THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF

ROBERT ARLT AND SATOMI HIYAMA

1. Repetitive Presence of a Pair of Male Figures in Kuchean Paintings

Careful observation of the wall paintings of the Kucha region led us to notice that a pair of male figures with specific appearances is repeatedly illustrated in various narrative scenes. One of them is a young man characterized by his unique hairstyle: a shaven head with several (mostly three) hair tufts atop. He wears a long and broad shawl, which is hanging directly from the back of his head, and a loincloth, leaving his upper body naked. He is decorated with large round earrings, as well as a necklace, armbands, and a bejewelled garland. His skin tone is often rendered darker than that of other figures. The other half of this pair, in contrast, is an old man, whose face bears a lot of wrinkles. This figure wears a bandana-like headdress or tied cloth, which may be best described as a turban. His clothing consists of a round-necked shirt (which sometimes looks like a caftan) and trousers, covering all of his body. He often wears an additional robe covering a part of his shirt and pants as well. Table 1 gives an overview of the mural paintings in which these figures can be observed with certainty. It draws on Grünwedel’s records, historical photographs taken by the German expeditions, modern photographs taken at the site and in art-collections outside featuring mural paintings from Kucha. As the table shows, these figures most frequently appear in sermon scenes with the Buddha preaching. The Buddha delivering a sermon is the most popular pictorial subject in Kucha; at least 71 of the more than 600 Buddhist caves of the Kucha region are decorated with paintings of the Buddha giving a sermon. Among them, at least 10 caves display this pair of figures.

JournaloftheInternationalAssociationofBuddhistStudies Volume 38 ӝ 2015 ӝ 313–348 ӝ doi: 10.2143/JIABS.38.0.3134546 314 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

In Kizil, Cave 114 (Gebetsmühlenhöhle), Cave 175 (Versuchungs- höhle/Japanerhöhle), Cave 178 (Hochliegende Höhle), and Cave 224 (Māyā höhle 3. Anlage), these figures can be found in more than one scene. In Kizil Cave 80 (Höhle mit dem Höllentopf), Cave 188 (Zwölf Buddha-Höhle), Cave 189, Cave 206 (Fußwaschungshöhle), Cave 219 (Ajāta śatru höhle), and Simsim Cave 42 (Höhle mit dem Tierfries), they can be found at least once. The mural paintings of the Buddhist caves in Kucha are generally in a damaged condition and it is likely that there would originally have been more representations of these figures. As for the appearance of these figures, small differences can be observed. Writing in 1912, Grünwedel described a figure from a sermon scene on the right hand wall of Kizil Cave 80 in the following words: “… in der zweiten Reihe ein Schwertträger mit glatt anliegender, mit Nagelköpfen verzierter Helmkappe,”1 and also made a drawing of this figure (fig. 1). He noticed that a figure with the same appearance repeatedly appears in Kizil Cave 114 (fig. 2).2 Grünwedel regarded this figure as wearing a flat cap covering the whole head, which is decorated with pointed humps or tufts. Waldschmidt cited this observation of Grünwedel and assumed that this head dress may be depicting a net cap (Netzkappe), worn on a shaven head with several hair tufts.3 In fact, in these two caves and also in one of the sermon scenes of Kizil Cave 175 (fig. 3), the head of this figure is shown with a grid pattern or a zigzag pattern, as if his head is covered with a patterned fine textile. However, these are fairly rare cases. In representations in other caves, a grid- or zigzag-pattern on the head of this figure cannot be seen; rather the figure seems to wear the hair tufts directly on his shaven head (figs. 4–11). Often the hair tufts are not clearly visible because of the already men- tioned damaged condition of murals, so that this figure can be confused with a monk at first glance; nevertheless, he can definitely be distinguished from a monk by his accessories and the shawl hanging from the back of his head.

1 Grünwedel 1912: 98, fig. 219. 2 Grünwedel 1912: 113 “dunkelfarbiger Mann mit blauer Kappe, glatten Ohrringen wie in H. d. ‘Höllentopfs’ (fig. 219), hält einen Schirm.” 3 Waldschmidt 1933: 41. Waldschmidt regarded this characteristic hair style as the sign of a servant in his description of the mural paintings of Kizil Cave 114. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 315

Concerning the appearance of the old male figure wearing a turban,4 the painters seem to have been flexible regarding the colour of his clothes and his skin tone. Sometimes he has a white skin, sometimes it is brown or blue. His turban is mostly white in colour (figs. 2, 4, 7, 9, 13), but in Kizil Cave 178 and Cave 189 the turban is given a light green colour (figs. 5, 6). Remarkably, with very few exceptions, these two figures hold specific objects, which can be exchanged between the two. As Table 1 shows, each of them holds one of the following objects: a sword, a parasol, a striped fan,5 a flower tray, or a water flask. They never hold the same object in a single scene. In the case of Kizil Cave 178, there are sometimes male and female figures in addition to this pair, who also hold one of the above mentioned objects (fig. 5). Among these objects, the sword, parasol, and fan belong to the royal insignia, which makes sense if one considers the narrative scenes in which these figures typically occur. Most frequently they are found in paintings featuring the Buddha giving a sermon. As far as the scenes have be identified, the two figures appear four times in illustrations of the story concerning the worship of

4 Grünwedel also remarked the presence of a “beturbanter, alter Mann” or “dunkel- blauer, bärtiger Mann mit Turban, mager,” which repeatedly appears in Kizil Cave 114 (Grünwedel 1912: 113). Sometimes he described the same type of figure in other caves as an aged female figure (for examples see Grünwedel 1920: II 63, 65). In fact, the gar- ment of this figure with a round neckline looks similar to general garments of female figures in Kuchean paintings. Although female figures wearing a turban are known from (see Lüders et al. 1963: 101), a representation in Kizil Cave 188 clearly shows that we are dealing with a male figure, since in this case the old man is bearded (fig. 4). In the Kuchean paintings, the old male figure seems to be the only figure type represented with this specific kind of turban. 5 In his work in 1920, Grünwedel explained this object depicted in a sermon scene of Kizil Cave 178 as follows: “hinter die L. Schulter der knienden Figur ist eine gestreifte, dütenförmige Manschette gesteckt.” He related it to the decoration frequently found on skull masks in Tibet and demonic figures in the art of Sri Lanka. Based on this analogy, he regarded this object as the sign of a criminal, who is condemned to the death penalty (Grünwedel 1920: II 63, Tafel 24–5, fig. 2). In fact, however, this object is not attached to the shoulder of this kneeling figure. Careful observation enables us to notice that this figure holds the handle of this object. Waldschmidt, on the other hand, explained this object represented in Kizil Cave 114 as a fan consisting of overlapping peacock feathers (Le Coq/Waldschmidt 1933: 41). 316 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA the Buddha by King Prasenajit (fig. 7),6 three times in illustrations of the story about the miraculous performance by Urubilvā-Kāśyapa in Rājagṛha (fig. 3),7 and one time in an illustration of the Śrāmaṇyaphalasūtra8 (fig. 2). All of these are popular narrative subjects among the sermon scenes in Kucha and are repeatedly illustrated in numerous caves. The two figures are sometimes shown standing behind the royal couple9 side by side, while sometimes the young man with the hair tufts is sitting in front of the king’s throne and the old man with the turban standing behind the royal couple. It should, however, be noted that the two figures are not always present in these representations. The scenes in which they occur have a common characteristic: they all feature kings. King Prasenajit showed his adoration to the Buddha by kissing his feet; King Bimbisāra became the first royal supporter of the Buddha and his saṅgha after having seen Urubilvā-Kāśyapa’s miraculous performance; King Ajātaśatru visited the Buddha in Jīvaka’s grove on a full moon night and worshiped him. Even in unidentified sermon scenes showing these two figures, a king or queen is always present. This observation can also be extended to representations of other nar- rative genres. In Kizil Cave 83 (Schatzhöhle C), these two figures appear

6 For the identification of this narrative subject and the list of representations see Arlt/ Hiyama 2013: 16–21. 7 For the identification of this narrative subject see Waldschmidt 1930; Le Coq and Waldschmidt 1933: 40–41; Mori 2001 (including the list of representations). In the rep- resentation of Kizil Cave 178 (Grünwedel 1920: pls. XXIV–XXV, fig. 1), the old figure with the turban is absent. 8 For the identification of this narrative subject and the list of representations see Hamada 2003. In fact, in all the representations of this story, a small Brahmin figure is illustrated in front of the king’s throne (for example see KizilGrottoes, vol. I, pl. 59). The function of this figure may resemble that of the Vidūṣaka (as discussed later); nevertheless it lacks any distinctive iconographical attribute of the Vidūṣaka. The representation of this figure may correspond to the T 22 version of the Śrāmaṇyaphalasūtra, which includes the unique reference to a youth with the name Boxian (帛賢), who asked the King: “Does your Majesty desire to have such conduct?” when the King showed his veneration to the Buddha (T 22: 271b8–9 有一童子。名曰帛賢。白其王言。大王願欲得是行耶). The King ignored Boxian’s question. The relationship between the youth Boxian and the Vidūṣaka is unclear, although their behaviour seems similar. 9 In the mural paintings of Kucha, a king is always represented together with his consort, although she does not play a role in the narrative plot at all. It seems to have been an iconographical tradition of the Kuchean Buddhist mural paintings. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 317 in a large tableau on the rear wall, which illustrates the Rudrāyaṇāvadāna (fig. 8).10 The young man with the hair tufts is sitting in front of King Udāyana’s throne, looking at the dancing Queen Candraprabhā, with his left arm raised. In the local Buddhist iconography this posture usually indicates the emotion of being frightened or surrender, and can frequently be seen in scenes concerning the conversion of heretics by the Buddha.11 Here this posture seems to highlight the person’s emotion of surprise when seeing the sign of the Queen’s fatal disease. The old man with a turban, who is also sitting in front of the King’s throne and looking up to the Queen, raises his right arm, as if he is showing or explaining something about the Queen. In Kizilgaha Cave 13, these figures are shown in at least two Jātaka scenes: Kāñcanasārajātaka (fig. 9)12 and Sarvadadajātaka.13 Each Jātaka tells the story of a generous king’s self-sacrifice.

10 For the identification of this scene see Le Coq/Waldschmidt 1928: 30. 11 For the study on this gesture see Schlingloff 2000: II 135 “being horrified.” The same gesture can be in the mural paintings of Kucha concerning the surrendered heretics. For an example of the case in Kizil Cave 118 see Hiyama 2013: 145, n. 4. 12 Waldschmidt compared representations of a Bodhisatva standing in flames and iden- tified them with the story of King Kāñcanasāra, who allowed a malicious Brahmin to make one thousand holes on his body as niches for one thousand lamps (see Le Coq/Wald- schmidt 1928: 16–18). On the other hand, in recent Chinese publications this scene is described as illustrating the Jātaka story about Prince Dharmakāma (Tanmo-Qian 曇摩 鉗) in Xianyu-Jing Chap. I (T 202: 350c12–351b11), which deals with the prince who jumped into a fire pit to sacrifice himself to hear the sermon of a Brahmin, who is in fact Indra (see for example MuralPaintingsinofChina, vol. V, p. 168, pl. 155). The prince is rescued by Indra and Brahmā at the moment when he jumped into the pit. Nevertheless, the story of Prince Dharmakāma is represented in some other caves in Kizil in a different way. According to Waldschmidt, the representation of Prince Dharmakāma involves a clear illustration of a fire pit as well as Indra and Brahmā holding the arms of the prince (Le Coq/Waldschmidt 1928: 42). As these essential iconographical elements are lacking in Kizilgaha Cave 13, this scene is more likely to be identified as the story of Kāñcanasāra. 13 For the identification of this scene see MuralPaintingsinXinjiangofChina, vol. V, p. 170, pl. 157. The same type of representation can be also found in the vault ceiling of Kizil Cave 38 (Musikerchorhöhle, Grünwedel 1912: fig. 163; Kizil Grottoes, vol. I, pl. 137). It is a story concerning King Sarvadada (T 153: 55a2–57c5). When his country was conquered by the king of a hostile country, King Sarvadada fled into the forest, where he met a Brahmin who was on his way to visit the king to petition him. King Sarvadada allowed himself to be bound and to be taken to the enemy king together with this Brahmin, for the sake of offering his own life and giving alms to the Brahmin. The enemy king was 318 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

Kizil Cave 110 is an exceptional case, since the young male figure with the characteristic hair tufts does not appear in the company of the old man here. In this cave, the man with the hair tufts appears in at least three of the originally 60 scenes concerning the Buddha’s life story: in the scene illustrating the first meditation of prince Siddhārtha (fig. 10), the figure with hair tufts bound with a bejewelled band is sitting beside the meditating prince and holds a parasol.14 In the scene about the Buddha’s sermon for Śuddhodana in Kapilavastu, the same type of figure, holding a huge striped fan, is depicted behind King Śuddhodana (fig. 11).15 In the scene concerning the prophecy given to the monk Priyadarśana, the man with the hair tufts, holding a flower tray, is standing behind a queen, together with a female figure holding a parasol for her mistress.16 The better preserved representations of these two figures are to be found in paintings of the so-called Second Indo-Iranian Style,17 with the exception of Kizil Cave 83, which is decorated with the paintings of the so-called Sonderstil(fig. 8).18 Nevertheless, it does not mean that these

greatly touched by the king’s generosity and returned his throne to him. Although this scene is highly damaged, a king with his hands bound behind his back can be observed; he is standing together with a Brahmin in front of another king sitting on the throne. There is another story about a king with the same name, which is represented in Ajanta Cave XVII (see Schlingloff 2000: 231–2); it is, however, a completely different story. 14 This scene is depicted in the second register of the left wall. For the identification of this scene see Ding/Ma 1985: 174; Nakagawara 1994: 30. The Tocharian inscription of this scene was hardly preserved (see Schmidt 2010: 848). For illustrations see Kizil Grottoes, vol. II, pl. 107; Nakagawara 1997: fig. 21 (drawing). 15 For the Tocharian inscription of this scene see Pinault 2000: 163; Schmidt 2010: 856–7. For illustrations see Nakagawara 1997: fig. 40 (drawing); MuralpaintingsinXin- jiangofChina, vol. II, pl. 5. 16 This scene is depicted in the third register of the right wall. For the Tocharian inscription of this scene see Pinault 2000: 162; Schmidt 2010: 859. For illustration see Nakagawara 1997: fig. 46 (drawing). In her description of this scene, Nakagawara remarked that the small figure holding the flower tray has a shaven head with two hair tufts (see Nakagawara 1994: 34–5). 17 Grünwedel and Waldschmidt classified the mural paintings of the Kucha region into three different styles according to their specific pictorial features: the First Indo-Iranian Style, the Second Indo-Iranian Style, and the Chinese style. Cf. Grünwedel 1912: 5–6, 42–3; Waldschmidt 1933. This classification is still under active discussion and elabora- tion by the scholars of the field in the present day. 18 According to the definition of Waldschmidt, the Sonderstil of the wall paintings of the Schatzhöhlen B and C (Kizil Cave 83 and 84) is defined as a unique subgroup of the THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 319 figures are not present in the First Indo-Iranian Style. In a large narrative scene of the surface temple of Subashi, illustrating an unidentified story about a king depicted in the First Indo-Iranian Style, at least a clear representation of the old man with the turban can be seen, who talks with a nobleman sitting beside a large kingly figure (fig. 12). As the lower part of this scene has been lost, it cannot be ascertained whether the man with the hair tufts once had been represented in front of the king’s throne. A figure with turban can be also found in the mural paintings of Kizil Cave 81 (fig. 13).19 The man, who wears a round-necked red caftan and white trousers and has a long sword hanging from his waist, is sitting on the horse standing beside the coach of prince Viśvan tara. The prince’s coach is going to pass through the city gate. Damages on the mural’s surface make it hard to ascertain whether this figure has an aged face. Furthermore, in a large scene illustrating King Māndhātar sitting in his palace in Kizil Cave 118 (Hippokampenhöhle),20 also depicted in the First Indo-Iranian Style, a small figure can be faintly recognized, who is sitting beside the king’s throne (fig. 14). Unfortunately the lower part of this painting was already heavily damaged in the beginning of the 20th century, so that Grünwedel left this part blank in his drawing.21 According to more recent photographic records, however, this figure seems to be depicted with red hair and a white shawl hanging from his head, with his head inclined towards his left side. Because the young male figure with the hair tufts often has red hair and sometimes sits beside the king’s throne, this figure could also possibly be the one with the hair tufts, although the head of this figure is too badly preserved to examine his exact hairstyle. These observations lead to the following principles concerning rep- resentations of this pair. First, they exclusively appear in scenes featuring

First Indo-Iranian Style, the development of which can be traced in some of the caves decorated in the Second Indo-Iranian Style. Cf. Waldschmidt 1933: 26–9. 19 KizilGrottoes, vol. II, pls. 67–8. For the iconographical analysis of the mural paint- ings of Kizil Cave 81 see Nakagawara 2011. 20 For the identification of the narrative subjects of Kizil Cave 118 see Hiyama 2010; Hiyama 2013. 21 For the description and drawing of this scene by Grünwedel, see Grünwedel 1912: 104, fig. 228. Unfortunately, no photographic records of the earlier condition of this mural exist to the best of the authors’ knowledge. 320 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA members of the royal family. The fact that they mostly hold one of the items belonging to the five royal insignia (sword, parasol, crown, fan, sandal) of the Buddhist literary tradition22 indicates that they are mem- bers of the court and attending to a king, queen or prince. Second, the appearance of these figures is not limited to the context of a single story. Third, the presence of these figures is not necessarily required to illus- trate the basic narrative plot of the stories in which they appear. In fact, in most of the cases they are omitted in representations of the stories of King Prasenajit, Bimbisāra and Ajātaśatru discussed above. Fourth, as in the case of Cave 81, Cave 110, and the temple in Subashi, these figures may also appear individually.

2. Discovery of the Vidūṣaka in Kuchean Paintings

Then who are these figures that frequently appear in the narrative scenes in the mural paintings at various sites in the Kucha region? The most probable answer to this question can be given after a comparison with the Indian artistic and literary tradition. The young and sometimes small male figure with the three hair tufts on his shaven head is often represented in Indian art (figs. 15–18). Mon- ika Zin, in her article of 1998, identified this type of figure as the Vidūṣaka, an essential figure of classical Indian drama, who is usually described as the “courtly jester.”23 His role typically brings a comical element to the story by way of his inappropriate behaviour.24 At the same time, the Vidūṣaka can be the most intimate friend of the nāyaka (the

22 In Buddhist literature, following the traditional etiquette, kings generally take all these insignia off before their visit to the Buddha. For example, King Prasenajit takes all of his insignia off before he visits the Buddha, as can be seen in the sermon scenes of Kucha (in these representations only the parasol, sword, and crown are shown, see Arlt and Hiyama 2013: 19). 23 See Zin 1998; also see Zin (forthcoming) for the latest result of her study on the Vidūṣaka in Indian art. Earlier tentative identifications have been made in Bhat 1959: 54 (based on notes by Argawala) and Bhat 1965 (refuted by Zin in 1998: 41, n. 48). 24 Kuiper demonstrated that of the funny characteristics attributed to the Vidūṣaka in the Nāṭyaśāstraare later additions to the text (see Kuiper 1979: 202f.). For a comparison of the comical function of the Vidūṣaka in Indian drama and the learned Buddhist monk Upananda in Vinaya literature, see Schopen 2007: 206–14. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 321 main hero of a drama) or a king (even if he is not the nāyaka).25 In drama his function can be a crucial one, since we often learn about the person- ality of the nāyakaor a king from comments made by the Vidūṣaka.26 The iconographical features of the Vidūṣaka in Indian art correspond with descriptions in the Nāṭyaśāstra, according to which the Vidūṣaka should be a Brahmin.27 His physical appearance can feature a crooked body (kubja)28 painted with black or red colour 29 and a baldhead with hair tufts, which are calledkākapada “crow’s foot.”30 His attribute is a bent staff (kuṭilaorkuṭilaka).31 All these features appear in Indian paintings

25 For example in the Śāriputraprakaraṇaof Aśvaghoṣa. Konow and accordingly Kui- per pointed out that the role of the Vidūṣaka in drama is not merely that of a buffoon, but can also be that of a person who meets the nāyaka, often a king, on equal footing, as both address themselves as vayasya (“friend”). Cf. Konow 1920: 14; Kuiper 1979: 205–7. 26 See Bhat 1959: 133–9. For example, in the Pratijñāyaugandharāyaṇam of Bhāsa (for edition and German translationseeAhlborn 2007), the nāyaka is the minister of the abducted king Udayana, Yaugandharāyaṇa. The only person who secretly visits the king in his prison on a regular basis is the Vidūṣaka, who is also well informed about his master’s romantic feelings for the daughter of his abductor. It is interesting to note that in the Kathāsaritsāgara,Yaugandharāyaṇa enters his master’s prison himself, in a guise resem- bling that of the Vidūṣaka, see Kathāsaritsāgara II, 4, 50–51 (ed. p. 41; trans. vol. 1, pp. 136–37). 27 See Zin 1998: 38. The Vidūṣaka is described by Bharata as vipra, see Nāṭyaśāstra XIII, 141–142 (ed. vol. 1, p. 21; trans. vol. 1, p. 231): yastāduśobhavedviprāhāsyo nepathyajastusaḥ/ 28 The Nāṭyaśāstra also prescribes that the Vidūṣaka should limp and have a distorted face. NāṭyaśāstraXIII, 138–139 (ed. vol. 1, pp. 20–21; trans. vol. 1, pp. 230–31): dan- turaḥkhalaṭiḥkubjaḥkhañjaścavikṛtānanaḥ//yaīdṛśaḥpraveśaḥsyādaṅgahāsyaṃtad bhavet/For a detailed study of the appearance of the Vidūṣaka see Zin 1998; and Zin (forthcoming). 29 Nāṭyaśāstra XIII, 141–142 (ed. vol. 1, p. 21; trans. vol. 1, p. 231): cīracarma- maśībhasmagairikādyaistumaṇḍitaḥ//yastādṛśobhavedviprāhāsyonepathyajastusaḥ /tasmāttuprakṛtiṃjñātvābhāvaḥkāryastutattvataḥ//(see Zin 1998: 38). 30 Nāṭyaśāstra XXIII, 151 (ed. vol. 1, p. 161; trans. vol. 1, p. 433): vidūṣakasyakha- lataiḥ syāt kākapadam eva vā (see Zin 1998: 39–40). On the basis of her inquiry for various literary sources, Zin pointed out that the hair tufts on the shaven head, which children, servants, and jesters typically bear, are also employed as a humiliating hairstyle for a person being punished in ancient India (see Zin 1998: 40). 31 NāṭyaśāstraXIII, 143–144 (ed. vol. 1, p. 21; trans. vol. 1, p. 231): svabhāvajāyāṃ vinyasyakuṭilaṃvāmakekare // The Nāṭyaśāstra explains that the kuṭila, which is described as a wooden object bent three times, is a gift from the god Brahmā (Nāṭyaśāstra I, 59–61; ed. vol. 1, p. 6; trans. vol. 1, pp. 9–10). For the detailed study on the kuṭila see Zin 1998: 38–9. 322 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA and sculptures, although sometimes only a few of these features are cho- sen to be represented. The oldest representation of the Vidūṣaka known today, which has been identified with certainty, can be found on a piece of a toraṇa found in Katra in the Mathura region.32 This relief is datable to the 1st c. CE on the basis of an inscription. Here the Vidūṣaka appears as the attendant of his mistress. He wears round earrings, holds a bent staff (kuṭila) and has hair strands on his shaven head (kākapada). This type of the representation of the kākapada is typical among the art of the Amaravati school. In Nagarjunakonda, the kākapada of the Vidūṣaka is shown with three hair strands covering his shaven head (figs. 15, 16). In the reliefs of Nagarjunakonda, the Vidūṣaka appears in three narrative scenes; two are related to the story of King Udayana (fig. 15) and one is an unidentified Buddhist narrative.33 In every scene the Vidūṣaka, represented with convergent hair strands and a bent staff, is following his master and apparently talking to him. One relief among them, which illustrates a man about to enter a mon- astery through its gateway, is especially remarkable (fig. 16).34 The man is looking back to the Vidūṣaka, while in the monastery the Buddha is giving a sermon to his disciples. The analogy with the Ajanta paintings (discussed below) enables us to identify the function of the Vidūṣaka in this scene; he shows his sadness about his master’s wish to abandon the secular life to join the Buddhist order (see Zin forthcoming). In the Ajanta Caves of the Gupta/Vākāṭaka period, the Vidūṣaka is portrayed both in sculptures and paintings. Here, the kākapada of the Vidūṣaka is depicted as pompoms decorated with flowers (figs. 17, 18), which can be also observed in a contemporary terracotta plaque from Mathura.35 In sculpture the Vidūṣaka is often represented as the attendant

32 Mathura Government Museum No. 54.3768, see Zin 2014; Zin (forthcoming): fig. 19. 33 For the identification of the Vidūṣaka in reliefs of Nagarjunakonda see Zin (forth- coming), figs. 13 (Nagarjunakonda, site 37, Archaeological Site Museum, No. 36), 14 (Nagarjunakonda, site 37, Archaeological Site Museum, No. 36; Longhurst 1938: pl. 9b), and 15 (Musée Guimet, No. MG 17.069). 34 Musée Guimet, No. MG 17.069, illus.: Hackin 1931: pl. 1; Bachhofer 1934: pl. 2.5; Zin (forthcoming): fig. 15. For the analysis of this scene see Zin (forthcoming): n. 44. 35 Mathura Government Museum, no. 2795; Bhat 1959: pl. 2; Zin 1998: fig. 7. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 323 of yakṣiṇīs or goddesses; in fig. 17, his body is painted in red colour.36 The function of the Vidūṣaka as the servant of a female master in the sculpture of Ajanta reminds us of the wall paintings of Kucha, where the Vidūṣaka is shown in the entourage of a noble woman or queen in some of the sermon scenes. As for the Ajanta paintings, the Vidūṣaka often appears in narrative scenes concerning kings, such as the Mahākapijātaka (fig. 18), the Sutasomajātaka, and the story of Udāyin and Guptā.37 The Vidūṣaka often displays his disapproval of his master’s intention to renounce his secular affairs. The same scheme can be found in the art of Mathura; the Vidūṣaka accompanies his master who is going to join the Buddhist order.38 Zin has pointed out that the presence of the Vidūṣaka, who stands for worldly pleasures, in the scene of his master’s turning away from the secular life emphasizes the meaning of the event.39 The Vidūṣaka also appears in the art of other Buddhist and non-Bud- dhist sites of the Gupta/Vākāṭaka period as well as in the post-Gupta period in the entourage of divine or noble figures, for example in Elephanta as an attendant of Śiva.40 Is the role of the Vidūṣaka in Indian art directly comparable with the representations in Kucha? The Kuchean paintings have inherited the fol- lowing essential attributes from their Indian precedents: the round large earring, the decorated pompons (often coloured) on the shaven head, a smaller body size in contrast to other figures and sometimes a black or red skin tone. He often wears the upavīta, as he does in the art of South Asia, which indicates his social status as a Brahmin. On the other hand, there is also some local variation of the iconography in the wall paintings of Kucha. Namely, the Vidūṣaka never holds a kuṭila, but mostly one of five royal insignia. In a few cases he also holds a water flask as an additional attribute, which represents his Brahmin status. While Indian art often emphasizes the comical character of the Vidūṣaka, this does not seem to be the case in Kuchean art, where the Vidūṣaka is

36 See Zin 1998: 32–6. 37 See Zin 1998: 31–2. 38 For a detailed study of this representation see Zin (forthcoming). 39 Ibid. 40 See Berkson, ed. 1983: pl. 23; for reference and identification of the Vidūṣaka see Zin (forthcoming). 324 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA mostly holding royal insignia while his master or mistress is talking to the Buddha, showing a serious facial expression and not looking comical at all. Only in Kizil Cave 83 (fig. 8) and Kizilgaha Cave 13 (fig. 9), rep- resentations of the Vidūṣaka may be intended as looking comical – wit- nessing unusual events, he shows his surprise by an exaggerated gesture, normally employed as the gesture of surrender in the case of heretics. As far as the preserved representations are concerned, the presence of the Vidūṣaka in Kucha is not necessarily related to the abandonment of worldly pleasures by the hero. In the mural paintings of Kizil Cave 110, which illustrate the Buddha’s life story accompanied by inscriptions, the Vidūṣaka does not appear in the scene of the great departure.41 Never- theless, he can be found as the only attendant of the Bodhisatva in the moment of his first meditation (fig. 10). This representation may also underline the close relationship between the Vidūṣaka and the Bodhisatva as a prince. In the scene of the Buddha’s return to Kapilavastu, the Vidūṣaka can be found again welcoming the Buddha, this time as the attendant of King Śuddhodana (fig. 11).

3. Minister or kañcukin? The Old Man with the Turban in Kuchean Paintings

If the younger figure can be indentified as the Vidūṣaka, who can the aged male figure be? The search for comparable figures in Indian art has remained inconclusive. In the case of Kuchean paintings, however, this type of man – wearing a turban and a round-necked caftan, and with an aged face – is the only figure with a turban. Thus it is obvious that the painter intends to give this type of figure a clearly distinguishable identity from other figures. The fact that the Vidūṣaka and this old figure seem to have a similar status in the Kuchean paintings leads to the assumption that also the older figure belongs to the secular set of courtly representatives, and stems from the closer circle of persons around a king. As Pinault pointed out, the Vidūṣaka (viduṣake) in Tocharian literature is a typical indicator of drama texts, along with the presence of the words nāyake(hero, the main protagonist),

41 For illustration see KizilGrottoes, vol. II, pls. 110, 111. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 325 kañcukin(chamberlain), amac (minister), plaktukäñña (female door-keep- er).42 Remarkably, in a drama focusing on the life story of Śākyamuni and in the Araṇemijātaka in Tocharian B, both the amac(minister) and the viduṣake (Vidūṣaka) appear together (although not much can be said about their relationship from the fragmental condition of these texts).43 Can the amac then be a possible candidate for the identification of the old man with the turban, who mostly appears together with the Vidūṣaka in the Kuchean mural paintings? According to the Nāṭyaśāstra’s instructions, the minister (Skt. amātya), the chaplain (purodha) and the chamberlain (kañcukin) should wear splendid white clothes44 and a cloth tied around his head.45 The iconographical featurstraes of the old man in the murals correspond well to these criteria. Out of the three figures mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra, it seems unlikely to regard the old male figure in Kuchean paintings as a chaplain, consid- ering the fact that the old man is often seen holding a sword. An aged person possesses more experience than a younger one and therefore his function as some kind of counsellor is plausible, and parallels somewhat the function of the Vidūṣaka as a counsellor in love-matters. Based on these reasons, the identification of the old turbaned figure in the Kuchean paintings as the minister (amac) can be suggested as a possibility. Never- theless, it should also be mentioned that the kañcukinis described as an old man in the Nāṭyaśāstra and other various literatures,46 while nothing

42 Pinault 2008: 405–7. 43 In Tocharian texts ministers (amac) are mentioned in manuscript fragments THT 16, 18, 77, 91, 92, 126, 128, 372, 382, 408, 423, 585, IOL Toch 55, 217 and PK AS 8A, 13E, 15A, 17D. 44 Nāṭyaśāstra XXIII, 121–122 (ed. vol. 1, p. 158; trans. vol. 1, pp. 429–30): vṛddhā- nāṃbrāhmaṇānāṃcaśreṣṭhyamātyapurodhasām//vaṇijāṃkañcukīyānāṃtathācaiva tapasvinām/viprakṣatriyavaiśyānāṃsthānīyāyecamānavāḥ//śuddhovastravidhisteṣāṁ kartavyonāṭakāśrayaḥ/ 45 Nāṭyaśāstra XXIII, 143–144 (ed. vol. 1, p. 160; trans. vol. 1, p. 432): amātyānāṃ kañcukināṃtathāśreṣṭhipurodhasām//veṣṭanābaddhapaṭṭānipratiśīrṣāṇikārayet/ 46 Nāṭyaśāstra XXXIV, 73–78 (ed. vol. 2, p. 194; trans. vol. 2, p. 209). Here Ghosh mentions that the snātaka is supposed to be an old person, while in his earlier translation this attribution is made for the kañcukin (see Ghosh 1950: 535). In the Priyadarśikāby Harṣathe Vidūṣaka encourages KingVatsarājato free his belovedVāsavadattāwith force, since nothing other than hunchbacks, dwarfs and the old chamberlain would be in his way. In the beginning of the drama the chamberlain describes himself as being old as well (see Nariman et al. [1923] 1984: 6–7). A similar but rather amusing monologue can be found 326 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA about the age of the minister is mentioned in the Nāṭyaśāstra. Thus the identification of this type of male figure as kañcukinis also possible. The presence of the Vidūṣaka and the Minister/Kañcukin in the mural paintings of the Kucha region may indicate a connection, albeit indirectly through the representations in the mural paintings, to the local Tocharian Buddhist tradition in Kucha. They are both typical figures in drama texts, and notably the Vidūṣaka never appears in Buddhist canonical literature. The frequent (although not constant)47 presence of the Vidūṣaka in the Buddhist wall paintings of Kucha may bear witness to their close inter- connection with the local story-telling tradition in the Tocharian language.

4. Echoes of the Sanskrit Drama Tradition in East Turkestan

The discovery of these typical figures of Indian dramain the Buddhist wall paintings of Kucha is significant for the inquiry regarding the transmission of the Sanskrit drama tradition to the East. In fact, the German expeditions found some palm leaf manuscripts of Sanskrit drama texts, imported from India, in the . They are Buddhist plays, for example of Aśvaghoṣa, and include the role of a Vidūṣaka.48 On the basis of palaeographical analy- sis, Lüders dated the earliest to the 2nd century CE and assumed that these plays were only read and not staged in .49 In his paper in 2007, Jens-Uwe Hartmann supported this assumption by mentioning the fact that the Sanskrit drama texts found in Central Asia are only written on palm leafs but never on paper, in other words, never on the local material.50 in theAnargharāghava ofMurāri. Here the chamberlain describes himself as “praising my masters without having the voice or the limbs to do so, I have been made a comic actor. With my grey hair for greasepaint, in what play will I still be made to act, directed by this long life of mine?”(see Törzsök 2012: 7). 47 Hiyama demonstrated that the mural paintings of Kizil Cave 207 are a pictorial rendering of the Āgama-collection of the (Mūla)Sarvāstivādins. In this cave neither the Vidūṣaka nor the Minister/Kañcukin are illustrated. Cf. Hiyama 2014: Chapter IV. 48 For the Śāriputraprakaraṇaof Aśvaghoṣa and other drama texts found in Kizil see Lüders 1911a; Lüders 1911b: 190–212. 49 See Lüders 1933: 12. 50 See Hartmann 2007: 250. In this paper Hartmann edited a fragment of a Sanskrit play in the Schøyen Collection. The play has been studied further by Eli Franco and Dieter Schlingloff, and it has been suggested that it is a rendering of King Puṣkarasārin’s renun- ciation (see Franco and Schlingloff 2011–2012). THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 327

However, the presence of these typical theatrical figures of Sanskrit drama in Tocharian Buddhist drama, as well as their representation in the mural paintings, can only be regarded as a visual witness of a drama tradition in the Tocharian Buddhist culture that draws from its Indian predecessors. Furthermore, Tocharian not only inherited some elements from the Sanskrit drama tradition, but also developed its own local tradition. The kuṭila, a typical attribute of the Vidūṣaka in Indian art, is replaced by royal insignia in the mural paintings of Kucha. This may be more than an iconographical development of the Vidūṣaka. It is also remarkable that a striped fan is represented in a highly uniform manner in the Kuchean paintings, even though no Indian antecedent for this depiction can be found to the best of the authors’ knowledge. Since this specific type of fan is repeatedly illustrated in numerous caves, this item may have been a prop employed in stage performances in the Kucha region. If further speculations are allowed, the peculiar representation of the flat cap with several tufts, which the Vidūṣaka wears in Kizil Cave 80, Cave 114, and Cave 178 (figs. 1–3), may indeed be the depiction of a kind of wig, which the actors playing the Vidūṣaka wore.51 The same type of hairstyle can be found in two praṇidhi scenes in the Turfan region. On the inner wall of the rear corridor of Bezeklik Caves 15 and 20, which share the same type of iconographical program, a praṇidhi scene concerning the prophecy of the future Buddhahood of the young Brahmin Uttara (Śākyamuni in a previous existence) by Buddha Kāśyapa is represented (fig. 19).52 The main narrative elements of this scene which

51 In his work titled TheVidūṣaka Bhat already speculated whether the actor playing the Vidūṣaka, in some cases, was wearing a three-pointed cap on stage, rather than a shaven head with some isolated strands or tufts of hair. As he pointed out too, there is no reference to such a practice in the Natyasastra, but he sees a justification for his idea in other textual references to masks which the stage actors wore (see Bhat 1959: 53–58). It is possible to assume that the actors in Kucha did not really shave their hair for the per- formance but used some kind of cap or wig for practical reasons, although this remains speculative insofar as no decisive literal records or material evidence have yet been found. 52 For the literal sources of this narrative motif see Konczak 2014: 74–8, for the analysis of their pictorial representations in Kucha and Turfan see Konczak 2014: 136–7, 249–51. For illustrations see Le Coq 1913: Tafel 26; TheCavesofOneThousandBuddhas, pl. 141. 328 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA are clearly identifiable are Buddha Kāśyapa standing at the centre of the scene, and Uttara, who is sitting in front of the Buddha and receiving the prophecy.53 No conclusive identification has yet been given for two figures standing at the left side of Buddha Kāśyapa; one is a king-like figure with a halo, and the other is a small young Brahmin with five humps on his hair cap, each holding a flower tray. Lüders assumed that the small Brahmin may illustrate the Brahmin status of Uttara before he was ordained as a Buddhist monk.54 However, the hairstyle of this small Brahmin highly resembles that of the Vidūṣaka in Kizil Cave 114 and 175 (figs. 2, 3). If this figure indeed is the Vidūṣaka – who is also known in Uyghur literature55 – then he may play a role as the attendant of King Kṛkin of Kāśi, who visited the Buddha Kāśyapa after the ordination of Uttara. These representations in Bezeklik may indicate that the iconog- raphy of the Vidūṣaka in Kucha had been further transmitted to Turfan; or presumably even that the actors playing the Vidūṣaka used to wear this kind of hair cap in actual Buddhist drama performance in East Turkestan.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, the presence of the Vidūṣaka and the Minister/Kañcukin in the wall paintings and Tocharian drama texts seems to indicate a strong influence of the Buddhist Sanskrit drama tradition upon Tocharian Bud- dhist culture. Not much is known about the Buddhist drama performance in Kucha until today,56 and no archaeological evidence that could be

53 Konczak pointed out that there is no iconographical inconsistency to represent the young Brahmin Uttara with the physical features of the Buddha, because according to the Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāṣika tradition, the Bodhisattva attains the 32 physical marks of the Buddha in the 100 kalpas preceding the attainment of Buddhahood. Cf. Konczak 2014: 45, 137, n. 145. 54 Lüders [1913] 1940: 273. 55 For example, a Vidūṣaka called Ratikara plays a role in an Avadāna in the Uyghur language about King Ajātaśatru and the girl Māmikā (trans. Kowalski 1959: 435ff.). The authors express their deepest gratitude to Dr. Jens Wilkens for this precious information. 56 In the Tibetan legendary chronicle of Khotan (at the time neighbouring Kucha, with which it had close cultural links), the annual staging of Jātakas in Buddhist monasteries is mentioned. According to the chronicle, this tradition began with gods and Nāgas for the reconciliation of the brother kings Vijayadharma and ’Don ’dros. After seeing the perfor- mance, they were reconciled and established the first monastery of the Sarvāstivāda school THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 329 attributed with certainty to either theatre or playhouse buildings has been found. In this regard, the representations of the Vidūṣaka and the Minister/ Kañcukin with some local elements in the mural paintings can be regarded as a rare indicator of the lost Kuchean Buddhist theatrical tradition per- formed in Tocharian language.

Abbreviations

IOL Toch India Office Library, Tocharian manuscripts. MIK Museum für Indische Kunst. It refers to inventory numbers of the objects kept in the present Asian Art Museum of Berlin State Museums. The copyright of all the objects with MIK number belong to the Asian Art Museum of Berlin State Museums. PK AS Pelliot Koutchéen Ancienne Série. T Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo. THT Tocharian Manuscripts from the Berlin Turfan Collection.

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de l’École du Louvre, Volume 14. Paris: La Documentation française: 150– 168. —. 2008. ChrestomathieTokharienne:Textetgrammaire, Leuven/Paris: Peeters. Schlingloff, Dieter. 2000. Ajanta–HandbuchderMalereien. 1.ErzählendeWand- malereien. Wiesbaden: Harassowitz. —. 2013. Ajanta–HandbookofthePaintings1. NarrativeWall-paintings. New Delhi: IGNCA. Schmidt, Klaus T. 2010. “Die Entzifferung der westtocharischen Überschriften zu einem Bilderzyklus des Buddhalebens in der ‘Treppenhöhle’ (Höhle 110) in Quizil.” In E. Franco and M. Zin, eds., FromTurfantoAjanta:Fest- schrift for Dieter Schlingloff on the Occasion of his Eightieth Birthday. Lumbini: Lumbini International Research Institute: 835–66. Schopen, Gregory. 2007. “The learned monk as a comic figure: on reading a Buddhist Vinaya as Indian literature.” JournalofIndianPhilosophy 35–3: 201–26. TheCavesofOneThousandBuddhas= The State and The Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, Russian Academy of Sciences, eds. 2008. The Caves of One Thousand Buddhas: Russian expeditions on the Route:ontheoccasionof190yearsoftheAsiaticMuseum. St. Petersburg: The State Hermitage Publishers (in Russian). Törzsök, Judit. 2012. “Self-reflection of an art: allusions to drama and dramatic theory in the Anargharāghava of Murāri.” Proceedingsof the12th World SanskritConference,2003,Helsinki. Accessed September 29, 2015. https:// hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00711426. Waldschmidt, Ernst. 1930. “Wundertätige Mönche in der osttürkischen Hīna- yāna-Kunst.” OstasiatischeZeitschrift, N.F. 6: 3–9 (repr. in Waldschmidt, Ernst. 1967.VonCeylonbisTurfan. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 27–33). —. 1933. “Über den Stil der Wandgemälde.” in DiebuddhistischeSpätantike in Mittelasien VII, Neue Bildwerke 3. Ergebnisse der Kgl.-Preussischen Turfan-Expeditionen. Berlin: Reimer und Vohsen: 24–31. Zin, Monika. 1998. “Der Vidusaka jenseits der Bühne.” Indo-AsiatiascheZeit- schrift 2: 30–41. —. 2014. “Non-Buddhist narrative scenes at Nagarjunakonda.” In D. Klimburg- Salter and L. Lojda, eds., ChangingFormsandCulturalIdentity:Religious andSecularIconographies:Papersfromthe20thConferenceoftheEuro- peanAssociationforSouthAsianArchaeologyandArtheldinViennafrom 4thto9thJuly2010. South Asian Archaeology and Art. Turnhout: Brepols: 77–89. Zin, M. forthcoming. “The jester and the vidūṣaka.” In A.A. Esposito, H. Oberlin, K.J. Steiner, and V. Rai, eds., InihrerrechtenHandhieltsieeinsilbernes Messer mit Glöckchen… Setubandhinīvandanakaumudī, Festschrift für HeidrunBrückner. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz: 373–90. APPENDIX THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 335

Fig. 1: Kizil Cave 80 (Höhle mit dem Höllentopf), right side wall (MIK TA 6513, the original drawing was published in Grünwedel 1912: fig. 219).

Fig. 2: Kizil Cave 114 (Gebetsmühlenhöhle), right side wall (Le Coq /Waldschmidt 1933: Tafel 10a). 336 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

Fig. 3: Kizil Cave 175 (Versuchungshöhle), left side wall (MIK B 544).

Fig. 3: Details. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 337

Fig. 4: Kizil Cave 188 (Dritte Höhle von vorn, a.k.a. Zwölf Buddha- höhle), lunette (Kizil Grottoes, vol. III, pl. 55).

Fig. 5: Kizil Cave 178 (Schluchthöhle/Hochlieg- ende Höhle/dritte Höhle der zweiten Schlucht), left wall (Grünwedel 1920: Tafel XXIV-XXV, fig. 4).

Fig. 5: Detail. 338 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

Fig. 6: Kizil Cave 189, rear wall (MuralPaintingsinXinjiangofChina, vol. III, pl. 169).

Fig. 6: Details. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 339

Fig. 7: Kizil Cave 206 (Fußwaschungshöhle), left side wall (Grünwedel 1920: Tafel XXX-XXXI, fig. 2).

Fig. 7: Detail. 340 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

Fig. 8: Kizil Cave 83 (Schatzhöhle C), rear wall (Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Berlin, MIK III 8443).

Fig. 8: Detail. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 341

Fig. 9: Kizilgaha, Cave 13, outer wall of the left corridor (KumutulaShiku, pl. 202).

Fig. 9: Detail. 342 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

Fig. 10: Kizil Cave 110 (Treppenhöhle), left side wall (KizilGrottoes, vol. II, pl. 107).

Fig. 10: Detail. THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 343

Fig. 11: Kizil Cave 110 (Treppenhöhle), left side wall (photograph courtesy of Prof. Klaus Ruitenbeek, Director of Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Berlin). 344 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

Fig. 12: Mural of the Temple Ruin of Subashi (Hambis et al. 1967: Dessin 1).

Fig. 13: Kizil Cave 81 (KizilGrottoes, vol. II, pl. 68). THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 345

Fig. 14: Kizil Cave 118 (Hippokampenhöhle), rear wall (MuralPaintingsinXinjiangofChina, vol. I, pl. 1).

Fig. 14: Detail. 346 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

Fig. 15: Nagarjunakonda, site 37, Archaeological Site Museum, No. 36 (Zin [forthcoming]: fig. 13).

Fig. 16: Nagarjunakonda, Paris, Musée Guimet, No. MG 17.069 (Zin [forthcoming]: fig. 15). THEATRICAL FIGURES IN THE MURAL PAINTINGS OF KUCHA 347

Fig. 17: Ajanta Cave 2 (Zin [forthcoming]: fig. 7).

Fig. 18: Ajanta Cave XVI, left side wall of the front corridor, drawing by Monika Zin (Zin [forthcoming]: fig. 2). 348 ROBERT ARLT & SATOMI HIYAMA

Fig. 19: Bezeklik Cave 15, inner wall of the rear corridor (The State Hermitage Museum, TU-775, TheCavesofOneThousand Buddhas, pl. 141).

Fig. 19: Detail.