths of the fire front are evidenced with black lines in the figure. Simulated fire behaviour descriptors ranged between 0.5‐4 m in flame

‐1 length, 0.5 to 20 m min in rate of spread and 50 ‐1 to 4000 kW m in fireline intensity. Spot fires Figure Simulation with Wildfire Analyst. Contour lines were observed (red asterisk in the figure). are the position of the fire front every 2 hours from the spot fire (red asterisk).

Impacts (see chart p. 5)

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised:

The prevailing function of the forest is general protection and direct protection from rock‐fall, which has been partially compromised in high fire severity areas (complete mortality of the stand). The second important function is the productive one for local communities. Salvage logging (see the “Management” section) allowed to recover part of the wood stock. Finally, the recreational function in high fire severity areas have been highly compromised being almost impossible to access due to the high amount of coarse woody debris. In low fire severity areas it is not secure to walk trough the forest anyway because of branch fall and progressive stem upset beech individuals which have been damaged.

- Which are the human consequences (casualties, etc.)?

No casualties occurred, neither during the fire fighting operation, nor during the post‐fire management interventions.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

A report written by the Corpo Forestale dello Stato (CFS; State Forestry Corp) estimates cost expressed as economical losses related to the value of the forest affected by the fire of about 1,115,000.00 euros. The fire fighting effort involved several teams of the Corpo Volontari Antincendi Boschivi of the Piemonte Region, and personnel of the CFS, for a total of 364 of man‐ day labour. As regard ground means, 20 ground tankers‐days and 12 fire trucks‐days were computed; aerial means were 1 Canadair CL4152 which worked for 3 days from the 31/08 to the 02/09, 1 helicopter of the Piemonte Region and 1 helicopter AB 206 of the Vigili del Fuoco Corp (Data Source: CFS report). An analytical computation of costs based on above mentioned statistics and prices used by the CFS for the year 2003 results in ~450,000.00 euro.

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

It is one of the largest wildfire occurred in last 10 years in Italian Alps. It is in correspondence of the summer heatwave in 2003, which several studies classify as an extreme climate event probably related to climate changes. No similar summer fire have been documented in beech forests in this region before, consequently such a fire event should be considered as an indicator of a possible changing fire regime in the Alps.

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocols: patrolling. - Risk awareness: the Forest Fire Management Plan of the Piemonte Region (2003‐2006) set the risk level for the Municipalities of Bussoleno and Chianocco both equal to 3/7 (Medium risk). During the summer 2003, both in July and at the beginning of August, several wildfires had already affected forests in neighboring areas, consequently the risk awareness was high. Nevertheless, despite periodical winter wildfires in the area have been reported for the XX sec., they rarely entered in the beech forest on north facing slopes. Thus, the wildfire propagation in summer in the beech forest showed an unexpected fire behaviour. Event ongoing

- Fire fighting strategy and efforts: the initial propagation of the fire front was promptly contained the night of the 29/08. Nevertheless the following morning, probably as a consequence of a spot

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

ignition, the fire started a new run towards Est pushed by the strong wind coming from West which made impossible to control the fire front. In this phase the fire fighting strategy consisted in prioritizing the protection of the wildland‐urban interface along the fire‐front run towards Est which was going to affect several built‐up areas such as Argiassera, Lorano, Richettera. In subsequent phases the road system was secured but the intensity and spread of the fire did not allowed to intervene on steep slopes. Aerial means were also limited by the strong wind. As weather changed towards milder conditions, from the 02/09 teams successfully controlled the fire front on the East and West sides while on the North the fire ended its run at the top of the mountain. Mop up operation lasted up to the 7/09. No parallel attack or backfire operations have been reported (Data Source: CFS report and interviews to fire operators).

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management: the Municipality of Chianocco in 2004 approved a post‐fire management plan on low fire severity areas within its properties. The intervention area was 22.1 ha, at an altitude from 1,050 to 1,400 m a.s.l. The area was subdivided in 6 blocks which were assigned for cutting to private citizens, to the Forest Management Consortium of the Susa Valley and to a private firm. Cutting prescriptions recommended the salvage logging in winter of all dead and highly damaged trees which were tagged in summer 2004. The harvesting operations started in winter 2005 and lasted up to winter 2010 according to the easiness of access and to the allottee of the cutting. No post‐fire management interventions were carried out in high fire severity areas because of difficult accessibility.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: according to the estimates of the CFS from 2004 to 2010 a total of 37,263 quintals of wood destined to fire‐wood were cut and sell for a comprehensive cost of 28,186 euro. The cost per quintal decreased from the first cut in 2004‐05, about 1.27 euro/quintal to 0.38 euro/quintal in 2010.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored: snow creep; wind damages. Lesson Learnt As regard post‐fire management, in several Alpine regions salvage harvesting of dead and decaying trees is often suggested to optimize timber value and to reduce the risk of insect infestation, hazardous fuel accumulation and damages to soil and vegetation resulting from the shift of logs on steep slopes favoured by snow creep. Furthermore, after events such as the Bussoleno‐Chianocco fire there is a strong political pressure for active management interventions as soon as possible after the fire as a consequence of local

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

population demand. On the top of this, forest managers must account for financial restrictions, characteristics of harvesting firms, and consider complex and interacting issues such as biodiversity, the protection function and the recreational value of forests. All these factors influence the decision making process, and it can happen to not take into account fundamental ecological traits of forest species which could help to manage the forest succession dynamics and obtain multiple objectives. In the case of beech, in order to enhance seed germination and seedling establishment, post‐fire management interventions should consider processes of regeneration ecology observed and studied at experimental sites in Bussoleno and Chianocco. For example, post‐fire treatments should reflect: 1) timing of masting; 2) the cutting after the masting (1 yr) should stimulate with a single intervention, both seed germination of beech and resprouting of pioneer species, above all in areas with less residual canopy cover, to allow beech to grow under the pioneer species foliage (Ascoli et al. 2011); 3) excessive delay of post‐fire harvesting (> 6 years) it is technically difficult and may have an adverse impact on established beech saplings and reset the regeneration dynamic; 4) due to the delayed and progressive mortality of injured beech individuals (Conedera et al. 2010), marking of individuals for felling should be short before the harvesting; 5) salvage logging should extract most of the woody debris to reduce hazardous fuels accumulation and the shift of logs, but the cutting should leave some fraction of the injured beech trees and canopy cover to serve as general and direct protection, seed sources, and maintain, once they will upset, some flux of woody debris within the system; 6) the common practice of extending salvage logging over several years, i.e., coinciding with progressive mortality and tree fall, should be avoided; 7) cutting should leave most of the surviving larch and pine trees, as a seed source, because they contribute to stand fire resistance, and in consideration of their important role in direct protection on steep slopes.

References

Ascoli D., Valsecchi C., Conedera M., Bovio G. (2011). Wildfires and beech forests of Southern Alps during the summer 2003 climate anomaly: fire effects and post‐fire management. In “Proceedings of the V Int. Wildland Fire Conference, Sun City, South Africa, 9‐14 May 2011”.

Conedera M., Lucini L., Valese E., Ascoli D., Pezzatti G.B. (2010). Fire resistance and vegetative recruitment ability of different deciduous trees species after low‐ to moderate‐intensity surface fires in southern Switzerland. In: Viegas, D.X. (ed) VI Int. Conf. on Forest Fire Research, 15‐18 Nov. 2010, Coimbra, PT. ISBN 9789892021577.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_03(I)d] Second level analysis on extreme biotic occurrences

[Valdieri‐Demonte]

Author: Davide Ascoli, Dep. Agroselviter, University of Torino (IT)

Acknowledgements: the fire front propagation timing and spatial evolution have been provided by Pirone S., Corpo Volontari Antincendi Boschivi, Regione Piemonte.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 3

Conditions of the affected area ...... 3

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 6

Management ...... 7

Pre‐event ...... 7

Event ongoing ...... 7

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 7

Lesson Learnt ...... 8

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 28/08/03

- Date of extinction: 07/09/03

- Name: Valdieri‐Demonte Location of the event

The area is located at the southern limits of the Piemonte Region, in the Gesso and Stura valleys, District of Cuneo, at the border of the Alpi Marittime Regional Park. Main forest types are chestnut, up to a quote of 1200 m a.s.l., and beech, from 1200 m to 1600 m a.s.l. Coppice is the main forest management system, which is carried out by owners (mainly private) and local firms. Old coppices are converted to high stands, mainly in public land and with public fund. Grazing is less extensive in comparison with the past; pastures abandoning has important consequences for vegetation fuels build‐up and forest connectivity at the landscape scale.

List of the communities: Piemonte Region; District of Cuneo; Municipalities of Valdieri and Demonte. Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of ignition point (UTM WGS84: 368,504.302 4,902,507.709 m); toponym: Cava di S. Lorenzo (Desertetto).

- Site characteristics: aspect: south; height: 857 m; morphology: slope 30°; forest type: tall grass and small shrubs; pre‐event management: grazing; property: private.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Conditions of the affected area

- Site characteristics: the climate in the area is continental with a mean annual precipitation of 1383 mm (series 1993‐2008). The affected area is part of a mountain range which develop from 800 to 1800 m a.s.l. The mountain ridge direction is NW‐SE and divide the Gesso and the Stura valleys. Pastures and isolated beech stands cover slopes at East and South, chestnut and beech cover Western slopes up to 1200 m a.s.l. and from 1200 m up to 1750 m a.s.l., respectively, while at North beech is the main forest type.

- The total burnt area was 1075 ha (Source: Regione Piemonte). Affected forest types and extension are: beech (448 ha); pastures (417 ha); chestnut (57.6 ha); conifer plantations (34.1 ha); shrubs (28.7); maple (27.9 ha); oak (22.7 ha); others (123.7).

o Most affected forest type: beech.

o Pre‐event management: old coppice.

o Forest and brushwood conditions: pasture at southern slopes were long unburnt (i.e. 10‐15 yrs); beech forest was mainly constituted by old coppice (~90 yrs old) with an average of 680 stems ha‐1, and a mean diameter, basal area and volume of 26.6 cm, 34.7 m‐2 ha‐1, 469 m‐3 ha‐1, respectively.

o Property: public and private.

Event description

- Cause: anthropic.

- Consideration about meteorological conditions (for Risk Indexes see Arpa – Regione Piemonte): the heatwave in summer 2003 which affected Central Europe interested also this mountainous area causing a prolonged drought. Considering a period of 1 month before the fire event, the average‐max‐min air temperatures1 at the site were 20, 27, 12°C, respectively. The cumulated precipitation was 38 mm. The ignition day (28/08) the average air moisture was below 50%; during the following days it progressively decreased to the lower level of 33%, and only the 1/09 it raised above 70%. This pattern was mainly determined by strong winds, initially from South, South‐East (the 28/08 evening and 29/08 night), with gusts up to 80 km hr‐1, and later from North‐West (Foehn wind) with frequent gusts ranging from 30 to 80 km hr‐1 up to the 31/08.

1 Data are from the Terme di Valdieri weather station, 12 km apart from the site, positioned at a quote of 1390 m a.s.l.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

- Type of fire: the fire was mainly a surface fire in grass, low shrub and broadleaved‐conifer litter fuels, with a rate of spread in the head fire phases ranging from 5 to 25 m min‐1 and a flame length from 0.5 to 3 m. In conifer plantations torching and crown fire behaviour were observed.

- Event timing and spatial evolution: i) The fire started at 21.30 of the 28/09. Despite the night hour, the wildfire propagation towards the mountain ridge in North direction was fast because of the meteo situation and the alignment of determinant forces (southern aspect, upwind, steep slope, grass fuel); ii) the 29/08 morning the fire front had already reached the mountain ridge between the Gesso and Stura valleys; subsequently, the change in wind direction from North‐West enlarged the fire towards the East side; iii) for all over the 29/08 the fire front propagated at East affecting the beech and chestnut stands and the conifer plantation within the Municipality of Valdieri, while it did not passed the ridge because of the opposing wind coming from North; iv) the 30/08 morning the fire front passed the ridge and started to spread downslope and against the wind along the North facing slopes of the Stura valley; v) the fire front propagated downslope within the Municipality of Demonte up to the 7/09.

2 3 1

Note: modified from the wildfire report of Pirone S., Corpo Volontari Anrincendi Boschivi, Reg. Piemonte.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

Impacts (see chart p. 5)

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

The prevailing function of the forest is the direct protection from avalanches, which has been compromised in high fire severity areas (complete mortality of the stand). The second important function is the productive one for local communities. Salvage logging (see the “Management” section) allowed to recover part of the wood stock. Finally, the recreational function have been compromised to some extent being less secure walking trough the forest, both in low and high fire severity areas, because of branch fall and progressive stem upset of damaged beech individuals.

- Which are the human consequences (casualties, etc.)?

No casualties have occurred, neither during the fire fighting operation, nor during the post‐fire management interventions.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

No cost assessment has been published so far. The fire fighting effort involved 46 teams of the Corpo Volontari Antincendi Boschivi of the Piemonte Region, and personnel of the Corpo Forestale dello Stato, for a total of 546 of man‐day labour. As regard ground means, 82 ground tankers‐days and 22 fire trucks‐days were computed; aerial means were 1 Canadair CL4152 which worked for 2 hours the 29/08, 2 Erickson Helitanker S64 the 01/09 and 2 helicopters Ecureuil AS350B (helibucket of 700 l) from the 29/08 to the 02/09 (Data Source: Pirone S.). An analytical computation of costs based on above mentioned statistics and prices used by the Corpo Forestale dello Stato for the year 2003 results in ~500,000.00 euro.

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

It is the largest wildfire occurred in last 10 years in Italian Alps. It is in correspondence of the summer heatwave in 2003, which several studies classify as an extreme climate event probably related to climate changes. No similar summer fire events have been documented in beech forests in this region, consequently such a fire event should be considered as an indicator of a possible changing fire regime in the Alps.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocols: mainly patrolling. - Risk awareness: the Forest Fire Management Plan of the Piemonte Region (2003‐2006) set the risk level for the Municipality of Valdieri equal to 3/7 (Medium risk), while for Demonte was 6/7 (high risk). During the summer 2003, both in July and at the beginning of August, several wildfires had already affected forests in neighboring areas, consequently the risk awareness was high. Nevertheless, despite periodical winter wildfires in the area have been reported for the XX sec., they usually affected Southern slopes of the mountain range between Gesso and Stura valleys, and rarely entered in the beech forest on North facing slopes. Thus, the wildfire propagation in summer in the beech forest showed an unexpected fire behaviour. Event ongoing

- Fire fighting strategy and efforts: the fire fighting strategy consisted in prioritizing the protection of the wildland‐urban interface along the Southern fire‐front which was going to affect several built‐ up areas along the Desertetto valley. West and East flanks were initially contained by direct attack, but the strong wind coming from North‐West made impossible to control the fire front. In subsequent phases the road system was secured but the intensity and spread of the fire did not allowed to intervene on steep slopes. Aerial means were also limited by the strong wind. As weather changed towards milder conditions, from the 01/09 teams successfully controlled the fire front on the East and West sides while mop‐up operations on the North side lasted up to the 07/09. No parallel attack or backfire operations have been reported (Data Source: Pirone S.).

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management: several post‐fire forest management interventions have been carried out along years. From 2005 to 2009, the Municipalities of Valdieri and Demonte assigned several blocks to private citizens or local firms for fire wood. Cutting prescriptions were for winter salvage logging of all dead and highly damaged trees most of which were tagged in 2004. In some blocks the practice of extending salvage logging over several years (i.e., coinciding with progressive mortality and stem fall of beech), affected natural regeneration exposing slopes to soil loss. The immediate harvesting of beech over surfaces up to 5 ha, together with the release of few individuals, favored pioneer species and in some areas Rubus sp. From 2009 to 2011 several post‐fire management program started. Within the frame of an Interreg project about protection forests (partners: Reg. Piemonte, Reg. Val d’Aosta, IPLA‐Piemonte, Dep.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

Agroselviter‐Univ. of Torino) an experimental site (6 ha) was set in the Municipality of Valdieri, and different silvicultural treatments were designed and carried out according to local fire severity. Simultaneously, with funds of the Rural Development Plan 2007‐2013, a larger post‐fire management site (~70 ha) was set in both Municipalities. The executive project was designed by SEAcoop and was carried out by the Consorzio Forestale del Canavese under the SEAcoop direction, and included the felling of remaining standing trees in high severity areas on steep slopes, and the realization of snow barriers using logs and harvested snags fixed on tree stumps. In the absence of natural regeneration the tree planting below barriers was made according to a clustered scheme and a mixture of site adapted forest species.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: the intervention cost was ~250,000 euro.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored: mainly snow creep. Lesson Learnt As regard post‐fire management, in several Alpine regions salvage harvesting of dead and decaying trees is often suggested to optimize timber value and to reduce the risk of insect infestation, hazardous fuel accumulation and damages to soil and vegetation resulting from the shift of logs on steep slopes favoured by snow creep. Furthermore, after events such as the Valdieri‐Demonte fire there is a strong political pressure for active management interventions as soon as possible after the fire as a consequence of local population demand. On the top of this, forest managers must account for financial restrictions, characteristics of harvesting firms, and consider complex and interacting issues such as biodiversity, the protection function and the recreational value of forests. All these factors influence the decision making process, and it can happen to not take into account fundamental ecological traits of forest species which could help to manage the forest succession dynam and obtain multiple objectives. In the case of beech, in order to enhance seed germination and seedling establishment, post‐fire management interventions should consider processes of regeneration ecology observed and studied at experimental sites in Valdieri and Demonte. For example, post‐fire treatments should reflect: 1) timing of masting; 2) the cutting after the masting (1 yr) should stimulate with a single intervention, both seed germination of beech and resprouting of pioneer species, above all in areas with less residual canopy cover, to allow beech to grow under the pioneer species foliage; 3) excessive delay of post‐fire harvesting (> 6 years) it is technically difficult and may have an adverse impact on established beech saplings and reset the regeneration dynamic; 4) due to the delayed and progressive mortality of injured beech individuals, marking of individuals for felling should be short before the harvesting; 5) salvage logging should extract most of the woody debris to reduce hazardous fuels accumulation and the shift of logs, but the

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 9

cutting should leave some fraction of the injured beech trees and canopy cover to serve as general and direct protection, seed sources, and maintain, once they will upset, some flux of woody debris within the system; 6) the common practice of extending salvage logging over several years, i.e., coinciding with progressive mortality and tree fall, should be avoided; 7) cutting should leave most of the surviving larch and pine trees, as a seed source, because they contribute to stand fire resistance, and in consideration of their important role in direct protection on steep slopes.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_05(I)] Second level analysis on extreme abiotic occurrences

[Genova‐Pegli, Liguria, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 4

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 15/02/2005

- Date of extinction: 19/02/2005

- Name: Genova Pegli Location of the event

The event was located in the middle‐east part of Liguria Region and the area affected by the fire (red area in Figure 1) was included in the municipality of Genova (Pegli). The event was classified as a urban‐forest interface fire since the affected area was in part urbanised and in part vegetated: the fire extended from the forested hills to the city of Genova through a narrow territory. The climate, the morphology of the territory and the strong winds typical of this Italian Figure 1. Location of the event: the red area is the location affected by the fire of Genova‐Pegli in 2005. The boundaries represent the limits of Region often gives raise to this kind of urban‐ Liguria's provinces forest fires. Indeed the narrow morphology of the area is a mixture of highly urbanised and vegetated areas. Main vegetation types of the affected area are coniferous forests and some broad‐leaf species. The fire destroyed overall 1917 ha of which 578 ha of uncultivated lands and almost 1539 ha of forest lands. 66% of the burnt surface is private owned while the 34% is public owned.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of the ignition point (UTM, WGS84): 484385 m E 4921858 m N

- Site characteristics: aspect: east, south‐east, south, south‐west, altitude: from nearly 100 m asl to nearly 300 m asl , morphology: hilly terrain with very steep slopes (around 30°)

- Forest types and pre‐event management: coniferous forest (e.g. European Black Pine, Pinus nigra) and some deciduous species (Castanea sativa, Ostrya carpinifolia, Figure 2. Detailed image of the area affected by the fire of Genova Pegli. The red area represents an approximation of Quercus pubescens). Various types of management, high the real affected surface. forests stands and also coppice.

Conditions of the affected area

‐ The conditions of the affected area coincided with the descriptions of the above sections.

‐ The lack of roads, the large water deficit, the difficult terrain contributed to the spread of the fire.

Event description

‐ Causes: Human causes (arson)

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: the period before the fire was characterized by severe drought. winter months in Liguria are among the driest periods of the year. The day of the fire a strong wind was raised making difficult helicopter flights

- Type of fire: surface fire and crown fire

Impacts

‐ The prevailing forest function compromised by the fire of the forest is the protection (risk of hydrological instability). The second important compromised function is the landscape.

‐ There were no particular human consequences.

- Economic losses: economic losses of this event are difficult to be estimated and no cost assessment has never been published.

‐ This event could be considered extreme in relation to the wide forest area that has been destroyed or seriously damaged (2150 ha).

Management

Preevent

Operative prevention protocols: the risk of ignition in vegetated areas is evaluated daily over all the regional territory by a system that joins information on meteorological conditions with ecological features and produces scenarios of risk to be send to protection services (regional civil protection, fire‐fighters, volunteers)

- Risk awareness the risk level for the fire event was high

Event ongoing

- During the fire have occurred: 1) 70 rangers 2) 264 fire‐fighters 3) 253 volunteers and the following means were used 4) 28 fire cars 5) 3 canadair 6) 7 helicopters

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event (or planned) forest management: the area covered by the fire has been monitored for several days in order to prevent new fires.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation It was decided not to do reforestation works.

Lesson Learnt The spread of the fire has depended on many factors:

1) type of vegetation

2) presence of wind

3) drought

4) presence/absence of roads

5) organizational system to extinguish fire

6) means available.

In detail events such as that of Genova‐Pegli, developed in presence of particular climatic and environmental conditions, are difficult to manage and to quickly extinguish; nevertheless during the last years the reduction of the impacts trend is generally in progress. The prevention system has been improved, volunteers are better formed and people are informed on the value of preserve natural resources.

Finally the awareness that the problematic in Liguria is mainly due to particular climatic, vegetation and urban features has lead to the improvement of synergies between authorities, institutions, protection services and volunteers.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_06(SLO)] Second level analysis on extreme fire occurrences

SLOVENIA (Karst area) ‐ fire Šumka

Authors: Slovenian Forestry Institute; Večna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana Laura Žižek Kulovec Mitja Skudnik ([email protected])

Slovenian Forestry Service; Večna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana Boštjan Košiček ([email protected]) Marija Kolšek ([email protected])

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3 Location of the event ...... 3 Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4 Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4 Conditions of the affected area ...... 5 Event description ...... 5 Impacts ...... 7 Management ...... 8 Pre‐event ...... 8 Event ongoing ...... 8 Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 9 Lesson Learnt ...... 10

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 21. July 2006 (at 17:05) - Date of extinction: 26. July 2006 - Name: Fire Šumka at Karst

Location of the event

Area is located in west part of Slovenia, in the Karst region. This area was in 19th century almost completely bare land, because of long use of wood (heating, construction) and pasture. Only Austrian pine (Pinus nigraArn.) was successful enough in reforestation of this harsh environment. On the presented area are mostly high stands of Austrian pine (Pinus nigraArn.) and coppice of broadleaves (Ostrya carpinifolia Scop., Quercus sp.). (Source: SFS report)

City’s or towns that are nearby are Sežana, Nova Gorica, Branik, Škrbina, Trstelj, Komen

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

Location of the ignition point WGS 84:E: 13° 46' 29,39"; N: 45° 50' 39,01" Aspect: southeast, SE (150°‐ 160 °) Height: ~ 300 m Morphology: base of the hill Veliki hrib, slope of the hill

- Forest types and pre‐event management: High forest stands of Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arn.) with oak (Quercus sp.) and broadleaves (Ostrya carpinifolia Scop.).

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

Conditions of the affected area - Site characteristics (if different from ignition point conditions): Site characteristics are quite the same in whole affected area. The forests covering the area are surprisingly in good quality for this harsh environment and poor conditions (shallow ground).

- Forest types and pre‐event management (if different from ignition point conditions): High forest stands of Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arn.) with oak (Quercus sp.) and broadleaves (Ostrya carpinifolia Scop.). The whole burned area was 950 ha, of which 707 ha of forests. 82 % of forests are in private property, the rest (18%) is public property (country or municipalities). (Source: SFS report)

Event description - Causes The cause of ignition is unknown. The ignition point was at the road Komen‐Branik, so it can be assumed that the ignition was a consequence of human activity.

- Consideration about meteorological conditions (values of Risk Indexes, if available) At the time of ignition (July 21, 2006), the meteorological conditions were almost ideal for fire. More than 40 days was from last (worth mentioning) rain. In last two months fell only 9 ‐ 29 litre of rain (6‐12 % of average rainfall in that time of year). Meteorological data for nearest weather station (July 20, 2006, 12:00) was: - temperature: 35.7 °C - atmospheric pressure: 1006.3 mb - wind (speed, direction): 1.3 km/h (0.4 m/s), S - relative humidity: 19 % - insolation: 805.8 W/m2 From 20th of July 2006 ‘very high risk of fire in natural environment’ was declared.

- Type of fire Ground fire affected 40 % of the area (cca. 283 ha) and crown fire affected 60 % of the area (cca. 424 ha). (data by SFS)

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

- Event timing and spatial evolution? Friday, July 21, 2006: Fire started around 5 pm near road Komen – Miren. Fire fighters from professional fire unit Nova Gorica and voluntary fire fighters from 9 local units were sent to the fire site. At the same time, a few other fires in vicinity (~ 20 km) were in progress. Some of the fire fighters, who were already at the scene (fire Šumka), respond to their local fire sites. On the left edge of fire Šumka was not enough man power and with wind (SW), fire spread to W, SW and up the hill Šumka.

Saturday, July 22, 2006: During the day more than 200 firefighters on ground and with help of helicopters fought the fire Šumka. In the evening some units from central part of Slovenia came to help. Helicopters of Ministry of defense, Slovenian armed forces (bell, cougar), planes (canadair) and helicopters (sikorsky) from Italy were at scene. Unfortunately, at use of ‘counter fire’, the fire got out of control (lack of firefighters and not enough water) and fire spread even more. By the evening 420 ha were affected.

Sunday, July 23, 2006: Fire suppression continued during the night and in the morning with new teams. More than 400 firefighters were at site. In the afternoon, very fast spread of the fire to the north happened up the hill Lipnik (north of village Škrbina) and in the evening (around 10pm) the fire spread also to hills nearby, because of the wind, which was constantly changing direction. The fire was getting closer to the villages (Škrbina, Šibelji), so the firefighting units were sent to preventively wet surrounding area of the road and buildings. At the end of the day, 890 ha were affected.

Monday, July 24, 2006: Because of strong wind, fire “jumped” and vegetation on the hill Trstelj started to burn. The “fire jump” was more than 300 m long across the road Lipa – Dornberk. In the evening, the fire was under control.

Tuesday, July 25, 2006: A survey from air was done; some spots of ignition at the edges of burnt site were seen and extinguished.

Wednesday, July 26, 2006: The burnt areas were observed. It also started to rain in the afternoon. It was officially announced that the fire was extinguished in the afternoon. Some units stayed to control the burn site.

Thursday, July 27, 2006: The burnt site was still observed. The intervention was finished in the afternoon.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

http://www.pgdkomen.si/dokumenti/Katastrofalen_pozar_SUNKA_2006.pdf (by Slovenia Forest Service)

Impacts - Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised? With the fire, the functions of forest were compromised – productive and habitat functions. Immediate consequences on affected areas were seen at soil erosion prevention and hydrological function. The whole burnt area is very important for providing water for the Karst region.

- Which are the human consequences (casualties, etc.)? In the fire Šumka were no human casualties. Evacuation from nearby villages was not needed. Also no buildings were damaged in the fire. More than 2000 firefighters were at fire site, 20 of them got minor injuries, mostly minor burns of extremities. Two firefighters were in car accident and got minor injuries.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses? First assessment of economic losses was approximate 885.000 €. (Source: SFS report)

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”? The event ‘fire Šumka’ is considered extreme, because it was the second largest forest fire in Slovenia (whole burned area – 950 ha, forests – 707 ha) in period 1995 ‐ 2010. The largest fire was in 2003 near

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

village Sela na Krasu (approximately 15 km west), where burned area was 1.048 ha (748 ha of forests). (Source: SFS report)

Management

Preevent - Operative prevention protocols The Notification centre of the Republic of Slovenia and the 13 regional notification centres operate 24 hours a day. The system works under the regulation of Ministry of defence, Administration for civil protection and disaster relief. The key tasks of the regional centres are the response to 112 emergency calls and the provision of dispatch services for all rescue services. Firefighting units (professional and voluntary) are organised and quite well equipped. Roads and other preventive objects are maintained.

- Risk awareness July 20, 2006 the highest level of fire risk level (level 5, on a scale from 1 to 5) was declared. Administration of the Republic of Slovenia for Civil Protection and Disaster Relief (ACPDR‐ http://www.sos112.si/eng/) is the organisation responsible for declaring the level of fire risk, according to measurements, calculations and suggestions of meteorological service (Slovenian Environment Agency) and other organizations (also Slovenia Forest Service). In correlation with the fire risk level, several restrictions are declared – i.e. prohibition of use of fire in natural environment, trains have to reduce their speed and municipalities are obliged to supervise the endangered forest areas.

Event ongoing - Fire fighting strategy and efforts The strategy with facing the fires in natural environment is to detect a fire as soon as possible and to extinguish the fire, while it is manageable with small team of firefighters. The system of reporting and alarming is established through local people. Especially in Karst region, where the most of Slovenian fire occur, the settlements and inhabitants are much dispersed and this is the main reason why the fires are quite fast noticed and reported to the Notification centre of Republic of Slovenia (phone number: 112). The second condition for successful intervention is good network of transport routes (public roads, forest roads and special intervention routes in forests). The Slovenia Forest Service is in charge of maintenance of

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 9

special intervention roads in forests. The next condition is a wide network of firefighting units (professional and voluntary), which is well equipped, trained and it is able to respond immediately. More about fire fighting strategy and efforts is written at Event timing and spatial evolution of the fire Šumka.

Postevent adopted strategies - Post‐event forest management The post‐event management of burnt site was mainly focused on reforestation of the areas, burnt by crown fire. The activities planned were: sowing on less qualitative growing sites (235 ha) and planting with acorns on better growing sites (24 ha). On the other areas was planned to continue with management as before and some earlier cutting in older stands. The event did not influence the post‐event management policy in general. After a large fire in 1994 (Renče), national policy of post‐event management after fire (co‐financing the sanitation from national budget…) was established. However, there is a lot to be done in assessing the activities and the results of post‐event management in previous fires in Slovenia, with some deepening studies which would give some practical guidelines. The main objective in post‐event management is primarily to restore the ecosystem, to establish its previous functions as soon as possible. The economic benefits were not calculated, the public interest is to restore the soil erosion prevention, hydrological function, etc. However, the event did have the effect on improvement of firefighting policy and management. (Source: SFS report)

- Economical management of the post‐event situation All the measurements, coordination of the owners and managements plans were done by Slovenia forest service and financially covered by national budget. All the needed material (seedlings, protection…) was fully funded by budget. The costs of work (soil preparation, sowing, planting…) were co‐financed (approximately 50 %). At the end of post‐event management, including the income of timber, costs of reforestation and subsidies from the state, the owners had profit of 6 € per m3.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 10

Lesson Learnt

The most important issue to improve was noticed in coordinating the activities. The event has shown that it is necessary to improve the system of monitoring the development of the fire, locating the resources (firefighting units, equipment, machinery etc.) – to support quick and effective decisions in headquarters.

In this fire situation we could stress the importance of well‐defined protocol for decision making. The ignition point of fire Šumka was located in area at the border of two regions (different dispatch units). Calls came from both regions and it took some time to coordinate all the units and the incoming information.

Some logistical issues were noticed due to different use of fire hose coupling (different in use by Slovenian and Italian firefighters).

During the intervention also air units (helicopters, planes) participated. Some improvements could be done in coordinating the aerial and terrestrial units in extinguishing fire in the same area.

The vast majority of fires in natural environment in Slovenia are in Karst region (west, southwest of country), due to warm and dry climate. In other parts of Slovenia, forest fires are very rare and the burn area is usually smaller. At the intervention Šumka, many voluntary firefighters from other parts of country came to help. During the intervention it was noticed that, even with great amount of enthusiasm, the units from other parts of country were not enough equipped and skilled for this type of fire. There is a need of more specialised training of voluntary firefighters in fighting fires in natural environment.

Acknowledgement

The report is also part of the CRP project V4‐1069 (Improving efficiency of sanitary actions following major forest damages in Slovenian forests) which was financed by the Ministry of agriculture and the environment (MKO) and the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS).

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 11

Other used References

Košiček B., Zadnik A. 2006. Sanacijski načrt pogorišč za leto 2007: Šumka, Staje in Debela Griža. Slovenian Forestry Service Report. Sežana: 12 p.

Košiček B., Zadnik A. 2006. Sanacijski načrt pogorišča Šumka – Železna vrata ‐ Trstelj. Slovenian Forestry Service Report. Sežana: 10 p.

Mržek T. 2008. Upravljanje požarno ogroženih območij na Krasu. Nova Gorica, University of Nova Gorica, School of Environmental Sciences: 52 p.

Muhič D. 2007. Fire at Šumka on the Karst. Ljubljana. Ujma, 21: 80 – 90 URL: http://www.sos112.si/slo/tdocs/ujma/2007/080.pdf

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_07(I)a] Second level analysis on extreme abiotic occurrences

[Varazze, Liguria, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 4

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 07/11/2007

- Date of extinction: 19/11/2007

- Name: Varazze Location of the event

The event was located in the middle‐west part of Liguria Region between the provinces of Genova and Savona. The event was classified as a urban‐ forest interface fire since the affected area was in part urbanised and in part vegetated. The climate, the morphology of the territory and the strong winds typical of this Italian Region often gives raise to this kind of urban‐forest fires. Indeed the narrow morphology of the area is a mixture of Figure 1. Location of the event: the green area is the location affected by highly urbanised and vegetated areas. The area the fire of Varazze in 2007. The boundaries represent the limits of Liguria's was characterised by particularly dry vegetation provinces and it was affected by precedent fires in the previous 5‐10 years. Main vegetation types of the affected area were degraded forests of Maritime Pine (Pinus pinaster) and Oak (Quercus ilex).

The fire destroyed overall 843 ha of which 37 ha of uncultivated lands and almost 800 ha of forest lands.

List of the communities: Varazze, Cogoleto

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of the ignition point (UTM, WGS84): 469413 m E, 4914922 m N

- Site characteristics: aspect: south‐west, altitude: (around 200‐300 m asl), morphology: hilly terrain with slopes around 10‐30°

- Forest types and pre‐event management: mainly forests of Maritime Pine (Pinus pinaster) and Oak (Quercus ilex). Various types of management, high Figure 2. Detailed image of the area affected by the fire of forests stands and also coppice. Varazze. The green area represents an approximation of the real affected surface.

Conditions of the affected area

The conditions of the affected area coincided with the descriptions of the above sections.

The lack of roads, the large water deficit, the difficult terrain contributed to the spread of the fire.

Event description

‐ Causes: clues collection has classified the fire as arson

‐ Consideration about meteorological conditions: during the event a strong wind occurred

‐ Type of fire: the fire affected first of all the wasteland then the forest (crown fire). The fire destroyed all kinds of special populations without exclusions, finally it reached the houses but without damaging them.

Impacts

‐ The prevailing forest function compromised by the fire of the forest is the protection (risk of hydrological instability). The second important compromised function is the landscape.

- There were no particular human consequences.

- Economic losses:

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

Economic losses of this event are difficult to be estimated and no cost assessment has never been published.

- This event could be considered extreme in relation to the wide forest area that has been destroyed or seriously damaged (more than 800 ha) and for the high spread speed of the fire. Management

Preevent

‐ Risk awareness The risk level for the fire event was high

Event ongoing

- During the fire have occurred: 1) 35 rangers 2) 43 firefighters 3) 229 volunteers and the following means were used 4) 8 fire cars 5) 12 fire trucks 6) 4 canadair 7) 4 helicopters

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event (or planned) forest management: the area covered by the fire has been monitored for several days in order to prevent new fires.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: 5 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events6

It was decided not to do reforestation works

Lesson Learnt The spread of the fire has depended on many factors:

1) type of vegetation

2) presence of wind

3) drought

4) presence/absence of roads

5) organizational system to extinguish fire

6) means available.

In detail events such as that of Varazze, developed in presence of particular climatic and environmental conditions, are difficult to manage and to quickly extinguish; nevertheless during the last years the reduction of the impacts is generally in progress. The prevention system has been improved, volunteers are better trained and people are informed on the value of preserving natural resources. Finally the awareness that the problematic in Liguria is mainly due to particular climatic, vegetation and urban features, has lead to the improvement of synergies between authorities, institutions, protection services and volunteers.

6 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[FF_07(D)] Second level analysis of extreme biotic occurrences

[Forest fire Antoniberg 13. – 16.04.2007]

Authors: Sebastian Weist; [email protected]; +49 8161 71 4906

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions at the ignition point ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Conditions at the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 6

Impacts ...... 9

Management ...... 10

Pre‐event ...... 10

Event ongoing ...... 10

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 11

Lessons Learned ...... 11

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 13.04.2007 / 14:00

- Date of extinction: 15.04.2007 / 18:35

- Name: Forest fire Thumsee 13.04.2007 Location of the event

Fig. 1: large‐scale image Thumsee

In this fire event the villages Bad Reichenhall and Schneizlreuth are involved. The fire was close to the Thumsee on Antoniberg in Southeast Bavaria at growth zone Bavarian Alps. The natural geographic region is called Chiemgauer Alps (MEYEN et al., 1962, in MÜLLER, 2008).

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Ecology and economy of the event

Fig. 2: Location of the burnt area (according to MÜLLER, 2008)

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

Fig. 3: Forstbetriebskarte des Untersuchungsgebietes am Antoniberg, veränderter Kartenausschnitt (nach FORSTAMT BERCHDESGADEN, 2003, verändert aus MÜLLER, 2008)

Conditions at the ignition point

The ignition point was located near state road 2101, between Bad Reichenhall and Schneizelreuth. The area is located on a steep, south‐southeast‐facing slope with a declination of between 30 and 40 °, and an elevation between 610 and 810 meters above sea level (m ASL), (MÜLLER, 2007). The forests around the ignition point are primarily pine stands mixed with spruce and some beech, called “Nordalpiner Schneeheide‐Kiefernwald” (Erico‐ Pinetum mit Calamagrostio‐ Pinetum), vegetation area 15 (according to SEIBERT, 1968, in MÜLLER, 2008).

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

The age of the pine trees is approx. 150 years. The canopy cover of the forest was 39% in the year 2007 (MÜLLER, 2008) and as a result of this open woodland structure, a lot of dry grass was present (Molinia caerulea, Carex spec.). The forests in this area are mainly avalanche forests.

Coordinates: UTM (WGS84) 33 T 335938 x; 5286858 y

Elevation: approx. 610 to 810 m ASL (MÜLLER, 2008), submontainous area (FREY, 1998, in MÜLLER, 2008)

Due to the lack of infrastructure, the use of heavy fire‐fighting machinery was not possible. The rugged terrain created an extra risk for fire fighters, whose safety was protected by the mountain rescue service.

Conditions at the affected area

o The ignition area (the area around the Thumsee) has basically the same characteristics as those described for the ignition point ‐ high forests with spruce, pine, and beech. It is possible that dry ground vegetation provided fuel to spread the fire.

Fig. 3 and 4: fire fighters in action and mountain rescue service, protecting the fire fighters

(photos made by fire brigade Siegdorf)

Event description

- Causes: unknown

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: The area experience extremely dry weather and higher than normal temperatures at the time of ignition, with temperatures 4°C higher than normal, and precipitation levels of only 13% of the annual average. On fire days, maximum temperatures were between 23 and 24°C. Thus, the fire risk was high during this time.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

Fig. 5: Temperaturverlauf vom 10. bis 25. April 2007 von Bad Reichenhall (nach REICHENHALLER TAGESBLATT, 2007, aus MÜLLER, 2008)

Annual average climatic conditions Bad Reichenhall (DWD 2007, in Müller 2008):

- Elevation: 468 m ASL - Annual av. temp.: 8,0 °C - Av. temp. between May and September: 15,3 °C - Annual av. precipitation: 1547 mm - Av. precipitation between May and September: 839 mm

Type of fire: ground, stock and crown fire

Event timing and spatial evolution:

Beginning on 13.04.2007 at approx. 14:00, and continuing until 15.04.2011, at 18:35, countless task forces from diverse organizations with the aid of several helicopters fought a forest fire above the Thumsee near Bad Reichenhall (south‐east Bavaria). The operational area covered an area of approximately 600,000 m², and the area directly affected by the fire was approximately 25 ‐ 30 hectares (ha).

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

13.04.2007

- At 14:00: the fire was reported to police and fire fighters - At around 16:00,the fire brigade of Siegdorf was notified - Later that afternoon, support was requested from task forces from the Traunstein district ‐ first from the Inzell fire‐brigade, and later from the Traunstein fire‐brigade - Due to the massive deployment of helicopters provided by the local police, the Federal Police, the fire brigade from EADS (European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company) and from the administrative district of Salzburg (Austria) ‐Up to 7 helicopters were airborne at the same time ‐ the fire was brought under control for a short time. - Around 20:00, adverse light conditions stopped further helicopter deployment, and as a consequence, re‐ignition occurred in some areas. - The fire spread in a southwesterly direction to reach state highway B 305, regaining an area of approximately 0.5 km² (50 ha). - Task forces worked to prevent a continued spread of the flames in the direction of state highway 2101 - At 23:00 the Siegdorf fire brigade was replaced by the Berchtesgaden fire‐brigade, which arrived with two vehicles – one truck and one multi‐purpose vehicle)

14.04.2007

- At 1:10, the district administrator Georg Grabner declared a state of emergency and employed the task force for emergency to coordinate the fire brigades - Task forces of the fire‐brigade continued to fight the fire until daybreak and finally succeeded in preventing its further spread. - Up from 6:30 the helicopters were airborne again, assisted by water cannons of the police - Due to the helicopter deployment, a no‐fly zone was declared above the area around Thumsee by the Agency of air traffic‐South - The highway 2101 between Karlstein and Schneitzelreuth was closed for traffic - By this time, approximately 280 members of volunteer fire‐brigades, the BRK (Bavarian Red Cross), the mountain rescue team, the THW (public social aid) and the police had been deployed to fight this fire. - The firefighters from Siegsdorf transported approximately 30,000 liters of water from Weißbach (west of the burning area) over approximately 8 kilometers of steep forest road to the burning areas. At 15:30, the fire‐brigade from Siegsdorf was replaced by the fire‐brigade from Hammer and other fire‐brigades from the Berchtesgadener Land district, supported by forces from the administrative district of Salzburger Land and the Traunstein district.

15.04.2007

- At 7:10, helicopter flights resumed (8 helicopters), supported by water cannons provided by the police - Due to the massive redeployment, the fire was once again brought under control, and individual fire and/or glow nests were extinguished

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 9

- At this time, approximately 300 members of volunteer fire‐brigades, the BRK, the police, the German Federal Armed Forces, the THW and mountain rescue team were in the area - In the end, more than 500 persons had worked to fight the fire. - At around 14:00, no more new fire sources were detected. - At around 18:35,the district administration office of Berchtesgadener Land declared the disaster control mission to be accomplished

Fig. 6: overview of the burnt area (Feuerwehrmagazin / JUNG)

Impacts (see chart p. 5)

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

Protection against erosion and avalanches was lost.

- Which are the human consequences (casualties, etc.)?

No fire fighters were hurt fighting this fire.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 10

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

Statements about the forest area actually destroyed, or exact extent of the damage have, to date, not been made by the Bavarian state forestry department. In the time frame between 1977 and 1990 the economic losses due to forest fires were approx. 3165,‐€/ha and between 1991 and 2006 2756,‐€/ha (Müller 2008).

- Why is the event considered to be “extreme”?

Fires in the German alpine region are, in general, very small‐scale. A burning area of 70 ‐ 100 ha is extraordinary large, and thus considered extreme. Management

Preevent

Look at :

• Art. 17 Bayerisches Waldgesetz (BayWaldG), (Feuergefahr)

“… It is strictly forbidden to smoke in forests between 1st of March and 31st of Oktober….. It is forbidden to make fire in a distance less than 100 m to the next forest….”

Risk awareness: Because of the high fire risk at the time in Bavaria, some planes were already in action, monitoring forest areas from the air (330 voluntary pilots with more than 150 planes). In Bavaria 322359 fire fighters are employed. Parking on forest roads is strictly forbidden, and many cars were towed away to keep the forest roads free for fire fighters in a case of emergency.

Event ongoing

Fire fighting strategy and efforts:

The fire‐fighting strategy was based primarily on the massive operation of helicopters. Approximately 2.5 million liters of water were discharged from helicopters in the pathless operational area around the fire in order to prevent it from spreading. The water‐carrying helicopters were directed accurately to the glow nests by another helicopter equipped with a thermographic camera additionally, approximately 0.5 million liters of water were pumped over water pipelines by the fire‐brigades.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 11

Fig. 7: IR‐photography from the burnt area after the forest fire (according to BAYERISCHE STAATSFORSTEN 2007, in MÜLLER, 2008)

In this event the following organizations were active: • Voluntary fire‐brigades (21 from the district Berchtesgadener Land, 5 from the district Traunstein and 2 from Austria): 480 persons • Bavarian red cross: 190 persons (incl. mountain rescue brigades) • Police: 140 persons • THW: 70 persons • German Federal Armed Forces: 50 persons • District administration office Berchtesgadener Land: 20 persons • City Bad Reichenhall: 10 persons

Post‐event adopted strategies:

The Bavarian State Forest, established observation posts and the pipelines and water tanks, constructed by the fire brigades, were left at the forest. This was a precaution for a case of a re‐ignition. Lessons Learned The fire brigades seem to be at a good level between their training, their pre‐warning system and the threat forest fires pose in Bavaria. The most important issue to improve was noticed in coordinating the activities. The event has shown that it is necessary to improve the system of monitoring the development of the fire, locating the resources (firefighting units, equipment, machinery etc.) – to support quick and effective decisions in headquarters. 11

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_07(I)b] Second level analysis on extreme abiotic occurrences

[Ornavasso, Piemonte, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 4

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 5

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 19/01/2007

- Date of extinction: 21/01/2007

- Name: Ornavasso (Verbano Cusi Ossola)

Location of the event

The event is located in the northeast of the Piemonte region, near to the Maggiore Lake: The fire destroyed overall 227 ha of which 2 ha belonging to uncultivated lands and almost 225 ha belonging to forest lands.

The maximum area covered by the fire is located between 500 and 1500 m asl.

List of municipalities: Ornavasso, loc. Laghetto delle Rose.

Figure 1. Location of the event: the red circle is the location affected by the fire of Ornavasso in 2007

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

- Coordinates of the ignition point (UTM, WGS84): 453660 m E, 5091880 m N.

- Site characteristics: altitude: around 500‐1500 m slm, slope: steep slope.

- Forest types and pre‐event management: The fire affected a chestnut (Castanea sativa) forest copse. The forest property is 90% public and the remaining 10% private

Conditions of the affected area

- Site characteristics (if different from ignition point conditions): did they affect the spread of the fire?

The absence of roads, the large water deficit, the difficult terrain and the total absence of water have contributed to the spread of the fire. The area had already been partially affected by another fire in 2003.

- Forest types and pre‐event management (if different from ignition point conditions): did they affect the spread of the fire? The forest was composed mainly by chestnut with many damaged individuals due to differents causes: previous fire, water stress and pest (Chriphonectria parasitica). Most of the forested areas were little managed.

Event description

- Causes: the cause of the fire has been attributed to human factors because the area was crossed by a high voltage power line that due to strong winds caused a spark which generated the fire.

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: the period before the fire was characterized by severe drought. Winter months precedent to the fire were characterized by little snowfalls and in January the soil was already devoid of snow cover. Moreover the day of the fire a strong wind raised.

- Type of fire: surface fire and crown fire

Impacts

‐ The most important functions compromised are the protection function because of soil erosion prevention function and the hydrological protection the landscape function

- There were no consequences for people

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

- Economic losses: there were no detailed data on economic losses but considering that the fire destroyed not only forests but also infrastructures the economic losses amount to several millions of euros.

- This event could be considered extreme because it caused severe damages to a large portion of forest (225 ha). Management

Preevent

- Operative prevention protocols Monitoring activities - Risk awareness.

The risk evaluated according to Fire Weather Index (FWI) was high.

Event ongoing

- Fire fighting strategy and efforts no data available

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event (or planned) forest management (did the event affected the management policy? Or will it?)

The area was monitored to prevent new fires and reforestation was carried out

5 MANFRED project –Deepening on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_10(I)a] Second level analysis on extreme fires occurrences

Monte San Mauro (Feltre) – Veneto ‐ Italy

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 6

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 7

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 7

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 06/02/2011

- Date of extinction: 11/02/2011

- Name: the event is identified after the name of Monte San Mauro, the mountain mainly affected by the same event. The closest municipality is Feltre, province of Belluno. Location of the event

The area is included in the esalpic phytoclimatic region almost completely. In this area you can also find the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park and Monte San Mauro, venue in question, falls into the Park borders. This mountain can be considered as part of the pre‐alpine zone at the foot of the actual Dolomiti Bellunesi. The highest part of this area is distinctly Alpine, with prevalence of forest plant associations typical for mountain altitudes, while at lower altitude the milder climate and the wider extension resulted in a greater urbanization and a more intense agricultural land use, with deep modification of vegetation. The higher slopes are covered by formations of noble deciduous trees, by conifers and by shrubby formations; at lower altitudes, following the regression of agricultural practices, in recent decades kenosis mainly consisting of maples and ash or esotic species have spread, while rural areas are dominated by hornbeam, chestnut and oak. The region of Dolomiti Bellunesi is characterized by diverse landscapes consisting of large high‐mountain prairies, overhanging cliffs sparsely settled by pioneer vegetation, extensive hardwood deciduous forests (mainly beech in the cooler parts, ash and hornbeam along the warmer sides or on scarcely evolved substrates) and conifers. The area of the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park had no particular urban developments within it. There are small households now sparsely populated placed mostly to the valley bottom, and some huts and shelters.

The area is covered with woods for more than 60% of the surface. Beech woods, Ash and Hornbeam woods and Ahs and Oaks dominate plus anthropogenic formations in the lower part, to which is to be added Mountain pines and Firs in the Dolomites.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point Ignition point coordinates: E: 1724613.07859 ‐ N: 5107739.87579 1126 m a.s.l.; Southern slope; rough – terrain not easily accessible Interface area between abandoned pastures and deciduous forest (scarcely managed coppice).

Conditions of the affected area

The area has an elevation ranging from 600 m and 1790 m asl. The slope ranges from 20 and 50 %. The terrain is typically mountainous and the area is included into the Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park. The area had been affected by fires already in 1978 and 1990.

Access to the specific site of the event is gained only through a pathway. No fireguard fenders corridors are present in the area. The land use is characterized by the presence of degraded coppice (no longer actively managed) and abandoned pastures. A map of the land use over the burnt area is presented in the next figure.

The main species in the area are Ash and Hornbeam and Beech. These formations are coppices no longer actively managed. Also there are some high stands of Larix decidua and Fir but in small surfaces. A quite large surface is on the contrary taken up by bare rocks. The brush and herbaceous layers were quite abundant and generally in a very dry condition. An undecomposed duff layer was also present.

Event description

Overall burnt area: 291.27 ha Winter fire on abrupt rocky slopes. The fine fuels (grass and litter) were very dry due to the lack of rainfall in the previous two months and to the low to moderate föhn episode occurred on 5‐6 february at high elevation (thermal inversion). Why extreme? The event is considered extreme mainly because of the extraordinary size (nearly 300 ha), moreover located within a National Park area.

Causes: unknown (still under investigation by the authority). Meteorological conditions and Risk Indexes: Persisting high pressure with warm air flows at high elevations and pronounced thermal inversion. Lack of significant rainfall from January, 11st. No snow cover on the southern slopes under 1400‐1700 m a.s.l. Above the average air temperature, especially above the line of thermal inversion, where a moderate intensity Föhn flows (it is generated by the air masses turning clockwise – due to the high pressure zone – from north‐west). The flow is kept at high elevation because the northern low pressure zone is quite distant and consequently not very influent. Danger level (FWI – Aosta Valley thresholds): Low (the weather station used for calculations is placed in the valley. It would be worth to implement another one, place on higher elevations, such as Monte Avena) Type of fire: surface fire driven by topography (thermal inversion – low‐moderate Föhn at high elevation) Event timing and spatial evolution: During the first day the fire was a quick but low intensity surface fire. At the bottom of the valley, operations have been stopped during the first phase and heavily limited by the stagnation of smoke in the entire area. Impacts During the first months after the fire non significant damages have been observed from a naturalistic point of view. The event had a big impact on local media, mainly because the fire occurred within the area of a National Park. Moreover some concerns about the population health have been raised, mainly related to the persistent smoke issue.

Management

Preevent Forest types involved in the ignition point are thin rocky vegetation and abandoned pastures. Other vegetation types involved during the propagation are broadleaves mixed to conifers, which crowns have been only locally and partially affected. The surface is divided between public/private property, but the whole surface is included in the Dolomiti Bellunesi Natural Park.

Event ongoing

February 6th. The fire starts at an high elevation (above 1200 m a.s.l.) pasture, on an abrupt slope of San Mauro Mountain facing south, south‐west. Mainly lead by the topography, it spreads quickly both uphill (slope effect) and downhill (glowing material rolling down). The fire fighiting operation start and manage to limit the fire on some fronts. Nevertheless, in the evening a new hot spot is detected on the Eastern slope of San Mauro Mountain. During the night the fire accelerate due to a high elevation Föhn episode from West.

February 7th. A dense smoke covers the valley above 800 m a.s.l. (thermal inversion), stopping suppression activities for safety reasons. Propagation rate is limited by the lack of wind. However the presence of dry pastures on the Eastern slope allows the fire front to propagate in that direction. Only from the late morning fire fighting operation can start again both form the air and from the ground.

February 8th. Fire propagates very low, except on the ridge of Le Grave Mountain, where the slope accelerates the fire spread: massive helicopter attack is able to stop the fire. At 16:00 the fire is suppressed and mopping‐up continues.

Postevent adopted strategies No emergency or extraordinary forest management has been planned by the local authorities so far (Forestry Regional Service, SFR).

Lesson Learnt

The weather station used at the moment for fire danger calculations is not representative of this kind of fires. It is better to use the weather station of Monte Avena, placed at highest elevation. It is important to take into consideration all the FWI System codes. Moreover, FFMC proved to be a good predictor for this type of fires.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[FF_10(I)b] Second level analysis on extreme fires occurrences

La Muda (La Valle Agordina) – Veneto ‐ Italy

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the ignition point ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Event ongoing ...... 6

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6

Date and name of the event

- Date of ignition: 10/05/2011 - Date of extinction: 14/05/2011 - Name: the event is identified after the name of La Muda, a small village in the nearby, endangered by the effects of the same event.

Location of the event

The Dolomites area Agordine, Zoldane and Cadorines includes the mesalpic and esomesalpic regions of Veneto. The valleys that make up these territories are similar for structure and socio‐economic context. In former times farming and forestry were the basic activities of society, whereas today the main activity is represented by tourism (with plenty of accommodation facilities and ski resorts especially) and small industries. This has resulted in a greater development of urban centers in the Valley bottoms with an upward expansion of the woods which occupied again the areas formerly transformed into pastures and meadows. The area is covered by woods for more than 65% of the surface. The current plant and forestry landscape is characterized by a dominance of Norway Spruce, and Larch or Larch‐Cembrus. Also the Mugo pine does abound. Beech is also present, either pure or in formation of beech and spruce. Other minor characteristic species are Scots pine and Fir. The only community directly involved in the event is the small village of La Muda, under the municipality of La Valle Agordina, district of Belluno.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the ignition point

Ignition point coordinates: E: 1739326.73927 ‐ N: 5127245.02998 - South facing slope, 598 m a.s.l. rough and steep terrain. The forest type involved at the ignition point and most affected is an adult Scots pine formation.

Conditions of the affected area

Other vegetation types involved during the propagation have been: Mountain pine, European Larch, Beech, thin rocky vegetation and pastures. The most part of the vegetation, both forests and pastures, are not actively managed despite the proximity to a village.

Event description

The event has to be considered extraordinary for mainly two reasons, besides the remarkable overall burnt area (nearly 270 ha): it was originated out of the fire season and during the vegetation period, thus leading to more severe damages to trees. Moreover the fire had significant impact on soil (the event has probably increased dramatically erodibility of the soil), due to high intensity. The fire had a high rate of spread in the initial phase of propagation.

Conditions of the surrounding and of the forest fuel were very dry to the lack of normal rainfall in the previous two months. Crown fire behavior affected wide areas, especially canyons. The village of La Muda has been evacuated due to the high danger of rock falling. Causes: the fire was originate accidentally, due to a tree falling over a power line Meteorological conditions and Risk Indexes: Before the arrival of the cold air front, maximum temperatures much higher than average, also during April, leading to a high drying rate. Rainfall much lower than average for this period (late spring, April – May): drought. During 9‐10 May, relative humidity value is 30‐40 % at midday, 70‐90% during the night; wind speed value is higher at midday (up to 15 km/h, from SE‐SSE). [Agordo weather station] Danger level (FWI ‐ Veneto thresholds): Medium to High (the weather station used for calculations is Sant’Andrea (Gosaldo) but, during the fire, the weather station of Agordo was more representative) Type of fire: surface crown fire driven by topography. Event timing and spatial evolution: The fire has been active for 4 days, with only mopping up on the 4th day and it was considered extinguished on the 5th, when heavy rains started. The overall burnt area is about 269 ha. The fire started at the bottom of Monte Celo, above the provincial road and Cordevole river, caused by a pine tree fallen over the power line. From there the fire spreads very intensively, at first running uphill and crowning. Then it shifted to the west, overcame the first small valley and reached the top. Glowing material rolling downhill started less intense surface fires, alternated to small crowning runs.

Impacts

Beside the wood production also other functions of the wood have been compromised by the event: soil protection in particular is endangered. The soil received a very strong damage, therefore there’s a high risk of rock falling on the road underneath the slope and on the houses of La Muda. The only direct human consequences so far has been the temporarily evacuation of the village of La Muda and the concern for the safety of the structures in the same village. High costs for the protection structures and the restoration of the area are foreseen. Impacts from a naturalistic point of view are under monitoring. The event had a rather big impact on the media, mainly because the fire was very close to the National Park of Dolomiti Bellunesi and because of the concerns about the safety of La Muda population. A path has been closed to the population and no hunting is allowed in the area for the next 10 years.

Management

Preevent In this area most of the forest formations are high stands of coniferous not actively managed and abandoned pastures at higher elevations, despite the proximity with villages and towns. The main species represented are: Scot Pine, Mountain Pine, Larix deciduas, Fagus sylvatica, thin rocky vegetation and abandoned pastures. The property is mixed public and private. Event ongoing The fire was immediately fought by aerial means (helicopter and Canadair). Due to the steep terrain and dense smoke it is not feasible operating on the ground, with the only exception of the intervention close to the houses close to the back front of the fire. In the fire fighting operations have been involved: - nearly 45 persons on the ground (daily average) - 11 FF vehicles; - 3 Canadair DPC, 1 heavy helicopter S64 and 1 light helicopter AB412 (of the State Forestry Corps), 2 light helicopters AS 350 B3 (of the Regional Fire Fighting service). The estimated costs for firefighting operations are about 900.000 €. Postevent adopted strategies

No emergency or extraordinary forest management has been planned by the local authorities so far (Forestry Regional Service, SFR).

Economical management of the post‐event situation: Nearly 720 m of heavy wire mesh and a barrier for rocks have been implanted (with a cost of 410.000 €) and 140 m long embankment digged in the area (with a cost of nearly 43.000 €) in order to protect the houses of the near village of La Muda. The total cost of the event, considering both the firefighting operations and the post‐event management is about 1.350.000 €. Secondary events occurred or monitored: so far no secondary events have occurred, but University of Padoa and the SFR implemented a monitoring activity in order to evaluate the hydro‐geological damage and in particular the superficial soil erosion, consequent to the fire event on the very steep slope. Also ectomycorrhizae and root activity in the soil is being monitored to evaluate the resilience of the soil system.

Lesson Learnt

1. The role of fire prevention: power lines were not protected by the common plastic sheath used when power lines cross forest areas. No thinning was realized in the pinewood, thus leading to a stand in non sound conditions. Moreover the choice to plant a continuous Scot pine stand is not advisable. A better choice is to plant a mixed‐species stand. 2. Severe fire events may occur also during spring season, which is not usually considered a critical period, under particular conditions (drought). 3. Data from different weather stations used should be integrated for fire danger calculations because some peculiar parameters can be easily underrated due to their specificity at a very small scale. 4. It is important to take into consideration all the FWI System codes. DMC turns out to be the best predictor for this type of fires, while it is considered less important for different types of fire.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests

Annex II ‐ Biotic disturbance

WP6 Handbook

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[BI_84(I)] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Valle d’Aosta, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 5

Lesson Learnt ...... 6

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- year of event beginning: 1994

- Duration: 2 years

- Agent category: xilophagus

- Agent denomination: Ips typographus Location of the event

The area affected by the attack of Ips typographus is located in different parts of Valle d’Aosta Region at an altitude range between 1200 and 1400 m asl. The phenomenon has mainly affected the Norway Spruce (Picea abies) forest located in a north‐ facing slopes. Concerning management, forest lands are in part private (60 %) and in part public (40%).

The outbreak has developed in the Figure 1. Location of the event: the red circle represents the main locations municipalities of Morgex and Pré‐Saint‐Didier affected by Ips typographus in 1994.

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area - Site characteristics: coordinates: (UTM WGS84) 5066223 m N, 369343 m E. The spruce forest were located in areas with different slope values and with an average annual rainfall of 1400 mm.

- Forest types and pre‐event management: o spruce (Picea abies) forests with the presence of other coniferous species (Larix decidua and Pinus sylvestris) o some years before the outbreak, the forest had been affected by the “Vivian” storm (1990) that destroyed a considerable number of plants.

o type of management: high forest stand. In the public ownership the forest is managed following special plans according to the principles of natural forestry

o most affected forest types: coniferous forest, mostly Norway spruce (Picea abies).

Event description - Ecology of the pathogenic agent: The Ips typographus is the typical bark beetle of the Norway spruce (Picea abies) and prefers colonize big trees in order to dig galleries suitable for larval development. Adult beetles range from 4.2 to 5.5 mm in length. They are cylindrical and reddish or dark brown to completely black. Mature larvae are about 5 mm long. The pupae are white, mummy‐like, and have some adult features. Adults are strong fliers and are capable of travelling several kilometers in search of suitable host material. The males produce pheremones, which aggregate both sexes to the host material.

- Causes and consideration about meteorological conditions (meteorological parameters triggering the attack): The wind storms occurred in 1990 created suitable conditions (presence of fresh wood on the ground) for the outbreak beginning.

- The outbreak evolved fast and occurred in groups with variable sizes. Most affected tree individuals have died in a short time.

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

Impacts - The event mainly impacted the protection and the landscape functions.

- Considering that the wood damage (firewood and workwood) has an average value of 20 €/m3 the total amount of damages is about 2.500.000 €.

- This event could be considered extreme because a big surface of the forest has been destroyed or seriously damaged (6.000 ha and 124.000 m3 of wood destroyed).

Management

Preevent - Operative prevention protocols.

In case of outbreak the regional forest service through its teams of lumberjacks tries to intervene early in order to prevent further outbreaks. In this regard the most common practices are the skidding of timber or, if it is not possible, the barking of logs.

Event ongoing - Fighting strategy and efforts

Biological fight with sex pheromone. By confusing the male individuals this substance prevents the coupling

Postevent adopted strategies - Post‐event (or planned) forest management.

After the first intervention the public owner decided not to leave the forest evolve naturally. Best results were obtained using sex pheromone traps, a substance which prevents the coupling. A large percentage of dead and diseased trees were cut and where it was possible the timber was hauling using the cable car.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored.

In order to prevent new outbreaks, pheromone traps were placed in different areas. After about 10‐15 years since the attack, the first regeneration appeared.

Lesson Learnt 5 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events6

The event interested mostly Norway spruce (Picea abies) forests. Most of the affected trees (mostly Norway spruce) died. The fast removal of the timber allowed to limit the damages. The damages are now less visible because the regeneration is growing regularly and Ips typographus populations have decreased significantly.

6 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[BI_85(I)] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Asiago plateau and Cansiglio plateau]

Contact persons: Andrea Battisti (Professor at University of Padoa ‐ Department of Environmental Agronomy and Crop Production) [email protected] Massimo Faccoli (Ph.D. researcher at University of Padoa ‐ Department of Environmental Agronomy and Crop Production) [email protected] Marco Pregnolato (consultant at Catholic Univ. of Brescia for MANFRED project) ‐ [email protected] Stefano Oliveri – [email protected]

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 6

Impacts ...... 9

Management ...... 9

Pre‐event ...... 9

Event ongoing ...... 10

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 10

Lesson Learnt ...... 11

AKNOWLEDGEMENT: this report will only synthesize and summarize, for informative purpose,

information and data contained in several scientific peer‐reviewed publications dealing with the infestation of Cephalcia arvensis over the plateaus of Cansiglio and Seven Communities between the mid 80 's and mid 90 's. Please refer to those publications for information and analysis. Many thanks to the authors and in particular to Prof. Andrea Battisti and Dr. Massimo Faccoli for the friendly and fruitful collaboration. All publications and authors are correctly listed in the bibliography.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- The first tree damage caused by C. arvensis was recorded at both sites in 1986

- The emergency phase of the infestation had lasted a few years, from 1986 to 1991, although the presence of C. arvensis on the spots was verified also some years before and after the event.

- Defoliator (monophagous on Picea abies, endemic to spruce range in Eurasia)

- Cephalcia arvensis Panzer (Hymenoptera, Pamphiilidae), Spruce webspinning sawfly Location of the event

The Plateau of Cansiglio, about 30 km east from the town of Belluno; the Plateau of Sette Comuni or Plateau of Asiago, about 50 km north from the town of Vicenza. Geographically, these plateaux belong to the Venetian Pre‐Alps, a medium altitude mountain chain extending along the edge of the Venetian coastal plain.

Cansiglio plateau. The area of interest is located in the central part of the Cansiglio limestone plateau, in a prominent depression. The area of Cansiglio plateau is situated into the phytoclimatic districts “esalpic” and “esomesalpic”. The microclimatic conditions of the area are characterized by a constant temperature inversion. This factor strongly affects also the distribution of the vegetation: the bottom of the hollow is covered by meadows and pastures, delimited by a wide wood belt, mainly composed by Norway spruce aged plantations, followed by a mixed deciduous and coniferous forest. Higher elevations and the ridges are covered by pure beech forests.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Since the times of “Serenissima” Republic of Venice, the Cansiglio plateau had a strategical role for local economy, thanks to the high quality of its trees. Forestry management had for long time been particularly attentive. Today the region is also characterized by the presence of recreational and touristic structures, while the agriculture is mainly let to dairy and zootechnical farms. The area is covered with forest for more than 70% of the overall surface. Beech is the most important species (> 50%). Nevertheless the landscape is characterized by the anthropogenic formations of fir and Norway spruce. The area originally covered with N. spruce that was affected in the ‘80s by the C. arvensis infestation, had been then cleared from the attacked coniferous trees and lately implanted with species suitable for the local ecology.

Asiago plateau. Asiago plateau (also known as Seven Communities plateau) shows the typical characteristics of the Alpine area. The climax formation is represented by Beech forest, nevertheless it had been heavily downsized by diffused plantations of coniferous species, since the first years of ‘900, both for timber logging perspectives and to restore the forest cover destroyed during the First World War. On the higher elevation, vegetation is characterized mainly by Norway spruce and Fir, then Beech and Larix. Mugo pine is also getting diffused on those elevations, taking out land from pastures. At medium elevation, there are pastures and meadows, exploited for zootechnic activities, while the lower elevation are characterized with some deciduous species. At present, zootechnics and agriculture are losing some of their original importance, while touristic and recreational resources are increasing. More than 68% of the overall surface in the area is covered with forests. The species which are represented the most are in order N. Spruce (27 %), Beech (25%), Fir (16%), Ash, Hornbeam and Oak (8%), Larix (6%) and Mugo (4%), plus others.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area The two areas fall in polygons the coordinates (UTM WGS84) of which are reported in the table below:

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

UTM WGS84 NE Asiago Top‐Left 5081852.819 689471.172 Bottom‐Right 5076276.626 697695.231 Cansiglio Top‐Left 5110170.975 763512.579 Bottom‐Right 5107265.052 766995.052

The elevation of the spruce stands considered here varies in both areas from 900 to 1300 m. Slope ranges from moderately inclined to steep (up to 50%). The prevailing geological substrate is limestone. Both areas have a karst geomorphology with frequent rock outcrops and depressions with sediment accumulation. The stream channel development is low. At Cansiglio the relief is higher and so the landscape is more complex than at Asiago. Moreover, the Plateau of Sette Comuni was devastated during the First World War; soils were deeply eroded and the natural horizon sequence was greatly altered. The infested plantations were established 60‐90 years ago, with non‐indigenous propagation material. The mean diameter at breast height was around 30 cm. At Cansiglio the growth rate of trees is light, stems have a good form and forest was very dense and homogeneous. At Asiago the forest is more heterogeneous and less productive than that of Cansiglio.

Cansiglio plateau. The spread of Picea abies, that populates in pure formations the bottom of the basin, is mainly due to a long time production‐oriented forestry activity. The homogeneous formation of N. spruce, aged between 50 and 80 years, have also periodically suffered extensive damage from atmospherical agents, fact that suggest their structural weakness.

Asiago plateau. The area affected by the infestation is home to exclusive or predominant Norway spruce forest stands. Most affected are pure and co‐aged formations, between 50 and 70 years old, which are the result of afforestations carried out soon after the first world war. These woods have had anyway many and different problems along their history, from several sorts of stress agents: droughts, dormouses, root rot due to Heterobasidion annosum, throws due to exceptional snowfalls, bark beetles and eventually two World Wars. The rainfalls amounts to 1468 mm for Asiago and to 1791 mm for Cansiglio, with two maxima (May‐June and October‐November) in both areas. The annual average temperature amounts to 7.07 °C for Asiago and to 5.01 °C for Cansiglio.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

Event description In the years between the beginning of 1980s and the beginning of 1990s, the two pre‐alpine areas of Asiago and Cansiglio plateau had been affected by a severe outbreak of C. arvensis Panzer. Both the locations are characterized by the presence of diffused Norway spruce plantations, established 60 to 90 years before, although the region is at the southern edge of the area of natural distribution of this species [Marchisio et al., 1994]. As a result of the infestation, more than 500 ha of forest have been attacked and eventually more than 200 ha were lost.

Hints on the ecology of the pathogenic agent. The bionomics of the pest in the outbreak areas has been described by Battisti (1993). Cephalcia arvensis is a defoliator hymenoptera pamphilidae, monofagous for Norway spruce and endemic in Europe. The sawfly adult emerges from the ground in May‐June and lays eggs on spruce needles. Then larvae fall on the ground and dig the soil to spend winter season underground. Prepupae can stay in the soil until next spring or for an additional 1‐2 years (extended diapauses). Females are generally bad flyers and they prefer to walk on stems and branches, above all when they carry eggs and weight more. Male individuals usually fly.

Causes and consideration about ecological, climate and meteorological conditions. The climatic and pedological factors seem to be predominant among the possible causes of outbreaks. In fact it has been possible to point out that: 1) the period 1983‐1986 was in both area unusually hot and dry, especially during the developmental time of the pest (June‐July); 2) a strong water stress occurred in the three years preceding the outbreaks; 3) inside each area, the distribution of the insect attack was not uniform, reflecting the variability in soil and stand features.

The relationship between climate and attack levels could be interpreted in two complementary ways: 1) lower mortality and faster development of the insect induced by favourable climatic conditions (high temperatures and lack of precipitations); among natural enemies, there is no major species affecting the population level of the pest in a conclusive way. Consequently, changes in mortality could be the result of other factors. The exceptional duration of 4 consecutive years with hot and dry summers, especially in June and July, could have dramatically changed the voltinism of the pest from biennial to annual, as observed in the first years of outbreak. 2) increase of food quality as a consequence of the water stress suffered by the trees, according to the soil and stand characteristics. Water stress has in fact been correlated to the increase in needle sugar levels.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

During the period of the outbreaks the populations developed an annual life cycle and grew exponentially, causing repeated defoliations, which ultimately caused tree death over hundreds hectares (Battisti et al. 2000). Experts hypothesized that favorable conditions promoted the survival and speeded up the development, making it possible to pupate when soil temperature was high enough to start pupation immediately, skipping in this way from the extended diapause. The sudden increase of the population density was not quickly followed by that of natural enemies, which were unable to limit population growth (Battisti et al. 2000). It seems likely that the increase of the temperature in June and July of 1983‐85 is the major factor promoting the outbreaks, as they occurred simultaneously at two sites at a distance of about 100 km, through switching the insects to an annual generation.

Event timing and spatial evolution In the following figures, the spatial evolution and the timing of the event over the two sites can be observed.

Fig.1 – Timing and spatial evolution of the C.arvensis infestation over the Cansiglio plateau.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

1994) al,

(Battisti

plateau

(Asiago)

Communities

Seven

the

over C.arvensis

infestation

the

evolution

spatial

and

Timing

–

Fig.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 9

Impacts The event is considered to be extreme because it involved several hundreds of hectares of forests, considered of primary importance in the area. The pest attack reiterated for more years and its intensity particularly strong on some peaks, lead to the death of a high percentage of the involved trees. Moreover the attack came unexpected from a pest with (at that time) almost unknow ecology and biology, though its presence had been already verified in nearby areas.

Despite the phytosanitary magnitude, the event had no major impacts on the attacked sites, but remarked the weakness of such artificial plantations, characterized by being homogeneous and outside the natural range of the species. In particular, Asiago plateau’s landscape was just scarcely affected by the event with mainly the color effect of the red needles and only a few large cleared areas; while Cansiglio landscape suffered specially at the bottom of the hollow of large areas heavily cleared by salvation loggings. Therefore touristic and recreational functions were not really affected by the event.

The logged timber was technically exploitable for commercial purpose, being the pest only a defoliator, but in some cases the weakened stands had been afterward attacked by bark beetle.

The forest in both Seven Communities and Cansiglio plateaus has no real protection function.

While it’s not possible through the available data to estimate an economical loss from the attack, there are data about the costs of the main intervention (sticky bands) on the stands. The overall cost of the operation ranged from 180 to 250 €/ha (manpower expenses for the mounting of the bands and materials), plus 50 to 80 € for the follow up and band removal operations. The intervention has been applied to nearly 300 ha on the Seven Communities plateau and nearly 200 ha in the Cansiglio area, giving a total estimated cost ranging from 115.000 to 165.000€ (value referred to 1990).

Management

Preevent

Still in those years, the State Forestry Corps were in charge for the phytosanitary monitoring activity and the first signaling about an intense infestation of the sawfly came on May 21st, 1986 from a SFC officer. It must be mentioned also that while in former times both the Seven Communities and Cansiglio areas were considered strategic for timber production, already in the ‘80s forestry activity was declining and many stands were not actively managed.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 10

Event ongoing The IPM program applied against the pest was based on the following steps: 1. Monitoring of adults, especially males, with visual traps and sampling of prepupae in the soil; 2. Set‐up of life tables and identification of key‐factors of mortality; 3. Definition of tolerance level of the pest according to the number of expected adult emergences; 4. Direct control on the whole attacked area (about 500 ha) by stopping adult females climbing up the trees with sticky bands put around the trunk of every tree. This control method allowed to reduce from 54% to 71% the number of eggs laid on treated trees with respect to untreated ones. Two additional experiments were conducted on small plots using an insect growth regulator insecticide against larvae in the foliage and four strains of entomogenous nematodes against prepupae in the soil.

Postevent adopted strategies

On the Asiago plateau there have been no afforestations consequently to the Cephalcia event. Nevertheless it has been noticed that, where hit the pure Norway spruce formation is able to better or at all able to react where other species (mainly Fir and Beech) are present and hence to mingle with those species and naturally turn towards a mixed wood condition. Moreover, the resulting formation had then demonstrated greater resistance to different stress factors. On the Cansiglio plateau, some attempts on new afforestation were made, with ecologically suitable decidous species. Unfortunately the most of the young trees have been killed by late strong frosts. No further attemps had been made nor will be, but also in this case a spontaneous renovation with native deciduous species (mainly Beech) was favored by the emptiness in cleared areas.

Secondary events occurred or monitored. Outbreaks of bark beetles: especially when the defoliation damage was prolonged for two or more years on the same trees, different species of bark beetles have been observed in the areas (Ips typographus, Trypodendron lineatum, Pityogenes chalcographus, Hylurgops glabratus). A monitoring action and consequent salvation loggings were actuated. In the Cansiglio area the volume of timber logged due to these secondary events amounts many thousands of cubic meters. On the Asiago plateau, these events were less severe and the logged volume had been about 600 cubic meters.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 11

Lesson Learnt

The analysis of the events (and of other related events in Europe) leads to some recommendation from the experts about forestry prescriptions.

1. Outbreaks, in fact, occurred only in Norway spruce plantations situated outside or just on the border of the natural range of the tree and at unnatural elevation.

2. The climatic conditions are such that a water stress may be easily induced to the mature stands by inadequate or irregular precipitation (Schmidt‐Vogt, 1977; Marchisio et al., 1994).

3. Most of the stands are characterized by a medium to high density, and by an age which varies from 50 to 100 years.

4. Stands characterized by a homogeneous structure and originated by selected genetic material seem to be more vulnerable to the pest. Concerning the present case study, it must be in fact noticed that the intensity of the attack on the Asiago area was sensibly lower, where the forest formation are characterized by a higher environmental heterogeneity.

5. On the occasion of consistent damages, when large clearing had been open in the wood, the renovation was absent or scarce, mainly due to the particular environmental and ecological conditions of the pre‐alpine zone.

As the sylvicultural conditions of the stressed stands may determine the risk of the outbreak, the integration of cultural methods in pest management seems to be very important. In particular:

1. Spruce should not be planted where drought in late spring and early summer is frequent (areas at high risk of outbreak).

2. Local seeds should be preferred so that future trees may be less susceptible to the pest.

3. In the mature stands, any effort to increase the diversity (e.g. selective cutting favoring other species of trees or changing the age structure of the stand) would help to reduce the risk of outbreak.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 12

References:

• Battisti A., Boato A., Cescatti A., Da Ros N., Masutti L., Stergulc F., Zanocco D., 1994 ‐ Cephalcia arvensis nelle peccete prealpine del Veneto ‐ Regione del Veneto, Assessorato Agricoltura e Foreste, Dipartimento Foreste con Università degli Studi di Padova, Istituto di Entomologia Agraria

• Marchisio C., Cescatti A., Battisti A., 1994 ‐ Climate, soils and Cephalcia arvensis outbreaks on Picea abies in the Italian Alps ‐ Forest Ecology and Management 68 (1994)375‐384

• Battisti A., Boato A., Masutti L., 2000 ‐ Influence of silvicultural practices and population genetics on management of the spruce sawfly, Cephalcia arvensis ‐ Forest Ecology and Management 128 (2000) 159‐166

• Battisti A, 2004. Forests and climate change ‐ lessons from insects. Forest@ 1 (1): 17‐24. [online] URL: http://www.sisef.it/

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[BI_90(D)] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Ebersberger Forst]

Authors: Sebastian Weist; [email protected]; +49 8161 71 4906

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 6

Conditions of the affected area ...... 6

Event description ...... 8

Impacts (see chart p. 5) ...... 11

Management ...... 11

Pre‐event ...... 11

Event ongoing ...... 11

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 12

Lesson Learnt ...... 12

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

Due to the winter storms “Vivian” (27.2.1990) and “Wiebke” (28.2.1990 – 1.3.1990) the bark beetle calamity has started in late winter 1990.

The bark beetle calamity in the area “Ebersberger Forst” lasted from 1990 till 1994.

- Agent category: bark beetle

- Agent denomination:

Name: Ips typographus Pest Authorities: (Linnaeus) Taxonomic Position: Insecta: Coleoptera: Scolytidae

Common Name(s): -Buchdrucker (German) -European spruce bark beetle (English) -Gran scolyte de l'epicea (French) -Granbarkbillen (Norwegian) -Grosser achtzähniger Fichtenborkenkäfer (German) -Le typographe de l'epicea (French) Synonym(s): Bostrichus octodentalis Paykull Dermestes typographus Linneaus (taken from EGLITIS, A. 2006) Location of the event

The Ebersberger Forest is a forest area approx. 30 km to the east of Munich belonging to the district Ebersberg. Its size amounts to approx. 90 km ², thus is it one of the largest coherent forest areas in Germany, which is not interrupted by any settlement. 77 km ² of the area are in the possession of the Free State of Bavaria, 23% are municipality and private property. At present the Ebersberger Forest consists still predominantly of spruce mono cultures. In the southern

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

edge old beeches, oaks, maple, lime trees, pines and larches can be found.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

The forest borders on following cities and municipalities, starting in the south are Ebersberg, Kirchseeon, Zorneding, Vaterstetten over the local part Purfing, Anzing, Forstinning, Hohenlinden and Steinhöring. The forest area is divided in 14 state forest districts:

• Gemeindefreies Gebiet Anzinger Forst o Staatsforstdistrikt I Hohenlinden o Staatsforstdistrikt II Ebersberg o Staatsforstdistrikt III Kapelle o Staatsforstdistrikt IV Lehmberg (Lemberg) • Gemeindefreies Gebiet Ebersberger Forst o Staatsforstdistrikt V Viereichen o Staatsforstdistrikt VI Schwaberwegen o Staatsforstdistrikt VII Forst Anzing o Staatsforstdistrikt VIII Fichten o Staatsforstdistrikt IX Buchen • Gemeindefreies Gebiet Eglhartinger Forst o Staatsforstdistrikt X Antoni Brunnen (Antonibrunnen) o Staatsforstdistrikt XI Eglsee o Staatsforstdistrikt XII Forst Eglharting o Staatsforstdistrikt XIII Forst Pöring o Staatsforstdistrikt XIV Einfang

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area Coordinates: WGS84 48° 7′ 36.36″ N, 11° 56′ 39.2″ E 48.126767°, 11.944222° UTM 32U 719077 5334583

The highest point is the “Ludwigs Height” with 617 m ASL in the southeast close to Ebersberg. The Ebersberger Forest is a plane area. The forest is separated in several squares with a length of approx. 400 m. The average temperature is 7.4 degrees and the average precipitation is between 800 and 1100 mm.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

The Ebersberger Forest after the winter storms “Vivian” and “Wiebke” in spring 1991 (photo by G. Lobinger, LWF)

The same area one year later after the bark beetle calamity (photo by G. Lobinger, LWF)

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

Bark beetle infected areas in the Ebersberger Forest (photo by G. Lobinger, LWF)

- Forest types and pre‐event management: In earlier times the Ebersberger Forest was part of the primeval forest between the rivers Inn and Isar. In the middle of the 18th century roads through the forest were built in a chessboard‐like pattern and are still present. The foresters wanted to change the old unproductive broad‐leaved forests in a regulated forestry with predominantly spruce. At the beginning of the 19th century the old forests were transformed in spruce monocultures to increase the timber production. Due to this “forest‐industrialisation” the trees became more vulnerable to environmental influences, infestations and diseases.

Clear cut areas after storm and infestation in spruce monoculture areas (photo by G. Lobinger)

Event description - Ecology of the pathogenic agent (monospecific, polyspecific)

Adult bark beetles of Ips typographus are between 4,2 and 5,5 mm in size and reddish (young adult beetles), dark brown or completely black (old adult beetles). The cylindrical body is covered with yellowish hair and consists of four spines on each side of the elytral declivity (german synonym: Großer 8‐zähniger Fichtenborkenkäfer; eight‐toothed bark beetle). The main host trees are Picea ssp., but Larix ssp., Abies ssp. and Pinus ssp. can be infected too. The European spruce bark beetle is the most destructive bark beetle in Europe. At the end of World War II a seven‐year epidemic following results in a loss of 30 million cubic meters of Norway spruce in Germany (Schwerdtfeger 1957 8

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 9

in EGLITIS, A. 2006). The European spruce bark beetle prefers damaged, wind thrown, physiologically debilitated or overmatured trees. The larvae of Ips typographus feed in the inner bark, so that the stems are girdled and trees are dying by water deficiency. The beetle prefers stems with a bark thickness of about 2.5 mm (information taken from the website of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency 2012). To be active under the bark this species needs a bark temperature at least of 8,3 °C and an air temperature at least as 16,5 °C to fly. The development of the beetles under the bark and the number of generations depends on a specific temperature summation (LOBINGER, G. 2012).

Young adult bark beetle in the bark of Norwegian spruce (photo by S. Weist, LWF)

- Causes and considerations about meteorological conditions (meteorological parameters triggering the attack)

The winter storms “Vivian” and “Wiebke” were the activators of this event, due to a lot of windtrown stems.

- Event timing and spatial evolution (in case of extended event)

1990:

Due to the winter storms “Vivian” and “Wiebke” masses on spruce were blown down (Ebersberger Forst approx. 100.000 m³ 1991 – 1994). In 1990 the number of trapped bark beetles (for monitoring swarming

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 10

seasons) decreased in comparison to former years. The strong effect of distribution (less bark beetles and a high supply of brood trees) played here a significant role.

1991:

Due to the wet and cold weather conditions during spring time the bark beetle problem was ignored (until the end of June only three swarming days with temperatures more than 16.5°C). First stand infestation was detected in August. In parallel wind thrown trees in the succession areas were strong infested by Ips typographus. In these infestation areas the bark beetles could develop a high population in 1990 and 1991. During autumn 1991 the salvage logging began in most of the succession areas.

1992:

From middle/end of April until September it was a warm and dry weather period with favorable conditions for bark beetle reproduction. The swarming period started in the middle of April. Until end of September, 3 and regional 4 generations could dispose successful, additionally sibling broods. The summer 1992 was also known as a “summer of the century”. From May on the bark beetle population increased explosively. Stands at all altitudes, wind throw areas, edges and stocked areas were infested. Drought stress for spruce increased due to the warm and dry weather. In late summer 1992 the dimension of the bark beetle calamity was highly visible. Between summer 1992 and 1993 approx. 1000 ha of treeless areas were emerged.

1993:

This strong increase continued in spring and summer 1993. In the end of April there was a long and massive bark beetle swarming period. Due to a cool weather period in August, the dispose and deployment of the 2nd generation of bark beetles and the sibling broods slowed down. A 3rd generation did not appear. The 2nd generation overwintered under the bark. In the forestry department Ebersberg more than 10 harvester, numerous chipping machines, cutter, mulching engines and forwarders, as well as 150 lumbermen were employed at once. Due to the massive salvage logging over the whole winter, the population could be decreased successfully.

1994:

The year 1994 started with cold and wet weather. The swarming period during spring time was definite less than the years before. Predominant infested was the wind thrown wood from the winter storms 1993/1994 (27./28.01.1994 “Lore”; December 1993 and January 1994 250.000 m³ all in all in Bavaria). At first new stand infestations were marginal. In July/August was a heat wave over six weeks. This period was positive for the bark beetles to find new possibilities to breed. The cool and rainy period after the heat wave

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 11

delayed the growth of the 2nd generation, which were overwintering under the bark in the bug trees. The harvested stems generated a big trap tree potential and decreased the bark beetle population massively.

From 1991 until 1994 nearly 500.000 m³ bark beetle wood was harvested at the Ebersberger Forst.

Impacts (see chart p. 5) - Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

The forest functions as a drinking water reservoir, air filter, leisure area and habitat for plants and wildlife have been compromised due to the bark beetle calamity.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

The prices for wood decreased from approx. 95,‐€ in 1990 to less than 40,‐€ in summer 1991 (Bay. Landtag, Drucksache 16/3828, 2010). By a bark beetle wood production of 500.000 m³ between 1991 and 1994 this calamity has caused economic losses between 47.500.000,‐€ and 20.000.000,‐€, additionally expenses for logging, salvage logging, open storage and lumberjacks.

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

Based on the fact that all over Europe there is a bark beetle wood production of 2.900.000 m³/a (Bußler, 2012), a production of 500.000 m³ in only one area of 90 km² in few years is definitively extreme. Management

Preevent - Risk awareness

The bark beetle risk in spruce monocultures was well known, but in case of a calamity in the Ebersberger Forest it was not possible to get enough logging equipment and lumbermen for salvage logging. It is important to clean up beetle trees in autumn and set up new bait trees in spring to trap the first swarming bark beetles.

- Operative prevention protocols

Event ongoing - Fighting strategy and efforts

Due to the removal of all infested spruces, the bark beetle problem was resolved.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 12

Postevent adopted strategies - Post‐event (or planned) forest management (did the event affected the management policy? Or will it?)

After this calamity the management for salvage jogging has changed. It is important to clean smaller worm eaten holes in spruce monocultures first. In bigger bark beetle areas it is easier to calculate the risk due to a better overview. In smaller worm eaten holes or around single infested trees the hazard of new “bark beetle metastases” and the generation of new populations is extremely high Î shotgun effect!

Since several years, spruce monocultures were transformed in mixed stands of all ages with beech and other broadleaved wood, it depends on site characteristics of soil and regional climatic conditions. Additionally to these procedures, especially personnel has been trained and employed in the observation of stand infestation. For monitoring bark beetles, bark beetle traps were installed to find out the swarming periods.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation

There were no information available.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored

As a secondary event, an increase of the six‐toothed spruce bark beetle (Pityogenes chalcographus) could be monitored. Due to the weather conditions and salvage logging it was not possible to produce a bigger population for calamities.

Lesson Learnt

On the beginning of the nineties of the 20th century, machines like harvesters and forwarders were rather uncommon. Only few machines were in action. Today, in Bavaria more than 100 harvesters are in use (Borchert, 2007, LWF).

Hersteller Typ Anzahl Fahrwerk

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 13

(sheet taken from Borchert, Forst & Technik 2007)

Morphological and meteorological conditions are specified above.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[BI_94(I)] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Valle d’Aosta, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 5

Lesson Learnt ...... 6

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- Year of event beginning: 1984

- Duraration: 7 years

- Agent category: defoliator

- Agent denomination: Lymantria monacha Location of the event

The area affected by the attack of Nun Moth (Lymantria monacha) is located in west part of Valle d’Aosta Region at an altitude range between 1200 and 1400 m asl. The phenomenon has affected mixed coniferous forests (Picea abies and Larix decidua) located in north‐facing slopes.

Concerning management, forest lands are in part private (60 %) and in part public (40%).

Figure 1. Location of the event: the red circle represents the main locations The outbreak has developed in the affected by Lymabtria monacha municipalities of Morgex and Pré‐Saint‐ Didier

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area - Site characteristics: coordinates: (UTM WGS84) 5066223 m N, 369343 m E. The mixed forest is located in steep terrains with fertile soil and mean annual precipitation of 1400 mm.

- Forest types and pre‐event management: o mixed coniferous forests (Picea abies and Larix decidua) o the forest was in good health conditions, type of management: high forest stand. In the public ownership the forest is managed following special plans according to the principles of natural forestry;

o most affected forest types: Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and European Larch (Larix decidua)

Event description - Ecology of the pathogenic agent: Lymantria monacha is an insect causing severe damages to coniferous species. Lymantria monacha belongs to the family of Lymantriidae, the males are smaller than females, and differ in the antennas shape. Butterflies have front wings with a white‐ ivory and dark lines. The back wings are gray with wavy fringe. The larvae are gray‐brown colored with blacks dots on its back and a fine line of yellow, they born in late spring (May June) and eat the leaves of host plants that, in early summer, appear already completely defoliate. The caterpillar can damage about 1000 Norway spruce (Picea abies) needles during its development. Regarding Norway spruce (Picea abies), an induvidual usually dies when defoliated more than 50%. In case of heavy attacks the insect can also affect broadleaves and shrubs.

- Causes and consideration about meteorological conditions (meteorological parameters triggering the attack): The attack wasn’t related to special meteorological conditions.

- Event timing and spatial evolution: The phenomenon, started in the summer 1984, continued with high intensity for about 6‐7 years and then fade in the early nineties. The bug spread quickly causing severe damage to the forest stands (3685 ha and 124.000 m3 of wood destroyed).

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

Impacts - The most important functions compromised are the protection and the landscape.

- Considering that the wood damage (firewood and workwood) has an average value of 20 €/m3 the total amount of damages is about 2.480.000 €.

- This event could be considered extreme because a big surface of the forest has been destroyed or seriously damaged (3685 ha).

Management

Preevent - Operative prevention protocols.

Event ongoing - Fighting strategy and efforts.

Biological fight with sex pheromone. By confusing the male individuals this substance prevents the coupling

Postevent adopted strategies - Post‐event (or planned) forest management.

After the first intervention the public owner decided not to leave the forest evolve naturally. A large percentage of dead and diseased trees were cut and where it was possible it the timber was hauling using the cable car.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored.

In areas where the timber had been left in the forest, attacks of Ips typographus occurred. After about 10 years since the attack appeared, broadleaves regeneration occurred. Lesson Learnt 5 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events6

The event interested mostly the Norway Spruce (Picea abies) forests. Most of the trees affected died. The fast removal of the timber allowed to limit the damages. The damages are now less visible because the broadleaves regeneration has replaced the coniferous. The pheromone traps have provided good results.

6 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[BI_00(I)] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Lombardia Region]

Authors: Marco Bazzoli, Erica Alghisi, Bruna Comini, Elena Gagliazzi

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected] – 0039.030.3540333

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 1

Anoplophora chinensis ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the affected area ...... 3

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 4

Management ...... 4

Pre‐event ...... 4

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 5

Lesson Learnt ...... 5

Reference concact

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected] – 0039.02.67404.1

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Anoplophora chinensis

- First discovered in 2000 in Milan

- Settled by 2000

- Citrus Long‐horned Beetle Location of the event

Anoplophora chinensis to 2011 was contained in urban green spaces. In spite of the low distance, has not yet settled in woodlands.

Follows a list of infested municipalities:

Gussago, Montichiari, Assago, Buccinasco, Canegrate, Caronno Pertusella, Casorezzo, Cerro Maggiore, Corsico, Cuggiono, Garbagnate milanese, Invenuno, Lainate, Legnano, Marcallo con Casone, Mesero, Milano, Nerviano, Ossona, Parabiago, Pogliano milanese, Rozzano, San Vittore Olona, Saronno, Uboldo, Villa Cortese, Zibido San Giacomo, Castellanza, Gallarate, Solbiate Olona.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area - Citrus Long‐horned Beetle feeds and grow up onto several deciduous species and can be detected based on several symptoms including the presence of gallery holes in the host’s trunk; the presence of sawdust on the ground near the main roots; the unusual drying up of plants.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

- Lombardian forests are mostly composed of host species: Acer spp., Carpinus spp. Corylus spp., Ostrya spp. - Lombardia has allocated 10.000.000€ for the three‐years period 2008/2010 to counteract Citrus Long‐ horned Beetle spread.

Event description - A. chinensis is univoltine (one generation per year): during Summer, each female Citrus Long‐ horned Beetle, after mating, lays up to 200 eggs in tree bark. In Autumn larvae grew up into the tree and chew the inner fibers, forming a tunnel that is then used, during Winter, as a place for beetle pupation. At the beginning of the next Summer adults escape and fly outside and move to the top of host’s plants. From eggs‐laying to pupation and adults emergence can take 12 to 18 months. Its average rate of spread is estimated as 500m/year.

- Meteorological conditions do not interfere with Anoplophora’s spread.

- Since the first discover in 2000 in Milan, Citrus Long‐horned Beetle was discovered in 2007 in 25 municipalities near Milan, Brescia and Varese. In 2011 Anoplophora chinensis is settled in 29 municipalities in Lombardia.

Impacts - In case of heavy attack, you can have more than 20 holes in a trunk, consequently the strength of the wood could get lower.

- Is not possible to evaluate the economic losses. Up to now there are no economic losses related to woodlands in Lombardia because Lombardian woodklands are free.

- This “event” is considered to be extreme because of the extraordinary polyphagia of Citrus Long‐ horned Beetle. Furthermore there is a very short distance between infested areas and Lombardian forests.

Management

Preevent - It is forbidden to export specific host plants from settlement areas;

- It is forbidden to import specific host plants in settlement areas; 4

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

- It is forbidden, in settlement areas, to plant specific host plants;

- Regional Plant Protection Service check twice a year the health of specific host plants in every nursery in settlement areas.

Event ongoing - Surveillance in settlement areas: dedicated patrols check every specific host plant in settlement areas and notify those affected;

- Cut off the affected plants and removal of respective root systems;

- Cut of the specific host plants falling in a buffer of 20 m from the plant affected;

Postevent adopted strategies - After the first three‐years period 2008/2010, Regione Lombardia has renewed for another three years period the protocol previously adopted.

Lesson Learnt

Italian and lombardian phytosanitary laws are according with European ones. A severe fight against this insect started almost four years ago, with infected trees’ cut (above all in private gardens and little green areas). Risk of diffusion of A. chinensis in free forest horizons could severely reduce any future hope of resolution. The biological control unfortunately is not yet safe.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[BI_00/04(D)] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Baden‐Württemberg, Germany]

Authors: Bin You (FVA, [email protected],+49(0)761‐4018365)

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 6

Pre‐event ...... 6

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 7

Lesson Learnt ...... 7

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

Insect outbreak was not abnormal in the federal state of Baden‐Württemberg. According to a booking record database, which contains the quantity of harvested timber in terms of the volume of roundwood (excluding branches and crowns) under bark that were cut and sold out between 1976 and 2008, there were always some timber harvest that was due to the insect infestation. On average, 0.38 million cubic meters were logged each year. But the yearly harvested timber by insect damage varied greatly with the smallest quantity of 0.01 million m3 in 1980 and the largest quantity of 1.46 million m3 in 2001. It is important to point out that due to the privacy issue only the public forests are taken into account this database. The harvesting data on private forests that accounts for 37% of all forest areas in Baden‐ Württemberg was not recorded in this database. It is also necessary to notice that because of some practical problems, the field workers could not assign a certainly correct spatial reference to each single round wood as they could not distinguish from which forest stand that round wood was cut down. So those woods that did not have a certain forest parcel ID were not entered into this database either. As a consequence, the total amount of harvested timber form public forests in “Booking records” database is approximately 60% of that according to forest reports by Forest Administration of Baden‐Württemberg.

To showcase the most representative insect infestation events, two years that had most severe insect damage were selected to further deepen the analysis. One was the year 2001 that had 1.46 million m3 insect damaged timber mainly by bark beetles outbreak after the Lothar storm event in 1999, and the other was the year 2004 that had 1.45 million m3 damage mainly due to the drought and hot weave attack in 2003. Location of the event

Baden‐Württemberg is one of 16 federal states of Germany, located in south‐west of the country (see Figure 1). It is the third largest state in terms of area and population, 35,752 km2 and 10.7 million inhabitants, respectively. The Rhine River

Fig.1 Location of Baden‐Württemberg in Alpine Space MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

forms the western boarder with France and Forest Ownership in Baden-Württemberg most parts of southern boarder with State; 24% Switzerland. Private; 37%

As for the ownership of forest in Baden‐

Württemberg, the total forest area, according Community; to the latest annual report of Baden‐ 39% Württemberg Forest Service, is 1.386 million ha. Fig.2 Share of forest owners in Baden‐Württemberg Private forest, communal forest and state forest accounts for 37%, 39%, 24%, respectively (see figure 2). In terms of the forest management structure, the state of Baden‐Württemberg used to have 163 first levels of forest management units that were called Forest Office, each of which manages about 7 forestry districts. After the forest reform in 2005, Baden‐Württemberg has then 44 first levels of forest management units that are now Forest Bureau which is identical to the 44 administrative counties (Landkreis and Stadtkreis in German) in the state.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area Baden‐Württemberg has one of the most attractive forests in the world, the Black Forest, whose highest peak is the Feldberg with an altitude of 1,493 m a.s.l., The high plateau of the Swabian Alb (ranging up to 1,000 m a.s.l.), between the Neckar River, the Black Forest and the Danube, is an important European watershed. Baden‐Württemberg shares Lake Constance (Bodensee; the border with Switzerland is the middle of the lake) with Switzerland and it shares the foothills of the Alps (known as the Allgäu) with Bavaria and the Austrian Vorarlberg. There three sub‐ regions forms the second transnational case study area within the MANFRED project context.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

deciduous and mixed stands are shown in Figure 3. According to the Corine Land Cover 2000 data, the most common forest types are conifer‐dominated (45%), followed by mixed (35%), and broad‐leaved (20%). Approximately 38 percentage of the total area is covered with forest (Keil et al. 2005), making Baden‐Württemberg one of the most wooded states in Germany.

Impacts

Insect infestation has been triggering 1600000 timber damage continuously. The general 2001 2004 tendency of insect‐incurred timber 1400000 harvest is clearly increasing. On the other 1200000 hand, the quantity of insect damage showed also obvious variation. This was 1000000

because of the fact that big insect events m3 800000 were normally accompanied by and following serious meteorological 600000 activities, like the “Vivian/Wiebke” Storm 400000 1990, “Lothar” Storm 1999 and Drought & Hot weave in 2003. As indicated in the 200000 figure 4, the most damaged timber by 0 insect occurred in 2001 and 2004, when 0 8 0 4 6 8 0 6 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 9 9 9 0 0 0 1976 1978 1 1982 1984 1986 19 1 1992 19 19 1 2 2002 2004 2 2 the harvested timber from public forests -200000 due to insect infestations accounted for Fig.4 Insect damaged timber harvest between 1976‐2008 27% and 22% of total harvest in the respective year.

Other Other Conifers Other Deciduous Beech Deciduous Beech Oak 0.31% 0.16% 0.04% 0.22% 1.09% 0.14% Other Pie/Larch Oak Conifers 4.09% Pie/Larch 0.33% 1.17% 0.00%

Spruce/Fir Spruce/Fir 98.49% 93.97%

Fig.5 Share of species harvested due to insect damage in 2001 (left) and 2004 (right) 5

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

As for the share of species that were harvested due to insect damage in these 2 years, it is apparent that spruce and fir were the overwhelming majority species, accounting for 98.49% after Lothar and 93.97% after the drought and hot weave. The infestation was often found at the edges of stands which originated from storm damage of Lothar.

Spruce and silver firs that were weakened by windthrows and drought and heat provided favourable living conditions for bark breeding beetles, as did the dead woods. Silver bark beetles caused greatest damages to silver fir, whose branch free parts of the stem of damaged old and big silver firs were more prone to be attacked. Actually, the effects of Lothar 1999 and drought 2003 did not only appear in a single year, but also lasted for a few years afterwards. After the storm disaster in 1999, very intensive salvage logging was carried out and a large quantity of woods were harvested, stored or sprinkled with water. But a considerable amount of woods lay still in forests. For those uprooted trees, their roots were firstly damaged by wind and then further stressed by drought, which formed perfect living sites for bark beetle to breed. This to a large degree aggravated the outbreak of insects. Management

Preevent In order to prevent the outbreak of bark boring insects and thus to reduce the bark beetle damages to conifers, it is very effective to remove all potential breeding ground materials from forests (Odenthal‐ Kahabka, 2005). The specific activities include the following:

· Salvage logging of infested, diseased or dying trees · Salvage logging of trees damaged by storms or snow · Dispatching timber while it is still cold (October to March) before spring time flights · Speedy removal of timber from the forest or · immediate debarking of the logs or · in extreme cases preventive application of an approved plant protective agent during summer months (April to September) outside of the stand On the other hand, to control the outbreak of wood boring insects, the general preventive measures could be, firstly removal of timber to a place outside the forest (or into hardwood stands) as quickly as possible during time of insect flying and where infestations have already started, then use storage sites free from local insect populations and storage outside of the forest, avoid sites with infestations in the previous year, thirdly storage of round wood: dry storage of debarked timber, wet storage on irrigation sites or conservation under oxygen exclusion (Odenthal‐Kahabka, 2005). There are also other alternative control

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

measures for wood and bark boring insects (Odenthal‐Kahabka, 2005), like trap trees and mass trapping with pheromone traps, wet storage, film wrapping and removal of susceptible or infested logging residues.

Postevent adopted strategies After calamities, local damage situation must be surveyed carefully with the aim to prioritise the damaged area. The decision can then accordingly be made regarding the order of harvesting, and which areas shall be logged immediately and which other areas can be left unprocessed for a while. Based on the experience gained during previous salvage logging, Odenthal‐Kahabka (2005) summarized the reasonable order of logging to prevent and control the insect damages: 1, spruce trees shall be processed before other conifers due to its high proportion in windblown trees and its high potential risk from lps typographus; 2, smaller (up to 2 ha) windblown sites shall be cleared up before large ones, because the potential risk in relation to the timber volume is higher the smaller the area. Infestation of windblown timber proceeds much quicker, sharply increasing the risk of infestation into adjacent, standing trees; 3, sites with high proportions of broken trees shall be cleared before predominantly windblown sites; 4, single thrown or broken trees (concentrated app. 40 m³/ha) shall be processed before large windthrown areas; 5, those stands which have large diameter trees (> 20 cm DBH) shall be prioritized before stands with mainly small‐sized trees; 6, hillside situations (especially Southern slopes) shall be processed before plateaus.

Besides, it is crucial to monitor the insect infestation status. Systematic check of standing infested trees must be given high priority from a storm and the time between infestation and removal /decontamination of such trees must be kept as short as possible. The best time for infestation checking shall be in May/June of the first year after a storm (Odenthal‐Kahabka, 2005).

Lesson Learnt

Built on the experience obtained from previous storm‐ and drought/heat induced insect infestations, many practical and operational lessons have been learnt. Odenthal‐Kahabka (2005) stated that various basical management activities shall be followed under specific aims for different stages of prevention and control of bark and wood boring insect infestation. First of all, it is important to clean forestry practice after calamities as a preventive strategy, by removing breeding grounds for insects. To this end, sufficient labour force, timber merchandising scheme and storage capacities shall be planned in advance. Then insect infestation situation shall be monitored and checked, which lay the foundation for countermeasures formulation. In this regard, surveying and mapping of windthrow sites and drought / heat affected forest areas shall be made along with the inventory of insect infestation risks. As long as the infestation 7

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

information is available, it is the time to remove the infested woods as soon as possible. The principal is to reduce insect density and to protect the imminently vulnerable stands. This is of great priority after calamities. As a last resort, insecticides could be used to protect adjacent susceptible stands at imminent risk of infestation when all other measures are exhausted and only when the danger of expanding to other stands is imminent. At the same time, strict legal restrictions and certifications regulations on insecticides must be respected.

Reference

Keil M, Kiefl R, Strunz G (2005) CORINE Land Cover 2000—Germany. Final Report – Wessling, 72 pp

Odenthal‐Kahabka, J. (2005): Handreichung Sturmschadensbewältigung. Hrsg. Landesforstverwaltung Baden‐Württemberg und Landesforsten Rheinland‐Pfalz. Online version: Stand: 20.12.2010

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[BI_04(I)] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Lymantria dispar ‐ Districts of Trieste and Gorizia]

Author: Iris Bernardinelli Servizio Fitosanitario e Chimico ‐ Ersa ‐ Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia Giulia

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the affected area ...... 3

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 4

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 5

Lesson Learnt ...... 5

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- April‐June 2004

- Spring 2004

- Defoliator

- Lymantria dispar (Gypsy moth) Location of the event

The defoliated area was in the eastern most part of Friuli Venezia Giulia Region.

This area is characterized by calcareous substrates which is dominated by sparse deciduous forest made of hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) and oaks (mainly Quercus pubescens), interspersed with portions of moorland which is becoming increasingly more overgrown with bushes and pine forests (mainly Pinus nigra) planted during the Hapsburg Empire.

The event was in the district of Trieste and Gorizia, in particular the following municipalities have been affected by defoliation: Trieste, Gorizia, Duino Aurisina, Sgonico, and Doberdò del Lago. Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area - The coordinates UTM WGS84 of the middle of the main defoliated area N5064499 E 403138.

- The largest part of the defoliated area is flatland in the karst plateau at an height of 150‐250 meters above sea level but even

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

higher altitudes till 500 meters above sea level were defoliated.

- The defoliated area is characterized by deciduous forest described as Ostryo‐Quercetum pubescentis in the area this forest type has an extension of about 18500 hectares of which 5812 were defoliated. This forest was managed as coppice. The tree composition of the area was mixed broadleaf forest and the main host of defoliators was Ostrya carpinifolia. The population was described ad medium density with trees diameter in the class 5‐20 cm and height of 5‐10 m with an age of 40‐60 years.

Event description - Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) is known to be a polyphagous insect but in the described event it defoliated mostly hop hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia). The level of defoliation has been recorded in class 3 (26‐60%) and class 4 (61‐90%). This species overwinter as egg and in April newly hatched larvae start eating foliage. The mature larva is 6‐7cm long and to reach that dimension it eats a great amount of foliage. In June it start pupation on tree trunks and branches. In July‐august the adults start flying and after mating they start laying eggs on trunks.

- This event occurred in spring 2004 and it could be related to the summer 2003 which is considered on of the hottest and driest summer in Europe (and for sure in the defoliated area). It is known that hot and dry can be cause of pullulation of Lymantria dispar due to the fact that less bacteria and fungi act on the developing larvae, so that a higher number of insect can reach the adult age consequently a larger number of eggs are laid. In particular 2003 has been a very hot and dry season. Extreme climatic changes such as temperature and drought are also known to change the synchronization among vegetation, parasites, parassitoid and predators, because each species react in a different way to strong differences in climatic conditions, and in this case Lymantria dispar took advantage of this situation.

- The defoliation took place almost at the same time (April June) in most of the Hop Hornbeam present in the karst plateau and in some karst hills.

Impacts (see chart p. 5) - The forest was almost completely defoliated in spring.

- The economic losses in terms of production of wood were negligible but a lot of alarm in population and caused a lot of extra work for municipalities, Forest Services, and Plant Protection Service.

- The event is considered to be “extreme” due to its extension, to the strong level of defoliation and to the strong impact on population.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

Management

Preevent - There is awareness of the fact that pullulation of defoliators can be very effective and can appear suddenly after many year of absence of visible damages. In some cases this event are periodical or caused by extreme climatic conditions.

- In case of supposed predisposing situations a winter monitoring on egg masses density could be of great importance to predict the pullulation of gypsy moth, but in the described event it has not been assessed.

Event ongoing - In the described event it has no fighting strategy were carried out. Even if in future at least in private gardens and on ornamental trees early treatment could be possible.

Postevent adopted strategies - During winter 2004‐2005 the monitoring of egg masses on trees has been carried out to asses the risk of a second year defoliation. Just very few egg masses were found so the situation was considered concluded.

- In cases of particular climatic conditions or every 5‐6 years a winter monitoring is carried out to asses the risk of strong defoliation.

- In January ‐ February 2011 a new winter monitoring was carried out with low level of presence Lesson Learnt

Strong defoliation in deciduous trees if occasional are not so dangerous for forests, but it's of particular importance predicting defoliation in order to inform population and giving them the possibility of an early control of the pest in garden and ornamental trees or at least reduce panic.

[BI_06(I)a] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Lombardia Region]

Authors: Marco Bazzoli, Erica Alghisi, Bruna Comini, Elena Gagliazzi

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected] – 0039.030.3540333

Index

Dryocosmus kuriphilus ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the affected area ...... 3

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 4

Management ...... 4

Pre‐event ...... 4

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event...... 5

Adopted strategies ...... 5

Lesson Learnt ...... 5

Reference concact

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected] – 0039.02.67404.1

Dryocosmus kuriphilus

- First discovered in Italy in 2002

- Settled in Lombardia by 2006

- Chestnut gall wasp Location of the event

The oriental chestnut gall wasp was first discovered in Albino (BG) e Sonico (BS).

In 2011 Dryocosmus kuriphilus has reached Valtellina, hitherto free. Today it is widespread and settled in almost all Lombardian chestnut woods.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area - Oriental chestnut gall wasp’s distribution and sweet chestnut’s distribution in Lombardia are quite the same: range of altitudes from sea level to 1.000 m, no limestone, at least 600 mm/year of precipitation without long drought periods.

- Dryocosmus kuriphilus feeds and grow up onto several Castanea species and variety: Castanea sativa, Castanea crenata, ecc. and can be detected based on the presence of gall; the early drying up of plants.

Event description - Dryocosmus kuriphilus is univoltine (one generation per year) and thelytokus (females only are produced). The adult females are living for a short period: 2‐10 day; they emerge in early summer and immediately lay eggs inside chestnut buds that will develop the following spring. Each female may lay more than 100 eggs. Eggs hatch in 30‐40 days, larvae remain within the eggs and overwinter in the plant buds. In springtime, larval feeding induces the formation of green coloured galls. Pupation occurs within the galls till the flown of adult females. One female is sufficient for founding a new population. - Their direction of dispersal is consistent with the direction of the prevailing winds.

- Since the first discover in 2002 in Cuneo, Oriental chestnut gall wasp’s population is enormously increased: in 2011 Dryocosmus kuriphilus is settled in 15 of 20 Italian regions.

Impacts - The potential effects on fruit yield reduction are considered moderate and the environmental impact in Castanea woodland is considered as low.

- All the economic losses are related to the sales of fruits and derivatives.

- This “event” is considered to be extreme because of there are not, in Italy, specific antagonists for this pathogen.

Management

Preevent - It is forbidden to export chestnut trees from settlement areas;

- It is forbidden to import chestnut trees in settlement areas;

- It is forbidden, in settlement areas, to plant chestnut trees;

- If possible, planting resistant varieties of chestnut trees.

Event ongoing - Regional Plant Protection Service, organizes surveillance activities to ascertain the actual distribution of the pathogen;

- Removal and destruction of galls in springtime, before the flown of adults;

- Biological control by the release of Torymus sinensis a Chinese parasite wasp with high host specificity;

- International projects of study and research of resistant chestnut tree's varieties.

Postevent

Adopted strategies - Biological control

Lesson Learnt

The insect is largely widespread in Lombardy chestnut woods. In spite of European laws, Italian and Lombardian phytosanitary ones insist in fighting it. At the moment the most probably scenario is a diffuse presence of D. kuriphilus in Europe’s chestnut woods. Diffusion of the specific parasitoid “Torymus sinensis” seems now the only realistic way of biological control of this specie.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[BI_06(I)b] Second level analysis on extreme pests and biotic occurrences

[Lombardia Region]

Authors: Marco Bazzoli, Erica Alghisi, Bruna Comini, Elena Gagliazzi

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected] – 0039.030.3540333

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 1

Ips acuminatus ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the affected area ...... 3

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 4

Management ...... 4

Pre‐event ...... 4

Event ongoing ...... 5

Post‐event...... 5

Adopted strategies ...... 5

Lesson Learnt ...... 6

Reference concact

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected] – 0039.02.67404.1

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Ips acuminatus

- First discovered in Lombardia in 2001

- Settled in Lombardia by 2006

- Sharp toothed bark beetle Location of the event

Ips acuminatus is an important secondary pest of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and other pine species.

It is settled, since 2001, in about 350 hectares in Valtellina (Sondrio); follows a list of infested municipalities:

Mountain Community Valtellina di Tirano (200 hectares): Aprica, Bianzone, Bormio, Grosio, Grosotto, Lovero, Mazzo di Valtellina, Sernio, Sondalo, Teglio, Tirano, Tovo di S.Agata, Valdidentro, Valfurva, Valdisotto, Vervio, Villa di Tirano;

Montain Community Alta Valtellina: (150 hectares) Sondalo, Valdisotto, Bormio, Valdidentro, Valfurva. Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area - Sharp toothed bark beetle feeds and grow up onto Scots pine(Pinus sylvestris) and other pine species. It can be detected based on several symptoms including the presence of sawdust on the ground; the presence of exit holes and galleries in the host’s bark;

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

- he unusual and sudden reddening of the foliage.

- Ips, in Lombardia, is settled in Scot’s pinewoods and covers about 350 ha mainly at a range of altitude from 600 and 1.400 m. Pine trees infested suffer a quick death: in infested forests there are several standing dead trees.

Event description - Ips acuminatus infests the upper part or big branches of standing trees. It is a polygamous species with up to 6‐12 females joining each male within the gallery systems. The maternal galleries radiate outward from the central nuptial chamber (formed by the male) creating a distinctive star‐shaped pattern. Eggs are laid on both sides of the maternal galleries. Larval galleries develop shortly in the phloem. Before emerging, callow adults need a period of maturation feeding that takes place in the phloem close to the galleries where the larvae have developed. Adults infest the upper part of the trunk and the branches, as a bark thickness of 2‐3 mm is preferred. He overwintering as adult mainly under the bark of the infested trees. As many other bark beetle species, I. acuminatus have a very pronounced spatial patterning linked to the cooperative attack strategy it adopts, resulting in a „spot infestation‟.

- Spring emergence begins when air temperature reaches 14°‐16°C, but the real mass flight occurs when temperature exceeds 18°C.

- Settlement area is increasing.

Impacts - Loss of over 40.000 square meters of timber since 2001.

- It attacks relatively healthy trees and leads them quickly to death.

- This “event” is considered to be extreme because infested Pine trees suffer a very quick death.

Management

Preevent The event could not be expected. It is the sudden attack by a pathogen not previously present and arrived from Switzerland, where its presence areal was damaged by fire in the late Nineties. The pine forests where the pest appeared were a reforestation on poor soils with a protective function against the hydro‐ geological instability.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

Event ongoing It was necessary to implement measures to resolve critical situations also reported by people in reference to the impact of the Scots pine deaths on the landscape and with reference to hydrogeological risk.

First interventions with plants bait were tested at the beginning of the infestation, but the pest has developed very rapidly, especially in 2003 as a consequence of the long drought.

Postevent Mountain Community Valtellina di Tirano

In 2003 numerous forest restoration projects have been realized with cutting and removal of affected trees, in about 100 hectares of the total damaged area. It has also realized a reforestation with broad leaved hardwoods (oak and pubescent oak) and conifers (larch for a long‐term economic strategy), while the remaining area was settled spontaneously by natural vegetation.

The projects cost was 247.000,00 euro.

The wood was partly used as firewood (biomass station) and part used on site for naturalistic engineering, with stacking against on high logs to realize a paling against falling rocks.

From 2004 to 2008 other actions were realized for forest area improvement concerning viability and hydrogeological protection.

Montain Community Alta Valtellina (Consorzio Forestale Alta Valtellina)

In 2009‐2010 numerous forest restoration projects have been realized with cutting, removal of affected trees and reforestation, in about 30 hectares of the total damaged area. Reclaimed actions were realized in area with relevant value for landscape, touristic and protective functions.

The wood was partly used as firewood (biomass station)

The projects cost was 94.000,00 euro.

Adopted strategies It was not possible to define any strategy, because the pest has developed very quickly and random on the territory. Over time, all stands of Scots pine were affected by the pest.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

Lesson Learnt

At the beginning the most relevant criticality was determined by the fact that the forests pine affected by the pest had a protective function.

Post‐event natural vegetation (oak and chestnut) taking over, even spontaneously, which over time (20‐30 years) will be a good quality forest, exceeding the critical situation.

MANFRED project – Extreme stress events in the Alpine forests

Annex III ‐ Abiotic disturbance

WP6 Handbook

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[AB_90(I)a] Second level analysis on extreme windthrows, snow damages and abiotic occurrences

[Valle d’Aosta, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 5

Lesson Learnt ...... 5

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- Date of the event: 14/04/1990

- Extended events (yes/no): yes

- Agent: heavy snow

- Link to a specific meteorological event: spring and snowfall with heavy snow

Location of the event

The event described, concerning heavy snow, affected several areas of the Aosta Valley Region, mainly facing‐south, at an altitude range between 1000 and 1200 m asl. The most represented forest type in these areas the Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest.

Figure 1. Location of the event: the red cirle represents the locations affected by heavy snows

List of municipalities: Challand‐Saint‐Victor, Saint‐Denis, Verrayes and Torgnon.

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area

- Blavesse (Verrayes, UTM, WGS84): 5068300 m N, 390100 m E.

Considering that the event interested south‐ facing slopes, at an altitude range between 1000 and 1200 m, the most affected tree species has been the Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris).

The special spring weather conditions explained the occurrence of this event. Under the threshold of 1000 m asl the forest was not damaged because only rain fell, while above 1200 m asl heavy snow occurred.

- Forest types and pre‐event management:

o The forest affected were represented mainly by Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) with also some deciduous species (Prunus avium, Fraxinus excelsior, Populus, Betula Pendula).

o The forest was almost all public owned (80%) therefore managed by specific plans, the common form of management was represented by the high forest.

Event description

‐ Causes and consideration about meteorological conditions

This kind of event is not rare in mountain regions. Damages occurred because a lot of heavy snow have fallen and remained on the trees canopy. The snow have broken many branches and caused the fall of the plant. In few hours nearly 50 cm of snow was fallen. Trees with different diameters have been affected. Overall, 200 hectares of forests (20000 plants and 5000 m3 of wood) were damaged.

- Concerning spatial evolution, an area of several kilometers was interested

Impacts

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

- The most important functions compromised or reduced are the landscape function and secondary the production function.

- There were no consequences for local people.

‐ Economic losses of this event are difficult to be estimated and no cost assessment has never been published.

- This event is considered “extreme” because it caused great damages to large forest areas.

Management

Preevent

- Forests were managed according to the principles of natural forestry

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event (or planned) forest management (did the event affected the management policy? Damaged plants were cut and the timber brought out of the forest. After these first interventions the forest was left to evolve naturally.

Lesson Learnt

5 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events6

Preventing this kind of event is complicate. It is considered important to create mixed forests, where possible, which should be composed by species with different resistance levels to the different extreme events.

Forestry interventions performed within one year after the event allow to reduce the further potential spread of insects.

6 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events1

[AB_90(I)b] Second level analysis on extreme windthrows, snow damages and abiotic occurrences

[Valle d’Aosta, Italy]

1 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 3

Conditions of the affected area ...... 3

Event description ...... 4

Impacts (see chart p. 5) ...... 4

Management ...... 4

Pre‐event ...... 4

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 4

Lesson Learnt ...... 5

2 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events3

Date and name of the event

- Date of the event: 27/02/1990

- Extended events (yes/no): yes

- Agent: wind

- Link to a specific meteorological event: Vivian Storm

Location of the event

The event described, concerning windthrows affected several areas of the Aosta Valley Region, at an average altitude of 1700 m asl. In these areas the forest type most represented was the Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and the European Larch (Larix decidua).

Figure 1. Location of the event: the red cirle represents the locations affected by Vivian storm in 1990

The event has affected several municipalities: Bionaz, Etroubeles, Oyace, Saint‐Oyen, Introd, Nus and Rhemes‐Saint‐Georges.

3 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area

- Introd (Parriod) (UTM, WGS84): N 5058700 m N, 358300 m E.

The event interested mostly mixed coniferous forests with Norway Spruce (Picea abies) European Larch (Larix decidua).

In some parts of the region the storm reached 220 km/h.

- Forest types and pre‐event management:

o The forest affected were mainly represented by coniferous species.

o The common form of management was therefore represented by high forest. The forest was almost all public owned (80%) and managed by specific plans.

Impacts

- The most important functions compromised or reduced are the landscape function and secondary the production function.

- There were no consequences for local people.

- Economic losses of this event are difficult to be estimated and no cost assessment has never been published.

- This event is considered “extreme” because it caused great damages to large forest areas.

4 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events5

Management

Preevent

- Forests were managed according to the principles of natural forestry

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event (or planned) forest management (did the event affected the management policy? First intervention started one year after the event in the public lands more easily accessible. 80% of the timber was hauling in the following years and sold as firewood.

- After these first interventions the forest was left to evolve naturally.

Lesson Learnt 5 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events6

Forestry interventions performed within one year after the event could allow reducing the further potential spread of insects.

6 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events7

7 MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[AB_99(D)] Second level analysis on extreme windthrows, snow damages and abiotic occurrences

[Baden‐Württemberg, Germany]

Authors: Bin You (FVA, [email protected],+49(0)761‐4018365)

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 5

Management ...... 7

Lesson Learnt ...... 8

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Date of the event: Lothar was a 4‐day storm event, on 24 – 27, December 1999. It started off the American East coast at about 35N and then entered the strong baroclinic zone that had formed across the Atlantic with a very strong associated polar jet (Gardiner et al.,2010). Lothar hit the French coast at 0600 GMT on December 26 with the

central pressure of 961 bmar and then Graphic: Münchner Rück

swept rapidly the whole central Europe. Fig.1 cyclone track and central pressure of lothar It reached southwest Germany at 0900 GMT on December 26 with a little higher central pressure of 970 mbar. Lothar swept across central Europe with its cyclone track and central pressure showing in Figure 1.

- Extended events (yes/no): yes

- Agent (snow/wind, combined): storm caused flood in the next days and insect outbreak in the years afterwards

- Link to a specific meteorological event: it was originated from an extra‐tropical cyclone above Atlantic.

Location of the event

This report is based on Lothar’s damages incurred to the German state of Baden‐ Württemberg, as it is taken as an example of extreme windthrow event.

Baden‐Württemberg is one of 16 federal states of Germany, located in south‐west of the country (see Figure 2). It is the third largest

Fig.2 Location of Baden‐Württemberg in Alpine Space MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

state in terms of both area and population, 35,752 km2 and 10.7 million inhabitants, respectively. The Rhine River forms the western boarder with Forest Ownership in Baden-Württemberg France and most parts of southern boarder with Switzerland. State; 24% Private; 37% As for the ownership of forest in Baden‐ Württemberg, the total forest area, according Community; to the latest annual report of Baden‐ 39% Württemberg Forest Service, is 1.386 million ha. Fig.3 Share of forest owners in Baden‐Württemberg Private forest, communal forest and state forest accounts for 37%, 39%, 24%, respectively (see figure 3). In terms of the forest management strcture, the state of Baden‐Württemberg used to have 163 first levels of forest management units that were called Forest Office, each of which manages about 7 forestry districts. After the forest reform in 2005, Baden‐Württemberg has then 44 first levels of forest management units that are now Forest Bureau which is identical to the 44 administrative counties (Landkreis and Stadtkreis in German) in the state.

Lothar reached Baden‐Württemberg from the west across the Rhine River after it moved through France. The general wind flow direction was south‐west to north‐east, with the storm centre in the vicinity of one of 9 independent cities, Baden‐Baden and county Rastatt. Lothar induced severe damages in black forest and some counties in north‐east of the state, while the south and south‐east parts of the state were somewhat spared. The following administrative regions at NUTS 3 level suffered relatively more serious damages and losses: Baden‐Baden, Rastatt, Ortenaukreis, Freudenstadt, Calw, Pforzheim, Enz, Böblingen, Karlsruhe,Ostalbkreis, Rems‐Murr‐Kreis, Schwäbisch Hall.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area

Baden‐Württemberg has one of the most attractive forests in the world, the Black Forest, whose highest peak is the Feldberg with an altitude of 1,493 m a.s.l., The high plateau of the Swabian Alb (ranging up to 1,000 m a.s.l.), between the Neckar River, the Black Forest and the Danube, is an important European watershed. Baden‐Württemberg shares Lake Constance (Bodensee; the border with Switzerland is the middle of the lake) with Switzerland and it shares the foothills of the Alps (known as the Allgäu) with

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

Bavaria and the Austrian Vorarlberg. There three sub‐regions forms the second transnational case study area within the MANFRED project context.

Regarding the Species composition, coniferous trees are the dominating species in Baden‐Württemberg, accouting for 65% of all trees, the geographical distribution of coniferous, deciduous and mixed stands are shown in Figure 4. According to the Corine Land Cover 2000 data, the most common forest types are conifer‐dominated (45%), followed by mixed (35%), and broad‐leaved (20%). Approximately 38 percentage of the total area is covered with forest (Keil et al. 2005), making Baden‐Württemberg one of the most wooded states in Germany.

Event description

Lothar started initially the development off the North America east coast on December 24, 0000GMT 1999 and Data source: LUBW was greatly accelerated by a strong upper lever Fig.4 Distribution of Forest Types divergence between Brittany and Cornwall when it met the polar jet’s exit region on December 26, 0000GMT 1999. What was found surprising was that the gust did not slow down after Lothar left the Atlantic ocean based on the observations from the stations along Lothar’s track. In the three major devastated countries, France, Germany and Switzerland, the top wind speed exceeded 150 km/h in many valley areas. In Baden‐Württemberg, the strongest gust reached up to 210 km/h in some mountainous region (Jutta, 2003). There were two centers of damage in Baden‐Württemberg, one was the west slope of Black Forest along the Rhine Valley and the other one was located in the north‐east parts of the Federal state.

Impacts

Lothar caused gigantic loss of about 185 Mio.m3 solid wood altogether in France, Germany and Switzerland. As for the damages in Baden‐Württemberg, a total affected area of 40,000 hectares forests were either uprooted or broken, leading to the total felled woods of 30 Mio. M3, which is 3.5 times the

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

normal annual yields (Jutta 2003). The breakdown of the forest ownerships of these 30 Mio m3 damaged woods are shown in Figure 5.

The majority of damaged forest types were coniferous trees, which accounted for 85% of total damage in terms of volume, while the rest 15% were due to deciduous trees. When the tree species are taken into account, most damages were found in Norway spruce stands that constituted 63% of total damaged woods. Figure 6 indicates the detailed species composition of lothar damaged woods.

Private Share of forest damage forest, 5.1, Share of tree species damaged by Lothar 17% Others 6% Oak 2%

State Beech 7% forest, 10.7, 36% Larch 2%

Pine 5%

Douglas Fir 3%

Silver Fir 12% Spruce 63% Community forest, 14.1, 47%

Fig.5 Share of storm damages in forest ownership Fig.6 Share of storm damages in tree species

Change of forest types by Lothar in BW Lothar has changed significantly the forest condition in Baden – Württemberg. Coniferous stands used to take up to 65% 100% of all forest areas in the state before 90% Deciduous; 35% Deciduous; 42% Lothar. However, according to the Second 80% 70% National Forest Inventory that was carried 60% out after Lothar 2002, the share of 50% conifers reduced to 58%, whilst the 40% Conifers; 65% Conifers; 58% deciduous trees went up from 35% to 42% 30% 20% (see figure 7). 10% The wood supply increased dramatically 0% Before Lothar After Lothar due to the salvage logging. In 2000, the

Fig.7 Share of forest types before and after Lothar total sold timber reached to 17.8 Mio m3

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

of solid woods in Baden‐Württemberg, which was about the double amount of that in normal years. This triggered the sharp drop‐off of the sale price, particularly for the coniferous trees. Compared to the year before Lothar, the price decline was about 45%, 30% and 25% for spruce, pine and Douglas fir, respectively. With the aim to minimize the economic loss driven by the price fall and to save the benefits of private forest owners as much as possible, c.a. 4.6 Mio. m3 of storm woods (mainly spruce and silver fir) were stored in wet lumberyards until the market was little better after the storm and then to be sold. The price for Norway spruce and silver fir with “normal”quality and a diameter of 30‐34 cm was shown in table 1(Jutta, 2003).

Table 1 Price evolution for Norway spruce before and after Lotharf Price in euros Autumn 1999 Spring 2000 Summer 2000 Summer 2001 Norway spruce/ Silver fir, "Normal" quality, diameter 30‐34 cm 85 57 47 57

On the other hand, it was also extremely costly to eliminate the storm damage taking into account not only the decrease of proceeds by price drop‐off, but also many other factors, such as regeneration of reforestation, tending, forest protection, and so on. The total cost was estimated up to 1,224 Mio. euros (Jutta 2003). It is also important to keep in mind that lothar caused also tremendous damages to infrastructure, human casualties, residential buildings, agricultures, tourisms. From the perspective of insurance, the EQE International estimated the insured‐loss was about 5 billion euros caused by lother to the entire central Europe, mainly in France (4.6 billion euros). In Germany, it was estimated as 100 Mio. euros. (EQE Internatinal, 2000)

Management

The guiding pricinple to cope with the lothar damage in Baden‐Württemberg was to put the private forest owners’ interest as the first concern, trying to reduce the economic loss of private forest owners to the largest possible degree. The strategies were adapted to the local condition for the harvesting of damaged timbers and marketing of them. The following strategies were formulated. (Jutta, 2003)

- Stands of private forest owners were processed before community or state forest stands to enable them to sell their woods first in good condition with relative high price, so as to generate a quick return on investment

- Valuable deciduous trees were processed and sold before coniferous trees

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

- Good quality conifer logs were conserved in wet lumberyards

- Smaller parcels of affected areas were processed before larger windthrow areas to prevent the spread of insect damages

Besides these instant‐response strategies, the state government of Baden‐Württemberg and the federal government of Germany and the EU also provided substantial financial aids to support the affected forest owners. 50 Mil. Euros were offered directly be the state of Baden‐Württemberg and 12.5 Mio.Euros were from the Federal government and the EU. The specific policies includes, but are not limited to the following measures. Firstly, reduced rate of interest for loan was available for the processing as an interim finance for affected private forest owners. Secondly, financial allowances were also provided for the conservation of processed timber before sales and reforestation. Thirdly, for conifer storage in wet lumberyards, investment aid and financial assistance was also offered. In addition, those extremely affected private forest owners, rebuilding aid and financial subsidies were provided to restore the residential facilities to live through that hard time.

Moreover, the National Forest Service also provided institutional assistance. For example, the private forest owner obtained services free of charge when they sold the damaged timber by Lothar. Due to the shortage of manpower, forest officers from other non‐affected forest districts helped a lot with private forest owners in particular. There was also a restraint of processing woods in state forests just to enable the private forest owners to have the chance to sell their woods first. One year after lothar, these policies generated positive results. 93% of all processed timbers from private forests were sold out. This proportion was much higher than the state forests and community forests, which were found to be 72% and 71%,respectively (Jutta, 2003).

The storm lothar also caused serious secondary events, especially bark beetle outbreak in conifer stands. This part of damage is analyzed separately in the report for biotic stress.

Lesson Learnt

Based on the experience that was gained during the 10 years between two big storms “Wiebke/Vivian” (1990) and “Lothar” (1999) , the natural regeneration potential on storm damaged areas is much higher than expected. Therefore, one of the most important lessons learnt from the silviculture perspective, is to allow more natural regeneration, while reducing the share of reforestation. More “storm proof” stands with mixed species, uneven aged trees are planted at those windthrow areas that can adapt to the local soil condition. After the hurricane “Lothar” , the share of reforestation was approximate one third, which was 8

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 9

much lower than it was after the hurricane “Wiebke/ Vivian” 1990 which was 75%. The other two thirds were naturally regenerated. When the reforestation planning was still under discussion in the year after lother, the natural regeneration was already taking place in forests. The target of forest types in Baden‐ Württemberg is 50% of conifers and 50% of deciduous trees.

Reference:

EQE International, 2002, Summary report on the European Storms Lothar and Martin, December 26‐ 28,1999.

Gardiner, B., et al, Destructive Storms in European Forests: Past and Forthcoming Impacts. Final report to European Commission ‐ DG Environment.

Jutta, Odenthal‐Kahabka 2003, Hurricane “Lothar” and the forest of Baden‐Württemberg (Germany) – damages, impacts and effects, http://www.centreacer.qc.ca/PDF/Publications/Colloques/2003/Jutta%20english.pdf

Keil M, Kiefl R, Strunz G (2005) CORINE Land Cover 2000—Germany. Final Report – Wessling, 72 pp

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[AB_10(I)] Second level analysis on extreme windthrows, snow damages and abiotic occurrences

[Seven Communities Plateau, Enego (Vicenza)]

Authors:

Gianluca Frison (Vice Istruttore Polizia Locale – Comune di Enego) ‐ [email protected]

Marco Pregnolato (consultant at Catholic Univ. of Brescia for MANFRED project) ‐ [email protected]

Stefano Oliveri – www.ecometrics.it

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Date and name of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Conditions of the affected area ...... 4

Event description ...... 5

Impacts ...... 6

Management ...... 7

Pre‐event ...... 7

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 7

Lesson Learnt ...... 10

AKNOWLEDGEMENT: this report synthesize and summarize, for informative purpose, information and data contained in the monography “Schianti da neve ‐ La devastazione sul soprassuolo forestale del Comune di Enego”by Gianluca Frison. Please refer to those publications for information and analysis. All publications and authors are correctly listed in the bibliography. The authors wish to thanks for the precious collaboration and the fundamental information the Mountain Community of the Seven Municipalities (Comunità Montana Spettabile Reggenza dei Sette Comuni) and in particular Dr. Giuseppe Fincati and Dr. Laura Veronese.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Extended event: December 2008 – January 2009

- Agent: mainly heavy snowfalls

Location of the event

The Plateau of Sette Comuni or Plateau of Asiago, is located about 50 km north from the town of Vicenza. Geographically, this plateau belongs to the Venetian Pre‐Alps, a medium altitude mountain chain extending along the edge of the Venetian coastal plain.

Asiago plateau (also known as Seven Towns plateau) shows the typical characteristics of the Alpine area.

The climax formation is represented by Beech forest, nevertheless it had been heavily downsized by diffused plantations of coniferous species, since the first years of ‘900, both for timber logging perspectives and to restore the forest cover destroyed during the First World War.

On the higher elevation, vegetation is characterized mainly by Norway spruce and Fir, then Beech and Larix. Mugo pine is also getting diffused on those elevations, taking out land from pastures.

At medium elevation, there are pastures and meadows, exploited for zootechnic activities, while the lower elevation are characterized with some deciduous species.

At present, zootechnics and agriculture are losing some of their original importance, while touristic and recreational resources are increasing.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

More than 68% of the overall surface in the area is covered with forests. The species which are represented the most are in order N. Spruce (27 %), Beech (25%), Fir (16%), Ash, Hornbeam and Oak (8%), Larix (6%) and Mugo (4%), plus others. Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area

The elevation of the stands considered here varies from 900 to 1300 m, over a plateau area with general moderate steepness; though in some parts the slope can reach elevate steep (50%). The prevailing geological substrate is limestone. Both areas have a karst geomorphology with frequent rock outcrops and depressions with sediment accumulation. The stream channel development is low. From a pedological point of view it should also be mentioned that the Plateau of Sette Comuni was devastated during the First World War, particularly by howitzer and cannon bombing; soils were deeply eroded and the natural horizon sequence was greatly altered.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

The area affected is home to exclusive or predominant Norway spruce forest stands. Most affected are pure and co‐aged formations, between 50 and 70 years old, which are the result of afforestations carried out soon after the first world war. Most of the property is public. These woods have had anyway many and different problems along their history, from several sorts of stress agents: droughts, dormouses, root rot due to Heterobasidion annosum, throws due to exceptional snowfalls, bark beetles and eventually two World Wars.

The rainfalls amount to 1468 mm for the plateau, with two maxima (May‐June and October‐November) along the year. The annual average temperature amounts to 7.07 °C.

Event description

During the 2008‐2009 winter season, heavy snow have fallen on the area of Seven Communities plateau, in the northwest of the Veneto region. The height of the snow layer reached in many cases 6 meters above the ground.

The “Resoconto nivometeorologico della montagna veneta per la stagione invernale 2008‐2009” [Valt, 2009] (snow and weather report of the Venetian mountain for the winter season 2008‐2009) reports that the winter season 2008‐2009 had, on the whole South side of the Alps, except the border Ridge to the Brenner pass, one of the largest snowfall since 1930 to present. In almost all locations of the Venetian Alps snow level has surpassed the average values by reference (1971‐2005), and in many cases has reached and surpassed the thickness observed in 1950‐1951 season, traditionally the most snowy since 1930. Intense and frequent snowfalls have formed a significant snowpack already by the end of November and until May. The seasonal accumulated snow was particularly remarkable in all localities of the Prealpine zone (e.g. Asiago) and the Dolomites since December, as was the case for many years.

The event has surely to be considered extreme because of the exceptional amount of timber thrown by the effect of the snowfalls. The latest updated evaluation reports more than 75.000 cubic meters crashed during the end of December 2008 and the beginning of January 2009. The most affected territory falls into the municipality of Enego, with estimated nearly 56.000 cubic meters, over an area of 830 ha. Other municipalities affected are Asiago, Foza, Gallio, Lusiana, Roana and Rotzo, all on the Seven Communities plateu. There are many factors that individually or jointly have led to the calamitous event: • early rainfall did not allow the ground to freeze. Norway spruce is characterized by a quite superficial root system, especially compared to Larch and Silver fir. Moreover soils in the area are

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

particularly rich in skeleton, thin and lack of substrate. The sum of these conditions did not allow the trees to have a firm grip and facilitated the throwns. • The snow was particularly rich in water and stuck to the branches, so that many plants under the action of the weight have been uprooted completely. Moreover the fallen trees have created the so‐called domino effect. Where the terrain was hardened by the frost, even plants with stem diameters of 45‐50 cm got broken, either near the top of the tree or near the foot. • Series, structure and density of stands: the damaged stands are almost all mono‐specific Norway spruce formations or, at higher elevations, larch formations. These quite dense, coetaneous and mono‐specific woods are obviously very fragile and suffered major damages.

Impacts

The event produced neither casualties nor direct damages to the population.

The hydrogeological hazard level in the area is quite scarce, mainly due to the karsts nature of the geology and the general topography. Therefore the event had not actually compromised this function.

From a naturalistic point of view, it must be noticed that the forest formations affected have a quite scarce value (monospecific formations, outside the species natural range).

Also, the areas where the trees have been crushed are generally quite remote and do not really contribute to the general landscape of the Plateau, though vast areas of forest have been almost completely cleared as a consequence of the felling. No consequences are really registered from the recreational point of view as well, but it should be pointed out the impact over the activity of mushroom picking.

In fact, the disruption of the crop due to the snow and the heavy disturbance brought to the soil by the clearing intervention with tractors and machines had caused a considerable loss in the mushroom production. As a consequence, municipalities in the affected area suffered the loss of the income usually provided by selling gathering licenses. Unfortunately at present it is not possible to evaluate the consequent economic losses.

It must be also noticed that, although the disruption event had raised many concerns and considerations about the phytosanitary and ecological conditions of the forests on the Seven Communities plateau, from a mere economical point of view it allowed the municipalities (thanks to a very efficient post‐event management) to generate important incomes and to capitalize in a very short time the accumulated and underexploited timber resources. It is in fact well known that, under normal conditions, for the whole area the utilization rate is less that 30% of the available wood increment.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

Management

Preevent

It must be mentioned also that while in former times both the Seven Communities and Cansiglio areas were considered strategic for timber production, already in the ‘80s forestry activity was declining and many stands were not actively managed.

Risk awareness: It’s obviously not possible to monitor events so randomly related to weather occurrences. The only awareness level in this case is about the weakness of monospecific formations, the presence of thin soils and superficial root systems.

Postevent adopted strategies

As a result of the exceptional event, local administrations, in particular the Regional Forest Service of Vicenza, had to implement special administrative procedures and emergency techniques, then as an authorized exception of the normal regulations (D.G.R.158/1997 ‐ Updating and integration of the Directives and Rules on Forest planning). In particular the rate of it is due promptly update the annual "resinous" allowed to cut and make the plan of cuts for the year 2009.

The municipalities concerned have been able to activate quickly the first auction for the sale of the lumber, obtaining good incomes and having the wood clearance works started soon. This promptness performed therefore a preventive action from the phytosanitary point of view, by taking off the crashed trees susceptible to parasitic attacks.

The special procedure of the “reaction plan” is briefly summarized below:

1. preliminary survey: in this phase the boundaries of the affected parcels have been delimited and the criteria for the next logging intervention defined. Later on, technicians have also identified the optimized transport and skidding routes and the storage areas. Also, a phytosanitary assessment has been done, to evaluate the risk of parasites attacks.

2. A first estimation of affected volumes was performed, in order to define the basis for the auction and sales.

3. As a result of the preliminary survey, a first note of authorization was released.

4. Accurated exploitation projects for each lot have been then written and consequently submitted to the municipality for approval.

Given the emergency nature of the adopted procedure, it proved necessary a supervisory and special control role of the local Forest Guard in collaboration with the State Forestry Corps.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

Five firms were awarded of the sale auctions. All the firms are of local origin and are characterized by a high level of mechanization, facts that revealed to be particularly important in order to reduce the time for the clearance.

Some cutting edge machinery for forestry, such as harvesters, forwarders and skidders has been exploited and proved very efficient.

Nevertheless some technical limitations, mainly related to the workable size of the timber, made it necessary to use traditional techniques (chainsaw) for felling and setup.

They also jointly operated companies and specialized teams of the Regional Forest Service, working the timber according to the traditional scheme of work classified as short wood system (S.W.S), which involves the felling by chainsaw and the preparation of various assortments (also with chainsaw) on the spot.

Adopted logging methods

Chainsaw 33%

67% Harvester + forwarder

Operation for measuring lumber retrieved from the parcels had followed the auctions and the skidding phases.

Two methods have been used in measuring:

• Measuring with the tree caliper of the single pieces: demanding in terms of time and employed staff. This method has been reduced to a minimum and adopted only for the lots where the quantity of retrievable timber was moderate or easily accessible. The very high density of timber over the parcel surface (up to 600 boles/ha, i.e. 140 m^3/ha) required to adopt a faster method of measuring, though dropping some accuracy.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 9

• Measuring of sorted stackings using the ster and the solid volume factor (the surface of the front face is measured, then multiplied for the length of the stacking). The method is efficient, with a very low margin of error and much less demanding in time and personnel (3 to 6 persons were involved).

With both methods, after the measuring, the timber is marked with the hammer or other means of identification for control and monitoring purpose.

Adopted measuring methods

10% Tree calliper

90% Ster and S.V.F.

- Post‐event forest management

The Regional Forest Service has provided project based on a sample of plantations of various forest essences and a subsequent assessment of degree of establishment, in order to promote an evolution towards natural forest formations (renaturation and ecological restoration).

- Economical management of the post‐event situation

The timber retrieved from the management of the event, and at this day computed, is here summarized:

‐ Saw and structural timber: > 48.000 m3 (app. 86% of the total)

‐ Chipping and fuelwood: > 6.500 m3 (app. 12% of the total)

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 10

‐ Minor assortment: > 1.300 m3 (app. 2% of the total)

The overall economical value of the retrieved timber has been calculated in € 1.123.692,95. As by law enabled (Regional Forest Law No. 52/78), not less than 10% of the total sum taken by the municipality shall be used for forestry measures within the forest in order to improve the structure and pursue normalization of exploitations quotas.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored

In November 2009 a joint inspection with the Regional forest service technicians and staff of the University of Padova (Faculty of agriculture, Department of Agronomy and crop production) was carried out and many adults of bark beetle have been found wintering in the bark of trees crushed by snow.

The situation suggested a high level of risk for spring 2010 of a sudden increase in the population of bark beetle, endangering the timber still on the ground, with a possible involvement on standing unaffected trees in the surroundings and also severe economical consequences.

Therefore, at the beginning of spring 2010 a special phytosanitary project has been made operational by the Regional Forest Service, which involved specific interventions against infestations of beetles, mainly based on the deployment of decoy plants and pheromone traps for controlling and monitoring the development and spread of the bark beetle.

Lesson Learnt

It has to be emphasized the importance of an adequate modern mechanization: harvesters, forwarders and skidders allowed working large volumes of timber with remarkable efficiency and speed.

The use of these innovative combined machines is still sparsely distributed in Italy, mainly because of the high cost. However these machines, although developed to be used in operational contexts very different from the local ones, have proved themselves in this situation effectively and affordably employed.

From a general point of view, the mechanization and the adoption of higher standards of mechanization may involve some significant advantages, if properly calibrated in relation to the structure of the firm, to its potential and to the market in which this works, increasing the productivity and the capacity of the firm itself.

Italy in general and therefore Veneto has got a considerable delay for what concerns mechanization in forestry. This may be correlated to some structural peculiarities (related to the morphology of the land on one hand and to the form of forest enterprises on the other), infrastructural deficiencies (essentially a poor 10

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 11

or inadequate forest roads network) and to the market (e.g. the timber volumes processed are too little to give ground for an investment in advanced mechanization).

Nevertheless, the double effect of the increase in the cost of manpower (however difficult to find locally) and the decrease in value of timber have led several forest contractors to raise the level of mechanization of their enterprises.

Modern mechanization also has remarkable assets in reducing risks for forest workers, usually quite high with traditional methods (manual chainsaw operator, working right on the spot).

The event leads to further consideration about the concept of extreme event. As a matter of fact the event can be considered extremely destructive as it caused a large devastation in the forest over the Seven Communities plateau. Nevertheless there is consciousness about the scarce ecological values of those same formations and a plan aimed to renaturalization, by substitution of the artificial Norway spruce stands with endemic species is a common opinion among foresters and local and regional administrators, even though hardly feasible on a short horizon. Also, the local market conditions make the same stands (originally implanted specifically for the high production rate and eventually generated income) strongly underexploited in normal conditions. So it could be stated that the event itself, which had generated a remarkable and unexpected income for the involved municipalities, was for sure extreme but a very efficient post‐event management could turn it into positive and gainful. Possibly an efficient post‐event forestry management might also exploit the void to the purpose of renaturalization.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 12

References:

• Di Prinzio L. e Dissegna M. (coordinamento scientifico), 2011 ‐ L’evoluzione dei boschi veneti – Analisi delle dinamiche spaziali dei popolamenti forestali regionali – Regione del Veneto – Unità di Progetto Foreste e Parchi e Università IUAV di Venezia • Frison G., 2010 [in press] ‐ “Schianti da neve ‐ La devastazione sul soprassuolo forestale del Comune di Enego” [Gianluca Frison ‐ [email protected]

• Valt M., 2009 ‐ La stagione invernale 2008‐ 2009 neve e incidenti da valanga ‐ Dipartimento Regionale per la Sicurezza del Territorio ‐ Centro Valanghe di Arabba ‐ con la collaborazione di Ranato Zasso, Andrea Crepaz e Giuseppe Crepaz

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[AB_06(SLO)] Second level analysis on extreme windthrows, snow damages and abiotic occurrences

SLOVENIA ‐ windthrow Jelovica

Authors: Slovenian Forestry Institute; Večna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana Laura Žižek Kulovec Mitja Skudnik ([email protected])

Slovenian Forestry Service; Večna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana Vida Papler‐Lampe (vida.papler‐[email protected]) Marija Kolšek ([email protected])

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Date and name of the event ...... 3 Location of the event ...... 3 Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4 Conditions of the affected area ...... 4 Event description ...... 5 Impacts ...... 5 Management ...... 6 Pre‐event ...... 6 Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 6 Lesson Learnt ...... 7

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Date of the event: June 29, 2006 - Extended events (yes/no):There was no extending events - Agent (snow/wind, combined): Wind - Link to a specific meteorological event: Strong wind after thunderstorm

Location of the event

Plateau Jelovica, where the wind through occurred, belongs to the Bled forest management unit, which lies in the north‐eastern part of Slovenia more precisely between the Southern part of Julian Alps and Western part of Karavanke. General characteristics of this area are: high Karst, heavy rainfall and rapid weather changes. Dominant forest type is Illyrian mountainous beech forest (Homogynosylvestris‐Fagetum), but the main tree species are not beech and fir, but spruce. The bedrock is mostly limestone. The elevation is between 1000 and 1400 meter above sea level.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

The event occurred on the border between municipalities’ Železniki and Bohinj. Major towns that are around are: Bohinjska Bistrica, Železniki, Radovljica, Bled, Lesce, …

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area

Location of the event WGS 84: E 14°5’1,19”; N 46°15’41,37” Aspect: N, partially E Height: 1000 – 1400 m above sea level Morphology: Limestone plateau

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

- Forest types and pre‐event management:

Affected forests were mostly older spruce forests (monoculture, high forest stands). In those parts of Slovenia management of the forests is quite intensive. At the time of the event average growing stock in the affected forest was 530 m3/ha. Affected area is mostly public property (105 ha, 66 %) and private property (55 ha, 34 %). Private forest is divided between 5 owners. Small number of owners and consequently larger properties are the main reason for intensive management in these forests, even in harsh environment (high altitude, shorter vegetation period…). (Source: SFS report)

Event description

- Causes and meteorological conditions Windthrow Jelovica has occurred on 29 of the July 2006 in the afternoon (around 4.30 pm). In the afternoon of the same day, after a month of sunny and very warm weather, all across the country storms developed. The eyewitnesses (two shepherds at Ribčeva planina, pasture nearby) have told that at that day the atmosphere was really calm. Suddenly the fog appeared and in a few minutes a very loud thunder approached. The duration of the thunder was only approximately 10 minutes. The wind blew in direction from SE to NW.

Impacts (see chart p. 5)

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised? At the Jelovica plateau the main function of the forest is wood production, so this was the main function that was compromised because of the windthrow. As secondary damage also the protective function was compromised, because of erosion on quite a few parts of the area.

- Which are the human consequences (casualties, etc.)? There were no human casualties or injured due to the event. - Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses? Economic losses and amounts of damaged trees (timber) were assessed by Slovenia Forest Service in few days after the event. An aerial survey (aerial photos) of the whole area affected was conducted. The whole affected area was 160 ha and 85,000 bto m3 of damaged timber. Complete damage caused by windthrow Jelovica was assessed to 1,271,076 €. (Source: SFS report)

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

Costs [€] Co‐financing by state [€] Direct costs of organization of work 15,440 Estimate of reduced profit because of early felling 548,225 90,450 Loss because of unrealised increment 191,955 Direct sanitation 69,104 16,275 Forest health / forest protection 42,076 24,326 Revegetation and protection of seedlings 171,968 101,389 Rebuilding of skid roads 77,908 sanitation of roads 154,400 Total 1,271,076 232,440

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”? The event is considered to be “extreme”, because of the size of the affected area and the amount of damaged timber. Also the regeneration of the forest was a demanding task for Slovenian forestry – in management and technical point of view. Also it was very important to efficiently cut down damaged trees and transport the timber from site as soon as possible because of threatening of bark beetle outbreak.

Management

Preevent

- Risk awareness There is awareness of the fact that forests on Jelovica plateau are exposed to periodic strong winds.

Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event (or planned) forest management (did the event affected the management policy? Or will it?) First step in management of the affected area was to cut all the damaged trees and transport the timber from site for further processing, because of the danger of bark beetle outbreak. After that, measures for forest health protection, preservation of growth rate, improvements of biotic function were taken.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation It was not possible to find any information on the economic management of the post‐event situation. Most of the logging was done by special logging machines.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

- Secondary events occurred or monitored In accordance to minimize bark beetle outbreak a very dense net of bark beetle slit trap was planned. Nevertheless, on destabilized edges of the area, in next few years the number of trees affected by bark beetles increased.

Lesson Learnt

After the logging artificial reforestation was done and the question appeared how to provide enough spruce seedlings from the right provenience.

After the event the expert team for crises management was established: the owner, the contractor and personnel from Slovenia Forest Service. Very important was the continuous communication and cooperation between those services.

All the forest roads in the area were closed with gates and equipped with warnings and information tables. Only Slovenia Forest Service personnel and the contractors were allowed to enter the area, due to the high danger of working machines. Other visitors were not allowed to enter the area.

Quite a few articles in media about successful sanitary actions of the area were published. It also contributed to better recognition of forestry and Slovenia Forest Service.

The assessment of affected area and volume of damaged timber was quick, effective and objective with the use of modern technology. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food of Republic of Slovenia financed aerial survey and orthophoto images of the affected area. The borders of destroyed forest stands were the same as the forest stand borders in Slovenia Forest Service inventory. The data from survey on permanent sampling grid in management unit (in 2002) were used to calculate volume of damaged timber (by species and diameter classes; (damaged timber growing stock = growing stock in 2002 – felling in period 2003‐2005 + increment in period 2003‐2005)).

During the sanitary actions of damaged area a lot of machinery (harvesters, forwarders…) from Slovenia and neighboring countries (especially Austria) were involved and in some way this was also great opportunity for the operators of the machinery to learn from each other and to exchange their good practices.

The windthrow affected mainly average steep slopes. Nevertheless, we were surprised by the amount of area affected by erosion in first year after sanation. The erosion was a consequence of the high amount of rainfall and very shallow soils on limestone.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

Acknowledgement

Other used References

Papler‐Lampe V. 2006. Sanacijski načrt vetroloma na Jelovici 29. Junij 2006. Slovenian Forestry Service: 17 p

Papler‐Lampe V. 2006. Vetrolom na Jelovici. Gozdarski vestnik, 64, 7: 446 ‐ 448

Papler‐Lampe V.2009. Presoja ukrepov pri sanaciji ujm 2006‐2008. Gozdarski vestnik, 67, 5‐6: 365‐376

Poljanec A., Gartner M., Papler‐Lampe V., Bončina A. 2010. Sanacija v ujmah poškodovanih gozdov. V: Naravne nesreče 1, Od razumevanja do opravljanja. Zorn M., Komac B., Pavšek M., Pagon P. (eds.). Ljubljana, ZRC: 341 – 348

Ščap Š. 2010. Restoration of Windthrow area on the Jelovica Plateau. Ljubljana, University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Department of forestry and renewable forest resources: 44 p.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[AB_08(SLO)] Second level analysis on extreme windthrows, snow damages and abiotic occurrences

SLOVENIA – windthrow Črnivec

Authors: Slovenia Forest Service; Večna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana Marko Lekše ([email protected]) Andrej Breznikar ([email protected])

Slovenian Forestry Institute; Večna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana Mitja Skudnik ([email protected])

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Picture No1.: Windthrow on Črnivec pass

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Date and name of the event

- Date of the event: July 13, 2008 - Extended events (yes/no):There was no extending events - Agent (snow/wind, combined): Wind - Link to a specific meteorological event: Strong turbulent wind after thunderstorm

Location of the event

Area of a large‐scale windthrow in the area of Črnivec, in which forests, infrastructure, public and private buildings have been damaged, is located in the northern part of central Slovenia, on the south‐eastern edge of Kamnik‐Savinja Alps. The bedrock is mostly non carbonate, domain forest types are: Fagetum Submontanum, Hacquetio Fagetum, Blechno Fagetum and Bazzanio Abietetum, which by increasing altitude change into secondary spruce forests (Deschampsioflexuosae Piceetum) on beech sites (Luzulofagetum). The main tree species on all surfaces is spruce. The elevation of most damaged surfaces is between 600 and 1200 meters above sea level.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

The event occurred in the forested area around Črnivec pass in municipalities Kamnik and Gornji Grad. Nearest towns are Kamnik and Gornji grad.

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area

Location of the event WGS 84: E 14°42’08”; N 46°15’37,60” Aspect: S, partially N Height: 600 – 1200 m above sea level Morphology: Varied terrain with steep slopes and narrow valleys.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

- Forest types and pre‐event management:

The windthrow affected older, even‐aged, uniform spruce stands solely, whilst younger and more diverse stands hardly took any damage. Most of the trees were uprooted, especially in heavily damaged or destroyed forest stands, whereas broken trees were found mainly in moderately or less damaged parts of the forest. (Source: SFS, Central Unit Department for Forestry Technique, Slovenia).

Affected forest area is mostly private owned (9.062 ha, 98%). State‐owned forests represent only 201 ha of forest (2%) on west side of Črnivec pass. Structure of private forest properties is rather fragmented and can be divided into two categories: small private forest estates of only few hectares versus larger forest owners (the largest forest estate of 128.81 ha is owned by the Catholic Church). (Source: SFS report)

Event description

- Causes and meteorological conditions The catastrophic windstorm took place on the 13th July 2008 at around 2.00 pm and affected several parts of Slovenia. Turbulent wind that lasted between 10 and 15 minutes resulted in massive windthrow, which was concentrated on the slopes of both sides of the mountain pass Črnivec at the altitude from 600 to 1200 meters. Impacts (see chart p. 5)

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised? Damaged forests belong to the category of multi‐purpose forests mostly with ecological (protective, hydrological) and social (protection of cultural heritage) functions, at least at the 2nd degree of pronunciation. - Which are the human consequences (casualties, etc.)? There were no human casualties or injured due to the event. - Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses? Economic losses and amounts of damaged trees (timber) were assessed by Slovenia Forest Service in few days after the event. An aerial survey (aerial photos) of the whole area affected was conducted. The whole affected area was 9.263 ha and 328,000 m3 of damaged timber. Complete damage caused by windthrow Črnivec was assessed to 4.646.424 €. Large amount of available timber had negative effect on timber price. Extreme event will influence on forest estates also in the future – reduction of income (Source: SFS report).

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 6

Costs [€] Co‐financing by state [€] Direct sanitation 2.184.427 1.797.838 Forest prevention 63.929 63.929 Forest health / forest protection 297.727 245.741 Rejuvenation measures and protection of seedlings 1.099.690 439.876 Rebuilding of skidding roads 475.889 120.148 Maintenance of forest roads 524.762 245.096 Total 4.646.424 2.912.628

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

The event is considered to be “extreme”, because of the size of the affected area, power of the wind and the amount of damaged timber. Post event management was a demanding task for Slovenian forestry – in management and technical point of view. Amounts of logged timber changed situation on wood market – result was a change of timber price. Bark beetle outbreak threat was an important factor after the extreme event.

Management

Pre-event - Risk awareness There is awareness of the fact that forests of Alpine region are exposed to periodic strong winds. Previous storms of that extent have not been recorded in the area.

Post-event adopted strategies

- Post‐event (or planned) forest management (did the event affected the management policy? Or will it?)

First step in management of the affected area was to cut all the damaged trees and transport the timber from site for further processing, because of the danger of bark beetle outbreak. After that, measures for forest health protection, preservation of growth rate, improvements of biotic function were taken. Main focuses in post event management have been set on proper techniques and timely logging, work safety, forest infrastructure and forest regeneration. Main ecological problems which arise during post event management were forest pest control (a great potential for bark beetle population growth) and soil erosion prevention.

- Economical management of the post‐event situation Damage evaluation, coordination of the owner activities and elaboration of management plans has been done by Slovenia Forest Service and financed by state budget. All the needed material (seedlings, protection…) was fully funded by the state budget. The costs of work (soil preparation, sowing, planting…) were co‐financed (approximately 50 %). There were technical, environmental and economic limits to machine cutting. At the same time, nearly all forest owners in the area had been sufficiently equipped and

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 7

trained for forest work, what enabled them to carry out most of the activities in their forests by themselves and thus cut the costs considerably. Also neighborly solidarity was an important factor, which helped the owners to accomplish all the work in time. Because of these reasons, the combination of manual cutting and skidding by adapted tractors was prevailing. - Secondary events occurred or monitored In accordance to minimize bark beetle outbreak a very dense net of bark beetle slit trap has been planned.

Lesson Learnt

Črnivec windthrow is a successful example for joint approach to post event management on four main directions: ecological, technical, economic and social. Planning of treatment activities was selective on the basis of site conditions, estate size, forest owners knowledge and technical equipment.

After the logging artificial reforestation was done on most affected surfaces. As the spruce has proved as less suitable species for this kind of climatic and site conditions, the SFS supported planting of mostly deciduous trees. Finally, a question arose how to design forest regeneration in the way not to create future even‐aged uniform stands on large scale, which had proven to be very poorly resistant against natural disasters.

The key factors of successful windthrow management in the case of Črnivec windthrow are personal approach to each forest owner concerned, careful consideration of forest owners individual situation, intensive appeal on the general public and political authorities, making compromises to some degree in order to keep professional competence and public sympathy and at last but not least: work safety must be given the highest priority.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 8

Acknowledgement

Other used References

Grecs Z., Beguš J. 2008. Načrt sanacije gozdov poškodovanih v vetrolomih julija 2008. Slovenia Forest Service: 41 p. Denša M. 2008. Sanacijski projekt za vetrolom Črnivec 2008. Slovenia Forest Service: 27 p. Slabanja B., Hrovat T., Vidmar J., Tomšič L. 2008. Sanacijski projekt vetroloma z dne 13.07.2008. Slovenia Forest Service: 50 p. Gerl T., Beguš J. 2008. Windthrow management – individual approach to small forest estates. Slovenia Forest Service, internal documents: 9 p.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 1

[AB_08(I)] Second level analysis on extreme snow occurrences

[Valdidentro ‐ Lombardia Region]

Authors: Bruna Comini, Elena Gagliazzi

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry [email protected], [email protected] – 0039.02.67404479

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 2

Index

Index ...... 2

Vadidentro, Cancano 2008‐2011 ...... 3

Date of the event ...... 3

Location of the event ...... 3

Ecology and economy of the event ...... 4

Event description ...... 4

Impacts ...... 4

Management ...... 5

Pre‐event ...... 5

Post‐event adopted strategies ...... 5

Lesson Learnt ...... 5

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 3

Vadidentro, Cancano 20082011

Data owners

National Forestry Corps – Valdidentro (Sondrio)

After each events the personnel of the National Forestry Corps fill in a form with data concerning biotic and abiotic events.

Data providers

ERSAF Regione Lombardia – Regional Agency for Development of Agricolture and Forestry.

Date of the event

- Autumn 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011

- Name: Cancano

Location of the event

The area is located in the north‐east of Lombardia region, in Alta Valtellina Mountain Comunity territory, National Stelvio Park, District of Brescia. Main forest types are Beech, Scots pine, and hornbeam. High forest stand is the main forest management system.

List of the communities: Lombardia Region; District of Sondrio; Municipalities of Valdidentro.

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 4

Ecology and economy of the event

Conditions of the affected area

- Site characteristics: the climate in the area is continental. The affected area is at about 1000 m a.s.l. The mountain aspect site is predominantly S‐SW, with low slope.

- Forest types present are: mugho pine and larch.

o Most affected forest type: mugho pine and larch.

o Pre‐event management: high forest stand.

o Forest and brushwood conditions: no productive forest

o Property: mixed propriety, public and private area.

Event description

- Consideration about meteorological conditions: the snow start very early in the autumn – even in September; this aspect has favored uprooting of trees, in addition to breaking and crashing.

- Event timing and spatial evolution: events began in 2008 and were repeated with greater intensity in subsequent years.

Impacts

- Which of the functions of the wood/forest have been compromised?

The prevailing function of the forest that had been compromised by fire are the protective function, .although the area affected by the events hasn’t high slope and is not adjacent to urban areas

- Which are the human consequences?

No casualties have occurred, neither during the events, or during the post management interventions.

There was little rockfall hazards but any safety problem.

- Is it possible to evaluate the economic losses?

MANFRED project –Deepenings on some very significant extreme events 5

No cost assessment has been published so far.

- Why the event is considered to be “extreme”?

The event is considered extreme for the large affected area and the repetitiveness over the years.

Management

Preevent

- Risk awareness: Before 2008 there was no knowledge of the risk, which is mainly linked to unpredictable meteorological conditions. In the area were not placed snow fence because it’s uninhabited. Postevent adopted strategies

- Post‐event forest management: After 2008, each years it was made intervention coordinated by the Municipality with the assignment of lots to the residents for the recovery of crashed or fallen trees. The interventions were most significant in recent years since the phenomenon was more intense

- Economical management of the post‐event situation: there are no estimates on the cost to the interventions.

- Secondary events occurred or monitored: after the event in 2011 there was a little landslide, but without any safety problems for population.

Lesson Learnt

The crashing and the uprooting were not predictable as it related to early and intense snowfall.

The landslide risk was limited because the area is characterized by a low slope and has no presence of urbanized area.

Recovery actions for the uprooted trees could be facilitated by a better accessibility.