This dissertation analyzes the wills left behind by African-born ex-slaves in nineteenth-century Salvador in order to shed light on the lives that they led in the Bahian capital upon their arrival as slaves from Africa, and upon the re-acquisition of their freedom through the alforria system. The material assets and the slave ownership of libertos are studied in depth, as well as their religiosity, and the larger world and networks within which they operated in their Brazilian lives, with a specific eye towards African agency and processes of community formation. The qualitative and in-depth study of post-mortem testaments and inventories as meaningful texts in their own right provides the opportunity to decipher the individual voices of freed Africans, as well as to acquire insight into their Bahian worlds. The relationships, affective ties, and kinship networks of libertos, as well as their efforts to exercise agency and deliberation over their own lives, and the lives of others to whom they were connected, also become evident in the process. The testaments also make it possible to acquire a deeper understanding of African cosmologies in Brazil, through the ways in which libertos understood the passage from the worldly life to the afterlife, the meanings they gave to death, to funerals and other last rites. Understandings of justice, legality, and honor also come to the forefront, while the complex context of nineteenth century Bahia (and Brazil in general) constitutes the constant backdrop against which all these discussions acquire meaning. Understanding the lives, belief systems, and connections of African libertos also has important repercussions for understanding the experiences of Africans and their descendants in slave societies all over the Atlantic World. Insights deriving from the in-depth analysis of libertos’ wills have important implications for furthering our knowledge with regards to the Atlantic slave trade, slave ownership, and enslavement, as well as processes of identity and community formation, retention, adaptation, and resistance in the African Diaspora as a whole. ©Copyright by Asligul Berktay, 2015 All Rights Reserved On both sides of my family, I come from lineages of women kind, intelligent, caring, and strong. This dissertation is dedicated to my wonderful maternal grandmother Sevim Tanör who turned ninety in February, and to the loving memory of my paternal grandmother Yegân Berktay, who is truly missed. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My commitment to the African continent and to the African Diaspora goes back two decades in time, and this dissertation represents a contribution I have long been wanting to make. As in all cases where a project represents so much, I have many people to thank for its realization. Just like the freed Africans whom I have been fortunate enough to become acquainted with in this dissertation in spite of all the obstacles of time, geography, and realities of life, I have been surrounded by many people who have shaped who I am, and have provided me with an enormous net of support from all directions. For my academic formation which has culminated in this study, I would first and foremost like to thank my dissertation director Dr. Rosanne Adderley, who from the very beginning has constituted a role model for my whole academic career through her overflowing knowledge and dedication. In spite of the many years I took in writing this dissertation, disappearing and coming back to the surface innumerable times, she has never stopped believing that I had a contribution to make and in my abilities to make that contribution, and has offered me invaluable insight and guidance. Dr. Elisabeth McMahon has kept my passion for Africa alight, kept my fears and anxiety in check, and ii was always available with ideas, comments, and precious assistance in filling the gaps in my knowledge, argument, and writing. Dr. Christopher Dunn has served as a constant reminder that it is possible for a person to be a great academic, and a truly wonderful and down to earth person, all at the same time. He has also made sure that while swept away in history I would not lose my perspective on today and on the amazing culture of Bahia, especially its music. Dr. Olanike-Ola Orie has been in my life the true blessing that she is in the lives of many, but she has also always made me feel that I was special and cared for. Dr. James Huck has always been present, patient, and caring, and has done absolutely everything in his possibility every step of the way, so that I could fulfill my capacity and finish what I started. At this time, I would also like to remember Dr. Holly Hanson, Dr. Joan Cocks, Dr. Laurence Huughe, and Dr. Roberto Márquez who have contributed immensely to my personal and academic trajectory. Finally, a special thank you goes to Dr. Harold Garrett-Goodyear, who actually got me into history during my senior year at Mount Holyoke College. None of this could have happened without the academic and financial support of the Roger Mayer Stone Center of Latin American Studies at Tulane University, but also the personal support of everyone who works there. The two research grants that I received from the School of Liberal Arts have also played a major role in the realization of my research. I am also thankful for having had the Arquivo Público do Estado da Bahia (APEB) as my primary research site—an archive encompassing an incomparable source of documentary sources, as well as a personnel as helpful as their iii work is difficult due to a great many odds constantly working against them in their endeavors. My personal network of love and support have encompassed many people in the United States, Turkey, Brazil, Portugal, and Africa. First and foremost among them is Urano Andrade, the historian and archivist, who upon the first moment he found me lost in APEB, took me under his wing. In addition to being a good friend who was always present and caring, he has actually made this dissertation happen with his many hours of work in the archive when I was no longer able to return to Bahia for another research trip, always being at the ready with any kind of help I may require, and even spending sleepless nights to make sure I could realize my dream. It is not at all an exaggeration to say that without him, this dissertation would not have been completed. But he has also helped me understand once more that one can be as brilliant as they are humble, and his love for historical documents constitutes an inspiration that will last forever in my life. At a level of personal support, the recent years have shown me the true indispensability of my family. After years of thinking that the love people had for me depended on how I acted or what I achieved, in the challenging circumstances of the last few years, my family has shown me that no matter what I do, or how badly I may fail, they will love me, stand by me, and support me. My parents Dr. Fatmagül Berktay and Dr. Halil Berktay have been understanding, helpful, and patient, while they never lost their faith in both my iv potential and my good intentions. The same was valid for my uncle Dr. Ali Tanör, who played a major role in making sure that this dissertation was completed. His support has been incomparable. Ever since 1997, Sadun Sönmez has both been a true friend and a rock to lean on. He has known when to support me, but also where to push me and not let me get comfortable with a life that did not correspond to my actual abilities. My dissertation write-up period has also sown the seeds of a new friendship with my aunt Dr. Öget Tanör, for which I am also grateful. On the other hand, Irene Lugo has shown me that sisterhood goes well beyond the biological family, while so many friends surrounded me with their love, support, and encouragement at different levels. I certainly cannot name everyone, but Paula Carpinelli, Dr. Annie Gibson, Xelaju Korda, Elena Zoubanova de Jesús, Leo Oliveira, Dr. Meral Özbek, Ramsey Tracy, Dr. Gül Ozatesler, Mireille Perzan, Lamine Ba, Mokhtar Sow, Céline Notin, Ali Öztürk, Alex Castro, Camila Pavanelli de Lorenzi, Naomi Rohatyn, Raudell Conte Morales, Dr. Efrosyni-Alkisti Paraskevopoulou-Kollia, Renata Vasconcellos Nascimento, Susanne Hackett, Elsa Natália Camuamba, Firyuza Haitova, Alexandra Mompoint Jeannot, Sarah Mariner, and Elsa Nabenge Shichilenge should certainly be named. Dr. Bahar Cömert Agouridas has provided me with many hours of patient therapy and psychoanalysis during which I slowly chased away my demons, but she also managed to make me feel special, worthy and loved. Alyrio Brasileiro, all the way from Bahia, always made sure that my orí was secure in its place, and did not go off v wandering into depression land ruled over by my many eguns. In addition, I cannot imagine anyone being able to repeat the words “calma minha filha” more times than he did, while he sought to make sure the Orixás were always on my side. It has been a long journey, but I have had a lot of people on my side. I am deeply grateful. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ii-vi List of Tables ix List of Maps x Introduction. Setting the Necessary Stages for Understanding Nineteenth-Century Libertos’ Wills in Bahia I. Main Theses 1 II. Post-Mortem Testaments as Documentary Sources 3 III. Why Salvador? 11 IV. The Physical and Population Characteristics of Nineteenth-Century Salvador 16 V. The Complexities of the Brazilian Nineteenth Century 21 V.I.