Notes and References

Introduction 1. See: BENNIGSEN, A. and C. LEMERCIER-QUELQUEJAY. The Evolution of the Muslim Nationalities of the USSR and Their Linguistic Problems. Central Asian Research Centre and St. Anthony's College: Oxford, 1961; BENNIGSEN, A. A. and S. E. WIMBUSH. Muslim National Communism in the : A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1979; BENNIGSEN BROXUP, M. Volga . In: SMITH, G., ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union. London: Longman, 1991; BURBIEL, G. Tatar Literature. In: LUCKYJ, G. S. N., ed. Discordant Voices. The Non-Russian Literature 1953-1973. Oakville (On• tario): Mosaic Press, 1975; LAZZERINI, E. J. Tatarovedenie and the 'New Historiography' in the Soviet Union: Revising the Interpretation of the Tatar-Russian Relationship. Slavic Review, vol. 40, no. 4 (Winter 1981); DAVLETSHIN, T. Soviet Tatarstan. Theory and Practice of Lenin's National• ity Policy. London: Our World Publishers, 1974; RORLICH, A-A. The Volga Tatars. A Profile in National Resilience. Stanford (Calif.): Hoover Institu• tion Press, 1986; WALKER, E. W., The Dog That Didn't Bark: Tatarstan and Asymmetrical Federalism in . UC Berkeley, 27 November 1996; ZENKOVSKY, S. Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Univ. Press, 1960. 2. See: DROBIZHEVA, L. M., ed. NatsionaVnoye samosoznanie i natsionalism v Rossiiskoi Federatsii v nachale 1990-kh godov. Moscow, 1994; Konfliktnaya etnichnosV i etnicheskie konflikty. Moscow, 1994; DROBIZHEVA, L. M. Tsennosti i simvoly natsionaVnogo samosoznaniya v perekhodnykh obshchestvakh. Moscow, 1994; DROBIZHEVA, L. M., ed. Suverenitet i etnicheskoe samosoznanie: ideologiya i praktika. Moscow, 1995; DROBIZHEVA, L. M., ed. Demokratizatsiya i obrazy natsionalizma v Rossiiskoi Federatsii v 1990- e gody. Moscow, 1996. 3. ARUTYUNYAN, Yu. V., L. M. DROBIZHEVA and O. I. SHKARATAN, eds. SotsiaVnoe i natsionaVnoe. Opyt etnosotsiologicheskogo issledovaniya po materialam Tatarskoi ASSR. Moscow: Nauka, 1973; BROMLEI, Yu. V. et. al., eds. EtnosotsiaTnye problemy goroda. Moscow: Nauka, 1986; SHKARATAN, O. I., ed. NTR i natsionaVnye protsessy. Moscow: Nauka, 1987; ISKHAKOV, D., ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. In 2 volumes. Kazan: IYaLI, 1992, 1994. See also: MUSINA, R. N., ed. Sovremennye mezhnatsionaVnye protsessy v TSSR (Programma issledovaniya i instrumentarii). Kazan': IYaLI, 1990.

1 Economic Modernisation in Tataria and its Impact on Social and Ethnic Stratification 1. See, for example: DEUTSCH, K. Nationalism and Social Communication. An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality. London: Chapman and

198 Notes and References 199

Hall, 1953, p. 100; GELLNER, E. Thought and Change. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964, p. 155; GELLNER, E. Nations and Nationalism. Ox• ford: Blackwell, 1983; HECHTER, M. Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536-1966. Berkeley (Calif.): Univ. of California Press, 1975, p. 30; SHIBUTANI, T. and K. KWAN. Ethnic Strati• fication: A Comparative Approach. New York: Collier, 1968; SMITH, A. D. Nationalism: A Trend Report and Bibliography. Current Sociology, 1973, vol. 21, no. 3; SMITH, A. D. The Ethnic Revival. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981, p. 165; HOROWITZ, D. L. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley (Calif.): Univ. of California Press, 1985, p. 146. This list could be easily extended. 2. MUSTAFIN M. R. and R. G. KHUZEEV. Vse o Tatarstane (Ekonomiko- geograficheskii spravochnik). Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1992, p. 34. 3. MUSTAFIN and KHUZEEV, ref. 2, p. 34. 4. MUSTAFIN and KHUZEEV, ref. 2, p. 34. 5. KNYAZEV, S. L., N. S. GATIYATULLIN and G. P. ABRAGIEV NefV i gaz Respubliki Tatarstan. Sbornik dokumentov, tsifr i materialov. In 3 volumes. Moscow: Nedra, 1993, vol. 1, pp. 17-18. 6. MUSTAFIN and KHUZEEV, ref. 2, p. 35. 7. KNYAZEV et. al., ref. 5, p. 18. 8. MUSTAFIN and KHUZEEV, ref. 2, p. 36. 9. MUSTAFIN and KHUZEEV, ref. 2, pp. 16-17. 10. ARUTYUNYAN, Yu. V, L. V. DROBIZHEVA and O. I. SHKARATAN, eds. Sotsialnoe i natsionalnoe. Opyt etnosotsiologicheskogo issledovaniya po materialam Tatarskoi ASSR. Moscow: Nauka, 1973, p. 19. 11. KOZLOV, V. I. NatsionaVnosti SSSR. Etnodemograficheskii obzor. 2nd ed. Moscow: Finansy i statistika, 1982, pp. 88-9. 12. NatsionaVnyi sostav naseleniya RSFSR: Po dannym Vsesoyuznoi perepisi naseleniya 1989. Moscow: Respublikanskii informatsionno-izdatel'skii tsentr, 1990, pp. 8, 11, 14, 123-4. 13. KOZLOV, ref. 11, pp. 85-7, 97. 14. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 10, pp. 25-6. 15. See: ARUTYUNYAN et al., ref. 10, pp. 25-8; BROMLEI, Yu. V. et al., eds. EtnosotsiaVnye problemy goroda. Moscow: Nauka, 1986, p. 118. 16. See: ARUTYUNYAN et al., ref. 10, p. 27; BROMLEI et al., ref. 15, p. 118; PEREPELKIN, L. S. Istoki mezhetnicheskogo konflikta v Tatarii. In: Mir Rossii, 1992, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 106. 17. MUSINA, R. N., ed. Sovremennye mezhnatsionaVnye protsessy v TSSR (Programma issledovaniya i instrumentarii). Kazan': IYaLI, 1991, pp. 13-17. 18. GARIPOV, Ya. Z. Sotsial'no-etnicheskaya struktura rabotnikov i mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniya na KamAZe. In: ISKHAKOV, D., ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992. 19. GARIPOV, ref. 18, pp. 66-9. 20. GARIPOV, ref. 18, p. 15. 21. See: YERMOLAEV, V. M. Demograficheskii ocherk Tatarskoi respubliki. In: IBRAGIMOV, G. G. and N. I. VOROB'EV, eds., Materialy po izucheniyu Tatarstana (Sbornik statei). 2nd issue. Kazan': 1925, p. 135. 22. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 10, p. 58. 200 Notes and References

23. BROMLEI et. al., ref. 15, p. 158. 24. BROMLEI et. al., ref. 15, p. 169. 25. BROMLEI et. al., ref. 15, p. 158. 26. BROMLEI et. al., ref. 15, pp. 164-5. 27. SHKARATAN, O. I., ed. NTR i natsionaVnye protsessy. Moscow: Nauka, 1987, pp. 119-21. 28. SHKARATAN, ref. 27, p. 122. 29. BROMLEI et. al., ref. 15, pp. 164-5. 30. GANIEV, M. N. Sotsial'no-etnicheskaya struktura nauchnykh kadrov Respubliki Tatarstan i nekotorye problemy ee optimizatsii. In: D. ISKHAKOV, ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992, p. 93. 31. Ganiev, ref. 30, pp. 92-95. 32. See: Slovo agitatora, 1989, no. 8, p. 33. 33. MUSINA, ref. 17, pp. 14-15. 34. See Slovo agitatora, 1989, no. 81, p. 33. 35. ROTHSCHILD, J. Ethnopolitics. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1981, p. 81. 36. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 10, Chapter 2. 37. ZASLAVSKY, V. Ethnic group divided: social stratification and national• ity policy in the Soviet Union. In: POTICHNYJ, P., ed. The Soviet Union, Party and Society. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988, pp. 222-3.

2 Modernisation and the Problem of Ethnic Status in Tataria 1. See: TAJFEL, H. The Social Psychology of Minorities. London: Minority Rights Group, 1978; TAJFEL, H., ed. Differentiation between Social Groups. Studies in the Social Psychology oflntergroup Relations. London: Academic Press, 1978; TAJFEL, H. and J. TURNER. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In: AUSTIN, W. G. and S. WORCHEL, eds. The Social Psychol• ogy oflntergroup Relations. Monterey (Calif.): Brooks/Cole, 1979; TAJFEL, H., ed. Social Identity and Intergroup Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982; TURNER, J. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self- Categorisation Theory. Oxford: Blackwell, 1987. See also: HOROWITZ, D. L. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley (Calif.): Univ. of California Press, 1985. 2. FUKS, K. F. Kazanskie tatary v statisticheskom i etnograficheskom otnosheniyakh. Kazan': 1844, p. 1. 3. See: VOROB'EV, N. I. Kazanskie tatary. Kazan': 1953; MUSTAFIN, M. R. Novye tendentsii v rasselenii naseleniya Tatarii. Kazan': Izd-vo Tatarskogo respublikanskogo upravleniya statistiki, 1990, pp. 18-19 (note that this study includes a set of maps illustrating demographic processes in the republic for the last century); see also: VOROB'EV, N. I. Kazanskie tatary. (Etnograficheskii ocherk). In: IBRAGIMOV, G. G. and N. I. VOROB'EV, eds, Materialy po izucheniyu Tatarstana (Sbornik statei). 2nd issue. Kazan': 1925, p. 135. 4. See, for example: VOROB'EV, ref. 3, p. 165; IBRAGIMOV, G. Tatary v revolutsii 1905 goda. Kazan': Gosizdat, 1926, p. 23. 5. See: FIRSOV, N. Inorodcheskoe naselenie prezhnego Kazanskogo tsarstva do 1762 goda i kolonizatsiya Zakamskikh zemeV v eto vremya. Kazan': 1869, pp. 140-62. Notes and References 201

6. See: PINEGIN, M. Kazan v ee proshlom i nastoyashchem. St. Petersburg: 1890, pp. 127-8, 145, 149-50; BENNIGSEN, A. and S. ENDERS WIMBUSH. Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide. London: C. Hurst & Company, 1985, p. 235; BENNIGSEN, A. and C. QUELQUEJAY. The Evolution of the Muslim Nationalities of the USSR and Their Linguistic Problems. Ox• ford: St. Anthony's College, 1961. 7. See: VALIDOV, J. Ocherk istorii obrazovannosti i literatury tatar (do revolutsii 1917g.). Moscow-Petrograd: Gosizdat, 1923, pp. 11-12. 8. On the Jadid movement see: VALIDOV, J. Ocherk istorii obrazovannosti i literatury tatar (do revolutsii 1917 goda). Moscow-Petrograd, 1923; IBRAGIMOV, ref. 4; in English: RORLICH, A-A. The Volga Tatars. A Pro• file in National Resilience. Stanford (Calif.): Hoover Institution Press, 1986; ZENKOVSKY, S. Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Univ. Press, 1960. 9. IBRAGIMOV, ref. 4, pp. 26-7. 10. See: FUKS, ref. 2, p. 117. 11. See: VALIDOV, ref. 8, pp. 44-5, 77-80. 12. See: DEUTSCH, K. Nationalism and Social Communication. An Inquiry into the Foundations of Nationality. London: Chapman and Hall, 1953; see also: HROCH, M. Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe. Cam• bridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985. 13. See for example: SHIBUTANI, T. and K. KWAN. Ethnic Stratification: A Comparative Approach. New York: Collier, 1968; GLAZER, N. and D. P. MOYNIHAN. Beyond the Melting Pot. Cambridge (Mass.): The M.I.T. Press, 1963. 14. See: ZENKOVSKY, ref. 8, p. 35; DAVLETSHIN, T. Sovetsky Tatarstan. London: Our World Publishers, 1974, pp, 120-50. 15. See: T. DAVLETSHIN, ref. 14, p. 179; BENNIGSEN, A. A. and S. E. WIMBUSH. Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revol• utionary Strategy for the Colonial World. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1979, pp. 90-2. 16. See: RUKAVISHNIKOV, V. O. Ethnosotsial'nye aspekty rasseleniya v gorodakh Tatarii (Na primere Kazani i Al'met'evska)'. Sovetskaya Etnografiya, 1978, no. 1. An English translation available in: Soviet Sociology, vol. 17 (Fall 1978), no. 2. 17. See: MUSTAFIN, ref. 3, p. 84. 18. See: DESCHAMPS, J-C. Social identity and relations of power between groups. In: TAJFEL, H., ed. Social Identity and Intergroup Relations. Cam• bridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982, pp. 87-9. 19. The concepts established social order and established cultural order are borrowed from the study by John HALL and Mary Jo NEITZ Culture: Sociological Perspectives (Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice Hall, 1993). In this study, the former concept is defined as 'the ongoing arrangements by which a society is organized' (p. 139); and the interpretation of the latter is given in two ways: as '... cultural patterns that allocate power', and as 'a realm of ideas and symbols that are the medium by which power is organized in society' (p. 141). Culture is a complex concept involving an extremely wide range of aspects and features which defy simple definitions. In this study we are concerned only with the aspect 202 Notes and References

of culture elaborated in Durkheimian and Parsonian tradition; so by culture we mean here transmitted and created content and patterns of values, ideas and other symbolic-meaningful systems as factors in the shaping of human behaviour and the artifacts produced through behaviour. 20. Cf. GARIPOV, Ya. Sotsial'no-etnicheskaya struktura rabotnikov i mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniya na KamAZe. In: ISKHAKOV. D. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992, p. 77. 21. IdeV, 1989, no. 3, p. 27. 22. Cf.: J.-C. DESCHAMPS, ref. 18, pp. 89-90. 23. See: ISLAMSHINA, T. and G. KHAMZINA. V molodykh gorodakh sklonny k radikalizmu. Tatarstan, 1993, no. 9, p. 22. 24. GARIPOV, ref. 20, p. 68. 25. See: T. ISLAMSHINA and G. KHAMZINA, ref. 23, p. 22. 26. ISLAMSHINA. T. G. Vozvrashchenie utrachennogo (Dialog o natsionaVnom). Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1991, p. 119. 27. The speech by R. Khamid at the XI Congress of writers of Tataria in: IdeV, 1989, no. 3, p. 26. 28. See: Argamak, 1993, no. 1, p. 32. 29. See: TAJFEL, H. The Social Psychology of Minorities. London: Minority Rights Group, 1978, pp. 3-6; TAJFEL, H. Cognitive Aspects of Preju• dice. In: journal of Social Issues. Vol. XXV, no. 4, 1969, p. 82. 30. SAGITOVA, L. V. Istoricheskie korni i osobennosti idei natsional'nogo vozrozhdeniya u russkikh i tatar (postanovka problemy). In: D. ISKHAKOV. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992. 31. SAGITOVA, ref. 30, p. 115. 32. SAGITOVA, ref. 30, pp. 114-16. 33. See: ARUTYUNYAN, Yu., L. DROBIZHEVA and O. SHKARATAN, eds. SotsiaVnoe i natsionaVnoe. Moscow: Nauka, 1973, chapter 5. 34. ARUTYUNYAN, Yu. V. and Yu. V. BROMLEI, eds. SotsiaVno-kuVturnyi oblik sovetskikh natsii. Moscow: Nauka, 1986, p. 358. 35. See: TAJFEL, H. The Social Psychology of Minorities. London: Minority Rights Group, 1978. 36. R. BILALOV. Kto stavit palki v kolesa? Argamak, 1992, no. 1, p. 10. 37. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 33, p. 242. 38. See: GUBOGLO, M. N. Sotsial'no-etnicheskie posledstviya dvuyazychiya. Sovetskaya etnografiya, 1972, no. 2, p. 95. English translation available in: Soviet Sociology, vol. 13 (Summer-Fall 1974), no. 1-2. 39. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 33, p. 253. 40. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 33, p. 255. 41. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 33, p. 266. 42. SMITH, G., ed. The National Question in the Soviet Union. London: Longman, 1991, pp. 7-8. 43. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 33, p. 237. 44. ISLAMSHINA, ref. 26, pp. 98-9. 45. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 33, pp. 247, 250. 46. ISKHAKOVA, Z. Funktsionirovaniye gosudarstvennykh yazykov v Notes and References 203

Respublike Tatarstan sredi uchashchikhsia-tatar. In: D. ISKHAKOV, ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 2. Kazan': IYaLI, 1994, pp. 82, 87-8. 47. ISKHAKOVA, ref. 46, pp. 87-8. 48. BUSYGIN, E. and G. STOLYAROVA. Mezhnatsional'nye braki: 'za' ili 'protiv'. Komsomolets Tatarii, 12 February 1989. 49. Komsomolets Tatarii, 23 January 1989. 50. See an interview with Z. Agliullin in: Argamak, 1992, no. 3-4, p. 59. 51. Respublika Tatarstan, 16 April 1994. 52. MUSINA, R. Etnokul'turnye orientatsii i mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniya: analiz situatsii v gorodakh Respubliki Tatarstan. In: D. ISKHAKOV, ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 2. Kazan': IYaLI, 1994. 53. MUSINA, ref. 52, pp. 48-50. 54. MUSINA, ref. 52, p. 53. 55. ARUTYUNYAN et. al., ref. 33, pp. 258, 265. 56. MUSINA, ref. 52, p. 50. 57. MUSINA, R. N., ed. Sovremennye mezhnatsionaVnye protsessy v TSSR. Kazan': IYaLI, 1991, p. 42. 58. MUSINA, ref. 57, p. 42. 59. KHAIROV, A. Mankurt ili 'poteryannaya natsiya'. IdeV, 1989, no. 5, pp. 40-1. 60. IdeV, 1989, no. 3, p. 26. 61. IdeV, 1989, no. 3, p. 28. 62. ISLAMSHINA, ref. 26, p. 103. 63. SAGITOVA, L. V. Natsional'noe samosoznanie tatarskoi intelligentsii i ee uchastie v vozrozhdenii natsii (na primere Respubliki Tatarstan). In: ISKHAKOV, D., ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 2. Kazan': IYaLI, 1994, p. 37. 64. BURBIEL, G. Tatar literature. In: LUCKYJ, G. S. N., ed. Discordant Voices. The Non-Russian Soviet Literatures 1953-1973. Oakville (Ontario): Mo• saic Press, 1975, p. 94. 65. BURBIEL, ref. 64, p. 94. 66. BURBIEL, ref. 64, pp. 110-19. 67. LAZZERINI, E. J. Tatarovedenie and the 'New Historiography' in the So• viet Union: Revising the Interpretation of the Tatar - Russian Relationship. Slavic Review, vol. 40, no. 4 (Winter 1981), p. 630. 68. LAZZERINI, ref. 67, p. 635. 69. BATTAL, F. Nash portret. IdeV, 1989, no. 2, pp. 40-1. 70. See: TAJFEL, H. Differentiation between Social Groups. Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. London: Academic Press, 1978, pp. 51-3.

3 Gorbachev's Perestroika 1985-1991, and the Collapse of the Legitimacy of the Soviet System 1. See: LAPIDUS, G. From democratisation to disintegration: the impact of perestroika on the national question. In: LAPIDUS, G., V. ZASLAVSKY and P. GOLDMAN, eds. From Union to Commonwealth: Nationalism and 204 Notes and References

Separatism in the Soviet Union. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992. 2. This perspective is discussed in: HARDING, N. Legitimation, Nationalities, and the Deep Structure of Ideology. In: MOTYL, A., ed. The Post-Soviet Nations. Perspectives on the Demise of the USSR. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1992, pp. 79-96. 3. CARLYLE, T. The French Revolution: A History. Vol. 1. London, 1839, p. 262. 4. See: BEETHAM, D. The Legitimation of Power. London: Macmillan, 1991. 5. See analysis of these views in: RIGBY, T. H. Political Legitimacy, Weber and Communist Mono-Organisational Systems. In: RIGBY, T. H. and F. FEHER, eds. Political Legitimation in Communist States. Oxford: Macmillan, 1982, pp. 3-4. 6. For an analysis of the theoretical problems see: D. BEETHAM, ref. 4, pp. 180-2; T. RIGBY and F. FEHER, ref. 5. 7. See: INKELES, A. and R. BAUER. The Soviet Citizen. Daily Life in a Totali• tarian Society. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Univ. Press, 1959; LOWENTHAL, R. The Ruling Party in a Mature Society. In: FIELD, M. G., ed. Social Consequences of Modernisation in Communist Societies. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1976; BUSHNELL, J. The 'New Socialist Man' Turns Pessi• mist. In: COHEN, S., A. RABINOWITCH and R. SHARLET, eds. The Soviet Union Since Stalin. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1980; FEHER, F. Paternalism as a Mode of Legitimation in Soviet-type Societies. In: RIGBY, T. H. and F. FEHER, eds. Political Legitimation in Communist States. Oxford: Macmillan, 1982; LAPIDUS, G. Social Trends. In: BYRNES, R. F. After Brezhnev. Sources of Soviet Conduct in the 1980s. London: Frances Pinter, 1983; BIALER, S. Stalin's Successors. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980. 8. See, for example: GITELMAN, Z. Becoming Israelis: Political Resocialisation of Soviet and American Immigrants. New York: Praeger, 1982, pp. 133-9. 9. See: WHITE, S. Political Culture and Soviet Politics. London: Macmillan, 1979; BROWN, A. and J. GRAY, eds. Political Culture and Political Change in Communist States. London: Macmillan, 1979; BROWN, A., ed. Politi• cal Culture and Communist Studies. London: Macmillan, 1984. 10. COHEN, S. The Friends and Foes of Change: Reformism and Conserva• tism in the Soviet Union. In: COHEN, S., A. RABINOWITCH and R. SHARLET, eds. The Soviet Union Since Stalin. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1980, p. 24. 11. INKELES and BAUER, ref. 7, pp. 249, 381, 393. 12. INKELES and BAUER, ref. 7, pp. 246-7. 13. INKELES and BAUER, ref. 7, pp. 381, 393. 14. BUSHNELL, ref. 7, pp. 181-5. 15. See: R. LOWENTHAL, ref. 7, p. 102. 16. BIALER, ref. 7, p. 193. 17. LOWENTHAL, R. ref. 7, p. 102. 18. See: A. INKELES and R. BAUER, ref. 7, p. 393; S. BIALER, ref. 7, p. 165; F. FEHER, ref. 7, p. 72-3. 19. See: R. BUSHNELL, ref. 7; R. LOWENTHAL, ref. 7, p. 102; S. BIALER, ref. 7, p. 162. 20. Cf. S. WHITE, ref. 9, p. 101. Notes and References 205

21. BUSHNELL, ref. 7, pp. 188-93. 22. LAPIDUS, ref. 7, pp. 236-42. 23. See results of polling in: Panorama, 1990, no. 9, p. 23; 1991, no. 1, p. 23. 24. LAPIDUS, ref. 1, p. 59. 25. See, for example: ELLMAN, M. and V. KONTOROVICH, eds. The Disin• tegration of the Soviet Economic System. London: Routledge, 1992, Chapter 1 (Overview); SACHS, J. Rynochnaya ekonomika i Rossiya [Market Economy and Russia]. Moscow: Ekonomika, 1995, pp. 9, 45-6, 108-9; ASLUND, A. How Russia Became a Market Economy. Russian translation. Moscow: Respublika, 1996, Chapter 2. 26. The expression 'Victorious Analysis' is borrowed from Thomas Carlyle's The French Revolution, see in particular Book II: The Paper Age, Chap• ters I and III - ref. 3, pp. 25, 29-32. In general, one could find striking similarities between certain features of late eighteenth-century France and late twentieth-century Russia. 27. SMITH, A. D. Nationalism: A Trend Report and Bibliography. Current Sociology, 1973, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 67.

4 The Crisis of Legitimacy in Tataria and the Formulation of the Tatar Nationalist Project 1. YAKUPOVA, V. Pokushenie na internatsionalism. Komsomolets Tatarii, 1990, 2 September. 2. ISLAMSHINA, T. G. Vozvrashchenie utrachennogo (Dialog o natsionaVnom). Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1991, p. 115. 3. See: SHAMIOGLU, U. The formation of a Tatar historical conscious• ness. Central Asian Survey, 1990, vol. 9. On the debate on the origins of the Tatars see: RORLICH, A-A. The Volga Tatars. Stanford (Calif.): Hoover Institution Press, 1986, pp. 60-70. The Bulgars were a group of Turkic tribes which in the eighth cen• tury settled in the basin of the Middle Volga and formed there the Bulgar Khanate, which incorporated also the local Finnish populations; in the early tenth century it officially adopted Islam. The Kypchaks were a large group of nomadic tribes of Turkic origin which roamed in the West Siberian and Black Sea steppes. In the twelfth to thirteeth centuries they were subjugated by the Mongols and comprised a majority of the population and the military forces of the Golden Horde, which also included the territory of the crushed Bulgar Khanate. 4. See: ISKHAKOV, D. Tatary (Populyarnyi ocherk etnicheskoi istorii i demografii). Naberezhnye Chelny: Izdatelstvo KamAZ, 1993; BARTOLD, V. Sochineniya. Vol. 5. Moscow: Nauka, 1968, pp. 559-61. 5. See G. Malikhov, in: Argamak, 1992, no. 2. The impact of the Mongol invasion on Russian history is expounded in a fascinating book by Tibor Szamuely. His account is based exclusively on the works of Rus• sian historians. See: SZAMUELY, T. The Russian Tradition. London: Fontana Press, 1988, Chapters 2-4. 6. PINEGIN, M. Kazan v ee proshlom i nastoyashchem. St. Petersburg, 1890, pp. 77-8. 7. See: ISKHAKOV, D. and I. IZMAILOV. 'Chernoe postanovlenie' ili o 206 Notes and References

dukhovnom genotside protiv tatarskogo naroda. Tatar He, 1991, no. 10 (November). 8. See I. Tagirov in: Argamak, 1994, no. 2. 9. I. Sibgatullin in: Tatar lie, 1991, no. 5 (May). 10. This view is expounded in: ISKHAKOV, D. Tatary (populyarnyi ocherk etnicheskoi istorii i demografii). Naberezhnye Chelny: KamAZ, 1993. 11. See: ISKHAKOV, D. Rol' intelligentsii v formirovanii i sovremennom funktsionirovanii natsional'nogo samosoznaniya tatar. In: ISKHAKOV, D., ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan, Vol. 2. Kazan': IYaLI, 1994, pp. 15-17. 12. To avoid misunderstanding, it should be stressed here that political considerations by no means were the only factor that determined the development of the debate. On the academic aspects of the problem see: U. SHAMIOGLU, ref. 3; D. ISKHAKOV, ref. 11; DAVLETSHIN, T. Soviet Tatarstan. London: Our World Publishers, 1974, pp. 9-16. 13. Kazantsy 1552 goda, my pomnim vas! Tatar He, 1991, no. 10 (November). 14. U. Badal in: Tatar lie, 1991, no. 9 (October); F. Fatkullin, professor of the Kazan' University, in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 1 July 1992. 15. I. Tagirov in: Respublika Tatarstan, 14 April 1994. 16. Interview with M. Mulyukov in: Rossiya, 6-12 January 1993. 17. GIBADULLIN, R. O dvukh zharkikh godakh na puti k nezavisimosti Tatarstana. Argamak, 1992, no. 11-12, p. 5. 18. Komsomolets Tatarii, 15 January 1989. 19. R. Mustann in: Komsomolets Tatarii, 1988, 10 October; see also R. Fatkhutdinov in: Komsomolets Tatarii, 1989, 14 January. 20. R. Mukhametdinov in: Nauka, 29 November 1988. 21. MUSINA, R. N., ed. Sovremennye mezhnatsionaVnye protsessy v TSSR. Kazan': IYaLI, 1991, p. 31. 22. Aidar Khalim in: Tatar lie, 1992, no. 7 (March). 23. R. Adygamov in: Komsomolets Tatarii, 25 June 1989. 24. Z. Zainullin in: Suverenitet, 1991, no. 3 (September- October); R. Gizzatullin in: Tatar He, 1991, no. 6 June). 25. G. Malikov in: Tatar lie, 1992, no. 1 Oanuary); ABDULLIN, T. Kolonial'nyi grabezh Tatarstana. Suverenitet, 1992, no. 4 (March). 26. M. Mulyukov in: Rossiya, 6-12 January, 1993. 27. M. Mulyukov in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 31 October 1990; A. Makhmutov and G. Murtazin in: Shahri Kazan, 4 April 1991. 28. L. Akmalova in: Panorama, 1991, no. 4, p. 3; V. Belyaev in: Panorama, 1991, no. 2, p. 5. 29. KHAKIMOV, R. Natsional'naya svoboda i demokratiya. Tatar He, 1991, no. 6 Qune); R. Mukhametdinov in: Shahri Kazan, 14 May 1991. 30. R. Mukhametdinov in: Shahri Kazan, 24 October 1991. 31. R. Mukhametdinov in: Suverenitet, 1991, no. 4 (November). 32. KHAKIM, R. (R. Khakimov). Sumerki imperil K voprosu o natsii i gosudarstve. Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1993, p. 11. 33. KHAKIM, ref. 32, pp. 6-7. 34. See the draft constitution of the Tatar people, Suverenitet, 1992, no. 2 January); T. ABDULLIN, ref. 25; R. Yagfarov in: Tatar He, 1992, no. 1 January). 35. ABDULLIN, ref. 25. 36. See: Millet, 1991, January. 37. R. Gizzatullin, quoted by F. Khuzakhmetova in: Tatar He, 1991, no. 6 Oune). 38. See the Platform of the TOTs, in: Panorama, 1990, no. 5, p. 36. 39. I. Tagirov in: Respublika Tatarstan, 14 April 1994. 40. See: Resolutions of the I Congress of the TOTs in: Central Asian Sur• vey, 1990, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 158. 41. Slovo agitatora, 1988, no. 23-24, pp. 39-40. 42. See the TOTs Platform in: Panorama, no. 2, 1991, p. 18. 43. See: Puti razvitiya tatarskogo prosveshcheniya. Sovetskaya Tataria, 1 August 1991. 44. See: Resolutions of the I TOTs Congress, ref. 40, p. 161. 45. See: Deklaratsiya mnogonatsional'nogo dvizheniya Soglasie za ravnopravie i edinstvo narodov Tatarii. Panorama, 1990, no. 12. 46. M. Agafonova in: Panorama, 1991, no. 4, p. 11. 47. V. Belyaev in: Panorama, 1991, no. 2, p. 10. 48. A. Shtanin in: Panorama, 1991, no. 7, p. 5. 49. Kontinent, 1991, no. 39 (October). 50. I. Sultanov in: Panorama, 1990, no. 9, p. 5. 51. The Programme of the Ittifak party in: Panorama, 1991, no. 6, p. 18. 52. KHAKIM, ref. 32, pp. 24-5, 35, 37-9. 53. KHAKIM, ref. 32, pp. 40-3. 54. See: Osnovnye printsipy, tseli i zadachi Dvizheniya Demokraticheskikh Reform Tatarstana (DDRT). Panorama, 1991, no. 11-12, p. 8; V. Belyaev in: Panorama, 1991, no. 7; no. 2, pp. 7-9; R. Akhmetov in: Panorama, 1991, no. 3, p. 11. 55. A. Shtanin in: Panorama, 1991, no. 7, p. 17; I. Grachev in: Panorama, 1990, no. 10, p. 6. 56. BELYAEV, V. Siluet dnya v zerkale istorii. Panorama, 1989, no. 9, p. 20. 57. Nauka, 28 August 1989. 58. KHAKIMOV, R. Ne privilegii, a zashchita. Panorama, 1990, no. 2, p. 12. 59. BELYAEV, V. Siluet dnya v zerkale istorii. Panorama, 1989, no. 12, p. 10. 60. See: V. Gerasimov in: Nauka, 10 July 1989. 61. M. Mulyukov and I. Sultanov, in: Panorama, 1990, no. 9, p. 12. 62. See the draft constitution of the Tatar people in: Suverenitet, 1992, no. 2 Qanuary). 63. FAKHRUTDINOV, R. Zashchitim Tatarstan. Suverenitet, 1991, no. 4 (November). 64. See the Proposals of the Coordinating Group of the Soglasie move• ment to the TSSR Supreme Soviet, in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 28 May 1991. 65. BELYAEV, ref. 59, p. 17. 66. R. Sadykov in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 2 (March). 67. KHAKIMOV, ref. 32, p. 28. 68. See: Respublika Tatarstan, 4 June 1994. 69. See: Komsomolets Tatarii, 1988, 5 November. 208 Notes and References

70. F. Nurutdinov in: Respublika Tatarstan, 4 June 1994. 71. R. Fakhrutdinov in: Tatar He, 1992, no. 2 (January); Z. Shakirova in: Shahri Kazan, 15 May 1991. 72. See: Respublika Tatarstan, 4 June 1994. 73. AITMATOV, Ch. Burannyi polustanok (I doVshe veka dlitsya den'). Mos• cow, 1981, pp. 106-7. 74. Millet, May 1991. 75. Millet, 1991, April. 76. See: Millet, 1991, April. 77. The Programme of the Ittifak party, ref. 51, p. 21. 78. Millet, April 1991. 79. See the Platform of the TOTs, ref. 42, pp. 24-6. 80. See D. Ishanov 'Sotsial'naya statistika'. In: Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Kazan': 1992, p. 139. 81. MUSINA, R. N. K voprosu o meste i roli religii v zhizni sovremennykh tatar (po materialam etnosotsiologicheskikh issledovanii v Tatarstane). In: ISKHAKOV, D., ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992, p. 59. 82. R. MUSINA, ref. 81, pp. 54, 59-60. 83. ISKHAKOV, ref. 11, p. 19. 84. See an interview with A. Fokin, a leader of the Kryashen Ethnographic and Cultural-Educational Association in: Tatarstan, 1993, no. 5, p. 41. 85. M. Garafiev, in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 3 (March). 86. See the draft constitution of the Tatar people, ref. 62; see also Suverenitet, 1992, no. 7 (May). 87. On the Volga-Ural state (Tatar: Idel'-Ural shtaty) see: T. DAVLETSHIN, ref. 12; ZENKOVSKY, S. Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Univ. Press, 1960. 88. See BAIRAMOVA, F. The real Tatarhood is tested in the square [in Tatar]. In: Shahri Kazan, 11 October 1991; quoted from the Russian translation in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 October 1991. 89. See: Millet, 1991, January. The views of the Bashkir national move• ment on the issue are expounded in: VALEEV, D. NatsionaVnyi suverenitet i natsionaVnoe vozrozhdenie. Iz istorii boVby bashkirskogo naroda za samoopredelenie. Ufa: Kitap, 1994, pp. 72-3. 90. See the Platform of the TOTs, ref. 42; on historical traditions of the idea see: T. DAVLETSHIN, ref. 12, esp. Appendix. 91. See ref. 42, p. 23. 92. ISKHAKOV, ref. 11, p. 18. 93. ISKHAKOV, ref. 11, p. 18. 94. The Platform of the TOTs, ref. 42, p. 27. 95. Shahri Kazan, 24 April 1991. 96. TAJFEL, H. The Social Psychology of Minorities. London: Minority Rights Group, 1978, p. 17. 97. F. Bairamova in: Millet, 1991, April. 98. MAKHMUD, A. (A. Makhmudov) in: NezavisimosV, 1993, no. 4. 99. KHAKIM, ref. 32, p. 45. 100. R. Khakimov in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 3 August 1990. Notes and References 209

5 The Strategy of Tatarstan's Political Establishment: The Politics of Stability 1. See: Respublika Tatarstan, 1996: Statisticheskii sbornik. Kazan': Karpol, 1998, pp. 331, 161. 2. See: ref. 1, p. 291. 3. Vechemyaya Kazan', 26 June 1989. 4. Regiony Rossii. Vol. 2. Moscow: Goskomstat, 1997, pp. 385-7. 5. See: MUSTAFIN, M. R. and R. G. KHUZEEV, Vse o Tatarstane. Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1992, p. 29. 6. See: Panorama, 1991, no. 6, p. 36. 7. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 28 February 1989. 8. See: SHAIMIEV, M. Ekonomicheskaya samostoyatel'nost'. Sovetskaya Tataria, 11 November 1988; an interview with R. Mingazov (TASSR Finance Minister) in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 28 February 1989. Until October 1989 M. Shaimiev was Chairman of the TASSR Council of Ministers; since October 1989 he became First Secretary of Tataria Oblast' Party Committee. 9. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 27 November 1988. 10. See an interview with R. Idiatullin, the secretary of the Tataria Oblast' Party Committee in charge of ideology, in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 14 Sep• tember 1989. 11. See ref. 9. 12. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 1 August 1989. 13. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 2 September 1989. 14. See: Printsipy perekhoda TASSR na regional'nyi khozraschet. Sovetskaya Tataria, 23 July 1989; see also an alternative programme drafted by the IYaLI Department of Economics in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 26 June 1989. 15. Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 January 1991; 24 October 1991. 16. Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 January 1991; 24 October 1991. 17. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 24 October 1991. 18. See the speech by M. Sabirov, at that time a deputy chairman of the TASSR Council of Ministers, at the XXVIII CPSU Congress in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 12 July 1990. 19. The package included the following acts: 'On the enhancement of the liability for attempts at citizens' national equality and the forceful vio• lation of the territorial integrity of the USSR'; 'On regulation of the state of emergency'; 'On the procedure for the secession of a union republic from the USSR'; 'On the principles of economic relations be• tween the USSR, union republics, and autonomous republics'; 'On the free national development of the citizens of the USSR who live outside their national state entities or do not have them in the USSR territory'; 'On the languages of the peoples of the USSR'; 'On the delimitation of powers between the USSR and members of the federation'. They were all enacted in April 1990. See: Zakony, postanovleniya i drugie akty, prinyatye na tret'ei sessii VS SSSR 14 fevralya -14 iyunya 1990. Moscow: USSR Supreme Soviet, 1990. 20. See: Zakony, postanovleniya i drugie akty, prinyatye na tret'ei sessii VS SSSR 14 fevralya -14 iyunya 1990. Moscow: USSR Supreme Soviet, 1990, pp. 346-7, 104-10. 210 Notes and References

21. See M. Sabirov in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 12 July 1990. 22. The negotiations on the Union treaty are discussed in: WHITE, S. Gorbachev and After. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992, pp. 178-83; DUNLOP, J. The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993, passim. 23. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 20 June 1990. 24. See M. Shaimiev's speech at the XXVIII CPSU Congress in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 10 July 1990. 25. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 27 December 1990; 8 January 1991. 26. These views were expressed by M. Sabirov, the TSSR's prime-minister in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 23 February 1991. 27. See I. Tagirov in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 16 February 1991. 28. See M. Shaimiev's speech at the IV Congress of the USSR People's Deputies in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 25 December 1990. 29. See an interview with F. Gazizullin, the head of Tatarstan's State Committee for managing state property, in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 1 October 1991. 30. See the first draft of the Union treaty in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 25 Decem• ber 1990. 31. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 26 August 1991. 32. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 31 August 1991. 33. Izvestiya Tatarstana, 7 September 1991. 34. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 18 September 1991. 35. Tatar He, 1991, no. 11 (November). 36. See the speech by F. Mukhametshin, speaker of the Tatarstan's parlia• ment, in the RSFSR parliament in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 5 March 1992. 37. See M. Shaimiev's speech at the World Congress of Tatars in: Vsemirnyi Kongress Tatar (Pervyi sozyv) 19 iyunya 1992. Stenograficheskii otchet. Kazan': Tatarstan Cabinet of Ministers, 1992, p. 158. See also: F. FATKULLIN, F. Preobrazovat', no sokhranit' edinenie. K otnosheniyam Tatarstana i Rossii. Sovetskaya Tataria, 1 July 1992. 38. See V. Tishkov in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 6 (23 May-7 June). 39. The question of the referendum was formulated later as follows: 'Do you agree that the Republic of Tatarstan is a sovereign state, a subject of international law, building its relations with the Russian Federation and other republics and states on the principle of equal treaties?' 40. Sovetskaya Tataria, 21 May 1992. 41. The treaty was signed on 31 March 1992 by the representatives of all the members of the Russian Federation, save Tatarstan and Chechnya, and approved by VI Congress of RSFSR People's Deputies on 10 April. See the text of the Federal Treaty in: ABDULATIPOV, R. et. al., eds. Federativnyi dogovor: Dokumenty. Kommentarii. Moscow: Respublika, 1992. 42. See: Konstitutsiya Respubliki Tatarstan. Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1993, p. 62. The constitution was adopted by the 12th session of the Su• preme Soviet of Tatarstan in November 1992. 43. See the text of the treaty in: Tatarstan: Osnovy politicheskogo ustroistva i kratkaya kharakteristika economiki (Spravochnik). Moscow: Fond razvitiya parlamentarizma v Rossii, 1996, p. 286. 44. Sovetskaya Tataria, 16 January 1993. Notes and References 211

45. See President Shaimiev's speech at the World Congress of Tatars in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 19 June 1992. 46. See M. Shaimiev in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 31 August 1991. 47. President Shaimiev's speech at the Congress of the Peoples of Tatarstan. In: Materialy s"ezda narodov Tatarstana. Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1993, p. 11. 48. See President Shaimiev's speech in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 5 October 1991. 49. See the proposals of Tataria Oblast' Party Committee (February 1989) for the Plenum of the CPSU Central Committee on the nationalities policy in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 10 February 1989. 50. Sovetskaya Tataria, 23 May 1992. 51. See ref. 42, pp. 50-4. 6 The Rise of the National Movement in Tataria: 1988-1989 1. The rise of the non-formal movement in the USSR is discussed in: HOSKING, G. A., et. al. The Road to Post-Communism. London: Pinter, 1992; HOSKING, G. A. The Awakening of the Soviet Union, revised edi• tion. London: Mandarin, 1991; SEDAITIS, J. B. and J. BUTTERFIELD, eds. Perestroika From Below. Boulder: Westview Press, 1991; TOLZ, V. The USSR's Emerging Multi-Party System. New York: Praeger, 1990; BROVKIN, V. Revolution from Below: Informal Political Associations in Russia 1988- 1989. Soviet Studies, vol. 42, no. 2 (April 1990), pp. 233-57. 2. Panorama, 1990, no. 5, p. 30. 3. Slovo Agitatora, 1989, no. 4, pp. 45-8; see also: Komsomolets Tatarii, 30 July 1989; Panorama, 1990, no. 5, p. 32. 4. See: Komsomolets Tatarii, 30 July 1989; Panorama, 1990, no. 5, p. 32; see its Charter (Ustav) in: Panorama, 1991, no. 2, p. 35. 5. See their open letter in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 28 June 1988. 6. See the text of the Declaration in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 18 July 1988. It was in fact a replica of the Declaration of the Estonian Popular Front published in April 1988. 7. Sovetskaya Tataria, 14 August 1988. 8. Vechemyaya Kazan', 30 November 1988. 9. Vechemyaya Kazan', 30 November 1988. 10. Panorama, 1990, no. 5, p. 31. 11. See: Nauka, 1 November 1988. 12. See an interview with M. Mulyukov in: Komsomolets Tatarii, 19 October 1988. 13. See: ISKHAKOV, D. Neformal'nye ob"edineniya v sovremennom tatarskom obshchestve (istoriya formirovaniya, struktura, programmnye polozheniya). In: ISKHAKOV, D. ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992, pp. 6, 8. 14. Vechemyaya Kazan', 7 November 1988. 15. See ref. 14. 16. See ref. 14. 17. See: Slovo agitatora, 1988, no. 21-22, p. 37. M. Mulyukov was a lecturer at the department of the CPSU history in the Faculty of History at the Kazan' University. 212 Notes and References

18. Slovo agitatora, 1988, no. 23-24, p. 20. 19. See ref. 13, pp. 6-7. 20. See: Slovo agitatora, 1988, no. 23-24. 21. Sovetskaya Tataria, 10 February 1989. 22. See ref. 13, p. 7. 23. See: Komsomolets Tatarii, 19 February 1989. 24. Nauka, 5 June 1989. 25. Panorama, 1990, no. 5, pp. 36-7, 40. 26. Resolutions of the I Congress of the TOTs are available in English trans• lation in: Central Asian Survey, Vol. 9, no. 2, 1990 (Special issue: Idel'-Ural). See the resolution on the status of the in: Op. cit., p. 158. 27. Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 February 1989. 28. Sovetskaya Tataria, 28 February 1989. 29. See, for example, the speech by G. Kashapov at the congress in: Kazan utlary, 1989, no. 11, p. 153. 30. D. ISKHAKOV, ref. 13, p. 8. 31. See an interview with R. Idiatullin, Secretary of the Tataria Obkom in charge of ideology, in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 2 June, 1989. 32. R. Idiatullin in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 14 September 1989. 33. Sovetskaya Tataria, 10 October 1990. 34. Vatanym Tatarstan, 3 June 1994. 35. See an interview with R. Khakimov in: Vatanym Tatarstan, 3 June 1994. 36. R. GIBADULLIN. O dvukh zharkikh godakh na puti k nezavisimosti Tatarstana. Argamak, 1992, no. 11-12, p. 5. 37. See: BELYAEV, V. Siluet dnya v zerkale istorii. Slovo Agitatora, 1989, no. 5, p. 22. 38. See: BELYAEV, V. Siluet dnya v zerkale istorii. Slovo agitatora, 1989, no. 11, p. 18. 39. Slovo agitatora, 1989, no. 11, p. 27; Sovetskaya Tataria, 2 June 1989. See also an opinion poll in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 28 November 1989. 40. V. Belyaev in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 30 November 1991. 41. Sovetskaya Tataria, 10 October 1989. 42. Komsomolets Tatarii, 13 May 1990. 43. Sovetskaya Tataria, 10 October 1989. 44. Sovetskaya Tataria, 25 June 1989. 45. Komsomolets Tatarii, 5 November 1988. 46. Komsomolets Tatarii, 5 November 1988. 47. BELYAEV, V. Siluet dnya v zerkale Istorii. Slovo Agitatora, 1989, no. 5, pp. 21-22. 48. See: Komsomolets Tatarii, 5 November 1988.

7 Tatarstan's Sovereignty Declaration 1. GIBADULLIN, R. O dvukh zharkizh godakh na puti k nezavisimosti Tatarstana. Argamak, 1992, no. 11-12, p. 6. 2. See: ref. 1. 3. See: Komsomolets Tatarii, 13 May 1990. Notes and References 213

4. R. Khakimov in: Panorama, 1991, no. 2, p. 14. 5. Panorama, 1990, no. 6, p. 18. 6. See: ISKHAKOV, D. Neformal'nye ob'edineniya v sovremennom tatarskom obshchestve (istoriya formirovaniya, struktura, programmnye polozheniya). In: D. ISKHAKOV, ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992, p. 47. 7. See: R. GIBADULLIN, ref. 1, p. 6. 8. By the time of its second session (August 1990), to the total of 250 seats in the republican legislature only 249 MPs were elected. See also: Tatarstan, 1993, no. 8, p. 29. 9. Sovetskaya Tataria, 13 April 1990. 10. R. Kurchakov in Panorama, 1990, no. 7, p. 22. 11. Panorama, 1990, no. 7, p. 21. 12. Sovetskaya Tataria, 10 July 1990. 13. M. Shamsutdinov, a member of the Board of the TOTs and a member of the Presidium of the Kazan' City Council, in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 11 August 1990. Cf. DUNLOP, J. The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993, passim. 14. R. Khakimov and R. Amirkhanov in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 25 June 1990. R. Amirkhanov was a senior research fellow at the IYaLI and an activist of the Ittifak party. 15. Vechemyaya Kazan', 1 August 1990. 16. Vechemyaya Kazan', 7 August 1990. 17. G. Kuznetsov in: Vechemiaya Kazan', 1 August 1990. 18. The DPR was a creature of N. Travkin, a maverick MP of the Russian Supreme Soviet, and some other prominent politicians unsatisfied with the loose structure of the Democratic Russia, the umbrella organisation of the democratic opposition to Gorbachev. The constituting confer• ence of the DPR was held 26-27 May 1990 in Moscow. 19. Vechemyaya Kazan', 6, 9, 29 August 1990. 20. See: R. GIBADULLIN, ref. 1, p. 7. 21. Vechemyaya Kazan', 27 July 1990. 22. See ref. 21. 23. See ref. 21. 24. See ref. 21. 25. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 30 August 1990. 26. Sovetskaya Tataria, 8 August 1990. 27. Sovetskaya Tataria, 8 August 1990. 28. Sovetskaya Tataria, 4 August 1990. 29. Sovetskaya Tataria, 4 August 1990. 30. Vechemyaya Kazan', 13 August 1990. 31. Sovetskaya Tataria, 9 August 1990. 32. Vechemyaya Kazan', 15 August 1990. 33. Vechemyaya Kazan', 15 August 1990. 34. Vechemyaya Kazan', 30 August 1990. 35. R. Safin, one of the leaders of the TOTs, in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 17 August 1990; R. Khakimov in Sovetskaya Kazan', 22 August 1990. 36. Sovetskaya Tataria, 23 August 1990. 37. Komsomolets Tatarii, 26 August 1990. 214 Notes and References

38. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 17 August 1990. 39. See: R. GIBADULLIN, ref. 1, p. 7. 40. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 18 August 1990. 41. L. Akkerman, an activist of the voters' club Initsiativa (Initiative), in: Panorama, 1990, no. 5, p. 34. 42. Vechemyaya Kazan', 30 August 1990. 43. See a declaration of 13 Councillors of the Kazan' City Soviet in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 20 August 1990. 44. A representative sample of 400 respondents from Kazan', Naberezhnye Chelny, Al'met'evsk and a rural district were polled. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 26 August 1990. 45. Sovetskaya Tataria, 26 August 1990. 46. Vechemhyaya Kazan', 29 August 1990. 47. Sovetskaya Tataria, 31 August 1990. 48. Sovetskaya Tataria, 31 August 1990. 49. Panorama, 1990, no. 10, pp. 2-3. 50. Vechemyaya Kazan', 1 September 1990. 51. M. Shamsutdinov in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 11 August 1990. 52. See: GARIPOV, Ya. Z. Sotsial'no-etnicheskaya struktura rabotnikov i mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniya na KamAZe. In: ISKHAKOV, D., ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992, p. 76.

8 The Presidential Elections of 1991 in Tatarstan: The Growing Tensions between the Authorities and the Tatar National Government 1. Sovetskaya Tataria, 31 October 1990. 2. Sovetskaya Tataria, 14 February 1991; Millet, 1991, February. 3. Some of these drafts were published in: Panorama, 1991, no. 5. 4. See: Millet, 1991, February. 5. See the Programme of the Suverenitet committee in: Panorama, 1991, no. 5. 6. The Soglasie (Accord) movement was set up in late August-September 1990. See: Komsomolets Tatarii, 26 August 1990. 7. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 24 October 1990. 8. See the proposals of the Co-ordinating Group of the Soglasie movement to the MPs and the Presidium of the TSSR Supreme Soviet in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 28 May 1991. 9. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 24 October 1990. See also the Declaration of the Soglasie movement in: Panorama, 1990, no. 12, p. 33. 10. R. Akhmetov, the chairman of the Tataria branch of the DPR, in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 25 November 1990. See also: L. Akmalova in: Panorama, 1991, no. 4, p. 3. 11. R. Akhmadeev, Kazan' district Councillor and a leader of Soglasie, in: Panorama, 1991, no. 2, p. 7. 12. See a letter by A. Vasil'ev (a Tatar) in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 6 August 1990. 13. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 12 September 1990. Notes and References 215

14. See a declaration of the KS in: Komsomolets Tatarii, 11 November 1990. 15. See F. Bairamova's speech at the congress in: Millet, 1991, April. 16. R. Safin in: Millet, May 1991; see also: Tatar He, no. 6 Oune 1991). 17. Millet, May 1991. 18. See the resolutions of the conference in Naberezhnye Chelny in: Millet, May 1991. 19. See an open letter to M. Shaimiev and R. Sabirov by A. Makhmutov and Z. Zainullin on behalf of the Suverenitet Committee and the Marjani Society respectively in: Shahri Kazan, 2 April 1991. 20. Shahri Kazan, 2 April 1991. 21. See: Shahri Kazan, 24 April, 26 April 1991; Sovetskaya Tataria, 25 April 1991. 22. Sovetskaya Tataria, 17 April 1991. 23. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 17 April 1991. 24. Sovetskaya Tataria, 20 April 1991. 25. Vechemyaya Kazan', 4 May 1991. 26. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 1 May 1991. 27. Sovetskaya Tataria, 1 May 1991. 28. Shahri Kazan, 12 May 1991; see also: Shahri Kazan, 14 May 1991. 29. See: Shahri Kazan, 12 May 1991. 30. See also an interview with M. Sabirov in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 13 May 1991. 31. See: Shahri Kazan, 2 May 1991. 32. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 11 May 1991; Sovetskaya Tataria, 2 May 1991. 33. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 5 July 1991; Shahri Kazan, 6 June 1991. 34. See: Shahri Kazan, 6 June 1991. Popularity ratings of the leaders of both the nationalists and the democrats (F. Bairamova, M. Mulyukov, R. Akhmetov) was around 4.5 and 8 per cent. 35. See also the Proposals of the Soglasie movement in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 28 May 1991. 36. Sovetskaya Tataria, 12 May 1991. 37. Vechemyaya Kazan', 18 May 1991. 38. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 13 May 1991, 29 June 1991. 39. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 21 May 1991. 40. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 May 1991. 41. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 21 May 1991. 42. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 May 1991. 43. See the interview with F. Bairamova in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 18 May 1991. See also: Vechemyaya Kazan', 28 May 1991. 44. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 May 1991. 45. Shahri Kazan, 21 May 1991. 46. Sovetskaya Tataria, 18 May 1991; Shahri Kazan, 21 May 1991. 47. Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 May 1991. 48. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 25 May 1991. 49. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 20 June 1991. 50. Sovetskaya Tataria, 29 May 1991. 51. Sovetskaya Tataria, 29 May 1991. 52. Sovetskaya Tataria, 8 June 1991. 53. I. Amirhan in: Shahri Kazan, 8 June 1991. 216 Notes and References

54. See: Shahri Kazan, 8 June 1991. 55. Shahri Kazan, 8 June 1991. 56. Vechemyaya Kazan', 6 June 1991. 57. Vechemyaya Kazan', 18 June 1991. 58. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 13 May 1991, Sovetskaya Tataria, 13 June 1991. 59. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 14 May 1991. 60. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 14 June 1991, 24 June 1991. 61. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 19 May 1991. 62. See the Statement of the academic intelligentsia of Tatarstan in: Vechemyaya Kazan', 3 July 1991. 63. Vechemyaya Kazan', 18 June 1991. 64. Vechemyaya Kazan', 18 June 1991. 65. Shahri Kazan, 18 June 1991. 66. Shahri Kazan, 20 June 1991. 67. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 6 July 1991; Vechemyaya Kazan', 8 July 1991. 68. Sovetskaya Tataria, 6 July 1991. 69. Shahri Kazan, 6 June 1991. 70. See ref. 69. 71. See ref. 69. 72. Sovetskaya Tataria, 20 June 1991. 73. Sovetskaya Tataria, 20 June 1991. 74. R. Sadykov, a member of the TOTs presidium, a former deputy leader of the Ittifak, in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 8 (19 June-3 July).

9 The Nationalists' Drive to Independence and the Victory of the Republican Establishment 1. See the address of TSSR President in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 21 August 1991. 2. Sovetskaya Tataria, 24 August 1991, Vechemyaya Kazan', 26 August 1991. 3. See R. Sadykov, a member of the TOTs presidium and former deputy leader of Ittifak in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 8 (19 June-3 July). 4. See: Izvestiya Tatarstana, 30 August 1991; Sovetskaya Tataria, 24 August 1991. 5. Vechemyaya Kazan', 26 August 1991. 6. Vechemyaya Kazan', 28 August 1991. 7. Vechemyaya Kazan', 28 August 1991. 8. See: Vechemyaya Kazan', 30 August 1991, 2 September 1991; Sovetskaya Tataria, 31 August 1991. 9. The opinion poll was conducted in Naberezhnye Chelny between 29 Au• gust and 2 September 1991. See: Kontinent, 1991, no. 33 (September). 10. Suverenitet, 1991, no. 3 (September-October). 11. See the letter by A. Makhmutov (chairman of the KS) and Z. Zainullin (president of the Marjani society) in: Suverenitet, 1991, no. 3 (September- October). 12. See ref. 11. 13. See Suverenitet, no. 3 (September-October 1991). 14. See ref. 13. 15. See an interview with R. Safin in: Shahri Kazan, 10 October 1991; see also Sovetskaya Tataria, 19 October 1991. Notes and References 217

16. See an interview with President Shaimiev in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 5 October, 1991. 17. See: Izvestiya Tatarstana, 12 October 1991. 18. See: The main principles, goals, and tasks of the Movement for Tatarstan's Democratic Reforms in: Panorama, 1991, no. 11-12, pp. 8-9. 19. See: Kontinent, 1991, no. 39 (October). 20. See: Shahri Kazan, 12 October 1991. 21. BAIRAMOVA, F. The real Tatarhood is tested in the square [in Tatar]. Shahri Kazan, 11 October 1991; quoted from the Russian translation in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 October 1991. 22. Kontinent, 1991, no. 33, September, p. 3. 23. Izvestiya Tatarstana, 19 October 1991. 24. See an interview with Vice-President V. Likhachev in: Izvestiya Tatarstana, 26 November 1991. 25. See: Izvestiya Tatarstana, 26 October 1991. 26. Tatar He, 1991, no. 11 (November). 27. Sovetskaya Tataria, 22 October 1991. 28. See: MUKHAMETSHIN, F., et. al., eds. Tatarstan na perekrestke mnenii. Problemy, tendentsii, perspektivy. Kazan': RT Supreme Soviet, 1993, p. 165. 29. See V. Mikhailov (MP) in: Izvestiya Tatarstana, 12 November 1991. 30. The decision was made in early December 1991. See: Suverenitet, 1992, nos. 2, 3. 31. See R. Mukhametdinov, a leader of the Ittifak, in: Suverenitet, 1991, no. 4 (November). 32. See the Constitution of the Tatar people in: Suverenitet, 1992, no. 2 Qanuary). 33. See: Suverenitet, 1991, no. 5 (December). 34. See M. Mulyukov in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 2 (February). 35. See: Suverenitet, 1992, no. 4 (March); ISKHAKOV, D. Neformal'nye ob"edineniya v sovremennom tatarskom obshchestve. In: D. ISKHAKOV, D., ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. Vol. 1. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992, p. 42. 36. Izvestiya TOTs, 1994, no. 1 Oanuary). 37. See: Suverenitet, 1992, no. 4 (March). 38. See: D. ISKHAKOV, ref. 35, p. 4. 39. See: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 5 (8-22 May). 40. See an interview with President Shaimiev in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 5 Oc• tober 1991. 41. See: MUKHAMETSHIN et. al., ref. 28, Chapter 1. 42. See the speech by Vice-President V. Likhachev in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 7 November 1991. 43. See a statement of the Narodovlastie and Soglasie factions in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 12 February 1992. 44. R. Sadykov (a member of the TOTs's presidium) in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 2 March. 45. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 4 March 1992. 46. See: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 3 March. 47. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 17 March 1992. 48. See: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 5 (8-22 May). 218 Notes and References

49. See 'Address to the citizens, MPs, and the president of the independent Tatarstan' by the Suverenitet movement, the TOTs, the Azatlyk, the Ittifak, the Marjani society, the Republican Party of Tatarstan, and some others in: Sovetskaya Tataria, 11 April 1992. 50. See: Suverenitet, no. 6, April 1992 51. See: D. ISKHAKOV, ref. 35, pp. 28-32. 52. See: Tatarstan, 1993, no. 5, pp. 38-42. 53. R. Gazizov in: Materialy s"ezda narodov Tatarstana. Kazan, Tatknigoizdat, 1993, p. 29. 54. Sovetskaya Tataria, 28 May 1992. 55. See the conception of the World Congress of Tatars in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 5 (8-22 May). 56. Vsemimyi Kongress Tatar (Pervyi sozyv) 19 iyunya 1992. Stenograficheskii otchet. Kazan': Tatarstan Cabinet of Ministers, 1992, p. 217. 57. See ref. 56, p. 220. 58. See: Tatarstan: Osnovy politicheskogo ustroistva i kratkaya kharakteristika economiki (Spravochnik). Moscow: Fond razvitiya parlamentarizma v Rossii, 1996, p. 10. 59. See: Sovetskaya Tataria, 14 July 1992; see also ref. 28, p. 42. 60. See: MUKHAMETSHIN et. al., ref. 28, p. 88. 61. See: MUKHAMETSHIN et. al., ref. 28, p. 42. 62. See: MUKHAMETSHIN et. al., ref. 28, p. 42. 63. See: MUKHAMETSHIN et. al., ref. 28, pp. 46-7. 64. See an interview with Z. Agliullin in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 10 (1-31 October). 65. Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 11 (November). 66. See editorial in: Izvestiya TOTs, 1992, no. 11 (November).

10 Conclusion 1. See: DROBIZHEVA, L. M., A. R. AKLAEV, V. V. KOROTEEVA, G. U. SOLDATOVA Demokratisatsiya i obrazy natsionalisma v Rossiiskoi Federatsii 1990-kh godov. Moscow: Mysl', 1996, p. 74. 2. I. Tagirov, Chairman of the VKT executive committee, in: Vsemimyi Kongress Tatar (Pervyi sozyv) 19 iyunya 1992. Stenograficheskii otchet. Kazan': Tatarstan Cabinet of Ministers, 1992, p. 165. 3. See: ISKHAKOV, D. Sovremennoe tatarskoe natsional'noe dvizhenie: pod"em i krizis. Tatarstan, 1993, no. 8, p. 30. 4. D. ISKHAKOV, ref. 3, p. 31. Glossary

ASSR - Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic political and administrative units of some of the fifteen union republics in the ex-USSR, mostly in the RSFSR.

Assotsiatsiya Medeniyat (the 'Culture' association) an association of the Tatar artistic and cultural intelligentsia founded by the TOTs in summer 1992.

Assotsiatsiya natsionaVnykh kuVturnykh obshchestv, ANKO (the Association of national and cultural societies) an organisation formed at the Con• gress of the Peoples of Tatarstan in May 1992. It was founded under the auspices of the authorities in an attempt to distract societies involved in the revival of ethnic cultures from supporting the TOTs. The president of the ANKO is A. Fokin, a lecturer at Kazan' University.

Assotsiatsiya Megarif (the 'Education' association) an association of the Tatar intelligentsia employed in the system of public education. It was founded in January 1992.

Dvizhenie demokraticheskikh reform Tatarstana, DDRT (the Movement for Tatarstan's Democratic Reforms) an organisation of the democratic ori• entation launched in the autumn of 1991 in an attempt to unite all the democratic organisations of the republic.

Initsiativnyi tsentr Narodnogo Fronta, ITsNF (the Initiative Centre of the Popular Front) a small organisation of the democratic orientation which was formed in the summer of 1988 in Kazan' in an attempt to unite all non-formal political organisations in the city. Its most important leader was R. Akhmetov.

Institut yazyka, literatury i istorii, IYaLI the Institute for Language, Litera• ture and History. IYaLI is a Kazan' research institute, one of the main institutions that studies Tatar culture. Academics of this institute were the key organisers of the TOTs and played a significant role in the Tatar national movement.

Ispolkom Vsemimogo Kongressa Tatar, VKT (the executive committee of the World Congress of Tatars) a semi-official organisation set up at the World Congress of Tatars in June 1992 as a coordinating body for promoting economic, political and cultural development of the Tatar nation. Its chairman is Indus Tagirov (Professor in history at Kazan' University, a former member of the Bureau of the Tataria Obkom).

219 220 Glossary

Klub Bulgar-al-Jadid (the 'new Bulgar' club) an organisation of the Tatar national movement which was founded in summer 1988 with the aim of reviving a Bulgar community in Tatarstan and securing its official recog• nition. The club became the centre of the Bulgar movement in the USSR. Its participants consider themselves descendants from the ancient Volga Bulgars. The leader of the club was F. Nurutdinov (a historian at a his• tory museum in Kazan').

Komitet Suverenitet, KS (The Sovereignty committee) a nationalist organisa• tion launched by the Tatar artistic intelligentsia in late 1990 with the aim of promoting the implementation of Tatarstan's sovereignty. Very soon it shifted to more radical positions than the TOTs. Its chairman was Amir Makhmutov (a poet and a lecturer at Kazan' Pedagogical Institute).

Mankurt (from Tatar man - 'brain' and kurt - 'worm') 'a man whose brain is eaten by worms', 'renegade', 'turn-coat'. A word used by the Tatar national movement to denote Russified Tatars.

Milli Mejlis (National Assembly) an umbrella organisation of the radical wing of the Tatar national movement. It was founded at an All-Tatar congress in February 1992 as a Tatar national legislature opposing the republican Supreme Soviet. Its first chairman was Talgat Abdullin (a top executive at the construction of the YelAZ automobile plant). In 1994 he was succeeded by F. Bairamova.

Mnogonatsional'noe dvizhenie Soglasie (the 'Accord' multi-ethnic movement) an important organisation of the democratic orientation which was formed in the autumn of 1990. Its leader was Vladimir Belyaev (at that time head of the department of Scientific Communism at the Kazan' Aviation Institute).

Narodovlastie a faction in Tatarstan's Supreme Soviet, the main opponent of the nationalists in the parliament. Its most prominent leaders were A. Shtanin (a lecturer at Kazan' University), V. Mikhailov (a deputy-chairman of the joint trade-union committee at the Kazan' Scientific Centre) and I. Grachev.

Obshchestvo Marjani (the Marjani society) an important organisation of the Tatar national movement. It was founded in 1988 with the goal of pro• moting the revival of Tatar history and culture (for this reason it took the name of S. Marjani, the founder of Tatar national historiography). Its chairman was Zaki Zainullin (a retired army colonel turned writer, Doc• tor of Technical Sciences).

RF the Russian Federation, Russia's official name adopted after the break• up of the USSR.

RSFSR - the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic the official name of Russia proper in the communist times. The RSFSR was one of the fifteen repub• lics of the USSR. The name was changed to Russian Federation after the fall of communism and the break-up of the USSR. Glossary 221

Soglasie (Accord) parliamentary faction, not to be confused with the Soglasie movement. The faction emerged at the October 1991 session of the Tatarstan parliament as an opposition of Russian MPs to the nationalist demand for proclaiming Tatarstan's full independence.

Soiyuz tatarskoi molodezhi Azatlyk (The Union of Tatar Youth 'Freedom') the youth wing of the TOTs. It emerged in autumn 1990 and very soon shifted to more radical positions than the TOTs.

Tatarskaya partiya natsional'noi nezavisimosti Ittifak (The Tatar Party of Na• tional Independence 'Unity') Ittifak was founded in spring 1991 as an organisation of the radical wing of the TOTs. It was created as a revival of a Tatar nationalist organisation with the same name {Ittifak) which emerged during the revolution of 1905-7. Although very small in terms of its membership, the new Ittifak acquired a high profile in the political life of Tatarstan. To a very considerable degree it was an achievement of Ittifak's leader, Fauziya Bairamova (who had been a playwright and an editor at the Tataria Publishing House, and since 1990 became a member of Tatarstan's parliament).

Tatarskii obshchestvennyi tsentr, TOTs (The Tatar Social Centre) the main organisation of the Tatar national movement which emerged in the autumn of 1988. The main ideologues of the TOTs and the whole national move• ment were Rafael' Khakimov (head of the department of Marxist-Leninist philosophy and pro-rector in charge of science at the Kazan' Institute of culture) and Damir Iskhakov (head of the Department of Ethnography at the IYaLI). The president of the TOTs was Marat Mulyukov who had been a lecturer in the history of the CPSU at Kazan' University and from 1990 he became a member of Tatarstan's parliament.

Tatarskoe otdelenie Demokraticheskoi Partii Rossii, DPR (the Democratic Party of Russia, Tataria branch) the main organisation of the democratic ori• entation in the republic in 1990-1 and the main opponent of the Tatar national movement. It was formed in summer 1990 in Kazan'; its leader was R. Akhmetov, who until then was a leader of the ITsNF. Bibliography

Books published in the West ALLWORTH, E., ed. Soviet Nationality Problems. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1971. AUSTIN, W. G. and S. WORCHEL, eds. The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Monterey (Calif.): Brooks/Cole, 1979. AZRAEL, J., ed. Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices. New York: Praeger, 1978. BEETHAM, D. The Legitimation of Power. London: Macmillan, 1991. BENNIGSEN, A. and C. LEMERCIER-QUELQUEJAY. The Evolution of the Muslim Nationalities of the USSR and Their Linguistic Problems. Oxford: Central Asian Research Centre and St. Anthony's College, 1961. BENNIGSEN, A. A. and S. E. WIMBUSH. Muslim National Communism in the Soviet Union: A Revolutionary Strategy for the Colonial World. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1979. BIALER, S. Stalin's Successors. Leadership, Stability, and Change in the Soviet Union. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1980. BIALER, S., ed. The Domestic Context of Soviet Foreign Policy. London: Croom Helm, 1981. BROMLEY, Yu. V., ed. Soviet Ethnology and Anthropology Today. The Hague: Mouton, 1974. BROWN, A., ed. Political Culture and Communist Studies. London: Macmillan, 1984. BROWN, A. and J. GRAY, eds. Political Culture and Political Change in Com• munist States. London: Macmillan, 1979. BYRNES, R. F. After Brezhnev. Sources of Soviet Conduct in the 1980s. London: Frances Pinter, 1983. CARLYLE, T. The French Revolution: A History. 2 volumes. London, 1839. COHEN, S., A. RABINOWITCH and R. SHARLET, eds. The Soviet Union Since Stalin. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1980. CRITCHLOW, J. Nationalism in Uzbekistan: A Soviet Republic's Road to Sover• eignty. Oxford: Westview Press, 1991. DAVLETSHIN, T. Soviet Tatarstan. Theory and Practice of Lenin's Nationality Policy. London: Our World Publishers, 1974. DENBER, R., ed. The Soviet Nationality Reader: The Disintegration in Context. Oxford: Westview Press, 1992. DEUTSCH, K. Nationalism and Social Communication. An Inquiry into the Foun• dations of Nationality. London: Chapman and Hall, 1953. DUNLOP, J. The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1993. DUNLOP, J. The Faces of Contemporary Russian Nationalism. Princeton (NJ): Princeton Univ. Press, 1983. ELLMAN, M. and V. KONTOROVICH, eds. The Disintegration of the Soviet Economic System. London: Routledge, 1992.

222 Bibliography 223

FIELD, M. G., ed. Social Consequences of Modernisation in Communist Socie• ties. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1976. GELLNER, E. Thought and Change. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964. GELLNER, E. Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell, 1983. GITELMAN, Z. Becoming Israelis: Political Resocialisation of Soviet and Ameri• can Immigrants. New York: Praeger, 1982. GITELMAN, Z., ed. The Politics of Nationality and the Erosion of the USSR. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. GLAZER, N. and D. P. MOYNIHAN. Beyond the Melting Pot. Cambridge (Mass.): The M.I.T. Press, 1963. GLAZER, N. and D. MOYNIHAN, eds. Ethnicity: Theory and Experience. Cam• bridge (Mass.): Harvard Univ. Press, 1975. HALL, J. and M. J. NEITZ. Culture: Sociological Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs (NJ): Prentice Hall, 1993. HECHTER, M. Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National De• velopment, 1536-1966. Berkeley (Calif.): Univ. of California Press, 1975. HOROWITZ, D. L. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley (Calif.): Univ. of Cali• fornia Press, 1985. HOSKING, G. A. The Awakening of the Soviet Union, revised edition. Lon• don: Mandarin, 1991. HOSKING, G. A., et. al. The Road to Post-Communism. London: Pinter, 1992. HROCH, M. Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985. INKELES, A. and R. BAUER. The Soviet Citizen. Daily Life in a Totalitarian Society. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Univ. Press, 1959. KAISER, R. The Geography of Nationalism in Russia and the USSR. Princeton (NJ): Princeton Univ. Press, 1994. KARKLINS, R. Ethnic Relations in the USSR: The Perspective from Below. Lon• don: Allen & Unwin, 1986. KEDOURIE, E. Nationalism. London: Hutchinson Univ. Library, 1971. LAPIDUS, G, V. ZASLAVSKY and P. GOLDMAN, eds. From Union to Com• monwealth: Nationalism and Separatism in the Soviet Republics. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992. LAPIDUS, G., ed. The New Russia. Troubled Transformation. Oxford: Westview Press, 1995. LIEVEN, A. The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence. New Haven (Conn): Yale Univ. Press, 1993. LUCKYJ, G. S. N., ed. Discordant Voices. The Non-Russian Literature 1953- 1973. Oakville (Ontario): Mosaic Press, 1975. MOTYL, A., ed. The Post-Soviet Nations. Perspectives on the Demise of the USSR. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1992. NAIRN, T. The Break-Up of Britain. Crisis and Neo-Nationalism. London: Verso, 1981. PELENSKI, J. Russia and Kazan: Conquest and Imperial Ideology (1438-1560s). The Hague: Mouton, 1974. PIPES, R. The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism 1917-1923. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Univ. Press, 1964. POTICHNYJ, P., ed. The Soviet Union, Party and Society. Cambridge: Cam• bridge Univ. Press, 1988. 224 Bibliography

RAKOWSKA-HARMSTONE, T. Russia and Nationalism in Central Asia. The Case of Tadzhikistan. London: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970. RIGBY, T. H. and F. FEHER, eds. Political Legitimation in Communist States. Oxford: Macmillan, 1982. RORLICH, A-A. The Volga Tatars. A Profile in National Resilience. Stanford (Calif.): Hoover Institution Press, 1986. ROTHSCHILD, J. Ethnopolitics. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1981. SEDAITIS, J. B. and J. BUTTERFIELD, eds. Perestroika From Below. Boulder: Westview Press, 1991. SETON-WATSON, H. Nations and States. London: Methuen, 1977. SHIBUTANI, T. and K. KWAN. Ethnic Stratification: A Comparative Approach. New York: Collier, 1968. SIMON, G. Nationalism and Policy Toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union. From Totalitarian Dictatorship to Post-Stalinist Society. Boulder: Westview Press, 1991. SMITH, A. D. Nationalism in the XX Century. New York: New York Univ. Press, 1979. SMITH, A. D. The Ethnic Revival. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981. SMITH, G, ed. The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union. London: Longman, 1991. STRONG, J., ed. The Soviet Union under Brezhnev and Kosygin. The Transition Years. New York: Van Hostrand Reinold, 1971. SUNY, R. G. The Revenge of the Past. Nationalism, Revolution, and the Col• lapse of the Soviet Union. Stanford (Calif.): Stanford Univ. Press, 1993. SZAMUELY, T. The Russian Tradition. London: Fontana Press, 1988. TAJFEL, H., ed. Differentiation between Social Groups. Studies in the Social Psy• chology of Intergroup Relations. London: Academic Press, 1978. TAJFEL, H. The Social Psychology of Minorities. London: Minority Rights Group, 1978. TAJFEL, H., ed. Social Identity and Intergroup Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1982. TOLZ, V. The USSR's Emerging Multi-Party System. New York: Praeger, 1990. TUCKER, R. C. Political Culture and Leadership in Soviet Russia. From Lenin to Gorbachev. Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1987. TURNER, J. Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorisation Theory. Ox• ford,: Blackwell, 1987. WHITE, S. Political Culture and Soviet Politics. London: Macmillan, 1979. WHITE, S. Gorbachev and After. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1992. YELTSIN, B. The Struggle for Russia. London: Harper-Collins, 1994. ZENKOVSKY, S. Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard Univ. Press, 1960.

Western periodicals Central Asian Survey Current Sociology Journal of Social Issues Slavic Review Soviet Studies Soviet Sociology Bibliography 225

Soviet and Russian books ABDULATIPOV, R. G. Priroda i paradoksy natsional'nogo 'Ya'. Moscow: Mysl', 1991. ABDULATIPOV, R. G. et. al., eds. Federativnyi dogovor: Dokumenty. Kommentarii. Moscow: Respublika, 1992. AITMATOV, Ch. Burannyi polustanok (I dol'she veka dlitsya den'). Moscow, 1981. ARUTYUNYAN, Yu. V, L. M. DROBIZHEVA and O. I. SHKARATAN, eds. Sotsialnoe i natsionalnoe. Opyt etnosotsiologicheskogo issledovaniya po materialam Tatarskoi ASSR. Moscow: Nauka, 1973. ARUTYUNYAN, Yu. V. and Yu. V. BROMLEI, eds. SotsiaVno-kuVturnyi oblik sovetskikh natsii. Po rezul'tatam etnosotsiologicheskogo issledovaniya. Mos• cow: Nauka, 1986. ARUTYUNYAN, Yu. V. and L. M. DROBIZHEVA. Mnogoobrazie kuVturnoi zhizni narodov SSSR. Moscow: Mysl', 1987. BROMLEI, Yu. V. et. al., eds. Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy v SSSR. 2nd edition. Moscow: Nauka, 1977. BROMLEI, Yu. V. et. al., eds. Etnosotsial'nye problemy goroda. Moscow: Nauka, 1986. BRUK, S. I. Narody SSSR v strane i za rubezhom (etnograficheskii ocherk). Mos• cow: Institut etnografii AN SSSR, 1991. DROBIZHEVA, L. M., ed. Konfliktnaya etnichnost' i etnicheskie konflikty. Mos• cow: Institut etnologii i antropologii RAN, 1994. Dukhovnaya kuVtura i etnicheskoe samosoznanie. In 2 volumes. Moscow: Institut etnologii i antropologii AN SSSR, 1991. EtnokuVturnoe raionirovanie tatar Srednego Povolzh'ya (opyt kompleksnogo issledovaniya). Kazan', IYaLI, 1991. GUBOGLO, M. N., ed. Etnopoliticheskaya mozaika Bashkortostana. Ocherki. Dokumenty. Khronika. In 3 volumes. Moscow: Institut etnologii i antropologii RAN, 1992. GUBOGLO, M. N. Razvitie etnodemograficheskoi situatsii v stolitsakh avtonomnykh respublik v 1959-1989 (po materialam perepisi naseleniya SSSR). Moscow: Institut etnologii i antropologii RAN, 1992. GUBOGLO, M. N. and S. M. CHERVONAYA. Krymskotatarskoe natsionalnoe dvizhenie. In 2 volumes. Moscow: Institut Etnologii i Antropologii RAN, 1992. GUZENKOVA, T. S. Mezhetnicheskaya situatsiya v Kalmykii. Moscow: Institut etnologii i antropologii RAN, 1992. IBRAGIMOV, G. G. and N. I. VOROB'EV, eds. Materialy po izucheniyu Tatarstana (Sbornik statei). 2nd issue. Kazan, 1925. ISKHAKOV, D. Tatary (populyarnyi ocherk etnicheskoi istorii i demografii). Naberezhnye Chelny: KamAZ, 1993. ISKHAKOV, D. ed. Sovremennye natsionaVnye protsessy v Respublike Tatarstan. In 2 volumes. Kazan': IYaLI, 1992; 1994. ISLAMSHINA.T. G. Vozvrashchenie utrachennogo (Dialog o natsional'nom). Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1991. IVANOV, V. N., ed. Sostoyanie mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii v RSFSR i puti ikh optimizatsii. Informatsionnye materialy. Moscow, Institut sotsial'no- politicheskikh issledovanii, 1994. 226 Bibliography

IVANOV, V. N., I. V. LADODO and A. P. KOTOV, eds. Mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniya v Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Informatsionnye materialy). Moscow: Institut sotsial'no-politicheskikh issledovanii AN SSSR, 1991. KHAKIM, R. (R. Khakimov). Sumerki imperii. K voprosu o natsii i gosudarstve. Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1993. KHUDYAKOV, M. Ocherki po istorii Kazanskogo khanstva. Moscow: Insan, 1991. KNYAZEV, S. L., N. S. GATIYATULLIN and G. P. ABRAGIEV Neft' i gaz Respubliki Tatarstan. Sbornik dokumentov, tsifr i materialov. In 3 volumes. Moscow: Nedra, 1993. Konstitutsiya Respubliki Tatarstan. Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1993. Kontseptsiya gosudarstvennoi programmy natsionaVnogo vozrozhdeniya narodov Rossiiskoi Federatsii. Moscow, RF Supreme Soviet Nationalities Council, 1992. KUL'CHIK, Yu.G. Etnopoliticheskaya situatsiya v Bashkortostane. Moscow: Fond 'Kul'turnaya initsiativa', 1992. Materialy s"ezda narodov Tatarstana. Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1993. MezhnationaVnye otnosheniya v Mordovskoi SSR. Itogi etnosotsiologicheskogo issledovaniya. In 4 volumes. Cheboksary: IzdateLstvo Chuvashskogo universiteta, 1992-1993. Mezhnatsional'nye otnosheniya v regione (Po materialam Yakutskoi ASSR). Yakutsk, 1990. MUKHAMETSHIN, F., et. al., eds. Tatarstan na perekrestke mnenii. Problemy, tendentsii, perspektivy. Kazan': RT Supreme Soviet, 1993. MUKHAMMETBERDIEV, O. B. Natsional'noe samosoznanie (sotsio-psikhologicheskii analiz). Moscow: Luch - RAU, 1992. MUSINA, R. N., ed. Sovremennye mezhnatsionalnye protsessy v TSSR (Programma issledovaniya i instrumentarii). Kazan': IYaLI, 1991. MUSTAFIN M. R. and R. G. KHUZEEV. Vse o Tatarstane (Ekonomiko- geograficheskii spravochnik). Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1992. OSTROVIDOVA, E. Yu. Transformatsiya SSSR: predposylki i perspektivy suverenizatsii byvshikh soyuznykh respublik. Moscow: Institut etnologii i antropologii RAN, 1992. PIMENOV, V. V. and L. S. KHRISTOLYUBOVA. Udmurty. Etnosotsiologicheskie ocherki. Izhevsk: Udmurtiya, 1976. Predpriyatiya i organizatsii Respubliki Tatarstan (Spravochnik rukovoditelya). Kazan': ATL-inform, 1993. SEMENOV, V. M. et. al. Mezhnatsional'nye protivorechiya i konflikty v SSSR. Moscow: Institut filosofii AN SSSR, 1991. SHKARATAN, O. I., ed. NTR i natsionaVnye protsessy. Moscow: Nauka, 1987. Sotsial'nye konflikty: ekspertiza, prognozirovanie, tekhnologii razresheniya. Vol• ume 2: Mezhnatsional'nye konflikty v posttotalitarnom obshchestve. Moscow: RAN, 1992. Sovremennoe gorodskoe naselenie Udmurtii (Obraz zhizni i etnicheskie protsessy). Ustinov (Izevsk): 1986. Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy v SSSR. Moscow: Nauka, 1977. STAROVOITOVA, G. V. Etnicheskaya gruppa v sovremennom sovetskom gorode. Sotsiologicheskie ocherki. Leningrad: Nauka, 1987. Tatary i Tatarstan. Spravochnik. Kazan': Tatknigoizdat, 1993. Bibliography 227

TISHKOV, V. A. Da izmenitsya molitva moyal 0 novykh podkhodakh v teorii i praktike mezhnatsional'nykh otnoshenii. Moscow: Institut etnografii AN SSSR, 1989. TISHKOV, V. A. Etnichnost' i vlast' v SSSR (Etnopoliticheskii analiz respublikanskikh organov vlasti). Moscow: Institut etnografii AN SSSR, 1991. VALEEV, D. NatsionaVnyi suverenitet i natsional'noe vozrozhdenie. Iz istorii bor'by bashkirskogo naroda za samoopredelenie. Ufa: Kitap, 1994. Voprosy istorii i etnografii goroda. Cheboksary: Nil YaLIiE, 1988. Vsemimyi Kongress Tatar (Pervyi sozyv) 19 iyunya 1992. Stenograficheskii otchet. Kazan': Tatarstan Cabinet of Ministers, 1992. Zakony, postanovleniya i drugie akty, prinyatye na tret'ei sessii VS SSSR 14 fevralya - 14 iyunya 1990. Moscow: USSR Supreme Soviet, 1990.

Soviet and Russian periodicals Argamak (in Russian and Tatar) Communist Tatarii (since 1992: Tatarstan) IdeV Kazan utlary (in Tatar) Kontinent (since 1991) Mir Rossii (since 1992) Novoe vremya Otchii krai Otechestvennaya istoriya Politicheskie issledovaniya (since 1991) Rossiiskii ekonomicheskii zhurnal (since 1994) Slovo Agitatora (since 1990: Panorama) Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniya Sovetskaya Etnografya Svobodnaya mysl' (since 1992) Vek XX i mir Voprosy istorii Voprosy Filosofii

Newspapers in Russian Isvestiya TOTs Izvestiya Tatarstana (since 1990) Izvestiya Komsomolets Tatarii Literaturnaya Gazeta Nauka Nezavisimost' (since 1993) Pozitsiya (since 1990) Rossiiskaya gazeta (since 1991) Rossiya (since 1991) Sovetskaya Tataria (since 1993: Respublika Tatarstan) Suverenitet (since 1991) Tatar lie (since 1991) Vechemyaya Kazan' 228 Bibliography

Newspapers in Tatar Millet (since 1990) Shahri Kazan (since 1990) Sotsialistik Tatarstan (since 1993: Vatanym Tatarstan) Tatarstan yashlere. Index

Accord Movement Aviation Institute, Kazan' 115 (Soglasie) 134, 153-4, 160, Azatlyk (Freedom) Union of 172 the Tatar Youth 134, 144, Agliullin, Z. 43, 144 146, 162, 179-80 Agryz 7 Azerbaijan 10, 73 Aitmatov, Chingiz 83 Azeris 185 Akhmetov, R. 154 Aznakaevo 7 All-Tatar Cultural-National Parliament 186 Bairamova, Fauziya 168, 172 Al'met'evsk 2-3, 7, 175 hunger strike 162-4 oil industry 17, 161 Ittifak party 133, 135-6 rallies 157, 163 on Tatars 83-4, 86, 176 Altai krai 95 Baltic republics 55, 65, 132, American literature 45-6 149 ANKO (Association of Lithuania 43, 96, 101 National-Cultural moves to independence 98, Societies) 186, 188 101, 123 Arsk 6 popular fronts 114, 122, Article 61 (Tatarstan 127 Constitution) 109 Bashkiria ASSR 10, 37, 86-8, Asia, Central 10, 25, 69, 73 95-6 Association of National- 7, 11, 69, 185 Cultural Societies Bashkortostan, Republic of 10, (ANKO) 186, 188 37, 86-7, 95-6 Astrakhan' 10, 69, 86, 88 Battal, Fanzamal 48 August Declaration (of Beetham, D. 53 Sovereignty) 156 Belorussia 96 authorities 18-19, 56-61, Belyaev, Vladimir 78 92-112, 171-90 Bialer, S. 55 opposition: and bilingualism 36-40, 42-3, democrats 130, 160, 70-1, 74, 111 192; and legal guarantees of 110, nationalists 136-9, 114, 123, 148-9 151-70, 182, 185 Bolshevik revolution 1, 23, TOTs 117-28 26, 67, 84 presidential elections 134-6, Brezhnev, Leonid Ilich 59 157-62, 168-70 Bugul'ma 2-3, 6-7 sovereignty declaration Buinsk 6-7 142-3, 146-9, 155-6, 178 Bulgars 23, 82 autonomous republics 73, Bulgar-al-Jadid 82-3, 114, 104, 120 117 demand Union republic Bulgarist theory 66-7, 69, 88 status 101, 136 state 7, 66, 68

229 230 Index

Burannyi Polustanok XIX Party Conference 113, (Aitmatov) 83 114, 117 Burbiel, Gustav 47 XXVIII Congress 102, 136, Bushnell, J. 54, 56 139 see also authorities; Carlyle, Thomas 52 nomenklatura; Obkom Catherine II 24 Crimea 87 Caucasians 43 culture, Tatar 25, 32, 44-6, Central Election 79, 81-2 Commission 166 Chechnya 109, 180 DDRT (Movement for Chelyabinsk oblast 10, 88, Democratic Reforms in 95-6 Tatars Law) 175 Chernobyl' disaster 124 Declaration of the Popular Chistopol' 6-7 Front 115 Christianisation 23-4, 68, Decree on Cooperatives 84-5 (1986) 58 church, Russian Orthodox Democratic Party of Russia, 23-4 Kazan' section see Chuvashes 6-7, 11, 19, 185 DPR language 28, 37-8 democrats 75-6, 91, 130, Civic Accord (Grazhdanskoe 136-9, 174, 188-90 soglasie) 134, 153-4, 160, authorities 147, 152, 167, 172 172 Civic Committee (of bilingualism 148-9 Tataria) 133-4, 151 coup d'etat 106 Cohen, S. 54 human vs. national Commission for Constitutional rights 76-81 Supervision 162-4, 168 Moscow 105-6 Communist Party see CPSU nationalists 127, 145, 161, communist system, 167, 177 collapse 93, 130, 171 organisations see DDRT; DPR; Congress of Tatarstan's ITsNF; Narodovlastie; Peoples 185-6, 189 Soglasie Constitution of the Republic of presidential elections 135, Tatarstan 109, 111, 124, 166, 168-70 148 rallies 144 Coordinating Council of referenda 79-81, 167-8, Tatarstan's Democratic 178, 183-5 Forces (KSDST) 139, 144 sovereignty declaration 138, Council of Ministers 120 140-1, 149-50 coup d'etat, Deutsch, K. 26 August 1991 105-7, diaspora, Tatar 110, 119, 123, 171-6, 188 187-8 CPSU (Communist Party of the reunification 68-9, 86-9, Soviet Union) 84, 115, 121 119, 154 Donbass 23 Central Committee 120, Dostoevsky, Fyodor 69 123, 125, 182 DPR (Democratic Party of Index 231

Russia, Kazan' section) 139, Europe 152-6, 167, 190 Eastern 57, 93, 130 and authorities 147, 160, influence on Tatars 25 170 executive, republican see rallies 144, 172 authorities dual citizenship 88, 111 dual membership of USSR and Federal treaty 102-3, 107, 189 RSFSR 149 authorities 109, 184 Dvizhenie Demokraticheskikh democrats 138, 140, 185 Reform Tatarstana 500 Days Programme 137-8 (DDRT) 175 folk culture 44-5 Fuks, Karl 22-3, 25 Eastern Europe 57, 93, 130 Ecology of Culture, Society for Garipov, Ya. 13-14, 18, 32 Assistance to 114 garmoshka 64 economy Georgia 96 sovereignty 74, 99-105, 110 Germans 185 Soviet 57-8, 98-9, 178 glasnost 52, 57-9 Tataria 96, 147, 178, 182-3 Golden Horde 66-9 education 24, 41, 84-5 Gorbachev, Mikhail 92, 103, ethnic groups 14, 17-19, 94 149, 173 higher 41, 94 coup d'etat 105-6, 172, 182 language 25, 73, 157 perestroika 36, 52, 57-61, reform 40, 54 132 secondary 40, 75 Union treaty 101-2, 155 elections 132-6, 151-70 Grachev, Ivan 163-4 authorities 134-6, 157-62, Grazhdanskoe soglasie (Civic 168-70 Accord) 134, 153-4, 160, Central Elections 172 Commission 163, 166 democrats 135, 158-61, 166, history, interest in 66-9 168-70 human rights 56, 111 nationalists 133, 135-6, vs. national rights 62, 159-60, 162-6, 168-70 76-81, 98 nomination campaign 162-5 hunger strike 144, 162-5 elite, ruling see authorities environmental protection 124 Ibragimov, G. G. 6 establishment imperialism, Russian 70-3 see authorities individualism 32 Estonia 96 industrialisation 1-8, 26-7, ethnic issues 55, 60 education 14, 17-19, 94 output 95-6 establishment strategy stratification 13, 15-17, 19, 110-12, 114, 120 31 status inequality 22-57, 61, inflation 98-9 66 intelligentsia 59, 61-2, 65-6, stratification 1-21, 31-3, 152 75-6, 127, 129 language debate 70-1, 114, see also nationalism 191 232 Index

perceived group masses, political 128, 152-3, inferiority 36-49, 51, 66 160, 169 religious nationalism 85 national movement 70, 85, investment 96 88: Milli Mejlis 180-1; Iskhakov, Damir 18, 88, 117, parties 114-17, 120, 124, 134 133-4, 155-6 Iskhakova, Z. 42 rallies 124, 137, 144, 146, Islam 163 education 24, 75 see also authorities Jadid traditions 25, 84-5 Kazan' Institute of and Russia 23-5, 67-9, 73, Culture 125 89 Kazan' University 115-17 see also Muslims Kemerovo oblast 10, 96 Islamshina, T. 33 KGB 174 ITsNF (The Initiative Centre of Khafizov, R. 161 the Popular Front) Khairov, Adel' 45 116-17, 127-30, 139 Khakimov, Rafael 72 rallies 124, 172 on rights 77-8, 81 Ittifak party 76, 133-4, 170, Tataria Obkom 125-6, 130 177 and TOTs 151-2 hunger strike 144, 162-5 Khamid, Rizvan 32 mankurtism 83-4 Khamzina, G. 33 Milli Mejlis 179-80 Kharis, Renat 46 policy 137, 139, 172 khozraschet 98, 100, 115, 123 Ivan the Terrible 66, 68, 176 Khrushchev, Nikita 40-1, 54, IYaLI (Institute of Language, 56 Literature and Khuzeev, R. G. 7 History) 116-17, 120 Kirgizstan 10 Kozlov, V. I. 5, 8 Jadids 25 Krasnodar krai 95-6 Bulgar-al-Jadid 82-3, 114, Krasnoyarsk krai 10, 96 117 Kryashens 26, 28-9, 85, 185 Islamic traditions 84-5 KS (Komitet Suverenitet) Jews 53, 185 151-2, 155, 165-6, 168, Justice, Ministry of 140, 143, 173-4, 179-80 174 KSDST (Coordinating Council of Tatarstans Democratic KamAZ plant 13-14, 64, 150 Forces) 139, 144 Kazakhstan 10, 69 Kazan' 64 Laishev 6 conquest of 23, 48, 66-9, language 28-9, 38-9 176 Arabic 24 democrats 130, 148, 164 Russian 25, 111, 148 see also DPR Tatar 70-1, 78-9, 120, 127, education 29, 40, 42, 191; in education 40, 115-17 121, 129, 157, 186; sole ethnic: status 22-3, 27, 40; official 78, 111, 121, 148, stratification 1-7, 13-17, 161; Turkish 25 33, 127, 129 see also bilingualism Index 233

Language, Literature and Mirasism 47-8 History, Institute of Mishars 26, 28-9 (IYaLI) 116-17, 120 modernisation 22-5 7 Lapidus, G. 57 economic 1-21 Law on Cooperatives uneven impact 30-5, 50 (1986) 58 USSR 26-7 Law on the State Enterprise Moldavia 96 (1987) 58 Mongols Lazzerini, Edward 48 conquest of Russia 64, 66-8 legitimacy, crisis of Tatars' origins 68, 82 Soviet system 52-63, 105-9, Mordvinians 6-7, 11, 28-9, 191 40 Tataria 64-91, 93-4 Moscow 71 Lenin, V. I. 55, 120 coup d'etat 171-6 Leninism 53, 56-7 economy 95-6 Leninogorsk 7 population 10, 23, 95 Liberty Square 144-6, 163-4, Moscow establishment 168, 172, 176-9 Christianisation 23-4, 68, Ligachev, Yegor Kuzmich 92 84-5 Likhachev, V. 168, 182-3 legitimacy crisis 52-63, 65, literacy 28-9 70-3 literature 45-6 presidential elections 136, Lithuania 43, 96, 101 155-7 living standards 96 reform 77, 103, 149, 188, Lowenthal, R. 55 190 Tatarstan: khozraschet 98, Makhmutov, A. 174 100-1; milk-cow 71, Mamadysh 6-7 94-7, 100, 108, 157, mankurtism 35, 83-4, 149, 192-4; public opinion 154, 196-7 137, 160, 189; Maris 6-7, 11, 19, 28, 185 sovereignty 105-9, 119, Marjani, Shigabuddin 67, 114 125, 150-5, 172-4; treaty Marjani Society 114, 117, with 178 173-4, 179-80 Yeltsin, Boris 137, 167 marriage, mixed 84 Movement for Democratic Marxism-Leninism 53, 56-7 Reforms (DDRT) 175 media see newspapers/media Mukhametdinov, R. 133 Medvedev, S. 178 Mukhametshin, F. 168, 173, Mendeleevsk 7 182 Menzelinsk 6-7 multiculturalism 194 Middle Volga region 28-9, Mulyukov, Marat 118, 121, 86-9, 117 147, 151 milk-cow of Moscow 71, 94-7, elections 128, 135-6, 168 100, 108, 157, 192-4 Musina, R. 44-5 Milli Mejlis 87, 179-82, 186-7 Muslims Ministries (TASSR) nations 24, 67, 73, 89 Education 41 organisations 117 internal affairs 173-4 see also Islam Justice 140, 143, 174 Mustafin, M. R. 5, 7 234 Index

Naberezhnye Chelny 3, 43, nine plus one statement 155 156, 181 see also Union Treaty demographics 4, 6-7, 13-14, Nizhnekamsk 3, 7, 17, 167 17, 32-3 Nizhni Novgorod oblast 10, public opinion 167, 173, 87-8, 95 176 Nogais 69, 82, 88 rallies 144, 146, 160-1, 163 nomenklatura, Party 18, 60, Nagaibaks 88 167, 184 Narodovlastie 135, 146, 154, and democrats 153, 159 176 non-formal groups 113, 124, and authorities 172-5, 179, 127-8 188 Novgorod 71 and nationalists 139, 156, Novo-Ogarevo process (Union 177, 181 Treaty) 101-2, 104-5 presidential elections and constitutions 158-9 158-61, 163-4 Tatarstan's on sovereignty 140, 150, participation 140, 155, 183 160 National Assembly 87, nuclear power debate 116, 179-82, 186-7 124-5 national guard 172, 174, 177, Nurlat 7 180 Nurutdinov, F. 82 national vs. human rights 62, 76-81, 98 Obkom 18, 118, 125, 130 nationalism 188-90 and nationalists 119, 122, authorities: against 106, 144 143-4, 147, 151-70; sovereignty declaration 123, supported 110, 136-9, 140 172-3 see also authorities ethnic issues 75-81, 83-4 oil resources 2-3, 17, 94, 161, independence 171-90 192 Milli Mejlis 87, 179-82, milk-cow for Moscow 71, 186-7 97, 137, 157 presidential elections 135-6, Orenburg oblast 10, 82, 86, 159-64, 168-70 95 rise of 47-8, 64-91, 113-31 Oriental culture 75 sovereignty 149, 174, 179, 191-2 Pamyat' 113 see also democrats; rallies Party see CPSU Native Home (Tugan Yak), Party of National Independence Society 114 see Ittifak party newspapers/media Penza oblast 10 all-Union Tatar 118 perceived group radio and TV US, 177 inferiority 36-49, 51, 66 Shahri Kazan' 153 perestroika 52-63, 97, 132 Slovo Agitatora 118 intellectual freedom 113, Sovetskaya Tataria 139 122 Vechemyaya Kazan' 115, Tatarstan 115, 147, 171 139, 144, 156, 171 Perm oblast 10 Index 235 politics see authorities; RF see Russian Federation democrats; nationalism rights, human 56, 111 Popular Front vs. national 62, 76-81, 98 Baltic republics 114, 122, 127 Rostov oblast 95 Initiative Centre see ITsNF Rothschild, J. 20 Tatarstan 114-16, 120, 128 RSFSR (Russian Soviet population Federative Socialist Russian Federation 10, 23, Republic) 77, 95 Constitution 103 Tatars 2-3, 5-7, 137 economy 4-5, 10-12, 94-6, presidential elections see 104, 146 elections presidential elections 133, Pskov 71 155, 161-7 Pushkin, Alexandr State Property Act Sergeevich 69 (1990) 103 Tatarstan: republican Quoran 24 status 154-5, 157-8, 182-4; sovereignty radio 118, 177 declaration 101-2, 136, see also newspapers/media 138, 140-1, 144, 147 rallies see also CPSU; Russian Al'met'evsk 157, 163 Federation; Russians; Kazan' 124, 137: Liberty USSR; Federal treaty; Square 144-6, 163-4, Union treaty 168, 172, 176-9 Russian Federation (RF) Naberezhnye Chelny 144, autonomous and union 146, 160-1, 163 republics 71, 101-2, referendum 109, 111 on presidential economy 95-6 elections 158-9 population 4, 10, 39, 77, on republican status 95, 194-5 (March 1992) 178, 180, see also diaspora 183-9 Russian Soviet Federative on secession 154, 167-8 Socialist Republic see RSFSR on sovereignty Russians (March 1991) 79-81, demographics 8-9, 11, 13, 105-9, 140-1, 145, 147 23, 84 reform in Tatarstan 2-3, 5-8, 33, 72 democratic 60-2, 77, 103, language 25, 28-9, 38-9, 149 111, 148 economic 188, 190 literature 45-6 education 40, 54 imperialism 23, 48, 66-73, 176 Gaidar, Egor 193 and sovereignty 81, 146, religion 153, 176, 179, 193 and nationalism 85 stratification 14-17, 69, 79, see also Christianisation; 127 church; Islam Russification 47, 51, 61, 66, republican executive see 71-4, 191 authorities see also mankurtism 236 Index

Sabirov, M. 100, 159-60, 183 Soviet system, legitimacy Safiullin, F. 168 of 52-63, 105-9, 191 Sagitova, L. 35, 47 Tataria 64-91, 93-4 St Petersburg 95 Spassk 6 Samara oblast 10, 86, 95 Starovoitova, Galina 107 Saratov oblast 10, 86, 95 State Council 175 self-determination, right status inequality 22-57, 61, of 76-81 66 Shahri Kazan' 153 Stavropol krai 95 Shaimiev, Mintimer 194 stratification elections 128, 135-6 Russians 14-17, 69, 79, 127 regains public opinion social and ethnic 1-21, 180-9 31-3, 75-6, 129 Russian coup d'etat 105-7, Supreme Soviet, Tatarstan 161, 109, 171-5 174 sovereignty 110-11, 139, parliamentary sessions 142-7, 149, 155, 178 146-8, 157-8, 168, 176-9 Tatarstan presidency 157-8, presidential elections 135-6, 160-70 161 Union treaty 104 sovereignty debate 139-40, Shakhrai, Sergei 106, 172-3 154 Shtanin, A. 140 see also authorities Siberia 3, 69, 87-8 Suumbike Tower 69 Simbirsk 86 Suverenitet Committee see KS Slovo Agitatora 118 Sverdlovsk oblast 10, 95-6 Smith, Anthony 48, 62, 110 Sviyazhsk 6 Smith, Graham 41 social structures Tagirov, I. 74, 195 differences, Russians and Tajfel, Henri 34, 36, 47, 51, Tatars 14-17 89 new cultural order 30-4 Tajikistan 10 Soglasie (Accord) Tallinn 129 Movement 134, 153-4, TASSR (Tatar Autonomous 160, 172 Soviet Socialist Soglasie faction 179, 181, 183 Republic) 1, 10, 28-9 Sovereignty Committee see KS see also Ministries sovereignty debate 94-100, Tataria see Tatarstan 110-11 Tatar-Mongol invasion 64, declarations 73-6, 132-50: 66-8 autonomous Tatars republics 101-2, 119, culture 25, 32, 44-6, 79, 123, 125, 139-42; 81-2 Ukraine 141 demographics 3-7, 9-10, 12, economic 74, 99-105, 110 44-5, 69 referendum 79-81, 105-9, see also diaspora 140-1, 145, 147 ethnic status 11, 14-17, republican status 150-6, 22-30, 34-6, 84 172-9 perceived group Sovetskaya Tataria 139 inferiority 36-49, 51, 66 Index 237

politics see authorities; Turkmenistan 10 democrats; nationalism; tyubeteika 64 sovereignty debate Tyumen oblast 10, 87 see also language Tatarstan, Republic of Udmurts 10-11, 19, 28, 37, 40 Academy of Sciences 85 see also Votyaks economy 95-6, 103-4 Ufa 86 elections 151-70 Ukraine 10, 55, 141 modernisation 1-51 Ulyanovsk oblast 10 politics see authorities; Union of Tatar Youth see democrats; nationalism Azatlyk (Freedom) Union of population see Russians, in the Tatar Youth Tatarstan; Tatars Union Republics 101-2, 104, republican ambitions 105-9, 120, 123 178, 188 Union status 73, 113, 129, see also diaspora; education; 137-8, 147, 170 elections; language; authorities and 98, 102-3, legitimacy; sovereignty 122 Tatarstan faction 179, 186 democrats and 116, 145 television 118, 177 nationalists and 119, 188 see also newspapers/media see also sovereignty; TSSR Teplokontrol' 13 Union treaty (Novo-Ogarevo Tetyushi 6-7 process) 101-2, 104-5, TOTs (Tatarskii 140, 155, 158-9 Obshchestvennyi Unity party see Ittifak party Tsentr) 117-18, 120-2, Ural mountains 23 175, 177, 190 urbanisation 4-9, 12, 14-15, and authorities 117-28, 19, 26 143-4, 147, 151-4, 172 Usmanov, G. 122, 125 Council of USSR 10, 26-7, 50 Representatives 180 break-up 99-101, 188 elections 133, 155-6, Congress of the People's 159-62, 164-6 Deputies 102, 128 and nationalists 83, 134, economy 57-9, 96, 98-9, 139, 152, 180-2 178 rallies 124, 146 Federation Council 102, 136 sovereignty debate 124, 128, Turkic Peoples, Association 133, 136-45, 180, 184 of 89 World Congress of see also Baltic republics; Tatars 186-7 Moscow establishment; TSSR (Tatar Soviet Socialist RSFSR Republic) 102, 141, 148, Uzbekistan 10 163 see also Tatarstan Vechemyaya Kazan' 115, 139, Tugan Yak (Native Home), 144, 156, 171 Society 114 Victorious Analysis 59-62, 65 Tumen oblast 95-6 VKT Executive Committee Turkey 25, 75, 90, 195-6 (Vsemimyi Kongress Turkic Peoples, Association of 89 Tatar) 187-8 238 Index

Volga 8, 11-12, 28-9, 85-9, Writers' Union of Tataria 46, 117 114 Bulgars 23, 66-7, 82 Muslims 23-4, 67 Yelabuga 6-7, 167 Tatars 64, 66-7, 70 Yeltsin, Boris 92, 99, 178, 183 Volgograd oblast 95 economic reforms 188 Vorob'ev, N. I. 6 rise to power 136-8, 149, Votyaks 6-7, 28 164, 166-7 see also Udmurts Russian coup d'etat 105-8, 171-3 White, S. 56 visits Tatarstan 102-3, women 142-6 language and literacy 28-9 Yermolaev, V. M. 6 Tatar 12, 84 World Congress of Tatars 110, Zainsk 7 183, 186-9 Zainullin, Zaki 179-80 World War Two 55 Zakiev, M. 120 Writers of Tataria, XI Congress Zaslavsky, V. 20 of 46, 122 Zelenodol'sk 2-3, 7