Introduction 1 Sounding Fascism in Cinema

Home , Alessandro Blasetti, Alessandro Cicognini, Carlo Rustichelli, Cinema Nuovo, Cineriz, Enrico Maria Salerno

Notes

Introduction

1. For an extensive analysis on the subject, the article “Music as Torture / Music as Weapon” in the Transcultural Music Review by Cusick traces the history of the research, and the use of sound (musical and non), for war; an extensive quote from her work demonstrates power’s appropriation of the sheer power of sound: “Acoustic weapons” have been in development by Department of Defense contractors since at least the 1997 creation of the Joint Non- Lethal Weapons Task Force, accounting for 1/3 of the Task Force’s budget in 1998–99. . . . The earliest contract I know to have been let for such a weapon was on November 18, 1998, authorizing now- defunct Synetics Corporation to produce a tightly focused beam of infrasound—that is, vibration waves slower than 100 vps [vibrations per second]—meant to produce effects that range from “disabling or lethal.” In 1999, Maxwell Technologies patented a Hyper-Sonic Sound System, another “highly directional device . . . designed to control hostile crowds or disable hostage takers.” The same year Primex Physics International patented both the “Acoustic Blaster,” which produced “repetitive impulse waveforms” of 165dB, direct- able at a distance of 50 feet, for “antipersonnel applications,” and the Sequential Arc Discharge Acoustic Generator, which produces “high intensity impulsive sound waves by purely electrical means.”

1 Sounding Fascism in Cinema

1. All translations from Italian texts used in the work are mine. 2. Gentile’s “Fundamental Ideas,” second part of the “Doctrine of Fascism,” which appeared in the Enciclopedia Italiana in 1932, under the title Fascism, see web entry http://www.treccani.it/biblioteca/biblioteca_fonti. htm. 3. Two films with different intents at different moments in history recount the “nation” in its multiplicity of languages and heterogeneous realities and map it from the south to the north: Blasetti’s 1860 (1933) shot during 188 l Notes

Fascism for fascist edification and enticement, and Rossellini’s Paisà (1946) that illustrates the status of the nation at the moment of the postwar Liberation. Taken together, they offer an idea of how the linguistic and national unity prospected by the fascist Regime was not accomplished at all. The two films also expose a paradigmatic use of the technology of sound recording and production to which I will return to in chapter 4. 4. In the article by Virginia Pulcini, “Attitudes toward the Spread of English in Italy,” which specifically addresses the evolution of and the relation between the Italian and English languages, and the spread of the latter in Italy since the advent of Fascism to the post–World War Two period, dubbing is an invisible naturalized force, the author mentions it en passant, as an adjective for films and television series that in Italy are, as a matter of fact “dubbed.” Cleansed of its reasons for being, like impeding the spread of foreign languages, and English, in this analysis dubbing simply produces “faulty shifts of meanings” of English words because of “hasty translations” (81). In Pulcini’s inquiry into the motivations for the poor status of second-language acquisition and proficiency, dubbing does not figure at all as one of the indirect repressive agents. Mostly to blame is bad teaching, not the fact of having absolutely no linguistic exposure to other languages if not through tourists visiting, travel, or personal interests, and curiosity. She concludes the article affirming, in contrast to nations like France, the open Italian attitude toward English that the lack of restrictive linguistic policies guarantees. In Pulcini’s vision, after the linguistic xeno- phobia of the fascist Regime, Italians have developed a very democratic attitude toward cultural matters, so dubbing loses its repressive history, and is simply stratified in the monocultural and monolingual scape that the Fascist Regime successfully implemented.

2 Dubbing in Deed, and Listening to Dubbing

1. The technical definition of the term and process is generally given without names of famous inventors and specific dates, as in Mary Ann Doane’s essay on sound editing and mixing where she provides a clear and detailed explanation of this post-production process that avoids breaks and inter- ruptions of the audiovisual flow following the Hollywood values of continuity, or continuous narration (in Film Sound 57). 2. It is not difficult to make the connection with the way Blackface min- strelsy represented black characters as mis-speakers for laughs, and how this was carried into a common idea that many people had/have of how blacks speak. 3. It is useful to remember also how the names of internationally popular musicians, famously Louis Armstrong and Benny Goodman, had to be Italianized, literally translated, for the Italian public into Luigi Braccioforte and Beniamino Buonomo. Jazz music as “negro music,” was unwelcome. Notes l 189

In the article “Fascismo e Tradizione” from the fascist magazine Il Popolo d’Italia penned by Carlo Ravasio, (March 30, 1928), the journalist, future undersecretary of the PNF, asks why should the Italian people put their violins and mandolins in the attic and exchange them for saxophones that can only play barbaric melodies, or Americanate [things American] of every sort. 1928 signaled the beginning of the fascist attack on jazz and the ensuing politics of the national radio (EIAR, Ente Italiano Audizioni Radiofoniche) of dramatically reducing the broadcasting of foreign music in favor of national music. See Mazzoletti, A. Il jazz in Italia.

3 Cinema Talk: Between “Make Believe” and Schizophonia

1. Pirandello’s complaints, which here center on the as yet imperfect technology, also recall how audiences, often used to live musical performance during a film, also had to learn to listen to the screen, to suspend aspects of disbelief. The whole question of dubbing is also a question about what has been suspended, and what this might mean culturally. 2. Even in Italian, the substantive acusticita` from the adjective acustico (acoustic) seems personally coined by the author, or it is an archaic form currently not notated in various dictionaries; thus I offer the same old/ neologism in English. 3. In Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts, Douglas Kahn variously and extensively discusses his work, with and without the futurists, in the elaboration of and for the soundtrack of modernity. 4. The study on dubbing by Fodor, which is the only monograph and sys- tematic investigation on the subject, explores the dynamics of the process from a technical linguistic, phonetic point of view, with much attention to the problem of “phonetic synchrony,” as defined above, and of “character synchrony” as the creation of harmony between the sounds of the dubber, his/her vocal performance, and the film actors’ physical presence, temperament, bodily gestures, and facial expressions. The detailed analysis is grounded in a linguistic frame, but Fodor goes on to underline the conceptual impossibility of dubbing, as it stages on film the essential dis- crepancy of foreign words on foreign gestures and technically undermines the profound connection and inseparability of a body that speaks its own spoken words. He also explores the cultural impossibility of dubbing to render and maintain whole the connotative elements of film, as the new (target) language should adapt, and naturally fails to adapt, to the specific sociocultural visual representation on the screen. According to Fodor, only the denotative elements of film can be carried by dubbing, that is, the verbal information of the film although dichotomized from the specifically paralinguistic and aesthetic information. Also, as plot and dialogue translation “content synchrony” is somehow problematic not simply because it suffers from the modifications necessary to synchronize the dialogues, but 190 l Notes

because cultural and political factors do intervene and can influence the translation of the original text. Moreover, Fodor emphasizes how often the requirements of phonetic synchrony are antagonistic to those of character and content synchrony. It becomes a matter of choice what type of synchrony is preferred; thus an impeccable dubbing is inconceivable. 5. The Italian word doppiata, that is “dubbed,” is contained in the word rad- doppiata “re/doubled,” the pun is thus with the word “doubled” “raddop- piata” containing in itself the word dubbed, “doppiata,” as if in English the word for re/doubled was “redubbed.” 6. In Italian the word for silent cinema is cinema muto, “mute cinema,” it emphasizes the absolute impossibility of speech, the impossibility of a cinema that can talk. The English “silent” seems to be a more evocative word that defines an atmosphere, silence being the lack of sound but not its impossibility.

4 The Soundtrack after Fascism: The Neorealist Play without Sound

1. For the sake of terminological clarity, I differentiate between the word and notion of dubbing and post-synchronization. I use dubbing to indicate the imposed mode of audio translation of foreign films, while I will refer to post-synchronization to signify the post-production of the soundtrack of national films which are not in need of translation. To maintain the distinction is somewhat complicated since both involve post-synchronization, and in many authors’ and directors’ references the word “dubbing” tends to be used to indicate both practices. The distinction is not about the technology and techniques, it is formal, concerning the objectives, both aesthetic and ideological, of the two practices as they converge and diverge, as will become fully clear in the discussion of the films of Antonioni and Pasolini. Thus, keeping in mind the distinction between dubbing as translation, and post-synchronization as soundtrack post-production technique is relevant for my argument. 2. Italy remains a dubbing country; despite the considerable change in the possibility of audiovisual exposure to films in original language offered by cable TV and digital reproduction, distribution market and spectator habit favor the traditional modality of dubbing as opposed to subtitling. A recent example of the kind of manipulation still present, and available thanks to dubbing, is the resounding little mystery concerning the Italian dubbing of the American film Night at the Museum 2 (2009). In the original, and the French dubbed version of the film, the protagonist Larry (Ben Stiller), working as night watchman at the Museum of Natural History in New York, encounters a reincarnated Napoleon who tells him of a love affair with a woman pilot. In the Italian dubbed version the story changes. Napoleon talks about his Italian descendants, one of them in particular, Notes l 191

one “at his height, a fat cat, funny and powerful, who used to sing on ships.” When Larry replies that he does not know him, Napoleon ends with “everybody knows him and everybody loves him.” The clear allu- sion to Silvio Berlusconi, formulated with bits and pieces of the constant advertisement for the ex (then) prime minister, was immediately familiar to Italian audiences and was justified with requisite nonchalance by the Italian president of the 20th Century Fox, Osvaldo De Santis. He stated that the original dialogue made references to unknown characters that would not have been fun for the Italian audience. De Santis’s position in Mr. Berlusconi’s Government in the Ministry for Cultural Activities might offer some indication as to his personal taste in what is funny (“Notte al Museo 2, cambiata la battuta su Berlusconi «pronipote» di Napoleone.”). 3. Issues of supposed continuity/discontinuity between the cinema produced under Fascism and postwar neorealist filmmaking have been widely discussed and the subject of long debates. For the sake of the present work’s argument and simplification, if we posit neorealism as essentially founded on an ethical basis, as the renowned film critic Guido Aristarco does, it is clear that the will to reject the fascist past is quintessential to the ethical aesthetics of neorealism, thus the break is fundamentally there. The mere formal aesthetic discourse, if it could ever be considered in itself, disassoci- ated from ethics/politics, complicates things as there never could be any absolute or proper rejection of the language that cinema developed during Fascism despite political affiliations and credos on the part of national directors, etc. Elements of realism fundamental for neorealism imbue much of the fascist film output with various and different ideological intentions. Nonetheless, at the level of formal representation, the issue of discontinuity cannot be stated unproblematically. Realism in cinema is in fact the common ground of leftist, antifascist filmmakers and theorists who lived their youth or came of age during Fascism opposing the Regime—at the time of the Regime (Renzo Renzi, Luchino Visconti, Giuseppe De Santis, Cesare Zavattini, Umberto Barbaro)—appealing to notions of social realism from the Soviet school, but it was also part of the language of fascist propagandists. Realism was appropriated to promote the revolutionary fascist cinema. Also fascist intellectuals, against the concept of “fascist art,” explored the cultural panorama of the times and shared the drive to realism that from past national and international literature was encountering new expressive possibilities with the contemporary recording technology of photography and cinema. Famously, Leo Longanesi, who penned in 1926 the Vademecum del perfetto fascista, in L’occhio di vetro (“‘L’Italiano,’” Roma, VIII, n.57, Gennaio-Febbraio 1933), called for a cinema of the real to be opposed to the ruling falsity of Hollywood. The notion of neorealism’s break is valid only in politically ideological terms. (see Brunetta G. P. Umberto Barbaro e l’idea di neorealismo. (1930–1943). De Santis, G. Verso il neorealismo: un critico cinematografico degli anni quaranta. Aristarco, 192 l Notes

G. Neorealismo e nuova critica cinematografica: cinematografia e vita nazionale negli anni Quaranta e Cinquanta tra rotture e tradizioni. Mida, M. Compagni di viaggio: colloqui con i maestri del cinema italiano. Furno, M., Renzo R., and Vittorio Boarini. Il Neorealismo nel fascismo: Giuseppe De Santis e la critica cinematografica, 1941–1943). 4. Elsewhere and variously, Rossellini affirms his disbelief in any cinema veritè because nothing is really real about cinema. Cinema is a creation and the work of the director should not be hidden, or denied, for some fetishized love of the apparatus and mythical conception of the medium as revealer of the real. On the contrary one should never forget that there is an author who creates the filmic texts and that there is no neutrality in the filming operation (see Rondolino, G. Roberto Rossellini). 5. This is explained by the concept of “aural awareness” developed by Barry Blesser and defined as a complex process which progresses through a series of stages: transforming physical sound waves to neural signals, detecting the sensations they produce, perceiving the sound sources and the acoustic environment, and finally, influencing a listener’s affect, emotion, or mood. Notice that this conceptualization provides a continuum from the physical reality of sound to the personal relevance of that reality. (27) Blesser develops the concept of aural architecture as the auditory equiv- alent of visual architecture and investigates the modes of auditory spa- tial awareness, very often unconscious in a visually oriented society like ours, cognitively complex, emotionally charged, and behaviorally effective (Spaces Speak, Are You Listening? Experiencing Aural Architecture). 6. This is something of a Russian doll consideration where somehow a similar but smaller statement is nested inside the bigger one which, with post- structural film theory, posits all narrative cinema as enoncè, an arbitrary narration conventionally controlled by a narrating subject, an enunciator that hides references to the enunciation. Thus, for example, the main dis- guising trope of the actor who cannot look into the camera, denying the existence of camera and the workings of the apparatus, is necessary for the formulation of the enunciation into an enoncè. Fiction film wants to present itself as a natural unfolding of events and even more so did neorealist films with the difference that their ethical aesthetic appeal was to reality with a commitment to show it and change it. (See theories of narration in film, Buckland, The Cognitive Semiotics of Film. Aumont, Aesthetics of Film. Rosen, Narrative, Apparatus, Ideology: A Film Theory Reader 1986.) 7. 1860 is often considered to be the real precursor of neorealism, despite its open celebration of Fascism conspicuous in the last sequence of the film that graphically matches, with a temporal jump cut, the Risorgimento’s red shirt combatants with the black shirts marching at the Farnesina, thus suggesting Fascism’s descent and continuation of the Risorgimento. Years later with his film Quattro passi tra le nuvole in 1942, Blasetti himself, Notes l 193

working on a subject by Cesare Zavattini, will affirm the end of fascist ideals, with no rebirth in the film and no celebratory epic tale. This film participates directly to open the national screens to new investigations of human dramas and national failures, the subjects of neorealist cinema, while also relying on cinematographic notions of realism and adherence or attention of the camera to national-popular reality, to be captured in its visual and temporal dimensions, where people and their environments fuse as characters. 8. I am offering this comment given the somewhat revisionist tone of several articles in Italian newspapers and magazines (after perhaps Pierre Sorlin’s account of Blasetti’s “awkward” relation to Fascism Italian National Cinema 64), praising Alessandro Blasetti as a director who needs more recognition than he has received for having been the innovator and father of modern cinema in Italy (see Paolo Mereghetti, Corriere della Sera “Per conoscere Blasetti regista che inventò . . . quasi tutto” 14 Gennaio 2008; Filippo Rossi, Secolo d’Italia “Blasetti, il padre del cinema italiano con quel cinema antiretorico” 21 Gennaio 2008). Without questioning aesthetic merits and accomplishments, we should be careful not to defascistize him and his filmic gestures. The occa- sion for a revival of the conversation about Blasetti comes after the restoration of some of his films, among which precisely is 1860, magisterially restored by the Cineteca Nazionale and followed by the release of a DVD package by Ripley. The restoration includes the fascist ending of the original version of the film that equated Garibaldi’s enterprise with the fascist one, whereas this fascist “seal of approval” was purged from the 1951 version. Among praise for the modernity of the plot, narrative ellipses, etc., admiration is expressed for his attention to dialects, as if Blasetti had a special sensibility for them. The writers forget to point out the fascist interest for the subject of dialects related to the belief in the need to eradicate them. While we should not underesti- mate the beautiful work that Blasetti created, we should also not forget the cultural belonging and implications of his work at, and for, the times of its production. 9. Michel Chion, also working with the idea of the audience duped into believing (Audio-Vision 63), coins the word synchresis, combining synchronism and syn- thesis, to indicate the process whereby sounds heard over images are attached to the them by the spectator. Highly interested in discourses of perception, Chion contemplates the possibility that attentive ears sensible to sound can detect audiovisual mismatching. To the point, see his comments on the carefree style of post-synching of directors like Fellini. 10. Barry Blesser, in his study of sonic architecture, nicely defines processes of sound transmission and perception: “Physical sound is a pressure wave that transports both sonic events and the attributes of an acoustic space to the listener, thereby connecting the external world to the listener’s ears. Because the physics of sound is complex, transmission includes such processes as reflec- tion, dispersion, refraction, absorption, and so on, all of which depend on the 194 l Notes

acoustic properties of the space. When arriving at the inner ear, sound waves are converted to neurological signals that are processed by the brain; the external world is connected to inner consciousness” (27). 11. The general cultural notion of sound as a characteristic of things, and not a thing in itself, impedes the articulation of organic thinking about and around it. The argument, eloquently formulated by Christian Metz in his “Aural Object,” constituted an opening in the direction of a listening that is not sub- jected to vision, which never took off in film studies. The authority of vision as the legitimate sensory apparatus for the understanding and apprehension of reality has never been critically called into question; hence sound occu- pies the space of the ineffable and somehow immaterial. This privileging of vision is arbitrarily ideological, as Metz points out: “Ideologically, the aural source is an object, the sound itself a ‘characteristic’ . . . sounds are more often classified according to the objects which transmit them than by their own characteristics. There is nothing natural in this situation: from a logical point of view, ‘buzzing’ is an object, an acoustic object in the same way that a tulip is a visual object” (Film Sound 146). An approach that considers listening as factual would give sound a theoretical valence and change perhaps the way we produce our reasoning, like producing sense as relational listening instead of truth as definite understanding (see also Jean Luc Nancy’s Listening). 12. In the past 20 years a new discourse on cinema as “audio-vision” has been circulating. The seminal work of French scholar and musician Michel Chion remains the most original, creative, and sharp. Under the impact of his theoretical work Claudia Gorbman wrote her semiotic account of film and sound in Unheard Melodies (1987), and proceeded to translate for the English- reading public, Chion’s best-known books The Voice in Cinema (1998, from the French edition 1982) and Audio-Vision (1994, from the French edition 1990). Outstanding is the pioneering special issue from Yale French Studies, No. 60, Cinema/Sound (1980) addressing the workings of sound for/with the images. General studies have followed, most notably by Elisabeth Weis and John Belton, Film Sound (1985) and by Rick Altman, Sound Theory Sound Practice (1992) collecting contributions by a variety of authors more or less invested in the issue, and construing a historical perspective on sound in film from traditional film theory. Relevant also are interdisciplinary influ- ences from studies on listening and modernity, the seminal work of Emily Thompson The Soundscape of Modernity (2002) that is surely an important text for the subsequent work by Gianluca Sergi on contemporary Hollywood cinema as the cinema of Dolby sound and pervasive extra human hearing The Dolby Era: Film Sound in Contemporary Hollywood (2004). Sergi’s text lead Vivian Sobchack in her article “When the Ear Dreams: Dolby Digital and the Imagination of Sound”—where she is specifically analyzing trailers—to affirm how with Dolby, “sound originates, dominates, and shapes the image, rather than the image dominating and grounding (or anchoring) the sound” (4). The work of film artist, writer, and provocateur Philip Brophy is also particularly Notes l 195

interesting in its emphasis on the sensory sensuousness of the explosion of a cinematic experience in Dolby surround. This work extends from the phe- nomenological analysis of Don Ihde—whose ideas have been fundamental in pointing to a turn to the auditory dimension—given Brophy’s emphasis on the relation of new sound technology to the human sensorium. His affective and perceptual approach to film is also indebted to Roland Barthes’s notion of the pleasures of listening. The emergent field of sound studies, following the tactics of visual studies, calls for an engagement with sound as cultural formation and expression of the everyday life; listening to soundscapes is fundamental for understanding the way we make and create sense and form our manners. Murray Schafer’s The New Soundscape, had invoked new acoustic ecology and music pedagogy in 1969, while Jonathan Sterne’s recent The Audible Past (2003) offers a historical perspective and documents a genealogy of listening practices at various intersecting moments considering technological, medical, and social shifts, discoveries, and applications. Sterne eloquently proves the existent gap of intellectual investment in and understanding of, and how, sound matters. All these fermenting ideas should infiltrate media and film studies so that they can finally address the relatively ignored third dimension of the image, or the depth dimension of the image, as Pier Paolo Pasolini defined it (Heretical Empiricism 265): sound. It must be said that currently film theorists are becoming more sensitive and include sounds elements in their analysis, nonetheless more fragmentarily and subjectively than systemati- cally and holistically. In my two final chapters I will offer elements of such an approach concerning the film work of Pier Paolo Pasolini and Michelangelo Antonioni. 13. As I mentioned earlier it is difficult to maintain the formal divide that I am proposing between post-synch as national mode of soundtrack post-production and dubbing as foreign film soundtrack translation mode. It is necessary to keep in mind the distinction while flexibly accepting the conflation of both meanings into the word “dubbing” on the part of various authors that I quote, like Renoir, in the following paragraphs. 14. Think here of how later this technical snag is appropriated and reinterpreted stylistically, used as a reality psycho-acoustic effect that dirties the dialogue and its intelligibility, and at times borders hyper-realism. It is produced, created in post-synch, specifically by a director like Michelangelo Antonioni, who uses the soundtrack, like the image track, modifying it any way he deems for the production of the effect he needs. 15. For a general critical review of the close-up, see Mary Ann Doane, “The Close-Up: Scale and Detail in the Cinema”, in Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies, 14 No.3 (89–111). Throughout Cinema I, Deleuze also offers his beautiful insights into the function and workings of the close-up in his story of the cinema, from D. W. Griffith to the Soviet school etc. The close-up determines what he calls affection-image, following Eisenstein’s notion that the close-up gives an affective reading of the film, and continuing to say that a 196 l Notes

close-up transforms anything into a face, in the sense that “it stares at us” (88) and even if, like the gutter, it does not resemble a face, it talks to us. 16. Directors Straub and Huillet, Renoir’s followers, will continue this audiovisual relation to filmmaking combating the hegemony of the visual, which as they assert is practical, creative, and also economical: from the beginning of their careers they decided to pay the same amount of money both to the camera operator and the phonic technician, who was compensated in general productions only one fourth of what the artist of the images received (Segnocinema 131, 23). 17. These observations become common warhorses when at the end of the 60s there was an open debate “against” dubbing, with the French film artists from Straub-Huillet, to Jean Loius Comolli and Dominique Avron on the radical oppositional side, see Jullier, Il suono nel cinema: storia, regole, mestieri, 83, Filmcritica “Sul Doppiaggio”1970, Patalogo dello Spettacolo “Cinema/Italia/Il Doppiaggio” 1981. 18. In his book Audio-Vision, Michel Chion comments on the general French pas- sion for on-location sound at any cost, and the Italian reluctance to use it at all. It is not Chion’s interest to investigate the economic, political, and cultural aesthetic matrix of the different relations of the interplay of sound and images, which are instead what this present work proposes. In The Voice in Cinema (1999) focusing on art cinema, Chion comments on the carefree attitude of Italian directors toward post-synchronization. “Much Italian cinema, and Fellini in particular, synchronizes voices to body more loosely. In Fellinian extremes, when all those post-synched voices float around bodies, we reach a point where voices—even if we continue to attach them to the bodies they are assigned—begin to acquire a sort of autonomy, in a baroque and decen- tered profusion” (129). It is important not to miss the trajectory—the passage through neorealist film aesthetics and techniques—that brings about such a liberated and poetic use of post-synch. Fellini compared it to a séance, to be used in films that ask from the audience a level of participatory abstraction and not mere subjective identification. The speech track does not function in a conventionally and reassuringly realistic way, but serves the imaginative and abstract qualities of the film that plays images and sounds together, and does not use sound as oral captions. 19. He is specifically discussing the work of Nino Rota with Fellini in Lo Sceicco Bianco (1952). 20. A propos it is interesting to remember Michelangelo Antonioni’s confession about his preference for listening to CDs instead of live concerts, where the visuals would distract him. 21. Kaja Silverman’s Acoustic Mirror extends feminist critique of Hollywood to the use of the female voice in the dominant construction of gender subjectivities that always posit the woman on the side of the spectacle and the man on the side of the gaze as Laura Mulvey had analyzed in her essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (1975). Thus Silverman opens her cinematic investigation Notes l 197

of the use of sound to psychoanalytical issues of castration, projection, narcis- sism, and melancholia. In her analysis of the system of vocal conventions, she singles out Chion’s The Voice, arguing how its discussion of the voice is cir- cumscribed “within existing gender demarcations that it assumes much of the symptomatic value of a Hollywood film” (49). His theoretical narrative once again relegates the woman to a state of discursive powerlessness and captivity while it identifies the man as the master of vision, and the verbal authority of speech and hearing. Despite its male-inflected theoretical paradigm, Chion’s book remains the most articulated and focused work on the subject of the voice at the cinema.

5 Michelangelo Antonioni: The Wind Is Photogenic

1. The case of foreign film dubbing that colonizes all foreign cinema is beyond the scope of this work, but it represents an issue to which I will dedicate further investigation in the future, given its fundamental impor- tance in the shaping of the mass cultural and political spheres of a nation still grappling with its own monocultural linguism, and which also com- monly degrades the quality of sound-images and the artistic labor of the actors. 2. The sonic diary, or what we might call Antonioni’s little symphony of a city, written in April 1961 as he listened to New York from the thirty- fourth floor of the Sherry-Netherland Hotel in Manhattan, testifies to his peculiar attention to sound. His approach followed John Cage, and before that, the Futurist dictum of listening to all that was in the air, that is the idea of the sonority of all sounds, noises included. Informing Antonioni’s aural sensitivity was the work of the futurist Luigi Russolo, along with musique concrète’s transfiguration of mundane sounds into music, and Cage’s liberation of the musical spectrum into the resounding actuality of noises and silences. Antonioni’s minute description of environmental sounds and ordinary noises punctuating the modernity of the city demonstrates the sonic receptiveness and dedication of his ear as translated by his pen into a narrative. Interestingly, although familiar with the use of portable magnetic tape recorders, Antonioni opted for a verbal, clearly more personal, and emotional recording, a selective and inquiring elaboration. He noted all he heard from six to nine in the morning. A guessing of sounds appearing and disappearing blended with his sensorial imagination, to create a narrative of sonic and emotional impressions coming from the murmuring city enveloped in intermittent gusts and swirls of wind, the rumble and hum of traffic, sirens, car-horns, tram cars, and aircraft: “The roads in Central Park twist and turn. A line of cars. Their exhausts, a kind of organ playing a masterpiece. A moment of absolute silence, eerie. . . . A ship’s siren, prolonged and melancholic. The wind has dropped. The siren again. The murmur of traffic beneath it. A bell off key. From a country 198 l Notes

church. But perhaps it is the clang of iron and not a bell. It comes again. And still once more.” (The diary excerpts first appeared in di Carlo, note 11, 29–31, now available in a modified translation and version, in essay form with a different date, that is after 1966, titled New York from the 34th Floor Overlooking Central Park: The Soundtrack for a Film Set in New York, with an introduction by Walter Murch on the website New York City in Sound, BLDGBLOG). Apparently after Blow-Up (1966), Antonioni was thinking of setting his next film project in New York, but as Carlo di Carlo indicates Antonioni started to eavesdrop on the city’s musical roars and noisy silences with a narrative of its morning awakening right after La Notte (1961). One might observe that, as with the ending of Blow-Up, Antonioni used sound to point to the necessity of different interpretive and epistemological processes. “Writing” the sounds of his intimate listening functioned perhaps as a search for a possible key to contemplate sensori- ally the mysteries of life in this metropolis. Similarly, 30 years earlier, the script for his very first film project (N.U.) included a soundful and detailed description of what sounds, music,and voices the audience should hear at each juncture. 3. See Noa Steimatsky in her analysis of the aerial image as a reinterpretation of this trope of modernity in Antonioni’s films in Italian Locations. 4. The final sequence of Identification of a Woman perfectly expresses the director’s idea of human consciousness, desires, and drives being embed- ded through the possibilities offered by technology, or the technological imagination, in the larger horizons of the universe. The film ends in a sci-fi tone, as the director/protagonist imagines an asteroid spaceship traveling toward the sun, a blurring of horizons that allows human beings to feel finite and infinite at the same time. 5. The Russian director is, together with Robert Bresson and Michelangelo Antonioni, one of the experimenters aiming at the creation of a film language that uses sound poetically in all its potential for ambiguity and abstraction. The materiality of conventional reality and realist representation is open to perceptual meanderings and sensual connections, blurring what is seen and heard with what is unseen and unheard but perceptible and sensed, changing the hermeneutics of traditional film sound, from explanatory closure to indefinite signification. 6. For the sake of pleasure in alternative narratives that “aim at” (borrowing Deleuze’s phrase for neorealism where “the real is no longer represented but aimed at”) capturing the subjective lived event and its meaning, there is also another version of the same story, evidently significant and transformative, as reported in Aldo Tassone’s I film di Michelangelo Antonioni. It is always Antonioni who is narrating his first encounter with the theater, which hap- pened in Novelli di Paullo, a little town near Ravenna. This description is more detailed but does not mention how the little Antonioni thundered for the entire spectacle; the encounter with sound is however “memorable” so Notes l 199

much so that in the above version of the story it has to be prolonged and extended to the end of the play organized by a friend, son of a theater and cinema owner: “The little theatre was on Paullo’s rock; the stage was located in front of two cliffs. My friend was the director and I had the job of doing the thunder: the ‘piece,’ in fact, was a big drama with dark hues. There was a storm, and the noise of the thunder was generated by a marble ball with a diameter of forty centimeters, a medieval cannon ball that to make it clear, I had to roll down one of those monumental flight of steps with low steps that allowed for horses to transit. We brought the heavy marble ball to the top of the steps and at the signal I started its slow descent. It was so heavy that it slipped out of my hand. After falling down all the steps, it plunged off the cliff. I was terribly scared but the thunder was fantastic. The friends who praised me did not want to believe that the ball had ended up in the gorge. My first experience in the field of the spectacle was truly memorable” (7–8). 7. For analysis in this direction see, Teresa De Lauretis, Alice Does-n’t (37–69), Rumble and Testa, Pier Paolo Pasolini: Contemporary Perspective. Maurizio Viano, A Certain Realism: Making Use of Pasolini’s Film Theory and Practice. 8. See Claudia Gorbman on narratological perspectives (Unheard Melodies 11–30) where she traces the definition of diegetic and nondiegetic music/sound/voice to the Russian formalists and their basic distinction between fable, as the represented story, and subject, as the textual treatment, which was adopted by film theorists, firstly by Etienne Souriau. The diegetic in film is the inferred spatiotemporal world of the actions and characters on the screen, the nondiegetic is all that does not originate from the perceived real world on the screen, while the metadiegetic refers to the representation of the characters’ imagination, as in dreams, flashbacks, triggered memories, which are formulated as images and sounds. 9. The idea of a “pure” nonverbal interpretive approach to the work of Michelangelo Antonioni is well argued by Stephen Synder in his “Antonioni: Cubist Vision in The Red Desert,” where he posits the work of the director as visual and cubist, calling for a visual apprehension and refusing the modernist assumption of the division of depth and surface, with its consequent cult of meaning residing under the surface which is frequently used as paradigm for the analysis of Antonioni’s work. Against a logocentric approach for which it is pure thought that allows access to reality behind or beneath the surface, Snyder suggests a more complicated and holistic understanding of Antonioni’s represented world. His bias is in the strictly visual foundation of the reasoning. Snyder is also among the very few scholars, together with Geoffrey Nowell-Smith and Kevin Z. Moorem, who refuses to read negative alienation as the paradigm that contains Antonioni’s representation of modern life. 10. The underinvestigated musical tread of analysis of Michelangelo Antonioni’s films, and consequently the recognition of Giovanni Fusco‘s unique 200 l Notes

contribution, was chosen for the first time at a conference in Ravenna (May 21–22, 1999) organized by the University of Bologna. The conference documents are published in The Sonorities of the Visible: Images, Sounds and Music in Michelangelo Antonioni’s cinema. Despite the promising title of the thirteen speakers only four discussed music. Michel Chion, who was invited, could not attend. He sent a couple of pages, included in the publication, briefly sketch- ing the renewal brought to film sound by the duo Antonioni-Fusco, who create “symphonies of life noises”(95) with no intent of “musicalizing” them. The musical expert Roberto Calabretto discusses the musical evolution of Giovanni Fusco as a film composer who successfully arrives at a modern conception of film sound where the privileged musical object is noise. Fusco creates an idea of a “global sonic system” (61) for film that is fascinatingly audible in the cinema of Antonioni. Alberto Boschi presents some of the ideas expressed by Antonioni on what the soundtrack does in his films, and analyses the electronic music score of Red Desert, composed by Vittorio Gelmetti, which transfigures poetically and obsessively the noises of the world, as Antonioni desired. Ermanno Comuzio— the historical musical conscience of film in Italy, who collaborates with magazines such as Cinema, Bianco e Nero, Cineforum, La Rivista del Cinematografo, Quaderni del Cinema—offers something of an evolutionary story of the technical possibilities of film music, from traditional musical accompaniment to the computer music turn. He sees the duo Antonioni-Fusco as fundamental to the changing language of film sound. The conference did not really generate a trend of listening to Antonioni’s films, nonetheless the book series Una Regione Piena di Cinema contains a volume dedicated to Michelangelo Antonioni where two essays out of seven are dedicated to the musical/sound component of the director’s films. In his essay, Calabretto, the musicologist presenting at the Sonorities of the visible conference, explores the use of music as language in Antonioni’s films. He emphasizes the break from traditional uses of music in film, and the creation of a very articulated system (recently expanded in his book Antonioni e la musica). The other essay focusing on sound is an extract from Paolo Giacomini’s undergraduate thesis (tesi di laurea), Al di la dell’immagine: Gli effetti sonori nel cinema di Michelangelo Antonioni. Giacomini analyses the last seven minutes of L’Eclisse as the film sequence which best reflects Antonioni’s inspiration for a soundtrack made of rough noises taken from the real world. He proceeds to illustrate how these noises and sounds are structured in a polyphonic form of rhythmic-syntactical links with the images which develop onomatopoeic or syn- copated, corresponding, or dissonant relations. Both Giacomini and Gelmetti reject Chion’s idea (in Sonorità) of the intentional nonmusicality of the use of noise in Antonioni’s films. Giacomini sees the entire film L’Eclisse as deliber- ately organized as a musical composition, with a presentation of the theme (in noises), variation of the theme itself, and the conclusion; on the other hand he points out how recognizable places, objects, and random people from the streets are shown in different moments in altered audiovisual forms, where noises are fully invested with the function of signs, more allusive than assertive. Notes l 201

11. What might constitute an interesting correlation is the simultaneous appear- ance of Antonioni’s Red Desert and Luigi Nono’s La Fabbrica Illuminata, in 1964. Luigi Nono was a contemporary and electronic music composer associ- ated with the Darmstadt School and a friend of Bruno Maderna at the Sudio di Fonologia in Milan. Interestingly, while both Antonioni and Nono’s work share the subject explicitly referred to by the title of Nono’s work, the factory, it is the first time that Antonioni opts for a soundtrack that included electronic music, noises, and disembodied singing. On the other end, Nono’s first opera for the stage some years earlier Intolleranza 1960 had opened to a new media and sonic “realism.” Inspired by D. W. Griffith’s Intolerance (1916) it integrated overwhelming disembodied singing with sounds and noises from cinema and television creating for the audience a trans-medial dynamic, and intense audiovisual experience. A critique of the intoxicating power of the mass media and for many critics, and an evocation through sound of the power and terror of the fascist years, Intolleranza is a musico-political project that meets cinema and its auditory immersive realism. If Red Desert is generally celebrated for being the first color film by the director, it is also the first film with a notable soundtrack that establishes an expressive and creative connection with the contemporary European musical avant-garde, and the first film on which Giovanni Fusco worked together with a younger musician. Vittorio Gelmetti contributed the electronic music parts and was working at the Studio di Fonologia S2FM in Firenze founded by Pietro Grossi a pioneer of electro-acoustic music in Italy. Grossi held the first teaching position in Electronic Music in Italy, at the Conservatory in Firenze in 1963 after his experience at the Studio di Fonologia in Milan. Gelmetti, instead, studied from 1959 to 1963 at the Laboratory of Electroacoustics of The Ministry for Telecommunications (Laboratorio di Elettroacustica del Ministero delle Poste e delle Telecomunicazioni) and was introduced to Michelangelo Antonioni by documentarist and critic Carlo di Carlo in 1963. Antonioni, who had been listening to Stockhausen, wanted modern and abstract music to be added to the musical parts already composed by Fusco for Red Desert, hence was happy to work with Gelmetti. For a month they modified, adapted, and played with fragments taken from Gelmetti’s compositions, used to juxtapose and render more expressive the soundscape of industrial Ravenna with its noises of machines, boats, and refineries. This abstract, sonic indefinite was intended to be in strong contraposition to some of the romantic nostalgic pieces composed by Fusco, like the vocalizing performed by Cecilia, his daughter, used in specific sequences. Red Desert signals Gelmetti’s entrance into cinema. A radical researcher of avant-garde music, and very experimental in the field of electronic music, he will later work on other films contributing rare formal electronic music skill imbued with political consciousness. In films like Sotto il segno dello scorpione (1969) by the Taviani brothers or E di Shaul e dei sicari sulla via di Damasco (1973) by Gianni Toti, his open and critical understanding of image-sound relations allows for an extremely complex and 202 l Notes

polisemantic musical discourse. Gelmetti was also very interested in theory and pedagogy of music, and the relation film and music, as his teaching at the Centro Sperimentale, and his writings and collaborations with various magazines, demonstrate (see Rondolino, Cinema e musica, Comuzio “Vittorio Gelmetti Avanguardia ma non alla Moda”, Boyd “Remaking reality”). 12. Today the minimalist and expressive musical pieces composed by Fusco for his films are available as commercial recordings, in particular on a CD released in 2006 by an esoteric reissue label from California, Water which has collected together much of his work (http://www.dustedmagazine.com/labels/666). 13. See Carlo di Carlo “Il Colore dei sentimenti” (22) in M. Antonioni Il Deserto Rosso 1976 for his elaboration on the discoursive correlation of the metalin- guistic use of color and Giuliana’s psychic moods/characteristics. 14. This voice with no apparent or identifiable origin is certainly “acousmatic,” and embodies the “acousmêtre” of Michel Chion’s theory of sound. A compound word composed of the archaic adjective acousmatic, a sound whose origin is invisible, and être, the French verb to be: it expresses the active strength of sound, that “being,” has the power to “do,” to fascinate, to invade, to manipu- late, to act as opposed to the general passive definition of sound carried by the air, played by an instrument etc. Something that is acted upon or performed by an agent, possessed by its originator. The acousmêtre does instead possess infinite agency. It can see everything, be everywhere, know and have an impact on everything. Among the powers elencated by Chion, the acousmêtre has the power to invite “to the loss of the self, to desire and fascination”(24). During the course of the film Giuliana does try to give herself to desire, even if at a loss.

6 Pier Paolo Pasolini’s Thousand Notes of Contestation

1. On Eisenstein’s contribution to the theorization of cinema as audiovisual see Robert Robertson, Eisenstein on the Audiovisual (2009). A composer and filmmaker, Robertson offers a comprehensive take on Eisenstein’s mul- tifaceted writings on cinema highlighting their relation with the creative works of other artists like Bach, Baudelaire, Klee, and Joyce. The music montage is the fundamental element for the creation of film as organic unity, elaborated in dialectical audiovisual counterpoints and synaesthetic moments that synchronize the senses, sense, and perception. 2. Interestingly, at the same time, Enrico Maria Salerno, renowned theater and cinema actor, was also the voice of Clint Eastwood in the Italian version of Sergio Leone’s Dollars Trilogy; this detail points to the spectral relation that Italian film spectators, knowingly or not, have had and have with actors and voices, as voices have the power to personify so many actors at the same time. The same voice can be, and possess with acto- rial variations, so many bodies. The suspension of disbelief required in the Italian spectator coexists with the acknowledgment of the cinematic Notes l 203

manipulation, evident in the voice’s recognition. Salerno worked as a “dubber” from the beginning of his career thus inhabiting the cinematic vocal imaginary of the nation: he gives the Italian voice to Richard Emory (Phil) in Singing in the Rain (Stanley Donen e Gene Kelly 1952), and is the vocal Farley Granger (Franz Mahler) in Senso (Visconti 1954). He will work again with Pasolini in Medea (1970) where he dubs Laurent Terzieff (il Centauro Chirone) and continue as a voice actor until a few years before his death, memorably being the narrative voice-over in Bernardo Bertolucci Il tè nel deserto (The Sheltering Sky, 1990; Voci d’Autore 130, and the artist’s official website, http://www.enricomariasalerno.it/doppiaggio.htm). 3. The film represents an invaluable document of Pasolini’s work in an Orient soon to become a geographical and human target of ideological and physical war. In the contemporary world of global politics and pervasive fear, the film reminds us of Pasolini’s deep appreciation and advocacy for dialogue that recognizes the space of the human as shared and reciprocal. 4. The volume Postcolonial, Queer: Theoretical Intersections offers a range of “queer” positions that try to address the subject of postcolonialist erotics, from a critique of the ingrained homophobia of much postcolonial discourse, starting with Said’s analysis as conspicuously inscribed in a hetero- sexual interpretive framework, to the depreciation of gay/lesbian studies as white and elitist, precisely the frame of condemnation unleashed against Pasolini in the biographical normative critiques which miss his culturally hybrid project for a politics of resistance and read it as irresponsible. For a variety of perspectives on Pasolini’s relation with the East, see Luca Caminati’s Orientalismo Eretico, Pasquale Verdicchio’s Pasolini’s The Savage Father: Colonialism as a “Structure That Wants to Be Another Structure.” Maurizio Viano on the Trilogy in A Certain Realism, and Joseph Boone’s “Framing the Phallus in the Arabian Pansexuality, Pederasty, Pasolini” in Translations/Transformations. 5. For a reader familiar with the ploy: It is the sale, by the ingenuous Nur- ed-Din, of the cloth Zumurrud knitted and embroidered during the night, that causes their separation. When Zumurrud becomes king, the palace is opened to all kinds of people so that she, a slave made king, can find her beloved master again. The search for Nur-ed-Din proceeds with a visual interplay of images and manners as guests are seated before the best food, served on the most beautiful tableware. The unmannered act of raven- ous eating, and the undoing of the table, signals to the servants to bring that guest before the king; he will be either recognized as Nur-ed-Din or killed. Even in the story of Aziz and Aziza, the spectacular display of the food and tableware in the tent of the mysterious woman Budur serves a testing function.The jewelry and precious stones that adorn the bodies and clothes of the various characters are textured into the real and lived, as when we see Aziz who, anxiously suffering the slow passing of the time 204 l Notes

that separates him from his beloved, sits working at shaping and incising the precious stones. The preciousness of these objects is signified through the expertise required for their crafting and the patient, dedicated labor, a manifestation of the concept of elapsing time. Even Aziza, waiting for Aziz, works carving precious stones, so that time goes by. The mysterious and valuable cloth embroidered with a tree and two gazelles becomes a symbolic witness, passing from hand to hand, to the truth contained in many dreams, hence many lives. In the course of the film we see Princess Dunya who designs it, Budur who gives it as a present to Aziz, who gives it to Aziza, who leaves it to her mother, who, after Aziza’s death, gives it back to Aziz as Aziza desired. This object happily completes a narrative circle of requited love, as Aziza writes on it her loving forgiveness of Aziz, who shows it to Prince Tagi, who falls in love with Dunya. Their love story is realized through a mosaic, whose iconicity is filled with a tale, a living tale which tells other tales which tell more tales—like the one told by the person who designing and composing it explains the truth of Dunya’s dream. Truth is in many dreams, places, and people. Truth is in linkages and reverberations, like in the story of Aziz, Aziza, and Budur. 6. It is useful to juxtapose this use of post-synchronized dialectal voices with the fascist prescription against dialect, where films were dubbed to cleanse the language. Here Pasolini, forcing the point of linguistic dislocation, and relocation, is pointing to the estrangement of our imagination of the Other, the one-dimensional representations, that the original purpose and use of dubbing contributed to forming. 7. Discussing dubbing, dubbed actors, and actresses, Enrico Ghezzi (in Il Patalogo Tre 108) defines them respectively as the technical modality and physical embodiments of the principle of the double, of duplicity without an original, a diabolical inconsistency that belongs to the sphere of the fearful, creepy, strange that provokes anxiety and fascination and so relates them to the Freudian uncanny. Filmography

Antonioni, Michelangelo. Gente del Pò. Original Music, Mario Labroca. Artisti Associati. (1943) 1947. ———. Cronaca di un amore. Original Music, Giovanni Fusco. Villani Film. 1950. ———. Le amiche. Original Music, Giovanni Fusco. Trionfalcine. 1955. ———. L’Avventura. Original Music, Giovanni Fusco. Cino del Duca.1960. ———. La Notte. Original Music, Giorgio Gaslini. Nepi Film. 1961. ———. L’Eclisse. Orginal Music, Giovanni Fusco. Cineriz. 1962. ———. Il Deserto Rosso. Original Music, Giovanni Fusco, Electronic Music Composer, Vittorio Gelmetti. Film Duemila. 1964. ———. Identificazione di una donna. Original Music, John Foxx. Interfilm. 1982 Blasetti, Alessandro. 1860. Original Music, Nino Medin. Società Anonima Stefano Pittaluga, 1933. Ripley’s Films, 2007. Edizione Speciale 2 DVD. ———. Quattro passi tra le nuvole. Original Music, Alessandro Cicognini. Società Italiana Cines. 1942. Crialese, Emanuele. Nuovomondo. Original Music, Antonio Castrigano. Rai Cinema. 2006. De Sica, Vittorio. Sciuscià. Original Music, Alessandro Cicognini. Società Cooperativa Alfa Cinematografica. 1946. ———. Umberto D. Original Music, Alessandro Cicognini. Amato Film. 1952. Garrone, Matteo. Gomorra. Sound Editor Daniela Bassani, Music Supervisor Giovanni Guardi. Fandango. 2008. Gentilomo, Giacomo. O Sole Mio.Original Music, Ezio Carabella. Rinascimento Film. 1946. Olmi, Ermanno. L’albero degli zoccoli. Sound Effects, Italo Cameracanna and Aldo Ciorba. Radiotelevisione Italiana RAI. 1978. Pasolini, Pier Paolo. Accattone. Music Director and Coordinator, Carlo Rustichelli. Arco Film. 1961. ———. Edipo Re. Music Coordinator, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Composer, Luigi Malatesta. Arco Film. 1967. ———. Il fiore delle Mille e una Notte. Coordinator Pier Paolo Pasolini in Collaboration with Ennio Morricone, Original Music, Ennio Morricone. Produzioni Europee Associate. 1974. 206 l Filmography

Righelli, Gennaro. La Voce senza Volto. Original Music, Cesare A. Bixio. Juventus Film. 1939. Rossellini, Roberto. L’uomo dalla croce. Original Music, Renzo Rossellini. Continematl Cine. 1943. ———. Roma: Città Aperta. Original Music, Renzo Rossellini. Excelsa Film, 1945. ———. Paisà. Original Music, Renzo Rossellini. OFI, 1946. ———. Francesco Giullare di Dio. Original Music, Renzo Rossellini. Cineriz. 1950. Medusa DVD 2004. Tarkovsky, Andrei. Stalker. Original Music, Eduard Artemyev Gambaroff-Chemier Interallianz .1979. Visconti, Luchino. La terra trema: Episodio del mare. Original Music, Willy Ferrero. Sound Engineer, Ovidio Del Grande. Universalia Film. 1948. Ripley’s Films, 2006. Edizione Speciale 2 DVD. Bibliography

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Accattone (1961), 164–5, 167–8 Ben-Ghiat, Ruth, 19, 42, 209 acousmatic, 153, 202 Benjamin, Walter, 31, 97, 178, 209 acoustic object, 3, 194. See Metz, Berio, Luciano, 14, 133 Christian Bernardi, Sandro, 61, 209, 218 Adorno, Theodor W., 167, 207 Bertini, Antonio, 170, 209 Alexandrof, Grigori, 117 Bertolucci, Bernardo, 115, 133–4, 203 Altman, Rick, 94, 194, 207, 211 Blasetti, Allessandro, 87–91, 106, 117, Antonioni, Michelangelo, 2, 13–15, 25, 133, 187, 192–3, 205 59, 61, 64–72, 75, 106, 110–11, Blesser, Barry, 192–3, 209 113–56, 158–9, 163, 170, 190, Boarini, Vittorio, 192, 212 195–202, 205, 207–12, 214, 218 Bragaglia, Anton Giulio, 57–60, 69, Arabian Nights (Il Fiore delle Mille e 133, 209 Una Notte) (1974), 171–4, 185, Bresson, Robert, 198 205, 210 Briareo, Gustavo, 45, 63–4, 76, 209 Argentieri, Mino, 26–7, 35, 208, 219 Brophy, Philip, 110, 194–5, 209 Argento, Dario, 134 Brunetta, Gian Piero, 10, 19, 26, 31–5, Aristarco, Guido, 52, 191, 208 46, 52, 62, 191, 209–10, 219 Aristophanes, 61, 65 Artaud, Antonin, 64–5, 217, 219 Cage, John, 126, 133, 197 audiovisual, 6, 55, 99, 102–3, 106, 111, Calabretto, Roberto, 15, 162, 181–2, 121, 132, 148, 152, 160, 164, 196, 200, 210 202, 216 Calcagno, Diego, 36, 64, 210 Caldiron, Orio, 114, 210 Baccolini, Raffaella, 114, 208 Callas, Maria, 16, 158, 169 Bach, J. S., 125, 164–5, 167, 202, 213 Calvino, Italo, 9, 60, 72–6, 122, 139, Bakhtin, Michail, 128, 174, 179, 208 185, 210 Balazs, Bela, 97, 118 Camerini, Mario, 42–3, 117 Bandirali, Luca, 11, 158, 208, 218 Caminati, Luca, 203, 210 Barthes, Roland, 14, 72, 75, 85, 121, Cannistraro, Philip, 19, 52, 210 132, 142, 195, 209 Canterbury Tales (I Racconti di Bassetti, Sergio, 109–10, 209 Canterbury) (1972), 172 Bazin, Andre, 101–5, 209 Casadio, Gianfranco, 19, 46, 50, 207, 210 Bellocchio, Marco, 115, 133–4 Chaluja, Elias, 12, 113, 210, 213, 215, 218 222 l Index

Chion, Michel, 6, 111, 130, 135, Farassino, Alberto, 104, 212, 214 193–4, 196–7, 200, 202, 210 Fascism (Fascismo), 10, 15, 17–27, Cicognini, Alessandro, 106–9, 205 29–31, 33–5, 37, 39, 47, 49, 65, Cinema of Poetry, 13–14, 116, 126–32, 71, 73, 79–82, 101, 116, 161, 135, 150, 159, 164, 169–70, 172, 187–93, 210, 212–14, 216 178–9, 182, 215. See also Pasolini, fascist (fascista), 1–2, 7–8, 10–12, Pier Paolo 16–26, 28, 30–3, 35, 37–8, 44–9, Comencini, Luigi, 115 51–2, 55, 61, 64–5, 67–8, 70–1, Comolli, Jean-Loius, 154, 196, 210 74, 76, 79–83, 87–9, 93, 101, 105, Comuzio, Ermano, 35, 124–5, 200, 108, 113–14, 116, 133, 157, 161, 202, 211 163, 169, 186, 188–9, 191, 193, Cortini-Viviani, M., 63, 211 201, 204, 208–9, 212–14 Cox, Christoph, 126, 211 purity of the Italian language, 8, 29–30, 45, 67, 154 D’Agostino, Patrizia, 31, 34, 210, 217 Fellini, Federico, 106, 110, 115, 193, Dalle Vacche, Angela, 152–3, 211 196, 210 De Bretagne, Joseph, 95–6 Felloni, Marco, 124, 137, 155, 212 De Giusti Luciano, 171–2, 174, 209, 211 Fodor, Istvan, 64, 189–90, 212 De Santis, Giuseppe, 82, 191–2, 211–12 Forgacs, David, 107, 212 De Sica, Vittorio, 98, 106, 205 Foucault, Michel, 8, 212 Debord, Guy, 127, 211 Freddi, Luigi, 25, 46–54, 212 Deleuze, Gilles, 16, 57, 97, 135–6, 148, Fusco, Giovanni, 14, 116, 124–5, 163, 174, 180, 195, 198, 211 132–6, 148, 199–202, 205, Doane, Mary Anne, 90–2, 97, 188, 195, 211 211–12, 214 Donen, Stanley, 203 Futurist, 57, 148, 189, 197 dubbing (doppiaggio), 1, 7–13, 16, intonarumori, 57, 59 18–25, 30–2, 34–9, 41–51, 53–6, 59–77, 79, 93, 95, 97, 99, 101, Gabin, Jean, 74 104, 113–17, 136–7, 157–8, 160, Gable, Clark, 65 169, 188–90, 195–7, 203–4, Galli, Augusto, 44–5 207–13, 215–16, 218–19 Garbo, Greta, 37–8, 64, 212 doppiagese, 8, 114, 161 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 87, 89, 193 dubber, 19, 44–5, 63, 72, 116, 170, Gelmetti, Vittorio, 14, 139, 142, 166, 176, 189, 203 200–2, 205, 211–12 dubbing vouchers, 46, 48 Gentile, Giovanni, 30, 187, 212 Paramount (Joinville), 41–2 Germi, Pietro, 109–10, 115 Duflot, Jean, 164, 215 Giolitti, Giovanni, 26–7, 29–30 Dyer, Richard, 106–8, 212 Giovannetti, Eugenio, 59–60, 212 Gobbi, Tito, 107 Eco, Umberto, 127, 212 Godard, Jean Luc, 11, 104, 133, Eisenstein, Sergei, 55, 117, 139, 163, 145, 208 165, 195, 202 Gorbman, Claudia, 194, 199, 213 Eisler, Hanns, 167, 207 Griffith, D. W., 195, 201 entrainment, 3 Grimault, Paul, 35 Erkkila, Betsy, 37, 212 Guazzoni, Enrico, 133 Index l 223

Guidorizzi, Mario, 36, 213, 216 Mereghetti, Paolo, 193, 214 Guttuso, Renato, 170 Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 9, 24–5, 75, 92, 177, 214 Henze, Hans Werner, 164, 213 Metz, Christian, 2–3, 127, 194, 214 Hollywood, 7, 12, 19, 21–2, 41–5, 57, MGM, 43, 45 62, 74, 82, 91–2, 101, 106, 113, Miceli, Sergio, 105–6, 214 132, 134–5, 188, 191, 194, 196–7 Mida, Massimo, 88, 90, 192, 214 Huillet, Daniele, 11, 196, 208, 218 Morricone, Ennio, 134, 162, 180–1, Huygens, Christian, 3 205, 214 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 164, 180, Ihde, Don, 5, 12, 92–3, 195, 213 184–5 Italianicity, 21, 62, 70, 80 Mussolini, Benito, 7, 26, 33, 67, 87, 116, 212 Italianization (italianizzazione), 8, 22, 30, 33, 87, 90, 102, 188 Nancy, Jean-Luc, 5–6, 93, 194, 215 Neorealism (Neorealismo), 2, 10–13, Jankélévitch, Vladimir, 14, 213 17, 62, 79–87, 89–95, 97–111, Jullier, Laurant, 100, 196, 213 113–14, 119, 125, 135, 150, 190–3, 196, 198 Kahn, Douglas, 189, 213 music, 106–10 Kazan, Elia, 23, 38, 213 Nono, Luigi, 201 Klein, Gabriella, 30, 79, 213 Olmi, Ermanno, 114–15, 205 Labarthe, Andre, 138, 208 Lattanzio, Andrea, 36, 213 Paolella, Roberto, 19, 215 L’Avventura (1960), 138–9, 205, 208–9, 215 Paramount, 41–2 Le Amiche (1955), 137 Pasolini, Pier Paolo, 2, 13, 15–16, 25, L’Eclisse (Eclipse) (1962), 59, 116, 122, 61, 82, 106, 110–11, 115–16, 139–42, 145, 200, 205, 208, 210 126–35, 149, 151–2, 157–86, 190, Leone, Sergio, 110, 134, 202 195, 199, 202–5, 209–12, 215, Levine, Michael, 51, 213 217–18 Lizzani, Carlo, 133 Pavolini, Corrado, 62, 215 Loeffler, Louis, 44 Petrassi, Goffredo, 109–10 Longanesi, Leo, 191, 214 Pio X (Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto), 26 Pio XI (Ambrogio Damiano Achille Maderna, Bruno, 133, 201 Ratti), 52–3, 216 Magaldi, Marina, 134, 214 Pontecorvo, Gillo, 115, 134 Magnani, Anna, 43, 103 Porcile (Pigpen)(1969), 168–9 Mancini, Elaine, 43, 57, 60, 214 post-synchronization, 10–13, 15–16, Marcus, Millicent, 150, 152, 214 21, 25, 43, 60–1, 79–85, 87, 91, Masi, Stefano, 87, 214 93–5, 97, 99–104, 111, 113–15, Mayo, Archie, 34 136–7, 157–63, 166, 169, 175–8, Mazzoletti, Adriano, 189, 214 182–3, 185–6, 190, 196 Medea (1969), 158, 166, 169, 215 distinction between post- Melelli, Fabio, 36, 213 synchronization and dubbing, 10–11 Melopea, 90, 214 Puccini, Gianni, 117, 208 224 l Index

Pudovkin, Vsevolod, 55, 117, 216 Sonnenschein, David, 3, 217 Pulcini, Virginia, 188, 216 Sontag, Susan, 126, 217 Sorlin, Pierre, 193, 217 Quargnolo, Mario, 18, 20, 35, 37, 49, 216 soundful, 5, 92–3, 129. See also Ihde, Don soundscape, 5, 8–9, 147–57. See also Raffaelli, Sergio, 27–9, 31, 79, 216 Schafer, Raymond Murray Ravasio, Carlo, 189, 216 Souriau, Etienne, 199 Red Desert (Il Deserto Rosso) (1964), Spence, Charles, 5, 217 14, 116, 129, 133, 138–9, 141, Spolianski, Mischa, 35 143–55, 199–201, 211, 214 Stack, Oswald, 171, 217 Redi, Riccardo, 18–19, 46, 49, 216 Steimatsky, Noa, 198, 218 Renoir, Jean, 11, 43, 95–101, 106, Sterne, Jonathan, 195, 218 118–19, 137, 195–6, 216 Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 201 Renzi, Renzo, 191–2, 212 Straub, Jean Marie, 11, 113, 157–8, Resnais, Alain, 133, 135 160, 196, 208, 218 resonance, 3, 5–6, 9, 68, 100, 103, 105 Stravinsky, Igor, 180 Restivo, Angelo, 178, 216 subtitles, 2, 28, 62, 65, 68, 70, 87, 190 Ricci, Steven, 21–2, 45, 216 synchresis, 6, 130, 193. See also Chion, Righelli, Gennaro, 61, 206 Michel Riso Amaro (1949), 109–10 Rondolino, Gianni, 108–9, 192, 202, 216 Tarkovsky, Andrei, 121, 141, 206, 218 Rossellini, Renzo, 107–9, 206 Testa, Bart, 163, 174, 199, 217 Rossellini, Roberto, 81–3, 98, 101, The Gospel According to St. Matthew (Il 103–4, 170, 188, 192, 206, 216–17 vangelo secondo Matteo) (1964), Rossi, Filippo, 193, 217 166, 215 Rouch, Jean, 11, 103–4 Thompson, Emily, 194, 218 Ruffin, Valentina, 31, 33–4, 210, 217 Russolo, Luigi, 57, 197, 217. See also Uccello, Paolo, 76, 218 Futurist Rustichelli, Carlo, 109, 205 Valentini, Paola, 37, 61, 218 Viano, Maurizio, 199, 203, 218 Sacchi, Filippo, 37–8 Vidor, King, 42 Salerno, Enrico Maria, 169, 202–3 Vincendeau, Ginette, 41–2, 218 Salinari, Carlo, 14 Visconti, Luchino, 87, 115, 123, 191, Saussure, Ferdinand de, 178 203, 206 Schafer, Raymond Murray, 5, 9, 77, 93, Vitti, Monica, 139, 143 149, 195, 217 Vivaldi, Antonio, 164 schizophonia, 9, 55, 57, 59, 61, 63, 65, Voloshinov, Valentin Nikolaevic, 128, 218 67, 69, 71, 73, 75, 77, 189. See above Schafer, Raymond Murray Welles, Orson, 169 Sergi, Gianluca, 194, 217 Wollen, Peter, 94, 218 Shohat, Ella, 77, 217 Silverman, Kaja, 196, 217 Yampolsky, Mikhail, 64, 219 Sobchack, Vivian, 194, 217 sonicscape, 10, 120, 133, 138 Zavattini, Cesare, 83–5, 98, 191, 193, 219