VYTAUTO DIDŽIOJO UNIVERSITETAS HUMANITARINIŲ MOKSLŲ FAKULTETAS ANGLŲ FILOLOGIJOS KATEDRA
Paulius Saulėnas
LIETUVIŠKOS IR ANGLIŠKOS AVIACIJOS TERMINIJOS LYGINAMOJI ANALIZĖ
Magistro baigiamasis darbas
Taikomosios anglų kalbotyros studijų programa, valstybinis kodas 621Q30002 Filologijos studijų kryptis
Vadovė doc. dr.Dalia Masaitienė ______(parašas) (data)
Apginta doc. dr. R. Eidukevičienė ______(Fakulteto dekanė) (parašas) (data)
Kaunas, 2016
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN AVIATION TERMINOLOGY
By Paulius Saulėnas
Department of English Philology Vytautas Magnus University Master of Arts Thesis Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dalia Masaitienė May 2016
43TTABLE OF CONTENTS
31T LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS31T
31T LIST OF FIGURES31T
31TSANTRAUKA31T ...... i
31TSUMMARY31T ...... ii
31T1 INTRODUCTION31T ...... 1
31T 1.1 Aim and objectives: ...... 1
31T 1.2 Data and methods ...... 2
31T 1.3 Structure of the paper ...... 2
31T2 TERMINOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE31T ...... 3
31T 2.1 Definition of terminology ...... 3
31T 2.2 History of terminology ...... 4
31T 2.3 Relation of Terminology with other disciplines ...... 8
31T2.3.1 Terminology and Morphology31T ...... 10
31T2.3.2 Terminology and Semantics31T ...... 11
31T3 CHARACTERISTICS OF TERM31T ...... 13
31T 3.1 Term and concept ...... 13
31T 3.2 Term formation ...... 14
31T4 THE HISTORY OF AVIATION AND AVIATION TERMINOLOGY31T ...... 18
31T 4.1 The history of aviation ...... 18
31T4.1.1 The history of flight31T ...... 19
31T4.1.2 The history of aviation in Lithuania31T ...... 26
31T 4.2 Specific features of aviation terminology ...... 29
31T4.2.1 Aircraft names as terms31T ...... 29
31T4.2.2 Abbreviations in aviation terminology31T ...... 30
31T5 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN AVIATION TERMS31T 31
31T 5.1 Semantic analysis of English and Lithuanian aviation terms ...... 33
31T5.1.1 The analysis of semantic field31T ...... 33
31T5.1.2 Synonymy relations of aviation terms31T ...... 37
31T5.1.2 Hyponymy relations of aviation terms31T ...... 40
31T 5.2 Morphological analysis of English and Lithuanian aviation terms...... 45
31T5.2.131T 31TAnalysis of simple terms31T ...... 47
31T5.2.231T 31TAnalysis of complex terms31T ...... 49
31T5.2.331T 31TAnalysis of terminological phrases31T ...... 52 31T5.2.4 Analysis of abbreviated terms31T ...... 52
31T6 CONCLUSIONS31T ...... 54
31TREFERENCES31T ...... 56 APPENDIX A AVIATION TERMS ACCORDING TO SEMANTIC FIELDS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
FGAT Flightpath Glossary of Aviation Terms
ELDA English-Lithuanian dictionary of aviation
OTPT Mokomasis anglų–lietuvių kalbų orlaivių techninės priežiūros terminų žodynas
CAT Civilinės aviacijos terminų žodynas
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 5.1.1 Distribution of terms into semantic fields Figure 5.1.2 Cases of complete and partial synonymy in aviation terminology Figure 5.1.3. Cases of hyponymy among the English and Lithuanian aviation terms. Figure 5.2.1 Complexity of English aviation terms Figure 5.2.2 Complexity of Lithuanian aviation terms
SANTRAUKA
Magistriniame darbe Lietuviškos ir angliškos aviacijos terminijos lyginamoji analizė, semantiniu ir morfologiniu požiūriu nagrinėjami ir lyginami aviaciniai terminai. Darbe analizuojami terminų tarpusavio semantiniai ryšiai bei morfologinė sandara. Tyrimas atliekamas remiantis kokybiniu, kiekybiniu ir lyginamuoju metodais. Norint pasiekti darbo tikslą buvo iškelti šie uždaviniai: 1) Surinkti teorinę ir istorinę medžiagą apie terminologiją bei aviaciją ir jų vystymąsi. 2) Atrinkti analizei tinkamus angliškus aviacinius terminus bei jų atitikmenis. 3) Suskirstyti terminus į semantinius laukus, remiantis Dubuc (1997) nurodytu analizės būdu ir atlikti semantinę analizę nagrinėjant sinonimijos ir hiponimijos atvejus. 4 ) atlikti morfologinę analizę, atsižvelgiant į terminų struktūrą. Semantinė angliškų ir lietuviškų terminų analizė parodė, kad lietuvių aviacijos terminologijoje trūksta daug terminų. Vis dėlto, surinkus duomenis paaiškėjo, kad semantinis laukas apibūdantis įvairias orlaivio dalis yra plačiausias tiek anglų, tiek lietuvių kalboje. Vėliau nagrinėjant sinonimijos atvejus, didelių skirtumų tarp angliškų ir lietuviškų terminų nebuvo pastebėta. Tačiau nagrinėjant hiponimijos atvejus, pastebėta, kad tarp angliškų terminų buvo rastas net 21 hiponimijos atveju, kai tarp lietuviškų terminų jų buvo tik 7. Morfologinė terminų analizė buvo atliekama remiantis Dubuc terminų skirstymu į paprastuosius ir sudėtinius terminus bei terminologines frazes. Rezultatai parodė, kad Angliškoje aviacijos terminijoje, didžiąją dalį, 59% sudaro sudėtiniai terminai, kai lietuvių kalboje jų yra 51%. Paprastieji terminai sudarė 39%, o terminologinės frazės tik 2% visų angliškų terminų. Lietuvių kalboje atitinkamai paprastųjų terminų buvo rasta 46%, o terminologinių frazių – 3%. Lyginant lietuviškų ir anglišku terminų darybos būdus didelių skirtumų neaptikta. Visgi pastebėta, kad anglų kalboje skoliniais laikomi terminai, lietuvių kalboje įvardijami kaip tarptautiniai žodžiai. Taip pat angliškoje aviacijos terminijoje yra vartojamas didelis kiekis santrumpų. Tuo tarpų lietuviškoje terminijoje jų nebuvo rasta.
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SUMMARY
Advancements in technology often require and encourage the creation of new terminology. With the rise of aviation in XXth century when new types of aircraft, equipment, computerised systems, were developed. A lot of rules and regulations also appeared and the amount of English aviation terms grown rapidly. Today, when general aviation is on the rise, there is a greater need to fill terminological gaps, clarify some concepts and remove any ambiguities in Lithuanian aviation terminology. The aim of this paper is to analyse the English and Lithuanian Aviation terminology by means of semantic and morphological analysis. Quantitative, qualitative and comparative methods are used in the analysis. In order to achieve the aim, several objectives were set: 1) to collect the English terms and their Lithuanian equivalents. 2) Group them according to the Dubuc’s classification of terms and breakdown of semantic field. 3) Perform the semantic and morphological analysis. The semantic analysis showed that there are a lot of gaps in Lithuanian terminology. Despite that, the highest amount of Lithuanian aviation terms is found in the semantic field of Aircraft Parts. Furthermore, in comparison with English aviation terminology, the amount of full and partial synonymy is quite similar as there were 5 cases of full synonymy and 3 cases of partial synonymy in English language while in Lithuanian, 4 cases of full and 2 cases of partial synonymy were found. However, there are less cases of hyponymy in Lithuanian terminology. While performing the morphological analysis, the terms were classified as simple, complex and terminological phrases. This classification showed that 59% of English terms are complex, 39% are simple and only 2% are terminological phrases while in Lithuanian terminology, there are 51% of complex, 46% of simple terms and 3% of terminological phrases. The main difference that was noticed was the fact that Lithuanian aviation terminology did not have any abbreviations while in English terminology they are quite apparent and important.
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1 INTRODUCTION
New terms usually come to language with the inventions and the progress of technology. At the beginning of the XXth century, the first powered and manned flight was performed. Later, with the development of new, flying machines aviation, equipment, rules and regulations, the aviation terminology started to appear. At first the terms were created in the leading countries of aviation such as France, Germany, The United States of America, and England. However, after restoring the Independence of Lithuania on February 16, 1990, aviation was rapidly introduced and developed in Lithuania as well. At first aviation was a kind of entertainment. Later it became an essential part of war. However, now it is the fastest and most widely used means of transport. In the last decade, with the rise of general aviation in Lithuania there is a greater demand for aviation terminology to be explained. There is also a need to fill any terminological gaps and clearly define and explain the terms to remove any ambiguities as the misuse of terminology in aviation can lead to harm.
1.1 Aim and objectives:
The aim of this paper is to analyse the English and Lithuanian Aviation terminology by means of semantic and morphological analysis. To reach this aim, the following objectives were set: • To provide the background information about the development of aviation and aviation terminology and see if and how historical circumstances could have affected the development of aviation terminology in Lithuania. • To collect the Lithuanian aviation terms from 3 aviation dictionaries which would be equivalent to the terms found in the Flightpath Glossary of Aviation Terms. • To find the etymological information for English terms provided in the Glossary of Aviation terms. • To perform a semantic analysis by categorizing the terms into semantic fields and providing analysis of meaning relations among those terms. • To classify the terms according the Dubuc’s classification presented in Terminology: A Practical Approach (1997) as simple, complex and terminological phrases • To Analyse the collected terms morphologically using Dubuc’s classification of terms • To Compare the results of morphological and semantic analysis
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1.2 Data and methods
The data for the analysis was collected from Flightpath Glossary of Aviation Terms. This glossary explains aviation terms in a clear, non-technical language as it is aimed at the learners of aviation English, both pilots and air traffic controllers and is used as a helping learning tool. It also consists of over a thousand terms; however, a lot of the terms are very general, thus only specific terms related to aircraft, flight were collected. As a result there are 551 English aviation terms present in the analysis. Lithuanian equivalent terms were collected from Civilinės aviacijos terminų žodynas, Mokomasis anglų–lietuvių kalbų orlaivių techninės priežiūros terminų žodynas and English- Lithuanian dictionary of aviation. All these dictionaries have a similar aim of helping a specific group of people (pilots, air traffic controllers, students and aviation mechanics) of understanding the aviation terminology. The methods used for the analysis are descriptive and comparative. English and Lithuanian terms are analysed by comparing the semantic features such as synonymy and hyponymy relations and by looking for similarities and differences in term formation. Quantitative analysis is also performed in order to see which semantic field is the most numerous in bot English and Lithuanian.
1.3 Structure of the paper
This thesis consists of 6 chapters. Chapter 2 and its sections 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 define terminology; provide the origins, development and ideas of different schools of terminology. Relation of terminology with other disciplines, especially with semantics and morphology is also explained. Chapter 3 of this paper characterizes the term and provides an explanation of relation between term and concept. Section 3.2 also defines the main aspects of term formation. Chapter 4 provides the historical background of aviation and compares how it developed in Lithuania and the rest of the world. Information on how other countries could have affected the aviation terminology is also provided. Section 4.2 also explains the specific features of aviation terminology such as the importance of abbreviations and the use aircraft names as terms. Chapter 5, the analytical part of the thesis is divided into two sections. Section 5.1 provides the semantic analysis of aviation terminology while in section 5.2 the same terms are analysed morphologically. Chapter 6 provides the conclusions of the research. Finally the data collected and used in the analysis can be found in APPENDIX A.
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2 TERMINOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE
The theoretical part of the MA thesis is split into two chapters. Chapter 2 provides definition of terminology based on the ideas of different researchers and briefly presents the history and development of terminology as a discipline. This chapter also looks into terminology as an interdisciplinary subject and its relation with morphology and semantics.
2.1 Definition of terminology
Before looking at the development and history of terminology it is important to know how this term is defined by different authors. The basic and simple definition can be found in various dictionaries. For example, Cambridge Dictionary Online defines terminology as the “special words or expressions used in relation to a particular subject or activity”. A slightly different definition is provided by Oxford Dictionary which explains it as “the body of terms used with a particular technical application in a subject of study, theory, profession, etc.”. The first definition focus on the single words or terms while the second one explains that terminology is a set of terms. However, only the Merriam Webster Dictionary defines terminology as “a field of study” in addition to “the technical or special terms used in a business, art, science, or special subject”. This definition provides an additional meaning of terminology as a discipline. Even though these definitions provide basic understanding about the concept of terminology, they are not comprehensive enough and require more detail. The Austrian terminologist Felbert (1984) provides three definitions of terminology:
1 TerminologyP P: Terminology science Inter- and transdisciplinary field of knowledge dealing with concepts and their representations (terms, symbols, etc.). 2 TerminologyP P: Aggregate of terms, which represent the system of concepts of an individual subject field. 3 TerminologyP P: Publication in which the system of concepts of a subject field is represented by terms. (Felbert 1984: 1)
In comparison, Valeontis and Mantzari (2006: 1) give only two meanings i.e. that of a scientific field and of a set of terms, but their definitions are more detailed: 1. the scientific field pertaining to the study of relations between concepts and their designations (terms, names and symbols) and the formulation of principles and methods governing these relations in any given subject field; and the task of collecting, processing, managing and presenting terminological data in one or more languages, as well as 2. the set of terms belonging to the special language of a specific subject field. (Valeontis and Mantzari: 2006: 1)
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Lithuanian specialists provide similar explanations of terminology. According to Gaivenis (2002: 15), terminology in the standard language can has several meanings including the theory of terminological research and a set of terms of the specific subject field. In addition, Šalkauskis (1991: 10) claims that in the Lithuanian language it is possible to use two different words for these two separate meanings: Terminology (terminologija) as a scientific discipline and terminology (terminija) as a set of terms used in a specific science or art discipline. The last definition of terminology in this section is given by Dubuc. First Dubuc (1997: 3) explains that “Terminology originally referred to the technical terms and expressions used in an art, science or a specialized subject”. This meaning is very similar to previously mentioned defintions by other authors. Dubuc then adds that “Terminology later took on a broader meaning to refer to the investigation of such special or technical terms”. (ibid.). Finally Dubuc defines terminology as a discipline while presenting the basic methods used in terminological work: term identification, contextual analysis, term creation, and standardization:
“Terminology can be defined as a discipline aimed at systematically identifying specialized terms in context in which they are used, analysing the concepts they represent in that context, and creating and standardizing terms if need be, to meet the user’s need for means of expression (Dubuc, 1997: 4)
These definitions show that different authors put focus on different aspects when defining terminology. It can be also noted that Lithuanian language has two different words for terminology to describe it as a discipline and as a set of terms. Some differences can be noticed between Felbert and Dubuc definitions as Felbert treats terminology as a science while Dubuc looks at it as a discipline or a practice. This leads to another section which looks into the terminology, and its development.
2.2 History of terminology
Sharing information is a key element of human communication and that is especially evident in various sciences where people exchange specific knowledge as “any human activity and any field of knowledge is endowed with a large number of concepts” (Felbert 194: 2-3). For a successful communication there is a need of a uniform way to describe those concepts. This is confirmed by Picht (2011: 7) who claims that “the need for terminology has existed for as long as we are able to find evidence of professional communication.” th However, according to Cabre (1998: 1), terminology mainly developed since the 18P P century with the rise of research and the need of terms in various natural sciences such as chemistry by Lavoisier and Berthollet or in botany and zoology by Linne who began to show interest in 4 naming the scientific concepts. Because of that “in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists were the leaders in terminology.” (Sageder 2010: 124). However their main concern was a too rapid increase of terms as “they were worried about the diversity of forms and the relationships between forms and th concepts.” (ibid.) In the 19P P century the internationalization of science was growing, thus the scientists needed “to have at their disposal a set of rules for formulating terms for their respective disciplines became apparent” (Cabre 1998: 1). This means that the scientists of the same field and often in multilingual communication needed a way to form the terms in a standardized way. Further development of modern terminology is divided into four periods by Auger (1988) (cited in Cabre (1998: 5-6). The first period can be called origins and it lasted since 1930 to th 1960. The 20P P century began with the rapid progress and the development of technology which further increased the need of terminology and standardization of the terms. To no surprise, “the engineers and technicians became involved” (Sageder 2010:124). This led to the terminological work in certain specialized fields and finally in 1930s “terminology, as we understand it today, first began to take shape” (ibid.). According to Picht (2001: 9) “The Austrian Eugen Wüster, the Latvian Ernst Drezen and the Russian Dmitrij Lotte are considered to be the spiritual fathers of modern terminology. All three were engineers who recognised the deficits of professional communication”. The work of Eugen Wüster was very important for the modern terminology as in his doctoral dissertation in 1930, “he presented arguments for systematizing working methods in terminology, established a number of principles for working with terms and outlined the main points of a methodology for processing terminological data.” (Sageder 2010: 124). Cabre also explains that “Wüster was particularly concerned with methodology and standards as opposed to theory, since he considered terminology a tool that should be used as effectively as possible to eliminate ambiguity from scientific and technical communication” (Cabre 1998: 5). Nevertheless, according to Gaivenis (2002: 110), Wüster was one of the pioneers of the terminology as a separate linguistic branch. This contradicts with Cabre as she claims that “during the first half of the 20th century neither linguists nor social scientists paid special attention to terminology; only from the 1950s onwards did they begin to show any interest and even then it was just in passing.” (Cabre 1998: 2). The second stage of the development of terminology is stated to be between 1960 and 1975 when “the the most important innovations in terminology came from the development of mainframe computers and documentation techniques.” (Cabre 1998: 6). It is also noted that at this time the first databanks appeared, and the international coordination of principles of terminology processing was initiated (ibid.). Furthermore, in 1960s and in 1970s “the need for professional LSP [language for special purposes] translators and other language mediators became more and more obvious and led to the establishment of LSP studies” (Picht 2011: 11). During this period of time the need for terminologies of various fields was more evident, because “no LSP (language for
5 special purposes) can be taught or learned without professional knowledge – knowledge about the concepts and the terms.(Picht 2011: 9) Cabre (1998: 6) follows with the third stage which continued from 1975 to 1985, when there was an increase of language planning and terminology projects. Sometimes this period is also called “the boom of terminology” (ibid.) as the modernization of the language became more apparent. Technological advancements such as the spread of personal computers changed the ways how the terminological data was processed. The most recent period of the terminology development began in 1985 and is still continues to this day. Cabre identifies several recent issues. For example in this period “computer science is one of the most important forces behind changes in terminology” (ibid.). This means that terminologists can use better tools which are “adapted to their needs, more user-friendly and more effective” (ibid.). She also points out that the new market of language industries has also emerged which broadened the international cooperation. The international networks which link agencies and countries have been created and that helps in sharing information and with the international cooperation in training terminologists. “Finally, the model of terminology linked to language planning, which is so necessary for developing countries, is being consolidated at this time” (ibid.). th Sageder also states that at the second half of the 20P P century (which includes the third and fourth development stages) the scientific advances and technological development “resulted in the most important innovations in the field of terminology. At that time, data-banks first appeared, and the initial approaches were made to standardize terminology within a language” (2010: 125) Terminology progressed not only in Europe, but in the rest of the world as well. As the previously mentioned development stages of terminology mainly applies to the Western schools of terminology it is important to look how the Soviet or Russian school developed. Lejchik (1999) (cited in Leitchik and Shelov 2003: 82-83) also describe four main time periods of terminology. However they do not entirely match with the terminology development stages mentioned above. The first period mentioned by this researcher and called “preparatory period” (ibid.) lasted since 1780 when the first Russian terminology dictionary was released, until 1920. It is also mentioned that at this time the first steps were taken in selecting and processing the terms and their definitions related to special concepts. This set the base for the next period (1930s - 1960s). During this time, the theory of terminology was created and the experts such as Lotte and Drezen did a lot of work with standardization and internationalisation of terminology. Significant contribution was made to the development of terminological theory by such linguists as “A.A. Reformatsky [Reformatsky 1959; Vinokur 1939] and G.O. Vinokur, whose works in this field have exercised a decisive influence of linguistics on the development of Russian terminology science” (Leitchik and Shelov 2003: 82).
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During the period between 1970 and 1990, the main achievement was that terminology became an independent discipline as theoreticians and practicians in terminology working together with linguists and specialists defined subject and objectives of terminology science. “Terminological activity at the state and the industrial level intensifie[d], giving primary attention to techniques of developing normalised terminology” (Leitchik and Shelov 2003: 83). Thus, a lot of terminological dictionaries of the specialized subjects were published. The last time period started in 1990 which is slightly later than in the Western countries. Due to historical reasons such as the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the changes in social life the “decline of scientific research in the sphere of terminology studies” (ibid. ) can be noticed. However, “then, it is followed by gradual renewal.” (ibid.) By comparing the development stages of the Western Countries and Russia, it is possible to see that the origins of terminology might have appeared earlier in Russia, but during the period of 1930 -1960 the terminological work advanced rapidly in both of those terminological schools with such researchers as Wüster, Drezen and Lotte. However the work and the development of terminology slowed down and did not developed as rapidly after the 1985-1990. While discussing the history of Terminology, it is important to mention how it developed in Lithuania. Keinys (2005: 225) claims that the development of Lithuanian terminology began at XVI century with the need of specialised terms during the spread of Christianity. In the XIXth century, a lot of scientific works were translated into Lithuanian and there was a need of specialized terms. The first known Lithuanian researcher who undertook the work of terminology was priest Jurgis Ambraziejus Pabrėža (1771-1849) who published the dictionary of botany terms. th However, the rapid development of Lithuanian terminology began at the beginning of the 20P P century, after the declaration of Lithuanian independence in 1918. During the interwar period at around 1927-1935 Šalkauskis published his theory of Terminology which, according to Keinys (ibid. )by quality and ideas was comparable with the works of Wüster and Lotte. Gaivenis (2002: 110) gives two main reasons why Šalkauskis work is not as well- known as the Western or Russian publications. Firstly, his work was published only in Lithuanian language. Secondly, during the first years of Soviet Occupation, his works were censored because of ideological reasons. After the Second World War, Lithuanian terminological work was mainly influenced by Russian terminologists such as Lotte, Acmanova and Danilenko (ibid.). After the restoration of the Independence of Lithuania, the development of the terminology was on the rise again as a lot of terms had to be renewed or replaced. The advancements of various scientific and technological fields also influenced the need of terms. Previously, while describing the development of terminology, schools of Terminology were mentioned. However, they were not described in detail. According to Gaivenis (2002: 1090
7 two main terminological schools can be identified: Austrian and Russian. However, Temmerman (2000: 18) adds one additional Prague school of Terminology to the list. Before looking at these schools in more detail it is important to understand by what principles the ‘scientific school’ is defined. Feleber (1984) and Lauren & Picht (cited in Temmerman 2000: 18) explain that ‘scientific school’ must have collective theoretical principles, deal with similar research subjects and have fundamentally common research strategies. According to Temmerman (2000: 19) all three schools of Terminology has the concept as the starting point of terminological analysis. However Wüster, the representative of Vienna school claims that concept can exists without language. Quite differently Prague and Soviet schools “view that the term is the totality of content (concept) and form (name)” (ibid.) These two schools “also follow Saussure in considering the term as a linguistic sign. Wüster wants a clear divide between concepts and terms.” (ibid.) However, one of the main differences is the fact that researchers see Terminology differently. On the one hand there are those who treat Terminology as “absolutely independent discipline” (Picht 2011: 13) or “are of the opinion that terminology has the status of a separate scientific discipline with its own theory” (Sageder 2010: 126) which also “owes much to the other subject fields, from which it borrows fundamental concepts” (ibid.) . According to Sageder such opinion is held by such researchers as Helmut Felber, Christer Laurén and Heribert Picht, Maria Cabré, Kyo Kageura, Johan Myking. On the other hand, researshers such as Juan Sager, Robert Dubuc, Bruno Besse, Blaise Nkwenti-Azeh, see Terminology as “linguistic discipline belonging to applied linguistics” (Picht 2011: 13). Gaivenis (2002:19) similarly claims that Terminology is a branch of Lexicology. They also see Terminology as a “practice, or the process of compiling, describing, processing and presenting the terms of special subject fields with the aim of optimizing communication among specialists and professionals concerned with the standardization of language.” (Sageder 2010: 126). Even if there is a disagreement “among researchers as to whether or not terminology is an autonomous academic field (cf. Cabré [1999]) or rather a set of methodological tools for processing terminological data (cf. Sager [2000], Dubuc [1985]), its interdisciplinary character is recognized by all.” (Valeontis and Mantzari 2006: 1). Because most of the researchers agree that Terminology is an interdisciplinary subject, the following section looks into Terminology relation with other disciplines at a greater detail.
2.3 Relation of Terminology with other disciplines
The previously mentioned idea that Terminology is an interdisciplinary subject is further confirmed by Picht as he states that “Terminology is not an isolated phenomenon which can be researched and 8 practiced without close contact with other fields of knowledge. Terminology is a trans- and interdisciplinary field”( 2011: 6). According to Dubuc (1997:1), Terminology has borrowed from other, older fields, particularly semantics, lexicology and lexicography. Sager (1990: 4) slightly expands this list and adds that terminology borrows from philosophy, psychology as well:
The concepts and methods terminology genuinely borrows from other subject fields and disciplines are of a rather general nature. From philosophy and epistemology it has taken theories about the structure of knowledge, concept formation, the nature of definitions, etc.; from psychology it has borrowed theories of perception, understanding and communication, etc.; from linguistics it has borrowed theories about the lexicon and its structure and formation; with lexicography, finally, it shares methods of structuring and describing words as well as experience about the presentation of information about words. (Sager 1990: 4)
Valeontis and Mantzari (2006: 1-2) further adds that Terminology uses the fundamental instruments of other disciplines such as logic, ontology, linguistics, information science and others. This opinion is very similar to the one expressed by Gaivenis (2002: 19) as he claims that Terminology is mostly based on the specific subject, linguistics and logic. Terminology can appear very similar to lexicography as both disciplines deal with words. However, the goal of terminology is quite different as “The terminologist is concerned with finding the term that represents a given concept while the lexicographer is concerned about the meaning of the word”.(Dubuc 1997: 3). Terminology “encodes concepts, i.e. identifies their name, whereas lexicography decodes words, i.e. explains their meaning” (ibid.) Terminology also very similar to semantics because it deals with the meaning of the word or in this case the term. However, “semanticist is interested primarily in discovering how a particular sign (word) came to be associated with a specific referent (thing)” (Dubuc 1997: 23) and to learn why objects are named the way they are named. On the contrary, there is a different approach to the linguistic sign as “the sign is viewed as a means of communication; as a result, all terminological inquiry begins by investigating the context in which a given sign is used, rather than by studying its etymology” (Dubuc 1997: 25) Valeontis and Mantzari ( 2006: 2) also explain that terminology relation with other disciplines results from the multi-dimensional character of terminological units such as linguistics entities in linguistics, concept entities in ontology, cognitive sciences and communicative units in scientific and technical discourse. Consequently, the theory of terminology is defined with relation to three different dimensions by Sager (1990: 13): 1. the cognitive dimension, which examines the concept relations and thereby how the concepts constitute structured sets of knowledge units or concept systems in every
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area of human knowledge, as well as the representation of concepts by definitions and terms, 2. the linguistic dimension, which examines existing linguistic forms as well as potential linguistic forms that can be created in order to name new concepts, and 3. the communicative dimension, which examines the use of terms as a means of transferring knowledge to different categories of recipients in a variety of communicative situations and covers the activities of compilation, processing and dissemination of terminological data in the form of specialized dictionaries, glossaries or terminological databases, etc. (Sager 1990:13)
This also explains how, according to Cabre “terms can be described in three ways: linguistically, cognitively, and with respect to communication” (1998: 39). However, for this thesis the main focus is on the cognitive and linguistic dimensions.
2.3.1 Terminology and Morphology
According to Aronoff and Fudeman (2011: 1) Morphology is the study of form or forms and in linguistics it refers to a mental system involved in word formation or a branch which deals with words, their internal structure and how they are formed. This is closely related to terminology as terminology deals with the creation of new terms or words, “that designates a concept specific to a subject field and the corresponding object in the world” (Dubuc 1997: 38) In morphology, the smallest and the most basic unit “that has grammatical function or meaning (Delahunty and Garvey 2010: 122) is called morpheme. All of the words can be split into morphemes. According to Delahunty and Garvey (ibid.) they can be free or bound. Free morphemes occur on its own as words and does not have other morphemes attached to it. Bound morphemes cannot occur as separated words and must have another morpheme attached to it. In The Cambridge Grammar of English Language this is explained through the two main morphological categories “that figure in the structure of words” (Huddleston and Pullum 2012: 1624): bases and affixes. By nature bases are free while affixes are bound. For example such bases as trap or child can be used as the separate words. However, affixes such as: en-, -ish, -ly etc. can only be attached to base words. Affixes can be further categorized as prefixes which go in front of the base (like en- in a word entrap) and suffixes which follow the base. Affixes belong to inflectional morphology which “alter the form of a word in order to indicate certain grammatical properties” (Delahunty and Garvey 2010: 126) However, to form new words other processes of word formation must be used such as: derivation, compounding, coining, blending, and borrowing. These processes are going to be explained in more detail in the 3.1 section which deals with term formation. Huddleston and Pullum 2012: 1624 also separate words according to their structure into complex words which is analysable into a sequence of smaller units and simple words, for
10 example: trap [simple word], mouse-trap [complex word] (The Cambridge Grammar of the English language 2012: 1624) This is similar to Dubuc classification of terms as from the morphological point of view, terms can be separated into three main groups: simple terms, complex terms, and terminological phrases. Simple terms are “one-word units which can be different parts of speech. Each represents a single concept in a subject field” (Dubuc 1997: 5). In other words, it is a stem (smallest grammatical unit) with or without affixes. Simple terms also can “contain more than one morpheme” (Dubuc 1997: 38).E.g. commentator. This word, contains “the stem comment and the suffix –ator”(ibid.). Differently from simple terms, complex terms are made out of two or more words and have a grammatical relationship. Removal of a single word of the complex term changes the meaning of the whole unit and the concept it represents. This type of term also can be made of different parts of speech, e.g. “Captive audience (adj. +n. = n.), ultra wide-angle lens (adv. +adj. +n. +n. = n.) (ibid.). Similarly to simple terms, the complex term represents only one concept. The third type of term is terminological phrase. “Phrases are characteristic means of expression used in a special language. They are made up of a group of words and have higher syntactic function than simple or complex terms” (Dubuc 1997: 39). Dubuc also provide several examples of terminological phrases: “Request for copyright clearance (nominal phrase), to pre-empt a program (infinitive phrase), filmed on location (participial phrase) and on the air (prepositional phrase)”. Phrases represent a simple concept just like simple and complex terms.
2.3.2 Terminology and Semantics
Term structure is not the only thing that is important for terms and their formation. As it was mentioned previously, Semantics plays a significant role in terminological analysis as “Terminology is based on semantics, and terms are units that relate language to the real world and represent objects in the real world. Specialists use terms to express themselves and exchange thoughts and organize the structure of their disciplines” (Cabre 1998: 39). Dubuc also states that “Terminology has been variously described as technical lexicography or as semantics applied to technical language” (1997: 23). This shows the importance of semantics in terminology. Dubuc (1997: 23) also identify two main approaches of semantics: historical or diachronic and descriptive or synchronic. The first approach mainly looks at the historical connection between the object and the word and tries to find the answer why a thing got a particular name. Thus the etymological information is very important. The other approach is descriptive and the meanings are viewed as systems. Dubuc adds that “One meaning can have several signs (synonymy); and one sign can have several meanings, the dates of which are irrelevant because the old and new meanings survive side by side
11 in the form of polysemy.” (1998: 24). Thus it can be said that researchers of Semantics studies “all the different meanings that have evolved over time or that coexist for a given word, while the terminologist seek to associate a number of semantic features with a given label in a given subject field.” (Dubuc 1998: 27). Geeraerts also look into the importance of the semantic relations in terminology and states that “Words, in fact, do not exist in isolation, but they are related to each other in various ways: they may be synonyms, or they may have opposite meanings, or they may simply be related by the fact that they belong to the same conceptual domain” (Geeraerts 2003: 83). The importance of synonymy and polysemy is also expressed by Dubuc, who states that “recording synonyms and cases of polysemy within a specific field is an essential part of terminological work” (1997: 27). Thus this synonymy, polysemy and hyponymy relation in aviation context and different semantic fields is also going to be analysed in the practical part of this thesis. Another purpose of “studying terms that belong to the same semantic field is to draw distinctions between concepts that, being related, are often confused” (ibid.) Therefore it is important to identify all the distinctive features of the each term in a specific semantic field. Because of previously mentioned reasons it is also important to look at sense relations such as synonymy, hyponymy and polysemy in a greater detail. According to Jackson (2000: 93) the term synonymy refers “the relationship of ‘sameness of meaning’ that may hold between two words. Shiyab (2007) explains this term in a greater detail and claims that synonymy “occurs when two or more linguistic forms are used to substitute one another in any context in which their common meaning is not affected denotatively or connotatively” (2007). He also identifies three main types of synonymy: Complete (full) synonymy, Near (partial) Synonymy and No Synonymy. This classification is similar to Jackons as he states that there can be strict synonymy (comparable to Complete (full) synonymy) where two synonyms would be interchangeable in all their possible context of use and carry identical meaning. Another category is loose synonymy (Near (partial) Synonymy by Shiyab) which appears when two synonyms share the same or similar meaning but cannot substitute each other in all possible contexts. Dubuc (1997: 121) distinguishes three types of synonyms:
Real synonyms, which represent the same concept and can be used interchangeably Quasi-synonyms, which represent the same concept but are used differently Pseudo-synonyms, which belong in the same semantic field and thus share certain semantic features but are differentiated by their specific characteristics (Dubuc 1997: 121)
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These examples show that different researchers understand synonymy similarly even if they use different words to define it. Hyponymy is another sense relation which defines the hierarchical order of words and can be explained as a “kind of” as defined by Jackosn (200: 101-102). It should not however be mistake with meronymy which is a “part of” relation. Jackson also provides and example to illustrate this difference. According to him “in the case of tree and oak, the relation is a ‘kind of’ relation: an oak is a kind of tree. In the case of foot and toe, the relation is a ‘part of’ relation: a toe is a part of foot” (ibid.) In order to provide a comprehensive terminological analysis it is important to look at his kind of relation and find the possible hyponyms. The last important semantic relation is polysemy which refers to a situation when a single word or sign has two or more different meanings. In a regular language polysemy can be treated as “an essential condition for its efficiency” (Jackson 2000: 61) as words can have different meanings in different contexts. However, when dealing with terminology of a specific field such as aviation such phenomena can be even dangerous.
3 CHARACTERISTICS OF TERM
Chapter 3 continues the theoretical part of the thesis, but concentrates on characterizing the term. At first the difference between a regular word and a term is discussed as well as the relation between a term and a concept. Then the term formation is explained in a greater detail. Finally the theoretical material about the semantic classification of terms is provided.
3.1 Term and concept
This section looks at the difference between a regular word and a term as well as the relation between the term and the concept. There is also a discussion about the creation of the new terms. The basic definition of a word given by Cambridge Dictionary Online says that it is a single distinct unit of language that has meaning and can be spoken or written. Differently from a word, term is described as a word (or a word collocation) naming a special concept and requiring its definition” (Danilenko 1977: 15) cited in Leitchik and Shelov ( 2003: 84). Felbert (1984: 1) explains term as “any conventional symbol representing a concept defined in a subject field”. Šalkauskis (1991: 15) defines term very similarly to Felbert , however he expresses the need for term to belong in a scientific subject. Gaivenis (2002: 14) also adds that term cannot be identified as a type of word as term can consist of several words of even a phrase. However, the most comprehensive definition of term is provided by Dubuc, who defines it as “a word or expression
13 that designates a concept specific to a subject field and the corresponding object in a world” (Dubuc 1997: 38). Gaivenis (ibid.) also states that terms cannot be separated from their definitions as they have a distinctive meaning in a specific subject field which might be different in another context.
3.2 Term formation
According to Valeontis and Mantzari 2006: 3) term formation is usually influenced by the subject field in which it is carried out, by the nature of the persons involved in the process of designation, by the stimulus causing the term formation, and of course, by the phonological, morphosyntactical and lexical structures of the language in which the new concept finds its linguistic expression. Most th of the terms in 20P P century were created because of the rapid development of technology and advancements in science. It was also mostly by the specialists of the field. According to Sager (1990: 80), two types of term formation can be distinguished in relation to pragmatic circumstances of their creation: primary term formation and secondary term formation. Primary term formation happens when “there is no pre-existing linguistic entry” (Valeontis and Mantzari 2006: 4) while with the secondary term formation “there is always an already existing term, which is the term of the source language, and which can serve as basis for secondary formation” (ibid.) It is also explained that primary formation is often spontaneous while the secondary formation is planned. Keinys (2005: 243) identify three main term formation methods: 1) the creation of new terms; 2) the use of existing forms; and 3) translingual borrowing. Valeontis and Mantzari (2006: 5-8) also provide the same methods but with an exhaustive explanation: 1. Creation of new forms means that the lexical forms did not exist before. These new terms can be created using the following methods: a) Derivation, which is the formation of a new term by adding one or more affixes to a root or to a word, for example: co- + education- + al = co- educational, de- + toxi(n) + fi + -cation = detoxification b) Compounding, is the process when new forms are created by combining the existing lexical units. There are three types of compounds: complex terms, which can be joined by hyphen (e.g. composer-conductor, high-definition television), by fusion (downsizing, outflow, or there is no visible indication of joining them (member country, information highway). Blends can be formed when the beginning of one word is added to the other; when the beginnings of two words are combined; when two words are blended around a common
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sequence of sounds; and when multiple sounds of two words are blended together. c) Abbreviated Forms help in creating more concise forms, especially for frequently used terms. However, they can make the identification of the longer abbreviated terms more difficult. There are several ways how abbreviations can be created. The first one the creation of a short form when the term uses less word than the original complex term. (e.g. full form: Court of Justice of the European Communities; short form: Court). The next one is abbreviation which is created by omitting words or parts of the words of which a term consists (eg. page is abbreviated by letter p.). A clipped term is formed by truncating the front, middle or back portion of a single-word term, (e.g. full form: parachute, influenza, prefabricated house clipped form: chute, flu, prefab). Initialisms are formed from the first letters of each of the elements of a complex term or name. They are always pronounced letter by letter eg. United Nations initialism is U.N.) Very similar to Initialism is Acronym, but in this case they are pronounced syllabically just like regular words (e.g. full form: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation acronym: laser)
2. The use of existing forms a) Conversion happens when one morphological form is used as another, , e.g. when an adjective is used as a noun or a noun as a verb, e.g. b) Terminologizationis a process when a word or phrase from general language is transformed into a term designating a concept in a special language, e.g circuit general language : a line enclosing a surface electrotechnology : an arrangement
〈of devices or media〉 through which electric current〈 can flow 〉 c) Transdisciplinary borrowing also known as internal borrowing refers to situations when a term from one specific subject field is used in another in order to represent a different concept. Usually both concepts in both subject fields are comparable and analogous, d) Semantic transfer within a special language is the process by which an existing term in a special language is used in order to designate a different concept, by an analogous extension. 2 modes of semantic transfer can be identified. The first one is Simile which is a designation of a concept by analogy with a different more well-known or familiar concept, e.g. L-shaped room, a rock-like substance. In English, simile is usually expressed by means of suffixes such as -like, -style, -
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type etc. The second one is Synecdoche which is said to be most productive technique of utilizing existing forms. It can be described as mode when the whole is used for the part , and vice versa, the material for the object and vice versa, the building for the people who are in it
3. Translingual borrowing means that the terms which exist in one language is introduced into another language by such means as: a) Direct borrowing refers to the full adoption of terms from contemporary languages during the process of secondary term formation. Some loans of this type of borrowing prove successful and are fully incorporated into a foreign language. e.g. English: reservoir (from French), diameter, spiral (from Ancient Greek) b) Loan translation The morphological elements of a term or whole words from the source language are translated literally (“word for word”) in order to form a new term in the target language (Valeontis and Mantzari 2006: 5-9) Similarly Dubuc suggests four term formation methods such as: Semantic change, Morphological change, Conversion and Borrowing. Semantic change “alters the meaning of an established word, but not its morphological or grammatical class.” (Dubuc 1997: 135). It can be done through adoption, expansion, metaphor, eponymy and metonymy. Adoption gives the word a new specific meaning, which is still within established general meaning. “Adoption often accounts for terms that have been borrowed from one subject field by another or from general language” (ibid.). This means that some terms from military can be used in business or general terms used in computer science. The next method, expansion, broadens the meaning of the word, adding new meaning which can little relate to established meaning. Metaphor “is a process by which a word is given a new meaning by analogy with its established meaning” (ibid.). Usually metaphors use names of animals, insects or body parts, e.g. “Crane –a machine for raising and lowering heavy weights”(Dubuc, 1997: 136). The next method, eponymy is used to widen the proper name into a common noun. It is usually done with the last names of the researchers and inventors, such as “watt, unit of electrical power is named after James Watt, Scottish inventor” (ibid.). The last semantic change method is Metonymy, which means the “use of the name of one thing for something with which it is closely associated” (ibid.). Dubuc provides three main types of metonymy: a) The part for the whole or the whole for the part. E.g. voice, the essential attribute of singers can designate singers themselves; b) Concrete to abstract or abstract to concrete, e.g. technology- process of achieving a practical purpose represents the actual equipment produced by this process.; c)The material for the object e.g. glassis used to indicate a vessel for water or other drink made of glass.
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Morphological change “alters the form of an established word and, in certain cases, its meaning and grammatical class” (Dubuc 1998: 137). This process includes clipping and composition. Clipping usually shortens the form of an established term, but does not change the meaning or grammatical class. Thus it makes the language more compact. E.g. lab for laboratory. The composition however is a much broader process as it includes affixation, compounding, combining, blending, acronymy and initializing. Affixation and Derivation adds prefix or suffix to the stem to form a new term. “There are two types of prefixes- free and bound” (Dubuc 1998: 138). Free prefixes are words themselves and are grammatically independent while bound forms are grammatically dependent and cannot appear separated from the stem of the word. Free forms usually are function words- adverbs and prepositions and can change (but not always) the meaning when connected to the stem. According to Dubuc (1998: 138-139) bound forms are mostly of Latin and Greek origin and can be categorized as: Negative, privative or reversative (e.g. a-, contta-, de-, non-, un-); temporal or sequential (e.g. ante-, pre-, post-, re-);Numeral (uni-, bi-, demi-, hemi-); locative (e.g. inter-, sub-, supra-, super-) and degree or size (e.g. hyper-, super-, sur-, ultra-). Suffixes are much more productive than prefixes and can alter not only the meaning, but also the grammatical class of the word when attached to the stem. Suffixes can show: Action or process (e.g. –ation, -fy, -ing, -ment); quality or state (e.g. –ance, -ancy, -ency, -ence, -ment); agent (e.g. –er, -or, -ant, -ist); instrument (e.g. – ive)andcollectivity (-age, -ery, - ing) “Compounding joins two or more established words into a new terminological unit without otherwise altering their form” (Dubuc 1998: 140). Compounds can be made out of two or more words “in which the nucleus is determined by the modifier or modifiers. The relationship between nucleus and modifiers can be one of subordination (radio station), coordination (bait-and-switch), juxtaposition (blue-green) or disjunction (on/off)” (ibid.). There can be compound nouns, compound verbs, compound adjectives and phrasal compounds. Other method, “combining is the formation of words by joining those bound morphemes that Webster’s Third calls combining forms, which are usually Greek or Latin, to other combining forms or words” (Dubuc 1998: 141-142) (E.g. Greek form penta- combined with Greek form ode creates a term pentode) The following method, blending is rather similar to compounding, however it unites word or word parts with another word or word part and creates a new term. Two types of blending can be distinguished. The first one is simple blending when the first word initial syllables are connected to the last word final syllables (E.g. Newscaster- News Broadcaster). “In overlapping blending, the antecedent words have common phonemes at the point of juncture, e.g. modem (modulator/demodulator). The final method is acronymy and Initialization which simply creates the
17 new term by using the first letters of a compound or the phrase (e.g. radar- Radio detecting and ranging) “Conversion is a process in which a new term is created by changing the grammatical class of an established word –and necessarily its meaning- but not its morphology” (Dubuc 1998: 143). For example, Noun can be changed to adjective (e.g. knowledge and knowledge worker) noun can be changed to verb (e.g. photograph- both an object and the action), adjective can be changed to noun (e.g. preliminary), adjective changed to verb (e.g. empty) and verb changed to noun (e.g. refill) Borrowing is addition of new words to English language from other languages. Three types of borrowing are provided by Dubuc (ibid.): direct borrowing, adapted borrowing and loan translation. Direct borrowing is when a term is adopted from a foreign language without making any changes to its form. Adapt borrowing, changes the spelling and pronunciation of the borrowed term to match those of English language. In loan translation, the components of the borrowed word are directly translated (e.g. Superman from German Ubermensch ) By comparing term formation methods used by Dubuc,Valeontis and Mantzari it can be noticed that they are very similar, in some cases uses the same terminology. Translingual borrowing in Valeontis and Mantzari article corresponds to Borrowing by Dubuc. Other Dubuc term formation methods: Cenversion, Morphological change and Semantic change also fits in the categories of the Creation of new forms and the use of existing forms. This concludes the Theoretical part of the thesis. The theory presented in this section such as the classification of semantic fields and classification of terms by their formation by Dubuc, as well as the principles of semantic analysis and morphological term analysis is going to be used in the Chapter 5 of this paper.
4 THE HISTORY OF AVIATION AND AVIATION TERMINOLOGY
This chapter of the paper presents the history of aviation, describes different stages of aviation development as well as briefly introduces the situation of aviation and aviation terminology in Lithuania. Finally, section 4.2 explains the specific features of aviation terminology such as abbreviations and the use of aircraft names as terms.
4.1 The history of aviation
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This section is divided into two subsections: 4.1.1, where the world history of aviation is provided. The main focus is on the early stages of aviation development as it may have had the most influence on aviation terminology. Subsection 4.1.2 presents the history of Lithuanian aviation. Some information about the situation of aviation of terminology is also provided.
4.1.1 The history of flight Aviation is sometimes seen as a relatively new and quite recent phenomenon. However the dream of flying which was born by watching the birds, followed people for centuries and is well represented in works of art and literature, tales and legends such as Daedalus and Icarus myth. Very first people, who wanted to fly, actually tried to replicate those myths and the flight of the bird by attaching improvised wings to their arms and body and jumping off the cliffs or towers, thus giving the name of “tower jumpers”. However, these tries almost every time ended in a serious injury or death. One of such attempts happened in 1178, in Constantinople when a person wanted to “demonstrate his powers of flight, jumping off a high building in a copious white robe stiffened with willow sticks.” (Grant 2002: 10). Grant also provides the comment of this accident made by a later flight experimenter, Octave Chanute, who said that “the weight of his body having more power to draw him downward than his artificial wings had to sustain him, he fell and broke his bones”. (ibid.). There are other similar recorded attempts throughout the history such as the attempt by Moor Abbas ibn- Firnas in Andalusia in 875, by English monk Oliver of Malmesbury in th the 11P P century and by Giovanni Battista Danti in Perugia, Italy in 1499. Even such fatal attempts did not stop the people from dreaming about the flight. According to Crouch (2002: 27), Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) seems to have been the first person who believed that the mechanical human flight was possible and studied the basic physical principles of flight in nature and attempted to imagine flying machines based on those principles. This can be seen in his drawings of “an ornithopter, a parachute, and a helicopter, propelled by a giant Archimedean screw” (ibid.). Several other researchers laid the foundation for the flight and aerodynamic theory such as Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), Edme Mariotte (1620-1684) and Christian Huygens th (1629-1695). In the 18P P century other researchers such as Daniel Bernoili ( 1700-1782) Jean Le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783), Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736-18 13), and Pierre-Simon de Laplace (1 749-1 827),continued the work and established fundamental physical and mathematical principles of fluid flow which is also the key element of flight. However, th practical advancements in manned flight can be noticed only in the 18P P century. The first successful early flying machines were hot air balloons which were quite far from conventional airplanes. According to Crouch (2003: 20) even ancient people knew that hot air rises and they could produce light enough fabrics to create a balloon. The principles of “buoyant 19 flight” (ibid.) were also explained by the Greek philosopher Archimedes (287- 212 BC). However, the first recorded hot air balloon flight happened only in the 1783 when On June 4, the Montgolfier brothers “sent a thirty-five-foot balloon constructed of a sandwich paper and fabric up from the public square of their hometown of Annonay, France” (Crouch 2003: 22). The passengers of this balloon flight were a duck, a sheep and a chicken, thus Montgolfiers “established precedence and their place in history books” (Grant 2002: 12). During the same month, with the assistance of the brothers A. and M. N. Robert, Professor Jacques Charles launched an unmanned balloon filled with hydrogen which was newly discovered gas at the time. This only shows that technical and scientific advancements in different scientific fields helped the development of aviation. During the same year more balloon flights were performed, including the first manned flight by Montgolfier brothers in Paris, France. “Ballooning captured the public imagination much as flying machines would in the early 20thcentury.”(Grant 2002: 12). However, the hot air balloons had several drawbacks: “a huge balloon was needed to carry even a small weight, and then it was only marginally controllable and at the mercy of the winds” (Grant 2002: 13). Thus they were not very practical at the time of the creation. Only later, with the creation of airships also known as dirigibles they were put in a practical use. Just over two decades later, in 1804, English engineer Sir George Cayley built a model glider which was “the predecessor of all fixed wing flying machines”.(Crouch 2003: 19). His glider which at the time was called "flying parachute“ had the layout of the modern aircraft with the kite shaped wing mounted in an angle and an adjustable tail. “The wing of Cayley's invention directly descended from the earliest plane-surface (essentially flat) kite, which appeared in China around 1ooo b.c.e.” (Crouch 2003: 24). However, because of the novelty of his ideas Cayley is often called the founding father of aeroplane even if the “word aeroplane appeared in print only in 1871-1972 when engineer, inventor and adventurer Francis Herbert Wenham used this word to describe the wings of the beetle.” (ibid.). Cayley also published three part article “On areal Navigation” which provided a foundation for future aeronautical research. He identified heavier- than-air flight as a problem amenable to solution through scientific and technological research; he established a significant number of basic principles in aerodynamics; and he functioned as the first aeronautical engineer, building and flying the first fixed-wing gliders capable of giving humans a taste of flight.”(Crouch 2003: 35). He also had a dream of a powered flight, but the lack of technology (e.g. light enough engine) made that impossible at the time. The successful use of steam engine in trains and ships grew interest of using it in the air as well. According to Grant, (2002: 13) English inventor William Samuel Henson had plans for Aerial Steam Transit Company and patented an Aerial Steam Carriage. Even though he built one small model in 1845-1847 which could fly, he wasn’t able to complete a full scale aircraft and
20 abandoned the idea. Nevertheless, the experiments with steam engines continued. French naval officer, Félix du Temple de la Croix made a serious attempt, made a flying model airplane with a small steam engine and a “man-carrying aeroplane was finally built and ready to test in 1874. With a French sailor on board, it ran down a sloping ramp, briefly lifted into the air, and immediately came back down to earth.” (Grant 2002: 14). Finally French electrical engineer Clément Ader managed “to skim the ground at a height of around 20cm (8in) for a distance of 50m (165ft).” (Grant 2002: 14-15) with his craft in 1890. It was not a sustained flight, but it was the first manned, engine driven machine which lift off from the ground. However, according to Crouch (2003:43) none of these “full-scale builders had the slightest influence on the invention of the airplane”. Everything changed because of the success and work of Samuel Pierpont Langley(1834-1906), Octave Chanute (1832-1910) and Otto Lilenthal (1848-1896). Samuel Pierpont Langley, the scientist of the United States is known for his theoretical work in aeronautics and in 1891 he announced that the mechanical flight was possible with the technology they had. He also built and successfully tested a model aircraft which flew “almost three-fourths of a mile over the Potomac River” (Crouch 2003: 47). Differently from previous aircraft builders, his theories could be proven by a practical demonstration of a powered flight. Octave Chanute, a French-born, United States engineer wrote a very informative book “Progress in Flying Machines, published in 1894. “(Grant 2002: 17) He was also more interested in gliders than a powered flight and in 1896 constructed a biplane glider with the wings which were securely trussed into a sturdy beam structure. Crouch (2003: 48) adds that this design can be seen as the “ancestor of the generations of externally braced biplanes that would follow.” (Crouch 2003: 48) Otto Lilenthal was born in Anklam, Pomerania, Germany, studied mechanical engineering and established a small machine shop and factory in Berlin. During his life he experimented with gliders, perfomed various tests and uncovered some basic principles of wing design. “Lilienthal reported on his years of experimentation in the treatise Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fleigkunst (Birdrlight as the Basis of Aviation) (1889). Here, at last, was practical information for those who wanted to fly. He even provided graphs charting the changing values of lift and drag generated by an airfoil with the peak of the arch at the center of the chord.” (Crouch 2003: 51) Another great achievement was the fact that his flights with the hang gliders were photographed. At the time “the means to reproduce photos in printed media was not available, [but] high-quality engravings gave readers an accurate notion of just what a human looked like flying through the air.” (Crouch 2003: 52). His monoplane gliders were also purchased by experimenters from Great Britain, Russia, France, Romania and the United States, thus Lilenthal built the first th aircraft built in quantity and sold to others. On the 9P P of August, 1896 during the flight he stalled
21 his glider and crashed which resulted in serious injuries and death. This accident was briefly reported in the newspapers, but had a significant effect. For example, according to Crouch (ibid) Wilbur Wright said that his „active interest in aeronautical problems dates back to the death of Lilienthal in 1896," Wilbur and Orville Wrights were two American brothers who specialised in building bicycles and had their own bicycle company. According to Grant (2002: 22) they were in touch with “contemporary currents of thought and innovation”, which means that they were interested in aviation and the works of previously mentioned aviation pioneers. They also “instinctively felt that a flying machine was more like a bicycle, and would need to be flown with constant adjustments of balance.” (ibid.). Thus their goal was not only to build a flying machine, but to make it controllable. During their research, Wright brothers discovered a control method called “Wing-wrapping” which made their future projects steerable in the air. At first in the 1900 they experimented with glider th projects just like Lilenthal and finally on 17P P of December 1903 they performed the first controllable powered flight which lasted 12 seconds. With another try “Wilbur flew for 59 seconds, travelling a distance of 260m (852ft), before the Flyer pitched down to a bone-jarring landing, breaking the elevator support.” (Grant 2002: 27). They continued to modify their craft and were able to produce better and better results which led to the fact that “Wright Flyer” was the first mass produced aircraft. Wright brothers also created their flying school where between 1910 and 1916 Orville with his assistants trained 115 pilots. The main competitor of Wright brothers was a Brazilian-Parisian, Alberto Santos-Dumont who performed the first European motorized and controllable flight on 12 November 1906, in Bagatelle, Paris. These accomplishments marked the new era of aviation. According to Grant (2002: 38), from 1909 to 1914, aviation developed from an object of curiosity into a modern craze that gripped the popular imagination. In 1909 two main events symbolized the conquest of the air: “Blériot’s flight across the English Channel and the Reims aviation meeting.” (ibid.) The crossing of the English Channel by air was event “that had been created for the consumption of the newspaper-reading public” (ibid.) Lord Northcliffe, owner of the Daily Mail offered the £500 and later £1000 prize for the first person to fly across the Channel. There was a huge interest both in Europe and North America and three pilots entered the event: Hubert Latham, the Compte de Lambert and Louis Blériot. The first try of Latham ended in a crash landing in water, while Blériot successfully flew across in his machine. Even if it was a media hyped event as the Grant (2002: 43) states, but it also symbolized two points: “Britain, the world’s greatest naval power, had been forced to recognize that its navy may no longer be able to defend it against all future forms of attack from
22 abroad. And France had regained the lead in world aviation that it felt it should rightfully possess, a lead it would hold for some years to come.” (ibid.) Reims aviation meeting or better known as the Grande Semaine d’Aviation de la Champagne which lasted for 8 days gathered almost all main aviation pioneers of the time with their flying machines and over 500 000 visitors. In total there were 38 aircraft in the event and “23 aviators fl[ew] in nine different types of aircraft, representing the entire world of aviation at that time” (Grant 2002: 44). What made is so special was the fact that all those machines were viable aircraft which could fly at a high speed (for the time period) and were controllable enough to be practical. There was also a clear predominance of the French in aviation as only two of the pilots were from abroad: Glenn Curtiss from the United States and Englishman George Cockburn. Aviators competed in various events and races in which many world records of aviation were broken. For example, “the distance contest, for the Grand Prix de la Champagne, was easily won by Henri Farman, who flew a record 180km (112 miles) before running out of fuel.” (Grant 2002: 46). The highest speed over distance and altitude records were also achieved. This aviation meeting was “an extraordinary week that marked the transition between the era of the invention of the airplane and the birth of the aviation industry.” (Crouch 2003: 118) These early aircraft had a very limited payload which was not very practical. However, they were fast in comparison to other means of transportation which led to the creation of the first experimental airmail service in 1911. “Exhibition airmail flights were frequently arranged in connection with an airshow or other event and financed by the sale of souvenir postcards or franked envelopes.” (Grant 2002: 55). There was also a passenger service opened in 1914 in Florida, but it did not last for a very long time. As the aircraft were lacking in the means of payload, the airships which could carry tons of payload were developed and used in Germany. It was an old technology similar to the balloons, however, Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin created “rigid” airships – that is, the shape of the hydrogen-filled envelope was maintained by a solid framework rather than by the pressure of the gas inside.” (Grant 2002: 57). These airships, usually called Zeppelins or dirigibles were huge, over 128 meters long and very expensive to build. “it was reckoned that in 1914you could make 34 aeroplanes for the cost of one zeppelin.” (ibid.). Even though by the end of 1914, more than 37 000 passengers were transported using airships, they were mainly used for military operations. In 1913 General Ferdinand Foch was very critical for a practical use of aviation as he claimed that “Aviation is fine as sport; as a weapon of war, it is worthless”(cited in Crouch 2003: 151). However he was soon proven wrong as the First World War began in 1914. At the beginning of the war “the front-line aircraft deployed by all combatants amounted to little over 500 fragile, unarmed monoplanes and biplanes.” (Grant 2002: 68). However, as the war progressed, aircraft got
23 more and more uses, thus more of them were required. As Grant states, “ aircraft had been manufactured in hundreds before the war; now they were produced in thousands.”( Grant 2002: 67). Crouch provides more detailed numbers and states that France made 1,000 machines or so in 1914 and 44,563 airplanes in four war years” (Grant 2013: 193). It can also be said that the aircraft changed the way the war was fought as "almost every day new methods for employing [aircraft]. . . , both strategically and tactically, [were] discovered and put into practice.” (cited in Crouch 2003: 153) Many of the roles of the military aircraft were already known before the war: “reconnaissance, artillery direction, ground attack, and bombing” (ibid.). There was also a need to counter the enemy aviation actions thus a scout or fighter aircraft with “a fixed machine gun firing forward, …. that would enable a pilot to shoot down enemy aircraft” were created. The role of bombers and airships was also significant as “By the final stages of the war, aircraft roamed the front, bombing bridges and airfields, and strafing troops and trucks, proving beyond a doubt the vital importance of air superiority.” (Grant 2002: 79) Just after the war in 1918, many aircraft manufacturers went bankrupt or turned to other businesses as “the market was awash with surplus military aircraft” (Grant 2002: 108) Many of the war pilots did not stay in the air force, but continued flying transporting mail or passengers. Despite that, the period between 1920s and 1930s can be called a “Golden Age of aviation.” (ibid.). Just like before the war “cash prizes were made available by “air-minded” press magnates and other wealthy individuals for record-breaking long-distance flights.(Grant 2002: 109). One of such flights was a transatlantic flight. There was a prize set for anyone who would perform a non-stop Atlantic crossing. This challenge was soon completed by Captain John Alcock and his navigator, Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown on 14 June 1919. The same year, “French-born American hotelier Raymond Orteig had put up a $25,000 prize for a non-stop flight between New York and Paris” (Grant 2002: 119). The first attempts to complete the challenge ended in tragedy; however, on 21 May 1927 Charles Lindbergh completed the flight in 33.5 hours on flying the Spirit of St. Louis and landed in Paris. This “Lindbergh’s Atlantic crossing inspired a new wave of transoceanic and transcontinental flights, keeping the press supplied with sensational copy and creating a new generation of pilot celebrities. Each nation had to have its own heroes to compete with Lindbergh” (Grant 2002: 120). During the war airships have seen an extensive use. That didn’t stop after 1918 as the airships were developed to be luxurious liners of the sky. One of the most successful airships was German built Graf Zeppelin“. In the summer of 1929, Graf Zeppelin flew around the world in twenty-one days, seven hours, and thirty-four minutes, including a nonstop flight across Siberia. The airship flew the North Atlantic on several occasions and offered regularly scheduled passenger service across the South Atlantic between 1932 and 1937.” (Crouch 2003: 295) However the era of
24 the airships ended with the Hindenburg disaster in 1937. Soon after that the remaining airships were grounded and scrapped. The interwar period also saw the rise of racing planes as various events, races and speed challenges were organized as well. As the planes were getting bigger and more and more reliable, the air mail services as well as passenger service was on the boom. At first, “passenger services ….. used converted bombers or reconnaissance aircraft.” (Grant 2002: 135). However, later the specialized passenger aircraft were developed. One of the most successful of such aircraft was a Douglas DC-3 which „revolutionized commercial aviation: by 1939, three out of every four American air passengers was travelling in a DC-3.” (Grant 2002: 148). The DC-3 “marked a new era in aviation and became the symbol of all that was modern.” (Crouch 2003: 336). As the popularity of aviation and airlines increased, there was also an increased concern of flight safety, thus “In 1930 the first air-traffic control tower, equipped with radio, was built” (Grant 2002: 142). Soon such air-traffic control towers emerged in different airport all over the world. In the mid-1930s the development of military aircraft also continued. However the manufacturers mostly followed the modified World War I biplane design which was already obsolete at the beginning of the World War II. However, new modern design aircraft were already planned. This resulted in a fact that “World War II was mostly fought with aircraft that were at least on the drawing board before the war began.” (Grant 2002: 187). The air superiority was crucial to the success of army operations as troops were exposed to fire from the sky (Grant 2002: 188), thus the aviation played a key role in any military operation. “The real novelty was the sheer scale of the production and deployment of aircraft, with more than a thousand bombers sometimes sent on a single mission. Aircraft played a vital role in army operations, providing ground troops with mobility, supplies, and supporting fire.” (Grant 2002: 187). Military use of aircraft also helped for the technical development, thus such equipment as radar, other electronical devices, missiles and jet aircraft were created. After the World War II the technological development did not stop as it was driven by “was the Cold War confrontation between the Western allies and the communist bloc.” (Grant 2002: 261) This resulted in “remarkable progress in aircraft design, jet engines, avionics and weaponry.” (ibid.) For example, one very important event happened when “on the morning of October 14, 1947, Capt. Charles E. "Chuck" Yeager … flew the XS-1 faster than sound.” (Crouch 2003: 458).This led to the development of supersonic jet aircraft which are used in a present day. This time period also helped with the further development of helicopters and by the 1970s they were already vastly used both by civilians and by military. Another thing that can be noticed is that the aircraft became more and more complex as various computer systems, radars, global positioning system (GPS), LED displays were developed and used in aviation. There was also a rise in air travel
25 as Grant (2002: 375) says “By 1957, however, more people were crossing the Atlantic by plane than by boat. The triumph of jet airliners in the following decade carried the transformation of travel patterns to a new level. People made journeys they would never previously have made to places they would never have visited.” General aviation was also on a boom as many people wanted to fly by themselves. Thus aviation further developed as a hobby as well. General aviation includes all aviation types which are non-scheduled such as business flights, air charter, private aviation, flight training, ballooning, parachuting, gliding, hang gliding, aerial photography, foot-launched powered hang gliders, air ambulance, crop dusting, charter flights, traffic reporting, police air patrols and forest fire fighting. The development of aviation is still continuing to this day with the creation and improvement of, UAVs, space flight, various safety features for passenger airliners, and the use of solar power for flight. By looking at the history of aviation it is possible to relate the development of aviation terminology with the development of aviation itself. For example, as it was mentioned before, at the early stages aviation was mostly developed by French, German, English and American aviators. Thus most of the basic and early terms come from these languages. A bit later, the French took the initiative and France became the country of aviation, which means that their influence on aviation terminology also increased. This explains why a lot of simpler terms come from French language. This idea is also expressed by Scott (1987: 94) who says that “many of aviation’s most basic words come from French, who were most active in pioneer days of flying”. He also provides such examples of the terms as fuselage, nacelle and empennage.However, after the Second World War, the United States of America became the leading aviation power and still remains in that position till this day. Because of that, later developed systems and equipment used in aviation have the English origin. Scott also provides some examples of interdisciplinary borrowing. For example, “many terms have nautical origins. Ships and airplanes use rudder for yaw control…. From when Britannia ruled the waves comes cockpit, which originated form a Middle English word for small boat, cogge” (ibid.). A lot of terms also came from “shiplike slang” (ibid.), for example, bail out meant to jump out of the airplane, while it also meant the “similar method of evacuating water from a boat (ibid.)
4.1.2 The history of aviation in Lithuania
Aviation in Lithuania developed quite similarly to the rest of the world. According to Ramoška (2009: 8) the early forms of aviation in Lithuania can be found as early as 1650 when Kazimieras Semenavičius published his book Artis Magnae Artileiae.(Great Art of Artillery). It was written in Latin, later translated into French, German, English, Dutch and Polish. The book gained popularity 26 all over Europe and was used as a basic artillery manual. One of the chapters in the book explained the multi staged rockets in a great detail and described the use of delta wing stabilizers. It was all based on mathematical calculations and the laws of physics. In 1851, another Lithuanian, Aleksandras Griškevičius published a book called “Žemaičio Garlėkys” where he wrote about his steam powered aircraft, but it is unknown if the aircraft actually flew as it was never seen or found. The more successful aircraft was a glider built by Jonas Garalevičius in 1911 in Kaunas. However these interesting experiments did not have any influence on the later aviation development in Lithuania. (ibid.) After declaring the Act of Reinstating Independence of Lithuania on February 16, 1918 and the formation of the army on November 23, 1918, the need of the air force was obvious. (Ramoška 2009: 10). At the time the air force used the planes purchased from Germany, or the ones captured in the fights with Bolshevik forces and Bermontians as stated by Ramoška (1992). According to the collected data (ibid.) by the end of the Wars of Independence, Lithuanian air force had just over one hundred aircraft. The school of Aviation was officially founded on March 12, 1919 and gave birth to the first generation of Lithuanian pilots when 34 students graduated on December 16, 1919 (Ramoška 2009: 21). After the graduation, the aviation school was closed, all the assets were transferred to the Lithuanian Air Force and the pilot training continued in a different manner. However, this period was very important for the development of the future aviation constructors and pilots. During the later years, starting with 1921, Military Aviation Workshop began the construction of their own aircraft. Most of them were copies of German airplanes such as Albatros D III, Fokker D.VII, Halberstadt C.V and others. However, starting with 1923, Lithuanian aviators started designing their own aircraft. In 1920-1924 Jurgis Dobkvečius designed, built and tested first Lithuanian aircraft Dobi-I, Dobi-II and Dobi-III. After finishing L'Ecole Superieure d'Aeronautique (Higher School of Aeronautics and Mechanical Construction) in 1925, he became the first professional aircraft constructor in Lithuania. (Ramoška 2009: 42-45) Another well-known aircraft constructor was Antanas Gustaitis who was also one of the first pilots in the Lithuanian Air force. Similarly to Dobkevičius, he studied aeronautical engineering in Paris. He also modernized the Lithuanian aviation, founded the Aero Club of Lithuania, reorganized the Military aviation workshops and formed several new squadrons. However, “A. Gustaitis biggest achievement was the design of nine different types of airplanes, their testing and organizing of their serial production” (Gamziukas 1997). His aircraft was of a simple construction, but very reliable and had very good flying characteristics. This was not unnoticed and “in the period between 1925 and 1939, a total of 65 Gustaitis designed airplanes were built” (Gamziukas 1997). In 1934, Gustaitis with a pack of 3
27 of his aircraft also performed a 10 000 km flight around the Europe, visiting main capitals and cities. The flight showed the quality and reliability of his ANBO-IV airplane. (Ramoška 2009: 68- 69). He continued his work as an aircraft designer up until the Soviet occupation in 1940. As it was mentioned previously during the interwar period a lot of aviation records were broken in the world. To no surprise, such attempts were made by Lithuanian pilots as well. On June 15 1933 Steponas Darius and Stasys Girėnas with their modified Bellanca CH-300 Pacemaker better known as Lituanica tried to make a transatlantic flight from New York to Kaunas. However, having flown 6411km in 37 hours 11 minutes and only 636 km short of their destination, they crashed near Soldin. (Ramoška 2009: 53-57). Nevertheless, this flight ranked second in terms of distance of non-stop flight and fourth in terms of duration of flight. It was also one of the most precise flights in aviation history and the first flight in which the air mail was carried through the Atlantic. A few months after the Lituanica tragedy Chicago Lithuanian community discussed the possibility of the second transatlantic flight. On September 21, 1935, Feliksas Vaitkus, piloting Lituanica II crossed the Atlantic Ocean and crash landed in Ireland. This made him the sixth pilot to fly solo perform a transatlantic flight.(Ramoška 2009: 71-72) Since the beginning of the Second World War, and Soviet occupation, the aviation in Lithuania was very restricted and regulated by DOSAAF and KGB. Despite these restrictions, Lithuanian parachutists, glider pilots and aerobatic pilots were able to compete and win in a variety of championships organized in the Soviet Union. On March 11, The Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania was declared and Lithuania finally regained its independence. In the following years, Lithuanian Air Force, various companies, Aero Club and smaller sport aviation clubs were re-established and general aviation gained a lot of popularity. (Ramoška 2009: 147-156) Individuals also started making the aircraft of their own constructions. For example in 2010 Vladas Kensgaila, finished and prepared for mass production his 8 seat airplane VK-8 which can compete with same type aircraft of other manufacturers. Another aviation constructor Vytautas Radavičius also designed and built a helicopter called VR-555 which was finally finished in 2001. From the history of Lithuanian aviation, it can be seen that during the interwar period, that aviation developed in Lithuania quite similarly to the other countries such as Germany, France, and the United States. As the Lithuanian aircraft designers studied in the universities and schools abroad, for example in France, an assumption can be made that their aircraft engineering terminology could have been based on French language. However, there is no data to approve this idea. According to Eriksonienė (1996: 5) Lithuanian aviation terms were created and used in various aviation books, encyclopaedias and dictionaries. However, during the Soviet occupation, the development of aviation and aviation terminology was very limited, thus Eriksonienė (ibid.)
28 states that Lithuanian terms where only used in sport aviation while in national commercial airlines the dominant language was Russian. This remained even after the restoration of Independence as there were not enough Lithuanian terms to define the complex concepts.
4.2 Specific features of aviation terminology
This section of the thesis explains two specific features of aviation terminology which separates it from other subjects. Subsection 4.2.1 describes and gives examples of how aircraft names can be seen and used as terms while subsection 4.2.2 comment on the use of abbreviations in aviation terminology.
4.2.1 Aircraft names as terms
In many cases aircraft names in their compact form can hide a lot of information about the named aircraft. However this information can be decoded only by the specialists of the field, or people who are interested in aviation and have a good knowledge of the subject. Thus, it means that aircraft names can be defined as terms. The designations or the naming forms of the aircraft are usually determined by the manufacturer of the aircraft (for civil aircraft) and by the military (for military aircraft). For example, a well-known Boeing Commercial Airplanes company which designs, assembles and sells aircraft, produces a wide variety of jet airliners and business jets. They have developed a set of rules for naming these aircraft. According to their Backgrounder, the name consists of the model number in a form of 7X7 (ranging from 707 to 787). From this number it is possible to see if the aircraft is a narrow-body or widebody, to which class it belongs (medium or heavy), how many engines it has and how many aisles are inside the aircraft. Another 3digits in a name designate a specific series within a model (e.g. 200) . Sometimes, the last two digits or letters of this number show the Boeing customer code, which represents the company which ordered the aircraft. Finally additional letters are added to the name as a suffix to define how the aircraft differs from the standard version (e.g. ER means extended range, LR – Long range, F- Freighter, M- combi aircraft which allows carrying both the passengers and the cargo etc.) This can be easily explained by analysing the example. If the aircraft is named Boeing 747-236B shows that it is a 747 model aircraft (heavy, four engine wide body aircraft, having twin aisle main deck and single aisle upper deck). Number 236 shows that it is a 200 series aircraft belonging to British Airways as the British Airways Boeing customer code is 36. Letter B identifies this aircraft is a basic passenger version with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engines.
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Similarly, military aircraft names of the United States are modified and created by following strict rules set by the United States Department of the Air Force. These naming conventions are very clear. However, Parsch (2006) suggests even a simpler explanation by putting the parts of the name in a numerical order: 1) The type of aircraft; 2) the basic mission of the aircraft; 3) the modified mission of the aircraft; 4) the design number; 5) the series letter; 6) the status prefix. In the actual name of the aircraft, these goes like this: (6)(3)(2)(1)- (4)(5) and are read from the hyphen to the left and then to the right from the hyphen. Sometimes Three additional elements can be added: the popular name of the aircraft, the Block Letter and the Manufacturer Code Letters. However it happens only on rare occasions as it is not mandatory. The naming system for the military aircraft of the United States seems quite logical and simple as it provides all the necessary information for the specialists or people familiar with the field. For example, aircraft name Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet shows that it was built by the Boing Company. The main roles of the aircraft are Ground attack and Fighter. The number of the aircraft is also provided which is 18, as well as the series letter to indicate the F variant (Two-seater aircraft in this case). The popular name, of Super Hornet is also added. Sometimes manufacturers follow some different rules when naming their aircraft. Probably the most common one is by using the initials of the designers name. Some of Lithuanian aircraft designers followed this rules, for example: VK –Vladas Kensgaila, VR – Vytautas Radavičius, BrO – Bronius Oškinis. These initials are then followed by the design number of the aircraft. Antans Gustaitis named his aircraft differently. Different sources have different opinions on how ANBO aircraft got its name. According to popular belief, that is an acronym of Antanas Nori Būti Ore. However there is also an opinion that it was named after the first names of the designer and his wife: ANtanas and BO (shortened version of the name Bronė). The aircraft name was followed by the roman numerals which showed the design number of the aircraft (e.g. ANBO-IV, ANBO-V, ANBO-VIII) while the upgraded versions had two digit numbers (ANBO-41 and ANBO-51)
4.2.2 Abbreviations in aviation terminology
Another specific feature of aviation terminology is the use of abbreviations. According to Delamont (2005) “in aviation there is simply a plethora of abbreviations and acronyms” as they are used in almost every situation that requires fast and clear communication. One of such situations is flight planning. According to NASA, the flight plan must have the information such as: an aircraft number (identification), departure time, place of departure, flight route, destination, estimated time of the trip, estimated time of arrival, colour of the plane and the
30 pilots name. A lot of words and sentences are required to report this information. However, this is mostly done through the radio, and it is important for Air Traffic Controllers and Pilots use it as little as possible in order to keep the radio channel open for emergencies. Thus, abbreviations and codes are used on flight plans in order to save space, time and reduce the number of words. That is not limited to flight planning and is relevant to all aviation communication. Another reason for the use of abbreviations is that a lot of aviation terms are very long (complex), consisting of several words. Thus the use, non-abbreviated terms can hinder the communication. Talking on a radio or telephone can also change the sound of words and letters. For example the letter B sounds like the letter P and the letter C sounds like the letter D. To help eliminate mistakes caused by a change in the sound of a letter, pilots use the International Phonetic Alphabet. (NASA 2002) Some abbreviations are said as acronyms (e.g. ATIS, ETOPS, PAPI), others letter by letter as abbreviations (ILS RFVR, VOR). In operational documents, many contractions are used but said as whole words (BKN- broken, SCT- scattered, ALTN- alternate) (Shawcross 2011: 23) However, sometimes the distinction between a regular acronym and abbreviation can disappear because “abbreviations, such as TCAS (tee-kass), are pronounced as words; while some true acronyms, such as FARs (eff-aye-ahrz) are always spelled out.” (Scott 1987). Many of these abbreviations are also controlled by the governmental institutions such as Federal Aviation Administration in the United States of America and equivalent organisations in other countries. The use of abbreviations in spoken interaction (without using radio communication) sometimes is also influenced by ” the military background of many pilots” (Scott 1987). Other pilots create their own acronyms in order to remember some procedures. For example, if a pilot needs to get an IFR clearance (clearance according to Instrument Flight Rules), he can remember all the required information by using acronym CARFT which decodes as Clearance Limit, Route, Altitudes, Frequencies, Transponder. There are many more such acronyms which help to remember the order of pre- flight checks and other procedures. Today over 7000 aviation abbreviations and acronyms are commonly used in aviation and may be found throughout aviation legislation, operational manuals, in the AIP (Aeronautical Information Publications), on the aeronautical charts and maps, meteorological messages, etc. Because abbreviations play a key role in aviation terminology, they need be analysed separately.
5 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN AVIATION TERMS
This chapter of the thesis presents the comparative analysis of English aviation terms and their Lithuanian equivalents. The English terms were collected from The Flightpath Glossary of Aviation
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Terms. This glossary explains aviation terms in a clear, non-technical language as it is aimed at the learners of aviation English, both pilots and air traffic controllers and is used as a helping tool together with the Flightpath: Aviation English for Pilots and ATCOs Student’s book. Because of that, this glossary also contains many general words which only relates to aircraft in very specific contexts. For that reason, only 551 terms clearly related to aviation and aircraft were selected for the analysis. Equivalent Lithuanian terms for the analysis were collected from three different specialized aviation dictionaries as one of the objectives is to see if and how aviation terminology developed between 1996 when the Civilinės aviacijos terminų žodynas was published and 2014 when English-Lithuanian dictionary of aviation was published by Žegūnienė: • Civilinės aviacijos terminų žodynas published in 1996 is the first aviation dictionary to be released in Lithuania. It includes about 3900 terms which is the lowest amount from the selected dictionaries. However, most of the terms in this dictionary are strictly related to aviation and general words and terms are avoided. Another distinctive feature of this dictionary is that it provides not only Lithuanian and English terms, but Russian terminology as well as it was aimed at the specialists of commercial civil aviation. The historical reasons for such choice are explained in Section 4.1.2 • Mokomasis anglų–lietuvių kalbų orlaivių techninės priežiūros terminų žodynas was published in 2012 by Mironaitė and Norkienė and is aimed at engineering specialists, pilots, air traffic controllers and cadets of The General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania. As it is aimed at the pilots and air traffic controllers, this makes it a valid dictionary for this research. This dictionary consists of about 4500 terms. • English-Lithuanian dictionary of aviation published in 2014 is aimed at a specific group of people: air traffic controllers, pilots, mechanics, other aviation professionals and students, who need help in understanding English aviation texts. This dictionary consists of about 5000 terms. As the aim of these dictionaries is the same or very similar to the aim of the English terminological source Flightpath Glossary of Aviation terms, it makes the selected dictionaries a valid choice for the analysis. The analysis is divided into 3 sections. The first section 5.1 contains the semantic analysis where semantic fields are explained and analysed as well as the synonymy and hyponymy relations. Section 5.2 contains the morphological analysis and looks at the simple, complex terms, terminological phrases and abbreviations.
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5.1 Semantic analysis of English and Lithuanian aviation terms
This section of the paper provides the semantic analysis of English and Lithuanian aviation terms. The analysis is done in three stages. The first stage, represented in subsection 5.1.1 explains how terms were classified in semantic fields according to Dubuc. Quantitative analysis is also performed while comparing the amount of Lithuanian equivalents from 3 different aviation dictionaries found in each semantic field. Assumptions are also made to explain why some of the Lithuanian equivalents are missing. Subsection 5.1.2 provides the analysis of synonymy relations of aviation terms while subsection 5.1.3 looks at the hyponymy relations.
5.1.1 The analysis of semantic field This subsection describes how aviation terms were categorised into following 16 semantic fields: Air traffic control, Aircraft parts, Aircraft systems, Aircraft types, Airport equipment and vehicles, Airport Infrastructure, Emergencies, Flight condition, Flight procedures, Meteorology, Navigation, Personnel (people), Physical and medical condition, Radio communication, Units of measurement, and General terms of aviation. The full list of categorized terms is provided in the tables which can be found in APPENDIX A together with definitions, etymological data, and Lithuanian equivalents from all three dictionaries together with a term type suggested by Dubuc. Differently from Dubuc, additional category of abbreviations is introduced due to specific features of aviation terminology. The semantic field of Air traffic control (Table 5.1.1 in APPENDIX A) includes terms that related to the job of an air traffic controller such as controlled airspace, conflicting traffic, traffic, traffic pattern, etc. There are 29 English terms in this group. 8 Lithuanian equivalents were found in Civilinės aviacijos terminų žodynas (CAT in the following text), no equivalent were present in Mokomasis anglų–lietuvių kalbų orlaivių techninės priežiūros terminų žodynas (OTPT in the following text) and 10 equivalents were found in English-Lithuanian Dictionary of Aviation (ELDA) The next semantic field of Aircraft parts (Table 5.1.2 in APPENDIX A) includes the terms which describe external and internal physical parts of the aircraft such as fuselage, elevator etc. 67 English terms are in this category while CAT provides 20, OTPT- 28 and ELDA -33 equivalents. The terms which are included in the semantic field of Aircraft systems (Table 5.1.3 in APPENDIX A), denote various computerised and mechanical systems of the airplane. This semantic field include 41 English terms. 17 Lithuanian equivalents were found in CAT, 6 were present in OTPT and 10 in ELDA. The low number of Lithuanian equivalents can be explained by the fact that many names of these systems are abbreviated. However, Lithuanian sources did not
33 provide equivalents for the same unabbreviated terms which means that either they are not yet present in Lithuanian language, or were not included in the dictionaries. The terms in the semantic field of Aircraft types (Table 5.1.4 in APPDENIX A) denote the types, roles and names of the aircraft. There are 13 terms in English, 2 equivalents in CAT, 1 equivalent in OTPT and 3 Lithuanian terms in ELDA. The low number of equivalents can be explained by the fact that most of the aircraft names are not translatable and are usually used in their original form. In colloquial language, however, Lithuanian endings can be added to such names, or nicknames can be used. The semantic field of Airport equipment and vehicles (Table 5.1.5 in APPENDIX A) denote equipment used in the airport, such as fuelling and cleaning trucks, stationary equipment such as windsock, etc. There are 39 English terms, 3 Lithuanian equivalents in CAT, 4 in OTPT and 6 in ELDA. The lack of Lithuanian terms can be noticed in this semantic field as well and it can be explained by the fact that some of the equipment is not used in Lithuania or the terms might be too general. The next semantic field of Airport Infrastructure (Table 5.1.6 in APPENDIX A) includes the terms which refer to the buildings, runways, taxiways etc. There are 60 English terms, 16 are found in CAT, 9 are present in OTPT and 15 were found in ELDA. Some of the English terms in this semantic field are colloquial which explains why some of the equivalents could not be found. The semantic field of Emergencies (Table 5.1.7 in APPENIDX A) include the terms related to accidents, and various emergencies which can happen in the air. In total, 37 English terms were selected while there are 6 equivalents in CAT, 10 in OTPT and 14 in ELDA. The terms included in the semantic field of Flight condition (Table 5.1.8 in APPENDIX A) denote the aircraft conditions which were caused by the pilot or external forces such as wind, e.g. buffeting, stall. There are only 7 English terms in this semantic field. 5 equivalent terms are found in CAT, and 4 in both the OTPT and ELDA. The semantic field of Flight procedures (Table 5.1.9 in APPENDIX A) include the terms which denote the standard or non-standard actions which are taken by the pilots during the flight. 57 English terms are in this category while CAT provides 15 equivalents. 9 Lithuanian equivalent terms can be found in OTPT and 24 in ELDA. Another semantic field of Meteorology (Table 5.1.10 in APPENDIX A) include the terms which denote meteorological phenomena such as the precipitation, various kinds of winds, clouds etc. There are 45 English terms, 19 equivalents in CAT, 6 in OTPT and 27 in ELDA.
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The terms denoting terms of maps and various navigation instruments are present in Navigation semantic field (Table 5.1.11 in APPEDNIX A) This field includes 49 English terms, 22 Lithuanian equivalents found in Cat, 6 in OTPT and 28 were present in ELDA. The semantic field of Personnel (people) (Table 5.1.12 in APPEDNIX A) includes the terms of professions which are present in aviation. That includes everything from maintenance crew to the pilots and flight attendants. There are 28 English terms in this category. 8 equivalents are present in CAT while no terms were found in OTPT. ELDA provides 10 equivalents. The fact that OTPT did not have any term related to the personnel is quite surprising as it was expected to find the equivalents of such basic terms as a pilot, co-pilot, and commander in all of the sources. The terms related to people physical condition and their medical health are present in Physical and medical condition (Table 5.1.13 in APPENDIX A) semantic field. From the first look, this field seems not associated with aviation. However, even FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) marks it as one of the important learning topics for the pilots. There are 8 English terms in this category. 1 equivalent is present in CAT, and 3 were found in both OTPT and ELDA. Another important semantic field is of Radio communication (Table 5.1.14 in APPENDIX A). This semantic field includes the terms related to the use of radio. Specific terms used in radio communication are also included. There are 53 English terms in this category. Equivalents were found in CAT, 12 in OTPT and 17 in ELDA One of the smallest semantic fields of Units of measurement (Table 5.1.15 in APPENDIX A) is also present and it includes the main units of measurement used in aviation. There are 9 English terms, 4 equivalents in CAT, 1in OTPT and 4 in ELDA The last semantic field of General terms of aviation (Table 5.1.16 in APPENDIX A) includes the terms which did not fit in any other categories. This semantic field is not very numerous with 11 English terms. 3 equivalents were found in CAT, 1 appeared in OTPT and 5 were taken from ELDA. Figure 5.1.1 shows the distribution of terms in semantic fields, the number of English terms and their Lithuanian equivalents found in 3 Lithuanian aviation dictionaries. From this figure, a conclusion can be made that the most numerous category is of the aircraft parts. This semantic field also have the largest amount of equivalent Lithuanian terms. However, by percentage, the category having the most equivalents is the one of the Flight condition. This table also confirms the fact that the English- Lithuanian Dictionary of Aviation (2014) has more equivalent terms than Civilinės aviacijos žodynas (1996).
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29 7 Air traffic control 3 10 67 20 Aircraft parts 28 33 41 17 Aircraft systems 6 10 13 2 Aircraft types 1 3 39 3 Airport equipment and vehicles 4 6 60 16 Airport infrastructure 9 15 37 6 Emergencies 10 14 7 5 Flight condition 4 4 57 15 Flight procedures 9 24 45 19 Meteorology 6 27 49 22 Navigation 6 28 28 8 Personnel (people) 0 10 8 1 Physical and medical condition 3 3 53 4 Radio communication 12 17 9 4 Units of measurement 1 4 11 3 General terms of aviation 1 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Flightpath Glossary of Aviation Terms
Civilinės aviacijos terminų žodynas (1996)
Mokomasis anglų–lietuvių kalbų orlaivių techninės priežiūros terminų žodynas (2012) English-Lithuanian Dictionary of Aviation (2014)
Figure 5.1.1 Distribution of terms into semantic fields
From the 551 English terms, 152 equivalents were found in Civilinės aviacijos žodynas (1996), only 103 equivalents were present in Mokomasis anglų-lietuvių kalbų orlaivių techninės priežiūros terminų žodynas. This is not unexpected as the dictionary mainly provides the terms of maintenance. The largest amount of equivalents was found in English-Lithuanian 36
Dictionary of Aviation (2014). This shows that even if Lithuanian aviation terminology is still being developed, there are still many gaps. These gaps can be determined by several factors. First of all, some of the English terms are too specific and they don’t have any equivalent in Lithuanian language. Another factor is that in Lithuanian language, many complex terms can be explained using general words. This discourages the creation of new terms. Another reason which will be explained in more detail in subsection 5.2.4 is that Aviation terminology uses a lot of abbreviations which are considered terms. However, there are no aviation abbreviations in Lithuanian language.
5.1.2 Synonymy relations of aviation terms
This subsection discusses the synonymy relations of aviation terms and looks for complete and near synonymy among the terms. The first case of full synonymy can be noticed with the terms cargo terminal and freight terminal:
cargo terminal - building used for storage and handling of containers, pallets etc. See also freight terminal.
freight terminal - a building used for the storage and handling of containers, pallets etc. their dispatch to specific aircraft and their loading onto cargo flights. See also cargo terminal.
These terms are synonymous, because they express the same type of building and even have references to each other. Even though freight terminal description is slightly longer, both terms can be used interchangeably in any contexts, thus they can be considered as full synonyms.
Another case of full synonymy can be noticed between the words stabilizer, and th empennage. Empennage originated from French and was used in aviation since beginning of 20P P century. Similarly, the term stabilizer which came from the nautical French term, was used in aeronautics since 1909:
stabilizer - horizontal and vertical surfaces mounted on the aircraft tail, also called the empennage; the elevators are installed on the horizontal stabilizer or tailplane, which is usually trimmable, i.e. its angle can be adjusted to minimize drag and optimize aerodynamic efficiency. The vertical stabilizer is also referred to as the fin
empennage - the tail section of an aircraft, consisting of the fin, the tailplane and the part of the fuselage to which they are attached
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As the horizontal and vertical surfaces form a stabilizer, this term is fully synonymous to empennage. In Lithuanian language, three terms are provided to describe the empennage: uodegos plokštumos, lėktuvo uodegos surinkimas and montažas. However, these terms are not synonymous as lėktuvo uodegos surinkimas is a broader term than uodegos plokštumos. Also after doing some research, no cases of the use of term montažas were found.
The third case of synonymy can be noticed with the terms Jetway and Airbridge:
Airbridge - a telescopic walkway for passengers to board and disembark from the aircraft directly from and to the terminal building; it is also referred to as a jetway or jetty
Jetway - a telescopic walkway for passengers disembark from and board the aircraft directly to and from the terminal building; also airbridge or jetty
These terms share the same definition, thus they can be treated as full synonyms. However, there is a third word jetty which also shares the same definition. However, it is more colloquial, thus it cannot be used interchangeably in all contexts. That leads to a conclusion, that it can be a partial synonym.
Another case of full synonymy can be noticed with the words tow vehicle, tractor, tug. These words refer to the vehicles which move aircraft on the ground. As their definitions are the same, they can be treated as full synonyms.
The final case of full synonymy can be noticed in the definitions of with the words glide path and glideslope:
Glide path - the flight path of an aircraft during approach, especially when making an ILS landing. Also glidepath, glideslope.
Glideslope - See glide path.
As the definition Glideslope, refers directly to glide path and the structure of these terms is very similar, it can be stated that these are full synonyms.
The case of near synonymy can be seen while comparing the terms chute, escape slide and slide:
Chute - a rapid-inflation pneumatic channel to enable passengers and crew to evacuate quickly, it is also referred to as an escape slide
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escape slide - a rapid-inflation pneumatic channel to enable passengers and crew to evacuate quickly also referredto as a chute: inflatable escape slides can also be used as life rafts in case of ditching
slide - a rapid-inflation pneumatic channel to enable passengers and crew to evacuate quickly; also referred to as a chute:
Out of these three terms, Chute is the most colloquial. It also can be mistaken for the shortened version of a term parachute. Even though the definitions are almost identical, these terms are only partially synonymous. In Lithuanian, all 3 of those terms have an equivalent: gelbėjimo slydė. One dictionary provides another term nuleistuvas and slydė. Even though gelbėjimo slydė and slydė can be seen as full synonyms, the term nuleistuvas is usually used to refer to a tool suitable for draining the water. Thus it cannot be treated as a full synonym.
Another near synonym can be seen by comparing terms aerodrome, field and strip:
aerodrome - any place from which aircraft flight operations take place
field - another term for the aerodrome or airport; airfield is also used
Strip - Strip can also refer to an airstrip or small runway.
All of these terms refer to a place, suitable for a plane to take off and land. In some cases these can even be used interchangeably. However, strip refers to a very small airfield. Aerodrome on the other hand is slightly larger, usually paved, but does not necessarily include terminal or buildings. Field or and airfield can be both paved an unpaved, but usually do not have terminals. Thus these terms are only partially synonymous.
Bowser and fuel tanker is another example of the near synonymy:
bowser - vehicle which pumps fuel from an underground fuel distribution system. Aircraft are refuelled either by tankers or bowsers.
fuel tanker - vehicle containing aircraft fuel
Fuel tanker is a vehicle which contains the fuel and can refuel the aircraft. However it has one main difference from bowser. Bowser can also pump the fuel from the underground fuel distribution system while fuel tanker does not have that ability.
There are near synonyms in Lithuanian language which does not appear in English. For example: variklio traukos svirtis, droselis, droselinė sklendė. They all refer to the same concept
39 of the throttle of the aircraft or other piece of machinery. Fuselage in Lithuanian is also referred by several words: liemuo, fiuzeliažas, korpusas, fiuzeliažo griaučiai. While liemuo and fiuzeliažas can be treated as full synonyms as they refer to the same concept, fiuzeliažo griaučiai and korpusas refer to the inner construction of the fuselage. Thus they cannot be treated as synonyms. Another Lithuanian example is antenos aptakas and radiolokatoriaus gaubtas. These terms refer to the same object and can be used interchangeably.
6
5
4
3 The English terms The Lithuanian terms
2
1
0 Complete synonymy Near synonymy
Figure 5.1.2 Cases of complete and partial synonymy in aviation terminology
The analysis of synonymy relations shows that there are cases when terms can be used interchangeably in every context. However, related terms usually have a different level of formality or refer to slightly different things and cannot be used interchangeably. Thus there are many cases of near synonymy. Figure 5.1.2 illustrates the findings of the research and shows that the synonymy relations in English and Lithuanian aviation terminology are quiet similar.
5.1.2 Hyponymy relations of aviation terms
Some of the terms which were taken from the glossary have hyponymy relations with one another. This subsection provides examples and explains the hierarchical structure of hyponyms, co- hyponyms and hypernyms of aviation terms. From the list of 551 terms, such hyponymy relations can be seen: ground handling personnel, dispatcher, Aircraft maintenance technician, ground handler, line mechanic, and Loadmaster person ; Antonov, ATR, Citation, Embraer 190/195, Dash
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8, MD-83, Saab 340, and triple seven; wide body and triple seven; Freighter and Fighter; cumuliform cloud, cumulonimbu, and stratiform cloud; headwind, Tailwind, Crosswind, Squall, surface wind and upper level wind; Precipitation, Drizzle, Hail, and snow flurries; Windshear, overshoot windshear and undershoot windshear, Gear, main gear and nose gear; freight terminal, general aviation terminal and passenger terminal; taxiway and outer taxiway; Ground service equipment, Ground power unit, air start unit, tow vehicle, tow-bar, and tug; baggage cart, Air Start Unit, baggage cart, bowser, catering truck, crew minibus, de-icing truck, fire engine, follow-me car, friction tester, fuel tanker, passenger coach, snow blower, snow plough, sweeper, tow vehicle, tractor, tug, toilet servicing truck, and water servicing truck; Emergency and fuel emergency; warning and bomb warning; Injury and bruise; autobrake, autopilot, autothrottle, and autothrust; green system, yellow system, Ground Proximity Warning System, Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System, Terrain Awareness and Warning System, Global Positioning System, Advanced Visual Docking Guidance System, Instrument Landing System, inertial navigation system, and Traffic Collision Avoidance System; nautical mile and statute mile; asymmetry and flap asymmetry. Hyponymy relations can also be found among the Lithuanian terms: skrydžio įgula, antrasis pilotas, orlaivio palydovas,and įgulos vadas; antžeminės įgulos narys oro uoste ar karinėje oro pajėgų bazėje and žmogus, atsakingas už lėktuvo pakrovimą; priešinis vėjas, šoninis vėjas, pažemio vėjas, and aukštuminis vėjas, naikintuvas, and krovininis lėktuvas; krituliai: smulkus lietus, dulksna, and kruša; aerodromas and atsarginis aerodromas; autopiloto sistema, traukos automatinio valdymo sistema, žemės artumo perspėjimo sistema, and tūpimo pagal prietaisus Sistema. The first hyponymy relation can be noticed between the terms ground handling personnel, dispatcher, Aircraft maintenance technician, ground handler, line mechanic, and Loadmaster person:
ground handling personnel - airport staff including the dispatcher, the loadmaster, baggage handlers, mechanics or engineers, the tug driver, caterers, water servicing staff, waste water staff, refuelling agent, cleaners etc.
The definition of ground handling personnel shows that it is a superordinate term as it includes a list of staff which belongs to ground handling personnel. Thus, this term is a hypernym and the listed terms are hyponyms. The listed terms are also co-hyponyms to each other. Another hyponymy relation can be noticed in the semantic field of aircraft type. In general, Aircraft type itself can be treated as a hypernym and the listed terms in this field as hyponyms. However, it is also possible to distinguish three smaller hyponymy relations. For example:
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Freighter - a plane for carrying heavy freight, such as industrial equipment, raw materials, livestock, food, parcels and goods Fighter - military combat aircraft: the Sukhoi Su-27, the F-15 and the Dassault Rafale are all jet fighters These terms can be seen as co-hyponyms as they refer to the role of the aircraft, freighter being an airplane which is capable of carrying cargo and fighter as a combat aircraft. Similar hyponymy relation can be noticed in Lithuanian equivalents naikintuvas and krovininis lėktuvas as well, where their role is defined. In the definition of the fighter more specific types and models are provided, thus it can also make the term fighter a hypernym and Sukhoi Su-27, the F-15 and the Dassault Rafale hyponyms. Another example is wide body and triple seven: Wide body - large transport aircraft with two cabin aisles such as the B747, B767, B777, A330, A340, A380
Triple seven - a Boeing 777 wide-body, twin engine, long-range jet airline
In this example wide body is a hypernym as it is a more general term, while triple seven or Boeing 777 is a kind of a wide-body aircraft. Finally, there are a number of aircraft names in this semantic field which can be considered co-hyponyms of a subordinate term aircraft: Antonov, ATR, Citation, Embraer 190/195, Dash 8, MD-83, Saab 340, triple seven. These co-hyponyms do not have equivalents in Lithuanian language, as the aircraft names are usually not translated. Different kinds of clouds are also related by hyponymy: Cumuliform cloud - cloud formation made of a large aggregate or mass of cloud
Cumulonimbus - a type of cloud characterised by its density, large size and height, its tendency to create stormy conditions and the hazard it represents for aircraft. It often has a characteristic ‘anvil’ shape
Stratiform cloud - a stratified or layered cloud
As it can be noticed in the definitions, Cumuliform cloud refers to one type of cloud. It can also be classified further and act as a hypernym. However, such examples were not provided in a source. Cumulonimbus and Stratiform cloud can be treated as co-hyponyms to Cumuliform type as these clouds form in a different manner. Another example includes 6 different types of winds: headwind, Tailwind, Crosswind, Squall, surface wind and upper level win. The difference between those terms is that the direction ( headwind, tailwind, crosswind), altitude (surface wind, high level winds) and strength (squall) of the wind is different. Thus they can be treated as co-hyponyms because they refer to differently 42 characterized winds. Similar hyponymy relation can be noticed with the lithuanian equivalents as well: priešinis vėjas, šoninis vėjas (different direction), pažemio vėjas, aukštuminis vėjas (different altitude). Similarly, such terms as nautical mile and statute mile can be treated as co-hyponyms as they refer to different kinds of miles. The same relation is also noticed with the terms: freight terminal, general aviation terminal and passenger terminal as they refer to different kind of terminals. Another example is also related to weather, and includes such terms as Precipitation drizzle, hail, and snow flurries. Precipitation is a hypernym as it is a more general word: Precipitation- moisture released from the atmosphere and falling as rain, snow, hail etc.
Drizzle- very light but constant rain
Hail- precipitation in the form of compacted ice and snow: hail storms can cause significant structural damage
Snow flurries- sudden rapid falls of snow
In this case drizzle, hail and snow flurries are co-hyponyms in relation to each other and hyponyms of a Precipitation. From these definitions it is also possible to see that drizzle is also a hyponym of rain. Lithuanian equivalents share the same hyponymy relations as their English counterparts: krituliai acts as a hypernym while smulkus lietus, dulksna, kruša are hyponyms. Similarly to English, smulkus lietus and dulksna, can also be seen as co-hyponyms for superordinate term rain. Further, taxiway and outer taxiway are related by hyponymy:
taxiway - paved way for aircraft to move to and from the terminals and different parts of the airport outer taxiway - continuous taxiway between apron and inner taxiways and runways allowing aircraft to circumnavigate (taxi around) the terminals for easier access
Taxiway refers to a broader term and can be treated as a superordinate, while outer taxiway is more specific. Defintion also includes another hyponym: inner taxiway which is co-hyponym to outer taxiway. Another example includes Windshear, overshoot windshear and undershoot windshear. Windshear is a hypernym while overshoot windshear and undershoot windshear are hyponyms as they refer to different kinds of windshear.
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The same hyponymy relations can also be noticed in terms such as injury (hypernym) and bruise(hyponym), warning(hypernym) and bomb warning (hyponym), Emergency (hypernym),and fuel emergency (hyponym), Landing gear (hypernym), main gear (hyponym) and nose gear (hyponym) A large number of terms related by hyponymy can be seen in two different group of vehicles: baggage cart, Air Start Unit, baggage cart, bowser, catering truck, crew minibus, de- icing truck, fire engine, follow-me car, friction tester, fuel tanker, passenger coach, snow blower, snow plough, sweeper, tow vehicle, tractor, tug, toilet servicing truck, and water servicing truck. All these terms can be distinguished as co-hyponyms as they all refer to kind of vehicles used in the airport. Another, similarly large group of terms refer to various aircraft systems: autobrake, autopilot, autothrottle, and autothrust; green system, yellow system, Ground Proximity Warning System, Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System, Terrain Awareness and Warning System, Global Positioning System, Advanced Visual Docking Guidance System, Instrument Landing System, inertial navigation system, and Traffic Collision Avoidance System. These can also be treated as co- hyponyms. However, two systems could be distinguished from the definitions of those terms: hydraulic systems which include green system and yellow system; automatic systems which refer to: autobrake, autopilot, autothrottle, autothrust; Lithuanian terms aerodromas and atsarginis aerodromas also share they hyponymy relation. Aerodromas in this case can be treated as a subordinate term and atsarginis aerodromas as a hyponym. Aerodromas is also a more general term while atsarginis aerodromas is more specific as it defines the type of the aeodrome. Another set of terms which have similar hyponymy relations is skrydžio įgula, antrasis pilotas, orlaivio palydovas and įgulos vadas. Skrydžio įgula is a general word used to describe all the crew, while antrasis pilotas, orlaivio palydovas and įgulos vadas describes the individuals. However, it can also be seen as a case of meronymy relation as antrasis pilotsas, orlaivio palydovas and įgulos vadas are a part of the skrydžio įgula. The analysis of hyponymy relations of aviation terms showed that there are several types of hyponymy relations between the terms: relation between a hypernym and hyponym or hyponyms. Terms can be co-hyponyms to each other while some of those co-hyponyms can also be hypernyms to other terms. Finally the number of hyponymy cases in English and Lithuanian terms is presented in the Figure 5.1.3:
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Cases of hyponymy Lithuanian terms English Terms
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 5.1.3. Cases of hyponymy among the English and Lithuanian aviation terms. In a Figure 5.1.3 it can be seen that English terms have a higher amount of hyponymy relations (23) than Lithuanian terms (7). However this can be explained by the fact that there are a lower number of equivalent Lithuanian terms. To conclude the semantic analysis, it can be said that English and Lithuanian aviation terms are quite similar in terms of synonymy. However there are more cases of hyponymy in English aviation terms
5.2 Morphological analysis of English and Lithuanian aviation terms
This section of the thesis performs the morphological analysis of terms based on term classification by Dubuc. Terms are classified into simple terms which consists of one word, complex terms, which are made of two or more words and terminological phrases. A lot of English terms in the glossary were written in abbreviated and non- abbreviated form. Thus, in order to not distort the results by including the same term, abbreviations were removed from the quantitative analysis of term formation and are separately analysed in subsection 5.2.4..
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Complexity of English aviation terms 2%
39% Simple terms Complex terms Terminological phrases
59%
Figure 5.2.1 Complexity of English aviation terms
Figure 5.2.1 shows how English aviation terms are distributed by the terms of complexity. By looking at the percentage, it can be seen that there are more complex terms than simple terms in English Aviation terminology. There is also a small number of terminological phrases which are mostly used in specific radio communication.
Complexity of Lithuanian aviation terms
3%
Simple terms 46% Complex terms 51% Terminological phrases
Figure 5.2.2 Complexity of Lithuanian aviation terms
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Figure 5.2.2 shows the Lithuanian aviation terminology distribution regarding the complexity. In comparison with the results of Table 5.2.1, there are more simple terms and terminological phrases and less complex terms. However, both tables show that Complex terms dominate the aviation terminology.
5.2.1 Analysis of simple terms Out of all English terms (Excluding abbreviations), 39% are simple terms. In comparison, 46% of all Lithuanian terms are simple terms.
The English simple terms are: Aft, Airborne, Airbridge, Airframe, Airstairs, Antonov, Attitude, Autobrake, Autopilot, Avoidance, Ceiling, Chocks, Chute, Citation, Commander, Component, Confirm, Crabbing, Debris, Ditching, Emergency, Evacuation, Exhaust, Failure, Freighter, Gear, Glideslope, Gusty, Hail, Handover (n), Hangar, Haze, Hercules, Higher, Hypoxia, Inbound, Microburst, Millibars, Navaid, Noise, Pier, Radome, Ramp, Readback, Satellite, Sector, Speedbrakes, Stall, Strip, Tailpipe, Tailwind, Track, Transponder, Unable, Unconsciousness, Upwind, Warning, abort (v), acknowledge (v), advance (v), aerodrome, affirm, alternate (n), apron, asymmetry, autoland, autothrust, axle, backtrack (v), bearing, blade, bowser, breakdown, bruise, buffeting, callsign, chart, clear, clearance, cleared, concussion, contact(v), copy (v), correction, cowling, crosswind, cumulonimbus, damper, deflect (v), dew point / dewpoint, disorientation, dispatcher, don (v), downdraught / downdraft, downwind, drift (n), drizzle, dump (v), eastbound, elevation, elevator, empennage, enplane (v)., field, fighter, finger, flameout / flame-out, flare, flightpath / flight path, flow, forecast, fuselage, galley, gantry, garbled, gate, glareshield, handoff (n), heading (HDG), headwind, hectoPascal, hijacker, injury, intercept (n), intersection, intoxicated, jettison (v), jetty, jetway, leg, loadmaster, marshaller, miss (n), negative, northerly, obscuration, offload (v), orbit (v), overcast, overfly (v), overshoot (v), pallet, paving, precipitation, probes, purser, pylon, radial, ramp supervisor, read (v), readout, reclear (v), recovery, report (v), request (v), require (n), rescue (v), resume (v), revert (v), rim, roger, runway, seize (v), separate (v), sequencing, shift (n), skid (v), skin, slide, slippery, smoke, squall, squawk (n and v), stabilizer, stack, stand (n), steps, stopway, surge, surge (n), sweeper, taxiway, terrain, threat (n), throttles, torching, track (v), tractor, traffic, tug, turboprop, updraught, waypoint, westbound, wick, wilco, windshear, windsock, yoke Lithuanian simple terms are: (su)klaidinimas; dezorientavimas; hipòksija; n sužeidimas, 85km per val.); n jūrmylė; a grįžtantis; parskrendantis; n sektorius dalis, Dispečeris; n signalininkas (žmogus, apskrieti; v perskristi; išlýginimas, atitaisymas; a neigiamas; n nepritarimas, daviklis; liestukas (metalą surandantis prietaisas); n pilonas; n tech. atrama; ratlankis; slydė; n stabilizatorius; apkala; apsiuva; n danga; n vairaratis; n vairalazdė; aerodròmas; perònas; n laukas; n pirštas; kaištis; įėjimas, dempferis; n išleidimas; išmetimas; 47 liemuõ, dūmelis; n sutr. meteorologija; apsiniaukı̇̀mas; n krituliai; póslinkis; n pakeitimas, elementas; n gaubtas; dangtis; n tech. duslintuvas; amortizatorius; slopintuvas, galinis; n sklandumo; n ašis; velenas; mentė; n šnek.parašiutas; nuleistuvas, individualus v skirti; at(si)skirti, iš(si)skirti; tū́ psnis; sekı̇̀mas; v stebėti, išmesti; pérskraidinimas; Išlýginimas; v perimti sustabdyti; v išpilti (degalus) išmesti; v pavėluoti; suktis, išėjimas (oro uoste); n angaras; n susikirtimas; n danga; perònas; n rampa; padėklas;̃ n (kilnojamoji) platforma; n (vilkiko) grąžulas; n vėjarodis; v patvirtinti; šaukinys; a aiškus suprantamas; leidı̇̀mas; v pa(si)tvirtinti; n kontaktas; n ryšys; bendravimas spec. kontaktas; n (iš)taisymas, judėjimas; n autopilotas; n kratiklis; n atsakiklis; prep priekyje; prieš; n (iš)vengimas., korpusas, kuris rankomis rodo lėktuvui kelią į stovėjimo vietą); n keleiviai; n naikintuvas; plačialiemenis; n riba, latakas; n komponentas, lentelė, liepsnojimas; n įspėjimas, lubos; n prognozavimas; krušà; miglelė, lūženos; n evakuacija; v gesinti; n gedimas; paieška ir gelbėjimas; n (iš)gelbėjimas v (iš)gelbėti; užsikirsti (apie variklį); n (ratų) šliaužimas, n atstatymas; a atskiras skirtingas, n fiuzelažas; važiuõklė; n zondas jutiklis, nesutikimas draudimas; n triukšmas; v suprasti; girdėti; n atkartojimas; n (prietaiso) rodmenys; v pranešti; n prašymas; (pa)reikalavimas v prašyti; pageidavimas v prašyti; (mandagiai) reikalauti; v reikėti (pa)reikalauti, nukrypimas; n smuka; atótrūkis; n pelengas; azimutas; rumbas; n diagrama, pamaina; n pasikeitimas, pataisymas, pavojus; n degimas, perkėlimas, permaina perėjimas; keisti(s); pa(si)keisti; n škvalas, perspėjimas; v nutraukti; n pakilimas; aukštėjimas; pradinis kilimas; v nukrypti nukreipti; v išpilti, plotas, ruožas; n kelias, schema, sekti; bãftingas; núonaša; n deviacija, skrieti, slydimas; a slidus; n dūmai; pompãžas; v banguoti; kilti; n grėsmė, spindulinis; n radialas; n vietovė, sumušimas; n dezorientacija, takas; n eismas, teritorija; n mėlynė, toliau daryti, trauma pakenkimas (to); n sužalojimas; n hercas (dažnio vienetas); n mazgas (greičio matas 1, tęsti (po pertraukos); v (su)grįžti (to); n gedimas; avarija; n nuolaužos, viesulas; n pavėjis; a užpakalinis, įsakyti; v atnaujinti; vėl pradėti, žemėlapis; aviahorizontas; pavėjui; n aukštis (virš jūros lygio); tūptı̇̀nė; kùrsas; a radialinis Simple English terms are formed by using derivational affixes, for example: fighter (fight + er), freighter (freight +er), sweeper (sweep+er), buffeting (to buffet + ing), correction (correct + ion), clearance (clear +ance), cowling (cowl +ing). There are some cases of compounding e.g. : crosswind (cross +wind), headwind (head + wind), downdraft (down + draft). The terminologization can also be noticed, e.g. cowl, finger. There are cases of transdisciplinary borrowing of the terms such as Hypoxia. According to Online etymological dictionary, terms like fuselage, empennage, and aerodrome are directly borrowed from French. Simple Lithuanian terms are also formed using derivational affixes, for example: Ištaisymas (iš+taisyti + ymas), pataisymas (pa+taisyti + ymas), atitaisymas (ati+taisyti +ymas), atsiskirti (at+si+skirti), išsiskirti (iš+si+skirti); išpilti (iš+pilti), išmesti (iš+mesti). Compounding
48 is also vastly used, e.g.: Plačialiemenis (platus+liemuo), vairalazdė (vairas+lazda); jūrmylė (jūra+mylia), žemėlapis (žemė+lapas); autopilotas (auto+pilotas), vairaratis (vairas+ratas), ratlankis (ratas+lankas), vėjarodis (vėją+rodo), One of the specific features of Lithuanian language is that there are international words such as Dispečeris, komponentas, elementas, fiuzelažas; evakuacija; azimutas, deviacija The analysis of simple terms shows that both English and Lithuanian terms share the similar methods of term formation such as derivational affixes, compounding, terminologization and the use of borrowed or international words.
5.2.2 Analysis of complex terms
More than a half of the term, both in English (59%) and in Lithuanian (51%) are complex terms, which according to Dubuc (1997: 38) are made out of two or more words and have a grammatical relationship. IF one of the components of such term is removed, then the whole term changes the meaning. There are 299 complex English aviation terms while in Lithuanian language, the number is a bit lower – 182 terms. The English complex terms are: AC Essential feed, Advanced Visual Docking Guidance System, Air Data Computer, Aircraft maintenance technician, Approach Control frequency, Automatic Direction Finder, Cabin depressurisation, Conditional clearance, Dash 8, Dutch roll, Embraer 190/195, Flight Control Unit, Frequency congestion, Ground Proximity Warning System, ILS Transmitters, ILS critical area, INS check point, INS warning, Instinctive disconnect push button, Instrument Landing System, Instrument approach procedure (IAP), Jeppesen charts, MD-83, Mach number, Mode Control Panel, Navigation Display, Non-Directional Beacon, Position report, RT loading, Radio Management Panel, Saab 340, System 1, amber transit lights, angle of attack, angled exit / turn-off, anti-ice / anti-icing, approach charts, approach segments, area navigation, assigned level, auto-flight system, aviation English, avionics bay, avoiding action, back course, baggage cart, base turn, belt conveyor, bird strike, black-hole effect, blast fence, blind spot, blow-out (n), bogged down, bomb scare, bomb warning, broken up, bus control unit, cabin attendant, cargo terminal, catering truck, centre pedestal, challenge-response call, circuit breaker, circuits and bumps, climb-out (n), coast guards, conflicting traffic, contingency plan, control tower, controlled airspace, cowl panel, crew minibus, cumuliform cloud, customer service manager, de-icing station, de-icing truck, decision altitude, decision height, digital flight data recorder, drainage grate, drift correction, drift-down (n), drifting snow, drive motor, electronic racks, emergency code, emergency descent, emergency exit, engine run-up, engine run-up area / pad, escape slide, explosive device, explosive device, fast landing, feet per minute, ferry flight, final approach track, fire engine, fire extinguisher squib, flap asymmetry, flaps- 49 up landing, flight crew, flight deck, flight idle., flight plan, flightpath / flight path, flow management, foam carpet, foam crash tender, follow-me car, freezing level, freight terminal, friction tester, fuel emergency, fuel farm, fuel hydrant, fuel manifold, fuel tanker, full-stop landing, general aviation pilot, general aviation terminal, glide path, glideslope antenna, go around (v), go- around (n), green system, ground handler, ground handling personnel, hand signals, heads-down, hearback error, high-speed approach, high-speed exit, high-speed tug, holding pattern identifier, holding point / position, horizontal stabilizer, hot section, ice patches, in-flight turnback, inboard / outboard spoilers, indicated airspeed, inertial navigation system, initial approach fix, intercept ILS (v), intercept heading, jet streams, joining clearance, known traffic, land long (v), land short (v), laser gyro, late flare, lateral track offset procedure, leading edge, level change, line mechanic, line up (v), localizer antenna, long straight-in approach, long way round, low ceiling, low pass, lower cargo deck, magnetic track, main equipment centre, main gear, mean sea level, met office, metal debris, mobile lounge, mountain wave effect, nautical mile, no show (n), non-precision approach, nose gear, nose-down correction, nose-in, nose-up elevator, oblique exit / turn-off, on hold, on runway heading, outbound track, outer taxiway, outer windshield panel, outflow valve, outgoing flight, outlying stand, overhead panel, overshoot windshear, pack controller, parking brake, passenger address, passenger coach, passenger coach, passenger steps, passenger terminal, perimeter fencing, pick up (v), pilot in command, pitch-down movement, pitot heat, precautionary landing, primary surveillance radar, probe heat, radar antenna, radar surveillance approach, radar vectors, radio altitude, radio operator, radio silence, readback error, readback/ hearback error, red cap, relief crew, remote stand, repair station, report vacating / vacated, reporting point, retract the gear (v), reverse thrust, risk factor, risk management, run up (v), runway centreline lighting, runway centreline marking, runway confusion, runway edge lighting, runway exit, runway exit sign, runway holding point / position marking, scissor lift loader, secondary surveillance radar, shallow mist, smooth tops, snow blower, snow flurries, snow plough, stabilized approach, static discharger, statute mile, step climb (n), step-down fix, sterile cockpit, stick shaker, stop bar, straight-in, stratiform cloud, surface movement radar, surface wind, take-off point, take-off roll, taxi location sign, taxiway ending marking, toilet servicing truck, touch and go (n), tow vehicle, tow-bar, traffic circuit, traffic conflict, traffic on the roll, traffic pattern, trailing edge, transient parking, trim fuel valve, trim tank, triple seven, undershoot windshear, upper level winds, visual approach, visual contact, visual references, visual separation, wake turbulence, water servicing truck, weather bureau, wide body, words twice, yellow system. The Lithuanian complex terms are: aeronavigacijos schema; antenos aptakas; antrasis pilotas; antrinis sekimo radaras; antrı̇̀nis apžvalgõs radiolokãtorius; apatinė debesų riba; apledė́jimo lỹgis; apsisprendimo absoliutusis aukštis; artė́jimas tū̃pti tiesè; artė́jimo tū̃pti pagal ̃
50 prı̇́etaisus tvarkà; atakos kampas; atgalinė trauka; atmosferinis slėgis nuo vidutinio jūros lygio; atsakiklio signalas; atsarginis aerodromas; aukštis virš jūros lygio; aukšto dažnio; aukštuminis vėjas; aukštyneigė srovė; aukščio vairas; automatinis tūpimas; automãtinis rãdijo pelengãtorius; autopiloto sistema; avarinis kuro išpylimas išpilti kurą ore; avarinis leidimasis į žemesnį aukštį, žemėjimas; aviacinių degalų cisterna; avãrinė angà, avãrinės dùrys, avarinis išėjimas; avãrinė evakuãcija; betonuota aikštelė prieš angarą; buvı̇̀mo viẽtos pranešı̇̀mas; degalų nupylimas; deguonies trūkumas audiniuose; didelis debesuotumas; droselis, droselinė sklendė; eismo schema; el. automatinis pertraukiklis; galinis, esantis gale; gelbėjimosi slydė; giedro dangaus turbulencija; grįžimas į pirmykštę padėtį; horizontalusis stabilizatorius; iš(si)rikiuoti; išmetamasis vamzdis; kabı̇̀nos pókalbių savı̇̀rašis; kamuoliniai lietaus debesys; kelias; kilimo ir leidimosi denis; kilimo ir tūpimo takas; kilimo rieda; kilı̇̀mo ir ̃ tūpı̇̀mo tãko matomùmo núotolis; kontroliuojama erdvė; kritiška padėtis; krovininis lėktuvas; laukimo schema; laukimo taškas; lazerinis giroskopas; ledı̇̀janti dulksnà; lėktuvas su traukiamuoju oro sraigtu; lėktuvo karkasas; lėktuvo padėtis ore lyginant su horizontu; lėktuvo pagrobėjas; lėktuvo uodegos surinkimas; lėktuvo važiuoklė; lėktuvo šaukinys; lėktuvų stovėjimo aikštelė; Macho skaičius; maršrutas; maršruto taškas; matomas kilimo ir tūpimo tako atstumas; navigacinė pagalba; nedidelis rūkas; nekryptinis radijo švyturys; nenumatytas/blogiausias atvejis; orlaivio virtuvė; orų prognozė; pagrindinė važiuoklė; pakilęs į orą; pažemio vėjas; perspėjimas apie priartėjimą prie kito lėktuvo; plačialiemenis lėktuvas; plūginis sniego valytuvas; pranešimo taškas; priartėjimas tūpti; priekinis ratas; priekinė briauna; prietaiso greitis; prieš vėją; priešinis vėjas; priverstinis tūpimas ant vandens; radiolokacinis nukreipimas; radiolokatoriaus gaubtas; radiotelefoninis ryšys; rasos taškas; riedėjimo takas,; skrydžio planas; skrydžio ruožas, atkarpa; skrydžio trajektorija; skrydžio įgula; skrydžių valdymo bokštas; smulkus lietus; sparno priekinė briauna; srauto skydas; srovės pertraukiklis; staigi trumpa audra; staigus padidėjimas; standartinė išvykimo pagal prietaisus iš aerodromo sistema; sudedamoji dalis, komponentas; susidūrimas su paukščiu; tikslaus artėjimo kelio indikatorius; turbininio ; vykstantis į rytus; vykstantis į vakarus; apsaugantis nuo apledėjimo; variklio pompažas; tūpimo išlyginimas; tūpimo pagal prietaisus sistema; tūptinės nuolydis, glisada; uodegos plokštumos; valkčio turbulencija; variklio bandymas prieš kilimą; vertikalaus greičio indikatorius; vidutinis jūros lygis; vietos aukštis; vėjo poslinkis; zonos navigacija; čiurkšlinė tėkmė; įgulos pamaina; įgulos vadas; šoninis vėjas; žemyneigis srautas; žemės artumo perspėjimo sistema; meteorològinės są́ lygos pagal ̃ prı̇́etaisus; meteorologinės sąlygos skrydžiams pagal prietaisus; nupilti degalus; nuskridı̇̀mo kẽlias; olándiškasis žiñgsnis; oro piratas; paieška ir gelbėjimas; pakopinis aukštėjimas; pakrovimo vieta; pakópinio žemė́jimo kontrõlinis tãškas; plačialiemenis orlaivis; pokrypis ir posvyris; pradinis kilimas; pradı̇̀nio artė́jimo tū̃pti kontròlinis tãškas; priartė́jimo tū̃pti trajektòrija; prietaiso rodomas oro greitis; rasõs tãško temperatūrà;
51 reguliarùsis aviãcinis orų̃ pranešı̇̀mas; skraı̇ dantysis̃ radı̇̀stas, antžemı̇̀nis radiooperãtorius; skrỹdžio duomenų̃ skaitmenı̇̀nis savı̇̀rašis; skrỹdžio valdymõ sistemà; srauto atitrūkimas; stabdymo takas; standártinis išskridı̇̀mas pagal ̃ prı̇́etaisus; stòp lı̇̀nijos žiburỹs; susidūrı̇̀mų sù paũkščiais grėsmė;̃ susidūrı̇̀mų vengı̇̀mo bòrto sistemà; susikirtimo taškas; tinklo apsaugos automatas; tı̇̀ksliojo artė́jimo tū̃pti trajektòrijos indikãtorius; toliãmačio į̇ranga;́ traukiamasis oro sraigtas; traukos automatinio valdymo sistema; tūpı̇̀mo nutraukı̇̀mas; Tūptinės trajektorija/kelias; užpakalinė briauna; išriedėti prie vykdomo starto linijos; lipti/sodinti į lėktuvą.; pakeisti kryptį/kursą; prarasti greitį: netekti greičio; vedantis/einantis į vakarus; vizualùsis kontãktas; órlaivio dangà’ varı̇̀klio traukõs svı̇̀rtis; órlaivio padėtı̇̀s erdvėjè; órlaivio smukà, atótrūkis; órlaivio vãdas; óro navigãcijos prı̇́emonė; į̇guloś kabinà, n orlaivio denis, n lakūno kabina; į̇taisaś nuõ apledė́jimo; žemė́jimas kreiseriniù režimù; žemųjų dažnių filtras;n orlaivio palydovas All of the selected terms and their equivalents fulfil the requirements for the complex terms as they are made of two or more words. Even though the majority of the complex terms consist of two words, there are a lot of examples which consist of three or more words.
5.2.3 Analysis of terminological phrases Terminological phrases belong to the smallest category of aviation terms. Among the English aviation terms there are only 11 terminological phrases: Are you visual?; current Information K; how do you read?; pass your message (v); Please give us five miles behind the heavy;; We ‘may’ request a diversion; established in cruise; extend the RAT (v); perform a 360 (v); abeam the runway; ahead of the aircraft. There are also 8 Lithuanian aviation terminological phrases: antžeminės įgulos narys oro uoste ar karinėje oro pajėgų bazėje; n žmogus, atsakingas už lėktuvo pakrovimą;ypač stiprus vėjo poslinkis kartu su audra; atsarginis elektros srovės variklis, kuris gamina elektros srovę, kai lėktuvas stovi; n stabdžio padėtis, kai lėktuvas stovi; n lėktuvo grąžinimo į pradinę padėtį priemonė; n lėktuvo kratymas skrydžio metu dėl stipraus vėjo; n rankų ženklai lėktuvui į stovėjimo vietą nukreipti; Differently from simple or complex terms, terminological phrases are much longer and some of them even reminds the extended definitions of the word. That is especially apparent in Lithuanian terminological phrases.
5.2.4 Analysis of abbreviated terms
As it was mentioned in subsection 4.2.2 abbreviations with over 7000 examples, play a key role in aviation terminology. In Lithuanian aviation terminology, no abbreviations were found. However, there are 54 abbreviation in the selection of English terms: AMT, FBO (Fixed Base Operator), F/O, pax, PF (pilot flying), PNF (Pilot Not Flying or Pilot Non-Flying), CB, IMC (Instrument Meteorological Conditions), MET / met, METAR, NOSIG, QNH, APU (Auxiliary Power Unit), IDG (Integrated Drive Generator), PSU (Passenger Service Unit), RAT (Ram Air Turbine), THS
52
(Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer), VSI (Vertical Speed Indicator), HIRL (High Intensity Runway Lighting), TWY, ASU (Air Start Unit), GPU (ground power unit), GSE (Ground Service Equipment), PAPI (Precision Approach Path Indicator), Asap, CAVOK (Ceiling and Visibility OK) , HF (High Frequency), PIREP (pilot reports), RTF / R/T, CFIT (Controlled Flight Into Terrain), FOD (foreign object damage), SID (Standard Instrument Departure), IAF, RVR (Runway Visual Range), VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range), fpm, Hz (Hertz), in.Hg, kt (knots), FIR (Flight Information Region), TMA (Terminal Control Area / Terminal Manoeuvring Area), ACAS (Airborne Collision Avoidance System), ADF (Automatic Direction Finder), AGNIS (Azimuth Guidance for Nose-In Stand), DME (Distance Measuring Equipment), EGPWS (Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System), FMS (Flight Management System), ILS (Instrument Landing System), INS, TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System), ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival), ETD (Estimated Time of Departure). Most of these abbreviations are initialisms. However, the following examples are acronyms, which are pronounced syllabically just like regular words: RAT (Ram Air Turbine), MET / met METAR NOSIG PAPI (Precision Approach Path Indicator) PIREP (pilot reports), FOD (foreign object damage), SID (Standard Instrument Departure), AGNIS (Azimuth Guidance for Nose-In Stand),. However, there are some examples, which according to Civil Aviation Authority have a specific pronunciation: ACAS (Airborne Collision Avoidance System) (pronounced “AY- CASS”), CAVOK (Ceiling and Visibility OK) (pronounced “KAV-OH-KAY”) TCAS (tee-kass). Some of the abbreviations look like acronyms, however, they must always be pronounced letter by letter, for example: FIR (Flight Information Region). There is also one example which can be pronounced either as a word or as 4 letters: ASAP (As Soon as Possible). As it can be seen from the examples, abbreviations in aviation terminology can be used as both the initialisms and as acronyms. However some of the terms are pronounced differently as the use of these terms is regulated by Civil Aviation Authority. The fact that there are not aviation abbreviations in Lithuanian aviation terminology is the major difference from English aviation terminology. This analysis shows that in terms of word formation, there are no major differences, except the lack of abbreviations in Lithuanian aviation terminology. Terms in both languages are mostly formed by using derivation and compounding. However, some cases of borrowing can also be noticed in English terminology while in Lithuanian terminology, these words can be called internationalisms. Complex terms in both languages are mostly made from two elements, but there are some exceptions when a complex term is made from four or five elements. These longer terms appear more frequently in English aviation terminology.
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6 CONCLUSIONS
According to the objectives set at the Introduction of the thesis, such conclusions can be made: • Modern aviation mostly developed since the beginning of the XXth century and the first Lithuanian aviation terms appeared in the interwar period as aviation was a quite important and modern field in the country. However the only major work on aviation terminology since the interwar period was the release of Civilinės aviacijos terminų žodynas in 1996. • 551 terms related to aviation were collected from the Flightpath Glossary of Aviation Terms. 152 equivalent Lithuanian terms were found in Civilinės aviacijos terminų žodynas, (1996) 103 in Mokomasis anglų–lietuvių kalbų orlaivių techninės priežiūros terminų žodynas (2012) and 213 in English-Lithuanian dictionary of aviation(2014.) Quite a large number of equivalent terms was not found and that could be explained by the fact that some English terms were too specific and did not have equivalents in Lithuanian language. Another factor is that in Lithuanian language, many complex terms can be explained using general words. This might discourage the creation of new terms. Another reason is that English aviation terminology uses a lot of abbreviations. However, there are no aviation abbreviations present in Lithuanian language. • Etymological data was collected which showed that most of the English terms or parts of the compound words are of Latin, French, German or English origin. • Semantic analysis of English and Lithuanian aviation terms was carried out by looking at the synonymy and hyponymy relations between the terms. In total, 16 semantic fields were created according to Dubuc’s (1997) breakdown of the subject field. Most Lithuanian equivalents of English terms were found in the semantic field of Aircraft parts. The full list of semantic fields, definitions, etymological data, Lithuanian equivalents and complexity of morphological term structure can be found in APPENDIX A. • Furthermore, the semantic analysis showed that cases of synonymy and hyponymy were present in aviation terminology. There was a similar amount of full and near synonymy in English and Lithuanian aviation terms. However, English aviation terms had more cases of hyponymy relations. • Morphological analysis showed that in terms of word formation, there are no major differences, except the lack of abbreviations in Lithuanian aviation terminology. Terms in both languages are mostly formed by using derivation and compounding. However, some cases of borrowing can also be noticed in English terminology while in Lithuanian terminology, these words can be called internationalisms. Complex terms in both languages are mostly made from two elements, but there are some exceptions when a complex term is 54
made from four or five elements. These longer terms appear more frequently in English aviation terminology. • Term classification to simple, complex terms and terminological phrases also showed that the complex terms are the most numerous in English terminology (59%). The amount of simple terms is lower (39%) and there are very few terminological phrases (2%). In Lithuanian terminology these numbers are slightly different, but the complex terms are still the largest group (51%) while 46% of all terms are simple terms. • As it was determined that abbreviations are of a great importance in aviation and aviation terminology, they were analysed separately. The analysis showed that the majority of them are initialisms. However, there were some specific acronyms which had different pronunciation rules set by Civil Aviation Authority.
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APPENDIX A
Table 5.1.1 aviation terms in semantic field of Air traffic control
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. assigned level the flight level to which a complex flight has been cleared by ATC 2. avoiding an announcement by the complex action controller to alert the crews that they must modify their flightpath to avoid coming into conflict with other traffic 3. conflicting traffic at or near the same complex traffic flight level heading towards each other 4. controlled an airspace of defined complex kontroliúojamoj complex n kontroliuojama complex airspace dimensions within which air i erdvė ̃ erdvė traffic control service is provided to controlled flights. It is divided into different classes according to altitude 5. FIR (Flight an airspace of defined abbreviation upper flight complex Information dimensions within which information Region) flight information and region, UIR: alerting services are viršutı̇ ̀nis provided by an air traffic skrỹdžių control centre: en route informãcijos from Lagos to Cairo you fly regiònas overthe N’Djamena, Khartoum and Cairo FIRs 6. flow the movement of one flight flow (n.) simple after another, the number of mid-15c., "action of flowing," aircraft passing through a from flow (v.). Meaning "amount given airspace that flows" is from 1807. Sense of "any strong, progressive movement comparable to the flow of a river" is from 1640s. Flow chart attested from 1920 (flow- sheet in same sense from 1912). To go with the flow is by 1977, apparently originally in skiing jargon. Go with the flow, enjoy the forces, let ankles, knees, hips and waist move subtly to soak up potential disturbances of acceleration and deceleration. ["Ski" magazine, November 1980] 7. flow making the best use of complex management airspace capacity to meet the demands of the traffic at any given time. It may result in aircraft being delayed, holding or being re-routed by ATC: The Eurocontrol Central FlowManagement Unit protects controllers from overload by making sure that only a manageable number ofaircraft are flying at one time. 8. hand signals signals given by marshaller complex n rankų ženklai Termino to give instructions to pilot lėktuvui į stovėjimo logical vietą nukreipti phrase 9. handoff (n) a transfer of a flight from simple one controller or area to another: also handover 10 Handover (n) a transfer of a flight from simple one controller or area to another; also a verb, to hand over (v). See also handoff. 11 in line queuing, stopped, standing terminologi by: we are in line on cal phrase Taxiway Golf behind a Cathay Pacific 747 and an Etihad A330 number three for departure 12 Inbound used to describe an aircraft inbound (adj.) simple a grįžtantis, simple a grįžtantis; simple which is flying towards a 1857, "homeward," from in + parskrendantis parskrendantis point, towards a fix, bound (adj.2). Originally of ships. (apie orlaivį) arriving, approaching: we are flying inbound heading 22; track inbound to the Norfolk VOR on the 193° radial. 13 joining authorisation to join a complex clearance circuit prior to approach and landing 14 known traffic traffic whose flight details complex and intentions are known by the controller through direct communication 15 on hold waiting for authorisation or complex clearance 16 outgoing departing flight complex flight 17 Sector defined area of airspace sector (n.) simple n 1 sektorius simple controlled by specific 1560s, "section of a circle 2 dalis, plotas, controllers between two radii," from Late ruožas Latin sector "section of a circle," in classical Latin "a cutter, one who cuts," from sectus, past participle of secare "to cut" (see section (n.)). Translated Greek tomeus in Latin editions of Archimedes. Meaning "area, division" appeared 1920, generalized from military sense (1916) of "part of a front," based on a circle centered on a headquarters. As a verb from 1884. Related: Sectoral; sectorial. 18 sequencing air traffic controller’s sequence (v.) simple action placing aircraft in "arrange in a sequence," 1954, order with a safe separation from sequence (n.). Related: during approach Sequenced; sequencing. 19 Short Term a ground-based safety net complex n perspėjimas apie complex Conflict Alert intended to assist the priartėjimą prie kito controller in preventing lėktuvo collision between aircraft by generating …an alert of a potential or actual infringement of separation minima 20 split sector controlled airspace divided complex vertically (by flight level) or horizontally to accommodate high traffic, preferably using different radio frequencies 21 squawk (n and a transponder identifier squawk (n.) simple atsakı̇ ̀klio complex n atsakiklio signalas complex v) code which enables an ATC 1850, from squawk (v.). signãlas to identify each aircraft on radar screens. “Squawk squawk (v.) Look up squawk at 6422” means “select Dictionary.com transmission code 6422”. 1821, probably of imitative origin Pilots may sometimes use (compare dialectal Italian squacco the expression ‘Squawking "small crested heron"). Related: 6422’, with squawk as a Squawked; squawking. Squawk- verb in the present box "loud-speaker" is from 1945. continuous. 22 stack a superimposed series of stack (n.) simple n keletas lėktuvų, holding patterns at assigned c. 1300, "pile, heap, or group of skraidančių Termino flight levels things," from a Scandinavian skirtinguose logical source akin to Old Norse stakkr aukščiuose virš phrase "haystack" (cognate with Danish aerodromo ir stak, Swedish stack "heap, stack"), laukiančių leidimo from Proto-Germanic *stakon- "a tūpti stake," from PIE *stog- (cognates: Old Church Slavonic stogu "heap," Russian stog "haystack," Lithuanian stokas "pillar"), variant of root *steg- (1) "pole, stick" (see stake (n.)). Meaning "set of shelves on which books are set out" is from 1879. Used of the chimneys of factories, locomotives, etc., since 1825. Of computer data from 1960. 23 TMA airspace around an airport abbreviation aerodròmo complex (Terminal used for departures and skrỹdžių Control Area / arrivals valdymõ rajònas Terminal Manoeuvring Area) 24 Track 1) the path of the aircraft track (n.) simple kẽlias simple n kelias, takas simple n kelias simple over the Earth’s surface late 15c., "footprint, mark left by from take-off to touchdown anything," from Old French trac 2) the angle between a "track of horses, trace" (mid-15c.), reference datum and the possibly from a Germanic source actual flight path (compare Middle Low German treck, Dutch trek "drawing, pulling;" see trek). Meaning "lines of rails for drawing trains" is from 1805. Meaning "branch of athletics involving a running track" is recorded from 1905. Meaning "single recorded item" is from 1904, originally in reference to phonograph records. Meaning "mark on skin from repeated drug injection" is first attested 1964.
Track record (1955) is a figurative use from racing, "performance history" of an individual car, runner, horse, etc. (1907, but the phrase was more common in sense "fastest speed recorded at a particular track"). To make tracks "move quickly" is American English colloquial first recorded 1835; to cover (one's) tracks in the figurative sense first attested 1898; to keep track of something is attested from 1883. American English wrong side of the tracks "bad part of town" is by 1901. Track lighting attested from 1970. 25 traffic aircraft in movement traffic (n.) simple n eismas, judėjimas; simple n eismas simple c. 1500, "trade, commerce," from Middle French trafique (15c.), from Italian traffico (14c.), from trafficare "carry on trade," of uncertain origin, perhaps from a Vulgar Latin *transfricare "to rub across," from Latin trans- "across" (see trans-) + fricare "to rub" (see friction), with the original sense of the Italian verb being "touch repeatedly, handle."
Or the second element may be an unexplained alteration of Latin facere "to make, do." Klein suggests ultimate derivation of the Italian word from Arabic tafriq "distribution." Meaning "people and vehicles coming and going" first recorded 1825. Traffic jam is 1917, ousting earlier traffic block (1895). Traffic circle is from 1938. 26 traffic circuit a predefined flight complex aerodrome complex movement used either for traffic circuit: holding or to prepare an skrỹdžių approach aerodròmo rãtas 27 traffic conflict when two aircraft are at complex altitudes or on headings which, if maintained, could result in an airprox or a collision 28 traffic on the an aircraft is moving on the complex roll runway 29 traffic pattern a predefined flight complex eı̇ smõ schemà complex n eismo schema complex movement used either for holding or to prepare an approach; a circuit
Table 5.1.1 aviation terms in semantic field Aircraft parts
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. Aft an adjective referring to the aft (adv.) simple a užpakalinis, galinis; simple a galinis, esantis Simple back part of a plane. Rear is Old English æftan "from behind, gale; užpakalinis complex also used with the same behind, farthest back," from meaning. It contrasts with superlative of Old English æf, af, forward. The words before of "away, away from, off" (see and after are only used to of). The Germanic superlative talk about time relationships suffix *-ta corresponds to PIE *-to (compare Greek protos "first," superlative of pro "before"). Now purely nautical.
First use: 1580 Origin: Middle English afte back, from Old English æftan from behind, behind; akin to Old English æfter www.merriam-webster.com /dictionary/aft 2. Airframe another word for the simple órlaivio complex n sklandmuo simple n lėktuvo karkasas complex aircraft structure or fuselage sklandmuõ and wings; hull is also used 3. amber transit the amber lights near the complex lights landing gear lever which are illuminated when the landing gear is moving between its extended and retracted positions and vice versa 4. APU a small gas turbine engine, abbreviation pagalbı̇ ̀nė complex n atsarginis elektros Termino (Auxiliary usually located in the tail jėgaı̇ nė̃ srovės variklis, logical Power Unit) cone, which is used on the kuris gamina phrase ground when the engines elektros srovę, kai are shut down to generate lėktuvas stovi electricity, to provide air conditioning and high pressure air to start the engines. The APU can also be used in flight up to 25,000 feet for back-up electrical power in the event of an engine failure 5. avionics bay the under-floor avionics avionics (n.) 1949, from aviation complex compartment where + electronics. computers and other electronic equipment are located (Airbus). Boeing call this compartment the main equipment centre. 6. axle a shaft on which one or axle (n.) "pole or pin upon which simple n ašis simple n ašis; velenas simple more landing gear wheels a wheel revolves," Middle English are mounted axel-, from some combination of Old English eax and Old Norse öxull "axis," both from Proto- Germanic *akhsulaz (cognates: Old English eaxl, Old Saxon ahsla, Old High German ahsala, German Achsel "shoulder"), from PIE *aks- "axis" (see axis). Found only in compound axletree before 14c. 7. blade a radial aerofoil designed blade (n.) Old English blæd "a simple mentė ̃ simple mentės nugarėlė Comple n mentė simple to rotate about an axis: the leaf," but also "a leaf-like part" (of x bird ingestion caused some spade, oar, etc.), from Proto- minor damage to the fan Germanic *bladaz (cognates: Old and 2nd stage LP Frisian bled "leaf," German Blatt, compressor blades Old Saxon, Danish, Dutch blad, Old Norse blað), from PIE *bhle- to-, suffixed form (past participle) of *bhel- (3) "to thrive, bloom," possibly identical with *bhel- (2) "to blow, swell" (see bole). Extended in Middle English to shoulders (c. 1300) and swords (early 14c.). The modern use in reference to grass may be a Middle English revival, by influence of Old French bled "corn, wheat" (11c., perhaps from Germanic). The cognate in German, Blatt, is the general word for "leaf;" Laub is used collectively as "foliage." Old Norse blað was used of herbs and plants, lauf in reference to trees. This might have been the original distinction in Old English, too. Of men from 1590s; in later use often a reference to 18c. gallants, but the original exact sense, and thus signification, is uncertain. 8. centre a large standing panel complex pedestal between the two pilots which contains the thrust / throttle levers, radio and navigation control panels: the RMP is located on the centre pedestal. 9. Chute a rapid-inflation pneumatic chute (n.1) 1725, American simple gélbėjimosi complex n nuleistuvas, simple n šnek.parašiutas simple channel to enable English, "fall of water" (earlier slydė ̃ nuleidžiamasis passengers and crew to shoot, 1610s), from French chute vamzdis; latakas evacuate quickly, it is also "fall," from Old French cheoite "a referred to as an escape fall," fem. past participle of cheoir slide "to fall," from Latin cadere (see case (n.1)). Meaning "inclined tube, trough" is from 1804; that of "narrow passage for cattle, etc." first recorded 1881. In North America, absorbing some senses of similar-sounding shoot (n.1).
chute (n.2) short for parachute (n.), attested from 1920. 10 Component part of an aircraft system: a component (n.) simple n komponentas, Simple n 1 sudedamoji complex valve, a pump, a control 1640s, "constitutional element" elementas, complex dalis, komponentas unit (earlier "one of a group of sudedamoji dalis persons," 1560s), from Latin componentem (nominative componens), present participle of componere "to put together" (see composite). As an adjective, from 1660s. 11 cowl panel part of the engine cowling, complex the fairing which surrounds and protects the engine and provides an optimum aerodynamic profile 12 cowling the panels (cowls) cowl (n.) Old English cule, from simple gaũbtas simple n gaubtas; dangtis simple surrounding the engine; it is earlier cugele, from Late Latin the main part of the engine cuculla "monk's cowl," variant of nacelle. Latin cucullus "hood, cowl," which is of uncertain origin. Cowling is 1917 in the aircraft sense. 13 damper a hydraulic shock absorber damper (n.) of a piano, 1783; of a simple damp(en)er n simple n tech. duslintuvas; simple chimney, 1788; agent noun from slopintuvas, amortizatorius; damp (v.). Either or both led to dempferis; slopintuvas various figurative senses.
damp (v.) late 14c., "to suffocate," from damp (n.). Figurative meaning "to deaden (the spirits, etc.)" attested by 1540s. Meaning "to moisten" is recorded from 1670s. Related: Damped; damping. 14 electronic shelves used to house complex racks computers in the avionics bay / main equipment centre 15 elevator 1) flight control surface elevator (n.) simple aũkščio vaı̇ ras̃ complex n aukščio vairas complex n aukščio vairas complex located on the horizontal 1640s, originally of muscles stabilizer trailing edge, which raise a part of the body, which controls the aircraft from Latin elevator "one who on the pitch axis; servo raises up," agent noun from past actuators move the participle stem of elevare (see elevators. 2) hydraulic elevate). As a name for a ground loader used to raise mechanical lift (originally for containers grain) attested from 1787. Elevator music is attested by 1963. Elevator as a lift for shoes is from 1940. 16 empennage the tail section of an French, feathers of an arrow, simple n uodegos plokštumos complex n lėktuvo uodegos complex aircraft, consisting of the empennage, from empenner to surinkimas, fin, the tailplane and the feather an arrow, from em- 1en- + montažas part of the fuselage to penne feather (Merriam-Webster which they are attached Online) 17 escape slide a rapid-inflation pneumatic complex gélbėjimosi complex gelbėjimosi slydė complex n gelbėjimos slydė complex channel to enable slydė ̃ (escape chute) passengers and crew to evacuate quickly also referredto as a chute: inflatable escape slides can also be used as life rafts in case of ditching 18 Exhaust the rear engine section exhaust (n.) simple išmetı̇ ̀mas simple n 1 išleidimas; simple n 1 išmetimas (dujų Simple which expels engine gases: "waste gas," 1848, originally from išmetimas; iš cilindro) complex exhaust gas temperature steam engines, from exhaust (v.). 2 išmetamasis In reference to internal vamzdis combustion engines by 1896. Exhaust pipe is from 1889. 19 emergency door or hatch fitted with an complex avãrinė angà complex avarinis išėjimas; complex n avarinės durys complex exit escape slide to allow the aircraft to be evacuated in avãrinės dùrys 90 seconds in the event of an emergency: the passengers on USAir Flight 1549 used mainly the overwing emergency exitsto evacuate the aircraft after the ditching 20 Flight Control a control panel on the complex Unit (FCU) glareshield which, on an Airbus aircraft, fulfils the same function as Mode Control Panel (MCP) on a Boeing aircraft, i.e. entering altitude, heading, speed, vertical speed (rate of climb / descent) values into the autopilot and autothrust / autothrottle 21 flight deck compartment from which deck (n.) "covering over part of a complex į̇guloś kabinà complex n orlaivio denis complex n 1 lakūno kabina complex the crew fly the aircraft; ship," mid-15c., perhaps a 2 (lėktuvnečio) cockpit, flight compartment, shortening of Middle Low kilimo ir leidimosi control cabin German verdeck (or a related denis North Sea Germanic word), a nautical word, from ver- "fore" + decken "to cover, put under roof," from Proto-Germanic *thakjan (related to thatch, q.v.).
Sense extended early in English from "covering" to "platform of a ship." "Pack of cards" is 1590s, perhaps because they were stacked like decks of a ship. Deck chair (1884) so called because they were used on ocean liners. Tape deck (1949) is in reference to the flat surface of old reel-to-reel tape recorders. 22 fuel manifold an aircraft fuel distribution manifold (n.) complex line to which a nozzle is in mechanical sense, first as "pipe attached or chamber with several outlets," 1884, see manifold (adj.); originally as manifold pipe (1857), with reference to a type of musical instrument mentioned in the Old Testament. 23 fuselage The fuselage is the main simple liemuõ simple fiuzeliažo griaučiai; Comple n fiuzelažas simple body of a plane (i.e. fuselage (n.) korpusas x excluding the wings, tail, 1909, from French fuselage, from simple landing gear, etc.). fuselé "spindle-shaped," from Old French *fus "a spindle," from Latin fusus "a spindle" (see fuse (n.)). So called from its shape. 24 galley the part of the plane where galley (n.) simple órlaivio virtùvė complex n (orlaivio) virtuvė Comple n orlaivio virtuvė complex the cabin attendants store 13c., "seagoing vessel having both x; and prepare food and drinks sails and oars," from Old French simple galie, galee "boat, warship, galley," from Medieval Latin galea or Catalan galea, from Late Greek galea, of unknown origin. The word has made its way into most Western European languages. Originally "low, flat- built seagoing vessel of one deck," once a common type in the Mediterranean. Meaning "cooking range or cooking room on a ship" dates from 1750.
The printing sense of galley, "oblong tray that holds the type once set," is from 1650s, from French galée in the same sense, in reference to the shape of the tray. As a short form of galley-proof it is attested from 1890. 25 Gear the landing gear, i.e. the gear (n.) c. 1200, "fighting simple undercarriage; simple n Simple n lėktuvo važiuoklė complex wheels and the mechanisms equipment, armor and weapons," landing gear: landing ~ važiuoklė; complex connected to them: V2 … probably from Old Norse gørvi važiuõklė positive rate …. Gear up ; (plural gørvar) "apparel, gear," the gear is retracted related to görr, gørr, gerr "skilled, accomplished; ready, willing," and to gøra, gørva "to make, construct, build; set in order, prepare," a very frequent verb in Old Norse, used in a wide range of situations from writing a book to dressing meat. This is from Proto- Germanic *garwjan "to make, prepare, equip" (cognates: Old English gearwe "clothing, equipment, ornament," which may be the source of some uses; Old Saxon garwei; Dutch gaar "done, dressed;" Old High German garo "ready, prepared, complete," garawi "clothing, dress," garawen "to make ready;" German gerben "to tan").
From early 14c. as "wearing apparel, clothes, dress;" also "harness of a draught animal; equipment of a riding horse." From late 14c. as "equipment generally; tools, utensils," especially the necessary equipment for a certain activity, as the rigging of a sailing ship. Meaning "toothed wheel in machinery" first attested 1520s; specific mechanical sense of "parts by which a motor communicates motion" is from 1814; specifically of a vehicle (bicycle, automobile, etc.) by 1888. Slang for "male sex organs" from 1670s. 26 glareshield cockpit panel above the simple main instrument panels and below the windshield which protects the instruments from reflection and on which the automatic flight control panel is located 27 glideslope ILS aerial connected to a complex antenna transmitter of a radio beam providing vertical flight path guidance GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System: the underlying technology behind the GPS GNSS Landing System, which combines satellite and local data to provide very accurate navigational positioning for landing 28 horizontal a horizontal part of the complex n horizontalusis complex n horizontalus complex stabilizer empennage at the rear of the stabilizatorius stabilizatorius plane, which can be trimmed, i.e. deflected to a position in which it produces the least aerodynamic resistance; it is also referred to as the tailplane or THS (trimmable horizontal stabilizer) 29 hot section the section of the engine complex comprising the combustion chamber, high and low pressure turbines and exhaust 30 IDG The main source of A.C. abbreviation (Integrated (alternating current) Drive electrical power on the Generator) aircraft; it is a combination of a constant speed drive and an electrical generator driven by the engine through the accessory gearbox. 31 inboard / the spoilers on the upper complex outboard surface of the wing; there spoilers are several surfaces and they are commonly identified as inboard or inner and outboard or outer spoilers. 32 Instinctive small red pushbutton on the complex disconnect control wheel or sidestick push button used to disconnect the autopilot quickly 33 leading edge the forward part of the complex prı̇́ekinė briaunà complex n priekinė briauna complex n sparno priekinė complex wing, engine blades or briauna stabilizers: the leading edge slats are extended 34 lower cargo space below the cabin floor complex deck which is divided into a forward and aft cargo hold and which on larger aircraft may be subdivided into compartments. The holds / compartments are subdivided into bays each one of which corresponds to the size of a ULD or container. 35 main the under-floor avionics complex equipment compartment where centre computers and other electronic equipment are located (Boeing); on Airbus aircraft this is referred to as the avionics bay 36 main gear the main landing gear which main (adj.) complex n pagrindinė complex (MLG) is located under the inner early 13c., "large, bulky, strong," važiuoklė wing and, in very large from Old English mægen- "power, aircraft, under the centre strength, force," used in fuselage. It consists of compounds (such as mægensibb wheels mounted on axles "great love," mægenbyrðen connected by a boggie "heavy burden;" see main (n.)), which is attached to the probably also from or influenced gear leg through a shock by Old Norse megenn (adj.) absorber. The gear is "strong, powerful." Sense of maintained rigid, retracted "chief" is c. 1400. Main course in and extended by a series of the meal sense attested from 1829. struts, braces and actuators. Main man "favorite male friend; hero" is from 1967, African- American vernacular.
gear (n.) c. 1200, "fighting equipment, armor and weapons," probably from Old Norse gørvi (plural gørvar) "apparel, gear," related to görr, gørr, gerr "skilled, accomplished; ready, willing," and to gøra, gørva "to make, construct, build; set in order, prepare," a very frequent verb in Old Norse, used in a wide range of situations from writing a book to dressing meat. This is from Proto- Germanic *garwjan "to make, prepare, equip" (cognates: Old English gearwe "clothing, equipment, ornament," which may be the source of some uses; Old Saxon garwei; Dutch gaar "done, dressed;" Old High German garo "ready, prepared, complete," garawi "clothing, dress," garawen "to make ready;" German gerben "to tan").
From early 14c. as "wearing apparel, clothes, dress;" also "harness of a draught animal; equipment of a riding horse." From late 14c. as "equipment generally; tools, utensils," especially the necessary equipment for a certain activity, as the rigging of a sailing ship. Meaning "toothed wheel in machinery" first attested 1520s; specific mechanical sense of "parts by which a motor communicates motion" is from 1814; specifically of a vehicle (bicycle, automobile, etc.) by 1888. Slang for "male sex organs" from 1670s. 37 Mode Control a control panel on the complex Panel (MCP) glareshield which, on a Boeing aircraft, fulfils the same function as a Flight Control Unit (FCU) on an Airbus aircraft, i.e. entering altitude, heading, speed, vertical speed (rate of climb / descent) values into the autopilot and autothrust / autothrottle 38 Navigation one of the main pilot complex Display (ND) instruments which provides compass heading, navigational and weather radar return data; it is located in front of each pilot next to the PFD (Primary Flight Display) 39 nose gear the wheels, leg, steering complex n priekinis ratas complex (NLG) system etc. at the front of the aircraft. The taxi and take-off lights are mounted on the nose gear. A safety pin is inserted in the nose gear during turnaround until the towbar has been disconnected. 40 outer external layer of a complex windshield windshield; aircraft panel windshields comprise up to five separate layers, incorporate gold heating filaments and may weigh up to 80kg. 41 outflow valve a valve which regulates complex cabin pressure by controlling the amount of air which is allowed to flow out of the cabin. They are large door-type valves which are quite visible on the outside of the fuselage 42 overhead an instrument panel above complex panel the pilots’ heads in the cockpit which contains most of the system control panels on aircraft with a two-man crew 43 parking brake wheel brake applied from complex n stabdžio padėtis, Termino the flight deck by means of kai lėktuvas stovi logical a handle and used on the phrase ground at the stand until the chocks are in place or for emergency braking as a last resort 44 probe heat the electrical anti-icing of complex the air data probes (pitot probe, static ports, angle of attack sensors, outside air temperature sensors) which are located on the outside of the forward fuselage. The failure of the probe heat system on the A330 is suspected as being a contributory factor to the loss of Air France Flight 447 over the South Atlantic in June 2009. If the probes become obstructed with ice, the flight crew can lose all altitude, airspeed and angle of attack information and the computers which receive this information will generate erroneous outputs 45 probes air data probes: pitot probe, simple n 1 zondas 2 jutiklis, simple Probe: n tech. simple static port, angle of attack daviklis; liestukas (metalą sensor, temperature sensors. surandantis There are three sets of prietaisas) probes: one usually connected to the captain’s instruments, one to the first officer’s and a standby set which can be used if either of the others fails or for crosschecking 46 PSU component located on the abbreviation (Passenger lower side of the overhead Service Unit) baggage racks above the passengers’ heads and containing oxygen masks, air gasper outlets, ‘no smoking’ and ‘fasten seat belt’ signs 47 pylon 1) a structure used to pylon (n.) simple n pilonas simple n tech. atrama simple mount engines to the 1823, "gateway to an Egyptian underside of an aircraft temple," from Greek pylon wing 2) a tall steel structure "gateway," from pyle "gate, wing to which wires carrying of a pair of double gates; an electricity are fixed so that entrance, entrance into a country; they are safely held high mountain pass; narrow strait of above the ground: there is a water," of unknown origin. row of pylons rising to 150 Meaning "tower for guiding feet on final approach to the aviators" (1909) led to that of left of thecentreline "steel tower for high-tension wires" (1923). 48 radar antenna portion of radar system radar (n.) complex used to radiate and intercept "electronic system for locating signals objects by means of radio waves," 1941, acronym (more or less) from radio detecting and ranging. The U.S. choice, it won out over British radiolocation. Figurative from 1950.
antenna (n.) 1640s, "feeler or horn of an insect," from Latin antenna "sail yard," the long yard that sticks up on some sails, which is of unknown origin, perhaps from PIE root *temp- "to stretch, extend." In the etymological sense, it is a loan-translation of Aristotle's Greek keraiai "horns" (of insects). Modern use in radio, etc., for "aerial wire" is from 1902. Adjectival forms are antennal (1834), antennary (1836), antennular (1858). 49 Radome a conical protective cover simple antènos ãptakas complex n radiolokatoriaus complex n antenos aptakas complex in composite material over gaubtas the weather radar antenna and forming the nose of the aircraft: the radome was damaged by the lightning strike 50 Radio a control panel located on complex Management the centre pedestal between Panel (RMP) the two pilots which allows them to tune to different VHF and HF radio frequencies as well as to various navigation aids. There is an ACTIVE and a STANDY window which enables a new frequency to be pre-tuned and then selected when needed 51 RAT (Ram a small electrical generator abbreviation Air Turbine) driven by a propeller, which is lowered into the airstream below the wing to provide essential electrical (and hydraulic) power in the event of multiple engine driven generator failures 52 rim the outer lip of a wheel, rim (n.) simple ratlankis simple which holds the tyre in Old English rima "edge, border, place verge, coast," as in særima "seashore," literally "rim of the sea," and dægrima "dawn," literally "rim of the day." Related to Old Norse rime, rimi "a raised strip of land, ridge," Old Frisian rim "edge," but with no other known cognates. The snare drummer's rim shot (striking the rim and the head at once) is recorded from 1934. 53 slide a rapid-inflation pneumatic slide (n.) simplex escape slide: complex slydė; simple channel to enable 1560s, from slide (v.). As a gélbėjimosi escape ~ gelbėjimosi passengers and crew to smooth inclined surface down slydė ̃ slydė evacuate quickly; also which something can be slid, from referred to as a chute: one 1680s; the playground slide is of the slides failed to deploy from 1890. Meaning "collapse of a hillside, landslide" is from 1660s. As a working part of a musical instrument from 1800 (as in slide-trombone, 1891). Meaning "rapid downturn" is from 1884. Meaning "picture prepared for use with a projector" is from 1819 (in reference to magic lanterns). Baseball sense is from 1886. Slide-guitar is from 1968. 54 stabilizer horizontal and vertical stabilizer (n.) simple stabilizãtorius simple n stabilizatorius; simple n stabilizatorius; Simple surfaces mounted on the 1909 in aeronautical sense, agent lėktuvo grąžinimo į Termino aircraft tail, also called the noun from stabilize (v.). pradinę padėtį logical empennage; the elevators priemonė phrase are installed on the stabilize (v.) horizontal stabilizer or 1861, originally of ships; probably tailplane, which is usually a back-formation from stability, or trimmable, i.e. its angle can else from French stabiliser. be adjusted to minimize Related: Stabilized; stabilizing. drag and optimize Earlier verbs in the same sense aerodynamic efficiency. were stabilitate (1640s) and The vertical stabilizer is simple stable (v.) "make steady or also referred to as the fin firm, make stable" (c. 1300), from Old French establir. 55 sterile cockpit cockpit environment in complex which there are no audio or visual distractions from the piloting tasks: a sterile cockpit is one of the prerequisites of a safe working environment 56 Speedbrakes upper wing flight control simple surfaces, or spoiler function, which decrease airspeed in flight 57 static an electrical conductor on complex discharger the outer trailing edges of the wings and stabilizers designed to discharge static electricity which accumulates in the aircraft during the flight or as the result of a lightning strike; also referred to as a wick 58 skin the fuselage, wing and skin (n.) simple órlaivio dangà complex apkala; apsiuva simple n danga simple empennage panels which c. 1200, "animal hide" (usually make up the outer airframe dressed and tanned), from Old of the aircraft Norse skinn "animal hide, fur," from Proto-Germanic *skintha- (cognates: Old English scinn (rare), Old High German scinten, German schinden "to flay, skin;" German dialectal schind "skin of a fruit," Flemish schinde "bark"), from PIE *sken- "to cut off" (cognates: Breton scant "scale of a fish," Irish scainim "I tear, I burst"), from root *sek- "to cut" (see section (n.)). Ful of fleissche Y was to fele, Now ... Me is lefte But skyn & boon. [hymn, c. 1430] The usual Anglo-Saxon word is hide (n.1). Meaning "epidermis of a living animal or person" is attested from early 14c.; extended to fruits, vegetables, etc. late 14c. Jazz slang sense of "drum" is from 1927. Meaning "a skinhead" is from 1970. As an adjective, it formerly had a slang sense of "cheating" (1868); sense of "pornographic" is attested from 1968. Skin deep is first attested in this: All the carnall beauty of my wife, Is but skin-deep. [Sir Thomas Overbury, "A Wife," 1613; the poem was a main motive for his murder] The skin of one's teeth as the narrowest of margins is attested from 1550s in the Geneva Bible literal translation of the Hebrew text in Job xix:20. To get under (someone's) skin "annoy" is from 1896. Skin-graft is from 1871. Skin merchant "recruiting officer" is from 1792. 59 throttles levers on the centre throttle (n.) simple varı̇ ̀klio traukõs complex n droselis, droselinė complex n 1 droselis, complex pedestal which control 1540s, "throat;" it appears to be an svı̇ ̀rtis sklendė; droselinė sklendė engine thrust independent formation from throat, perhaps a diminutive form, not derived directly from the verb. The mechanical sense is first recorded 1872, short for throttle- valve (1824). Full-throttle (allowing maximum speed) is from 1848 in reference to steam engines. 60 THS a horizontal surface abbreviation (Trimmable mounted on the aircraft tail Horizontal on which the elevators are Stabilizer) installed; its angle can be adjusted to minimize drag and optimize aerodynamic efficiency. It is also called a tailplane or empennage. 61 Tailpipe the exhaust section of the tail-pipe (n.) simple n uodegos vamzdis complex engine aft of the turbine also tailpipe, 1757, "small pipe fixed at the swell of a musket to receive the ramrod," from tail (n.1) + pipe (n.). From 1832 as "suction pipe of a pump;" 1907 as "exhaust pipe of an automobile." 62 trailing edge the rear edge of the wing, complex užpakalı̇ ̀nė complex užpakalinė complex n užpakalinė complex stabilisers and engine briaunà briauna; briauna (apie blades: trailing edge flaps sparną) 63 trim fuel valve a valve which allows fuel complex to flow from the trim tank to the main fuel tanks in the wings and wing centre box (between the wings) 64 trim tank auxiliary fuel tank in the complex tail. Some long-range aircraft have fuel tanks in the horizontal stabilizer; the weight of this fuel is used to regulate the aircraft’s centre of gravity (C.G.) 65 VSI (Vertical instrument which displays abbreviation n vertikalaus greičio complex Speed the vertical speed, or rate of indikatorius Indicator) climb or descent, of the aircraft in feet per minute: the PNF using the VSI after lift-off to call ‘positive rate’. 66 wick static discharger located on wick (n.1) simple trailing edges to discharge "bundle of fiber in a lamp or electrical charges built up in candle," 17c. spelling alteration of the airframe wueke, from Old English weoce "wick of a lamp or candle," from West Germanic *weukon (cognates: Middle Dutch wieke, Dutch wiek, Old High German wiohha, German Wieche), of unknown origin, with no known cognates beyond Germanic. To dip one's wick "engage in sexual intercourse" (in reference to males) is recorded from 1958, perhaps from Hampton Wick, rhyming slang for "prick," which would connect it rather to wick (n.2). 67 yoke another word for the yoke (n.) simple n vairaratis simple n 1 vairalazdė simple control wheel which Old English geoc "contrivance for controls the ailerons on a fastening a pair of draft animals," conventional aircraft earlier geoht "pair of draft animals" (especially oxen), from Proto-Germanic *yukam (cognates: Old Saxon juk, Old Norse ok, Danish aag, Middle Dutch joc, Dutch juk, Old High German joh, German joch, Gothic juk "yoke"), from PIE root *yeug- "to join" (see jugular). Figurative sense of "heavy burden, oppression, servitude" was in Old English.
Table 5.1.3 aviation terms in semantic field Aircraft systems
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term type aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų 1996 terminų žodynas. Žodynas. 2014 2012 1. ACAS an aircraft system using abbreviation susidūrı̇̀mų Complex (Airborne Secondary Surveillance vengı̇̀mo bòrto Collision Radar (SSR) transponder sistemà Avoidance signals, which operates System) independently of ground equipment to alert the flight crew about conflicting aircraft 2. A.C. bus an aircraft electrical power distribution point for alternating current to which several power circuits are connected 3. AC Essential the main alternating current complex feed power supply 4. ADF airborne radio navaid tuned abbreviation automãtinis complex (Automatic to non-directional beacons; rãdijo Direction the intersection of two pelengãtorius Finder) bearings provides the aircraft’s position: if the ADF needle points up, the NDB is ahead 5. Advanced another term for the Nose-in complex Visual Guidance System or PAPA Docking (Parallel Aircraft Parking Guidance Aid). Different technologies System are used, but basically they all use a system of lights to guide the crew to the correct position for their aircraft type 6. AGNIS one of the most popular abbreviation (Azimuth forms of stand guidance, i.e. Guidance for ways of guiding a plane to Nose-In its correct position in the Stand) stand 7. Air Data a digital computer serving complex Computer as a central source of (ADC) information on the surrounding atmosphere and the aircraft flight through it. It provides the pressure altitude, outside air temperature, airspeed, Mach number and angle of attack data to the automatic flight control system, the flight instruments and other systems. 8. anti -ice / anti- all the pneumatic systems complex į̇ taisas nuõ complex a apsaugantis complex icing which prevent the apledė́jimo nuo apledėjimo accumulation of ice on the n antiledodara wing leading edges and engine air intakes: wing anti-ice, engine anti-ice 9. Autobrake a computer-assisted system simple which controls and monitors landing gear brake applications in order to achieve maximum braking efficiency: the PF selects an autobrake MIN, MED or MAX setting accordingto the runway conditions. 10 auto -flight the combination of complex/ab autopiloto sistema complex system (AFS) autopilot, autothrottle / breviation autothrust, flight director, autoland systems etc. used to control the flight through the Flight Management System (FMS) 11 autoland an autopilot function which simple n automatinis tūpimas complex n sutr. complex enables the aircraft to be Automatic landed automatically. ILS landing installations now often automatinis support fully automatic tūpimas “hands-off” autoland approaches to below 50 feet above the runway threshold in visibility, or Runway Visual Ranges (RVR) as low as 200 metres or less 12 Automatic a flight instrument which complex/ab automãtinis complex Direction indicates the direction from breviation rãdijo Finder (ADF) which the signal from a pelengãtorius non-directional beacon is coming, i.e. a relative bearing 13 Autopilot a computerised system autopilot (n1935, from auto- + simple/abbr autopilòtas simple n autopilotas simple (AP) which provides the flight pilot (n.). eviation controls with orders: The FAA wants new software auto- word-forming element installed on Boeing 777s to meaning "self, one's own, by prevent crews from oneself," from Greek auto- "self, inadvertently engaging the one's own," combining form of autopilot before takeoff. autos "self, same," which is of unknown origin. Before a vowel, aut-; before an aspirate, auth-. In Greek also used as a prefix to proper names, as in automelinna "Melinna herself." The opposite prefix would be allo-.
pilot (n.) 1510s, "one who steers a ship," from Middle French pillote (16c.), from Italian piloto, supposed to be an alteration of Old Italian pedoto, which usually is said to be from Medieval Greek *pedotes "rudder, helmsman," from Greek pedon "steering oar," related to pous (genitive podos) "foot," from PIE root *ped- (1) "a foot" (see foot (n.)). Change of -d- to -l- in Latin ("Sabine -l-") parallels that in odor/olfactory; see lachrymose.
Sense extended 1848 to "one who controls a balloon," and 1907 to "one who flies an airplane." As an adjective, 1788 as "pertaining to a pilot;" from 1928 as "serving as a prototype." Thus the noun pilot meaning "pilot episode" (etc.), attested from 1962. Pilot light is from 1890. 14 autothrottle an automatic engine power simple/ traukos au- complex (ATHR) control system: When using abbreviation tomatinio valdymo the autothrottle during sistema autoland, position command speed to VREF +5 knots 15 autothrust computerised system which simple provides the engines with orders: The autothrust was disconnected by the PF to prevent another overspeed condition 16 bus control a computer controlling the complex unit connection of the electrical busbars 17 Captain probe a system of electrical heat resistances inside the angle of attack sensor, pitot probe, static port etc. which supply the captain’s instruments with attitude, airspeed and altitude data. The heating prevents the probes from being obstructed or seized up by ice 18 circuit breaker an electrical protecting complex n srovės complex n el. automatinis complex safety device which opens a pertraukiklis; pertraukiklis circuit in case of an tinklo apsaugos excessive flow of current. automatas Most circuit breakers are located on the cockpit overhead panel and rear cockpit bulkhead. 19 cockpit voice an automatic recycling kabı̇̀nos complex recorder recorder storing all crew pókalbių (CVR) radio and intercom traffic, savı̇ ̀rašis including crew speech and background noise: The crew can only erase the CVR recording after engine shut- down. 20 digital flight a device for automatically complex skrỹdžio complex data recorder recording information on duomenų̃ DFDR / FDR aircraft operation (altitude, skaitmenı̇ ̀nis airspeed, vertical savı̇ ̀rašis acceleration, heading, elapsed time, attitude, flight control surface position and engine speed). Such recorders are designed to survive crash accelerations, impacts, crushing and fire and often carry underwater transponders or beacons 21 DME a transmitter which will be abbreviation toliãmačio complex (Distance located on the airport and į̇ ŕ a n g a Measuring provide distance Equipment) information for the aircraft during approach by timing the delay of VHF or UHF radio signals 22 DME1 one of the two Distance Measuring Equipment systems which measure the time signals transmitted from the aircraft take to reach a ground station and return to the aircraft. This is converted into distances in nautical miles and is one means of calculating the aircraft’s position 23 EGPWS a system providing crews abbreviation (Enhanced with forward warning of the Ground risk of collision with terrain Proximity in sufficient time for them Warning to take avoiding action. System) EGPWS or TAWS (Terrain Awareness and Warning System) is combined with a Global Positioning System (GPS) for greater accuracy in remote areas 24 FMS (Flight an aircraft computer system abbreviation skrỹdžio complex Management that uses a large data base to valdymõ System) 1) allow routes to be pre- sistemà programmed; 2) interface with the AFCS (Automatic Flight Control System) i.e. autopilot and flight director; 3) memorise and update navigation aids; 4) provide information to the EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System) for PFD and ND displays 25 green system one of the three hydraulic complex systems (green, blue, yellow) on Airbus aircraft. Boeing identify their hydraulic systems numerically 26 Ground an airborne system which complex žẽmės artùmo complex n žemės artumo complex Proximity alerts the flight crew that įspėjı̇ ̀mo perspėjimo Warning they are approaching terrain sistemà sistema System or that there sink rate is (GPWS) excessive. If the GPWS detects a flightpath deviation ‘pull up’, ‘sink rate’, terrain’ or ‘glide slope’ audio warnings are triggered. 27 ILS a system which uses radio abbreviation tūpı̇̀mo pagal ̃ complex n tūpimo pagal complex (Instrument transmitter signals to guide prı̇ ́etaisus prietaisus Landing an aircraft down, typically sistemà sistema System) when visibility is poor. ILS consists of the glideslope (G/S), localizer (LLZ) and Locator (LOC) 28 Instrument a system which uses radio complex tūpı̇̀mo pagal ̃ complex n tūpimo pagal complex Landing transmitter signals to guide prı̇ ́etaisus prietaisus System (ILS) a aircraft down, typically sistemà sistema when visibility is poor. ILS consists of the glideslope (G/S), localizer (LLZ) and Locator (LOC). 29 inertial a system of laser gyros and complex inèrcinė complex navigation accelerometers which sense navigãcijos system (INS) all aircraft movements on sistemà all three axes and so calculates the aircraft’s present position to a high degree of accuracy 30 INS See inertial navigation abbreviation inèrcinė complex system. navigãcijos sistemà 31 laser gyro a system which senses gyro- complex Laser ring gyro: complex rotation by measuring the word-forming element meaning n lazerinis frequency shift of laser light "gyrating" or "gyroscope," from giroskopas in a closed circuit comb. form of Greek gyros "a ring, circle" (see gyre (n.)).
gyro (n.) sandwich made from roasted lamb, 1971, originally the meat itself, as roasted on a rotating spit, from Modern Greek gyros "a circle" (see gyre (n.)). Mistaken in English for a plural and shorn of its -s. 32 Navaid various radio navigation simple óro navigãcijos complex Navigational complex aids: DME (Distance prı̇́emonė aid: Measuring Equipment), n navigacinė NDB (Non-Directional pagalba Beacon), ADF (Automatic (prietaisas, Direction Finder), VOR padedantis (VHF Omnidirectional lakūnui Range), ILS (Instrument orientuotis) Landing System: localizer and glideslope), VORTAC (VOR + Tacan), GPS (Global Positioning System), GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System), RNAV (Area Navigation) 33 pack an electronic device which complex controller regulates airflow and temperature within the air conditioning pack / air cycle machine, which adjusts the temperature of hot engine compressor bleed air for use in the aircraft 34 passenger a communication system complex address (PA) for the flight and cabin crew to talk to all the passengers or the communication itself 35 pitot heat refers to the electrical complex heating of the various air data probes: pitot probe, angle of attack sensor, static port etc. 36 primary a radar system which complex surveillance operates independently of radar (PSR) the target: unlike Primary Surveillance Radar, SSR (Secondary Surveillance Radar) uses a transponder onboard the aircraft to obtain a return. 37 stick shaker an aircraft stall warning complex vairãlazdės complex n kratiklis simple system which when kratı̇ ̀klis triggered by the angle of attack sensor causes the stick or control column to vibrate so that the pilot gives a nose-down order 38 System 1 System 1 refers to the fact complex that nearly all systems are ‘duplexed’, i.e. there are two systems operating in parallel. In the case of instrumentation, System 1 usually provides the captain with information and System 2 the first officer. 39 TCAS (Traffic TCAS is a communication abbreviation Collision between aircraft equipped Avoidance with an appropriate System) transponder. Each TCAS- equipped aircraft “interrogates” all other aircraft in a determined range about their position, and all other TCAS- equipped aircraft reply to other interrogations. This interrogation-and-response cycle may occur several times per second. Through this constant backand- forth communication, the TCAS system builds a three dimensional map of aircraft in the airspace, incorporating their bearing, altitude and range. Then, by extrapolating current range and altitude difference to anticipated future values, it determines if a potential collision threat exists.and examples 40 Transponder a radio device which when transponder (n.) simple atsakı̇ ̀klis simple n (radijo) atsakiklis simple n atsakiklis simple triggered sends out a pre- 1945, from trans(mit) + (res)pond coded reply on the same + agent noun suffix -er (1). wavelength. ATC allocates Modes A and B four-digit numbers to provide aircraft identification. Mode C gives autoreading from the encoding altimeter 41 yellow system one of the three hydraulic complex systems (green, blue, yellow) on Airbus aircraft. Boeing identify their hydraulic systems numerically
Table 5.1.4 aviation terms in semantic field Aircraft types
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term type aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. Antonov Russian aircraft simple manufacturer. The Antonov 124 and 225 are currently among the world’s largest cargo aircraft; the Antonov 225 has a maximum take- off weight of approximately 600 tonnes 2. ATR a twin-engine turboprop regional transport manufactured by a consortium of Alenia Aeronautica and EADS. There are two versions: the ATR 42 and larger ATR 72. 3. Citation an American twin engine simple business jet 4. Dash 8 a twin engine turboprop complex regional transport aircraft 5. Embraer a series of narrow-body, complex 190/195 twin-engine, medium-range, jet airliners produced by the Brazilian manufacturer Embraer 6. fighter military combat aircraft: fighter (n.) simple n naikintuvas simple the Sukhoi Su-27, the F-15 Old English feohtere; agent noun and the Dassault Rafale are from fight (v.). Compare Dutch all jet fighters vechter, German Fechter. Old English also had feohtling in this sense. Meaning "fast military airplane used for combat" is from 1917. 7. Freighter a plane for carrying heavy freighter (n.) simple n krovininis complex freight, such as industrial 1620s, "one who loads (a ship)," lėktuvas equipment, raw materials, agent noun from freight (v.). livestock, food, parcels and Meaning "a cargo vessel" is from goods 1839, American English. 8. Hercules a Lockheed C-130, four simple engine turboprop military transport plane 9. MD -83 a McDonnell Douglas complex narrow-body jet aircraft of an older generation (1990s) with twin engines mounted on the rear fuselage; it was derived from the earlier DC-9 and resulted in the later MD-90 series 10 Saab 340 a small Swedish twin complex turboprop regional transport, still in operation, but no longer in production. 11 turboprop an aircraft with propellers turbo- simple turbosráigtinis simple which are driven by a gas word-forming element, abstracted turbine (ATR 72, Dash 8, c. 1900 from turbine; influenced Fokker 50, Saab 2000, C- by Latin turbo "spinning top." E.g. 135, A400M) turbocharger (1934), aeronautic turboprop (1945, with second element short for propeller); turbojet (1945). 12 triple seven a Boeing 777 wide-body, complex twin engine, long-range jet airliner 13 wide body large transport aircraft with complex Wide-body complex plačialiemenis orlai- complex Widebody n Complex two cabin aisles such as the aircraft: vis plačialiemenis B747, B767, B777, A330, plačialiemẽnis lėktuvas Simple A340, A380 órlaivis Wide-body a plačialiemenis
Table 5.1.5 aviation terms in semantic field Airport equipment and vehicles
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term type Anglų- Lietuvių Ter aviacijos lietuvių kalbų Kalbų Aviacijos m terminų žodynas orlaivių techninės Terminų Žodynas. type 1996 priežiūros terminų 2014 žodynas. 2012 1. access a platform mounted on platform wheels with steps which allows technicians to gain access to the higher parts of the aircraft 2. Airstairs mobile stairs used at simple outlying stands for passengers to board and disembark 3. ASU (Air ground support vehicle abbreviation Start Unit) which compresses air and delivers it to the aircraft engine if the APU is not available 4. baggage cart small towed vehicle for complex transporting baggage 5. belt conveyor baggage loader with complex rotating rubber belt used to load the bulk cargo compartment, hold 5 6. bowser vehicle which pumps fuel bowser (n.) a dog's name, 1806, simple n aviacinių degalų complex from an underground fuel perhaps imitative of baying. cisterna distribution system. Aircraft are refuelled either by tankers or bowsers. 7. catering truck elevator truck for complex delivering meal trays, drinks, newspapers etc 8. Chocks rubber or wooden blocks chock (n.) 1670s, "lumpy piece of simple placed against the aircraft wood," possibly from Old North wheels to prevent aircraft French choque "a block" (Old movement: Are the chocks French çoche "log," 12c.; Modern in place? French souche "stump, stock, block"), from Gaulish *tsukka "a tree trunk, stump." 9. conveyor belt rotating rubber belt for loader loading bulk cargo 10 crew minibus small bus to take crew to complex and from aircraft: we are still waiting for the crew minibus to pick us up 11 de -icing truck vehicle with tank and complex hydraulic platform for spraying aircraft 12 drive motor an electrical motor which complex moves containers etc. into position 13 fire engine vehicle for spraying an fire-engine (n.) complex extinguishing agent or 1680s, "engine designed to throw water: request a fire engine a stream of water through a hose standing by in case our onto a fire for the purpose of brakes need cooling extinguishing it," from fire (n.) + engine (n.). Also an early name for a steam engine (1722). 14 fire an explosive cartridge complex extinguisher which discharges a fire squib extinguisher and releases the fire extinguishing agent; also referred to as a cartridge 15 foam crash vehicle for spraying fire complex tender extinguishing foam 16 follow -me car a car used to guide taxiing complex aircraft 17 friction tester vehicle which can measure complex the braking coefficient of a runway 18 fuel tanker vehicle containing aircraft tanker (n.) complex fuel "ship for carrying oil or other liquid cargo," 1900, from tank (n.). 19 gantry a metal framework shaped gantry (n.) simple like a bridge used for de- also gauntree, 1570s, "four-footed icing at the airport stand for a barrel," probably from Old North French gantier (Old French chantier, 13c., "store- room, stock-room"), from Latin cantherius "rafter, frame," also "a gelding," from Greek kanthelios "pack ass," which is related to kanthelion "rafter," of unknown origin. The connecting notion in all this seems to be framework for carrying things. Meaning "frame for a crane, etc." is from 1810. Railway signal sense attested by 1889. Derivation from tree (n.) + gawn "small bucket," an obsolete 16c. contraction of gallon, might be folk-etymology. 20 GPU (ground independent electrical abbreviation power unit) generator designed to provide an engine with electrical power during turnaround when the aircraft engines and APU are shut down 21 GSE (Ground combination of GPUs, abbreviation Service ASUs, tow vehicles, tow- Equipment) bar etc. 22 high -speed tug tow vehicle used to tow complex aircraft over long distances: request a high-speed tug to tow us to the maintenance area 23 mobile lounge telescopic vehicle able to complex transport passengers and enable them to board directly at outlying stands 24 pallet flat wooden trays pallet (n.1) simple padėklas̃ simple n (kilnojamoji) simple transporting goods "mattress," late 14c., from Anglo- platforma French paillete "straw, bundle of straw," Old French paillet "chaff, bundle of straw," from paille "straw" (12c.), from Latin palea "chaff," perhaps cognate with Sanskrit palavah, Old Church Slavonic pleva, Russian peleva, Lithuanian pelus.
pallet (n.2) "flat wooden blade" used as a tool by potters, etc., early 15c., from Middle French palette, diminutive of pale "spade, shovel" (see palette). Meaning "large portable tray" used with a forklift for moving loads is from 1921. 25 PAPI a series of lights leading to abbreviation tı̇ ̀ksliojo Complex n tikslaus artėjimo Complex (Precision the runway threshold which artė́jimo tū̃pti kelio indikatorius Approach enable pilots to control their trajektòrijos Path rate of descent visually indikãtorius Indicator) 26 passenger bus for transporting complex coach passengers to and from aircraft 27 passenger mobile stairs used for complex steps boarding and disembarking at outlying stands 28 scissor lift telescopic loader for raising complex loader containers and pallets to the cargo compartments 29 snow blower vehicle which clears complex runways of snow by blowing 30 snow plough vehicle which removes complex n plūginis sniego complex snow from runways with a valytuvas large blade 31 steps stairs used by technicians step (n.) simple Old English steppa (Mercian), stæpe, stepe (West Saxon) "stair, act of stepping," from the source of step (v.). Compare Old Frisian, Middle Dutch, Dutch stap, Old High German stapfo, German Stapfe "footstep"). From late Old English as "degree on a scale." Figurative meaning "action which leads toward a result" is recorded from 1540s. In dancing, from 1670s. Meaning "type of military pace" is from 1798. Warning phrase watch your step is attested from 1911 (Wyclif (late 14c.) has keep thy foot in essentially the same sense). Step by step indicating steady progression is from 1580s. To follow in (someone's) steps is from mid- 13c. 32 sweeper vehicle with rotary brush sweeper (n.) simple for removing dirt and debris 1520s, agent noun from sweep (v.). As a position in soccer (association football) by 1964. 33 tow vehicle a vehicle used especially tow-truck (n.) complex during pushback to move an 1920, from tow (v.) + truck (n.). aircraft backwards from the stand or to pull it to another tow (v.) "pull with a rope," Old location at the airport. It is English togian "to drag, pull," also referred to as a tug or from Proto-Germanic *tugojanan tractor (cognates: Old English teon "to draw," Old Frisian togia "to pull about," Old Norse toga, Old High German zogon, German ziehen "to draw, pull, drag"), from PIE root *deuk- "to pull, draw" (cognates: Latin ducere "to lead;" see duke (n.)). Related: Towed; towing.
vehicle (n.) 1610s, "a medium through which a drug or medicine is administered," also "any means of conveying or transmitting," from French véhicule (16c.), from Latin vehiculum "means of transport, vehicle, carriage, conveyance," from vehere "to bear, carry, convey," from PIE *wegh- "to go, transport in a vehicle" (cognates: Old English wegan "to carry;" Old Norse vegr, Old High German weg "way;" Middle Dutch wagen "wagon;" see wagon). Sense of "cart or other conveyance" in English first recorded 1650s. 34 tow -bar bar connecting the aircraft complex n grąžulas, vilkimo simple n (vilkiko) simple nose gear to a tow vehicle įtaisas complex grąžulas for pushback and towing examples 35 tractor a towing vehicle, used tractor (n.) simple traukiamasis oro complex n lėktuvas su complex especially during pushback, 1856, "something that pulls," from sraigtas; traukiamuoju oro i.e. moving a plane Modern Latin tractor "that which sraigtu backwards from the stand. draws," agent noun from past It is also referred to as a tug participle stem of Latin trahere "to or tow vehicle pull, draw" (see tract (n.1)). Earlier used of a quack device consisting of two metal rods which were supposed to relieve rheumatism (1798, in full Perkins's metallic tractor); still the main sense in Century Dictionary (1891).
Sense of "an engine or vehicle for pulling wagons or plows" is recorded by 1896, from earlier traction engine (1859). The meaning "powerful truck for pulling a freight trailer" is first found 1926; tractor-trailer as "combined motor-truck and trailer" is from 1914. 36 tug a towing vehicle, used tug (n.) simple especially during pushback. mid-14c., in reference to some It is also referred to as a part of a harness;" c. 1500 as "act tractor or tow vehicle: We of pulling or dragging," from tug are waiting for the tug to (v.). Meaning "small, powerful arrive so that we can push vessel for towing other vessels" is back recorded from 1817. Phrase tug of war (1670s) was originally figurative, "the decisive contest, the real struggle," from the noun in the sense "supreme effort, strenuous contest of forces" (1650s). As an actual athletic event, from 1876. 37 toilet truck with tank for complex servicing emptying aircraft waste truck 38 water truck for replenishing complex servicing aircraft’s potable water truck supply 39 windsock a fabric sleeve hung from a wind-sock (n.) simple Wind simple n vėjarodis simple n vėjarodis simple mast to give a rough also windsock, 1922, from wind sock:vė́jarodis indication of the local wind (n.1) + sock (n.). strength / direction
Table 5.1.6 aviation terms in semantic field Airport infrastructure
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term type Anglų- aviacijos lietuvių kalbų Lietuvių Kalbų terminų žodynas orlaivių techninės Aviacijos Terminų 1996 priežiūros terminų Žodynas. 2014 žodynas. 2012 1. aerodrome any place from which aerodrome (n.) simple aerodròmas simple n aerodromas simple aircraft flight operations 1902, from aero- on analogy of take place hippodrome. Earlier (1891) a name for a flying machine.
aero- word-forming element meaning "air, atmosphere; aircraft; gases," from Greek aero-, comb. form of aer (genitive aeros) "air, lower atmosphere" (see air (n.1)).
hippodrome (n.) "horse race- course," 1580s, from French hippodrome, from Latin hippodromos "race course," from Greek hippodromos "chariot road, race course for chariots," from hippos "horse" (see equine) + dromos "course" (see dromedary). In modern use, "circus performance place" (mid-19c.), and thus extended to "large theater for stage shows." In old U.S. sporting slang, "a fixed match or race." 2. Airbridge a telescopic walkway for simple passengers to board and disembark from the aircraft directly from and to the terminal building; it is also referred to as a jetway or jetty 3. alternate (n) an airport along or near the alternate (n.) simple atsargı̇ ̀nis complex n atsarginis complex scheduled route to which 1718, "that which alternates (with aerodròmas aerodromas the aircraft can divert and anything else)," from alternate where it can land in case of (adj.). Meaning "a substitute" is an incident during the flight first attested 1848. 4. angled exit / exits designed to facilitate complex turn-off aircraft vacating the runway at speed, hence the term high-speed turnoff, and performing a rolling start for take-off 5. apron the paved area around the apron (n.) mid-15c., faulty simple perònas simple peronas simple n peronas, lėktuvų Simple; terminal buildings, hangars separation (as also in adder, stovėjimo aikštelė; complex and cargo terminals where umpire) of a napron (c. 1300), aircraft park from Old French naperon "small betonuota aikštelė table-cloth," diminutive of nappe prieš angarą "cloth," from Latin mappa "napkin." Napron was still in use as recently as late 16c. The shift of Latin -m- to -n- was a tendency in Old French (conter from computare, printemps from primum, natte "mat, matting," from matta). Symbolic of "wife's business" from 1610s. Apron- string tenure was in reference to property held in virtue of one's wife, or during her lifetime only. Even at his age, he ought not to be always tied to his mother's apron string. [Anne Brontë, "The Tenant of Wildfell Hall," 1848] 6. blast fence long barrier which diverts complex sraũto skỹdas complex n srauto skydas complex efflux behind parked or taxiing aircraft: blast fences are often installed between the aircraft stands and the terminal buildings 7. cargo terminal building used for storage cargo (n.) 1650s, "freight loaded complex and handling of containers, on a ship," from Spanish cargo pallets etc. See also freight "burden," from cargar "to load, terminal. impose taxes," from Late Latin carricare "to load on a cart" (see charge (v.)). South Pacific cargo cult is from 1949. Cargo pants attested from 1977.
terminal (n.) "end point of a railway line," 1888, from terminal (adj.); sense of "device for communicating with a computer" is first recorded 1954. Earlier "final part of a word" (1831). 8. control tower a tall ATC building with complex skrỹdžių complex n skrydžių valdymo complex overall visibility of the valdymõ bokštas airport bókštas 9. de -icing a designated location where complex station aircraft are de-iced in cold weather before departure 10 drainage grate metal grills on ground to complex evacuate rain water 11 engine run-up remote location where complex area / pad aircraft engines can be tested 12 field another term for the field (n.) Old English feld "plain, simple n laukas simple aerodrome or airport; pasture, open land, cultivated airfield is also used land" (as opposed to woodland), also "a parcel of land marked off and used for pasture or tillage," probably related to Old English folde "earth, land," from Proto- Germanic *felthuz "flat land" (Cognates: Old Saxon and Old Frisian feld "field," Old Saxon folda "earth," Middle Dutch velt, Dutch veld Old High German felt, German Feld "field," but not found originally outside West Germanic; Swedish fält, Danish felt are borrowed from German; Finnish pelto "field" is believed to have been adapted from Proto- Germanic). This is from PIE *pel(e)-tu-, from root *pele- (2) "flat, to spread" (see plane (n.1)). The English spelling with -ie- probably is the work of Anglo- French scribes (compare brief, piece).
As "battle-ground," c. 1300. Meaning "sphere or range of any related things" is from mid-14c. Physics sense is from 1845. Collective use for "all engaged in a sport" (or, in horse-racing, all but the favorite) is 1742; play the field "avoid commitment" (1936) is from notion of gamblers betting on other horses than the favorite. Cricket and baseball sense of "ground on which the game is played" is from 1875. Sense of "tract of ground where something is obtained or extracted" is from 1859. As an adjective in Old English combinations, often with a sense of "rural, rustic" (feldcirice "country-church," feldlic "rural"). Of slaves, "assigned to work in the fields" (1817, in field-hand), opposed to house. A field-trial originally was of hunting dogs. 13 finger extension from main finger (n.) simple n pirštas; kaištis simple terminal building extending "terminal or digital member of the into the apron and hand" (in a restricted sense not containing gates: Terminal including the thumb), Old English 3 has six fingers and forty finger, fingor "finger," from eight gates Proto-Germanic *fingraz (cognates: Old Saxon fingar, Old Frisian finger, Old Norse fingr, Dutch vinger, German Finger, Gothic figgrs "finger"), with no cognates outside Germanic; perhaps connected with PIE *penkwe-, the root meaning "five."
As a unit of measure for liquor and gunshot (late Old English) it represents the breadth of a finger, about three-quarters of an inch. They generally are numbered from the thumb outward, and named index finger, fool's finger, leech- or physic-finger, and ear- finger. 14 freight a building used for the complex terminal storage and handling of containers, pallets etc. their dispatch to specific aircraft and their loading onto cargo flights. See also cargo terminal. 15 fuel farm place where fuel tanks are farm (n.) complex located and tankers are c. 1300, "fixed payment (usually housed and replenished in exchange for taxes collected, etc.), fixed rent," from Old French ferme "a rent, lease" (13c.), from Medieval Latin firma "fixed payment," from Latin firmare "to fix, settle, confirm, strengthen," from firmus "strong; stable," figuratively "constant, trusty" (see firm (adj.)).
Sense of "tract of leased land" is first recorded early 14c.; that of "cultivated land" (leased or not) is 1520s. A word of confused history, but there is agreement that "the purely agricultural sense is comparatively modern" [Century Dictionary]. There is a set of Old English words that appear to be related in sound and sense; if these, too, are from Latin it would be a very early borrowing. Some books strenuously defend a theory that the Anglo-Saxon words are original (perhaps related to feorh "life").
Phrase buy the farm "die in battle," is at least from World War II, perhaps a cynical reference to the draftee's dream of getting out of the war and going home, in many cases to a peaceful farmstead. But fetch the farm is prisoner slang from at least 1879 for "get sent to the infirmary," with reference to the better diet and lighter duties there. 16 fuel hydrant underground fuel supply hydrant (n.) complex point "apparatus for drawing water from a street main," 1806, from Greek hydr-, stem of hydor "water" (see water (n.1)) + -ant. OED double-damns it as "Irregularly formed" and "of U.S. origin." 17 gate parking stand directly gate (n.) simple įėjimas, išėjimas simple connected to the airport "opening, entrance," Old English (oro uoste) terminal by an airbridge: we geat (plural geatu) "gate, door, are pushing back from Gate opening, passage, hinged 36; will you have an framework barrier," from Proto- ambulance standing by at Germanic *gatan (cognates: Old the gate? Norse gat "opening, passage," Old Saxon gat "eye of a needle, hole," Old Frisian gat "hole, opening," Dutch gat "gap, hole, breach," German Gasse "street"), of unknown origin. Meaning "money collected from selling tickets" dates from 1896 (short for gate money, 1820). Gate-crasher is from 1926 as "uninvited party guest;" 1925 in reference to motorists who run railway gates. Finnish katu, Lettish gatua "street" are Germanic loan-words. 18 general terminal for private, complex aviation business and leisure terminal aviation 19 Hangar shelter for housing aircraft hangar (n.) simple n angaras simple n angaras simple on ground: scheduled A, B 1852, "shed for carriages," from and C checks are performed French hangar "shed," which is of in the hangars uncertain origin. Probably from Middle French hanghart (14c.), which is perhaps an alteration of Middle Dutch *ham-gaerd "enclosure near a house" [Barnhart, Watkins], from a Proto-Germanic compound *haimgardaz of the elements that make home (n.) and yard (n.1). Or the Middle French word might be from Medieval Latin angarium "shed in which horses are shod" [Gamillscheg, Klein]. Sense of "covered shed for airplanes" first recorded in English 1902, from French use in that sense. 20 high -speed angled taxiway allowing complex exit aircraft to vacate runway without decelerating completely 21 HIRL (High The brightness of runway abbreviation Intensity lighting can be adjusted by Runway the Tower according to the Lighting) atmospheric conditions and time of day 22 holding point / a place indicated by complex laukı̇ ̀mo tãškas complex n laukimo taškas complex position painted ground markings, illuminated signage and (often) stop bars where aircraft stop until they are authorised to enter the runway: taxi holding point Lima 1 Runway 08 via taxiwaysCharlie and Hotel 23 ILS critical an area which an ATCO complex area may instruct an aircraft to hold short of in order to avoid interference with an ILS signal 24 ILS the localizer and glideslope complex Transmitters transmitters. The localizer transmitter is aligned with the runway centreline within the airport perimeter some distance from the runway threshold. The glideslope antenna is located perhaps some 100 metres to the left or right of a runway to the side of the touchdown zone. 25 intersection crossing of taxiways, intersection (n.) simple n susikirtimas, Simple n susikirtimas simple runways or taxiways and 1550s, "act or fact of crossing," sankirta; runways from Middle French intersection susikirtimo taškas complex (14c.) and directly from Latin intersectionem (nominative intersectio) "a cutting asunder, intersection," noun of action from past participle stem of intersecare "intersect, cut asunder," from inter- "between" (see inter-) + secare "to cut" (see section (n.)). In English originally a term in geometry; meaning "crossroads, a place of crossing" is from 1864. Related: Intersectional. 26 jetty a telescopic walkway for jetty (n.) simple passengers to disembark early 15c., from Old French jetee, from and board the aircraft getee "a jetty, a pier; a projecting directly to and from the part of a building," also "a terminal building; also throw," noun use of fem. past airbridge or jetway participle of jeter "to throw" (see jet (v.1)). Notion is of a structure "thrown out" past what surrounds it. 27 jetway a telescopic walkway for simple passengers disembark from and board the aircraft directly to and from the terminal building; also airbridge or jetty 28 localizer ILS aerial connected to a complex antenna transmitter providing directional guidance 29 Non - a ground-based beacon complex nekryptı̇̀nis complex n nekryptinis radijo complex Directional with a given Morse rãdijo švyturỹs švyturys Beacon (NDB) identifier used by the pilot in conjunction with the ADF in order to establish his / her position: with the spread of VOR and GPS, NDBs tend to be usedless 30 nose -in a type of stand directly in complex contact with the airport passenger terminal; parking or docking is usually assisted by an automatic system 31 oblique exit / exits designed to facilitate oblique (adj.) complex turn-off aircraft vacating the runway early 15c., from Middle French at speed, hence the term oblique (14c.) and directly from ‘high-speed turnoff’, and Latin obliquus "slanting, performing a rolling start sidelong, indirect," from ob for take-off "against" (see ob-) + root of licinus "bent upward," from PIE root *lei- "to bend, be movable" (see limb (n.1)). As a type of muscles, in reference to the axis of the body, 1610s (adj.), 1800 (n.). Related: Obliquely; obliqueness.
exit (n.) 1530s (late 15c. as a Latin word in English), originally a stage direction, from Latin exit "he or she goes out," third person singular present indicative of exire "go out, go forth, depart," from ex- "out" (see ex-) + ire "to go" (see ion). Also from Latin exitus "a leaving, a going out," noun of action from exire. Meaning "a departure" (originally from the stage) is from 1580s. Meaning "a way of departure" is from 1690s; specific meaning "door for leaving" is from 1786. The verb is c. 1600, from the noun; it ought to be left to stage directions and the clunky jargon of police reports. Related: Exited; exiting. Those who neither know Latin nor read plays are apt to forget or not know that this is a singular verb with plural exeunt. [Fowler] Exit poll attested by 1980. 32 outer taxiway continuous taxiway complex between apron and inner taxiways and runways allowing aircraft to circumnavigate (taxi around) the terminals for easier access 33 outlying stand parking position which is complex not directly connected to terminal; remote stand 34 passenger building for passenger passenger (n.) complex terminal check-in, security, early 14c., passager "passer-by," immigration, etc. from Old French passagier "traveler, passer-by" (Modern French passager), noun use of passagier (adj.) "passing, fleeting, traveling," from passage (see passage). And in this I resemble the Lappwing, who fearing hir young ones to be destroyed by passengers, flyeth with a false cry farre from their nestes, making those that looke for them seeke where they are not .... [John Lyly, "Euphues and His England," 1580] The -n- was added early 15c. (compare messenger, harbinger, scavenger, porringer). Meaning "one traveling in a vehicle or vessel" first attested 1510s. Passenger-pigeon of North America so called from 1802; extinct since 1914.
terminal (n.) "end point of a railway line," 1888, from terminal (adj.); sense of "device for communicating with a computer" is first recorded 1954. Earlier "final part of a word" (1831). 35 paving the hard surface of all parts simple Pavement n danga simple of the apron, runways and taxiways 36 perimeter security barrier around the complex fencing outer limit of airport 37 Pier long corridor connecting pier (n.) simple airport terminal with gates mid-12c., "support of a span of a bridge," from Medieval Latin pera, of unknown origin, perhaps from Old North French pire "a breakwater," from Vulgar Latin *petricus, from Latin petra "rock" (see petrous), but OED is against this. Meaning "solid structure in a harbor, used as a landing place for vessels," is attested from mid-15c. 38 Ramp area around the terminal ramp (n.1) simple perònas simple n rampa simple n rampa; pakrovimo simple buildings where aircraft are 1778, "slope," from French vieta complex parked and serviced. Also rampe, back-formation from Old apron. French verb ramper "to climb, scale, mount;" see ramp (v.). Meaning "road on or off a major highway" is from 1952, American English. 39 remote stand parking position which is complex not directly connected to the terminal; outlying stand 40 repair station a technical facility where complex certain types of aircraft, engines and equipment can be repaired and maintained 41 runway the paved surface designed runway (n.) simple kilı̇ ̀mo ir ̃ tūpı̇ ̀mo complex n kilimo ir tūpimo complex n kilimo ir tūpimo complex for aircraft take-off and "customary track of an animal," tãkas takas takas landing. Runways have especially a deer, 1833, American different designated English, from run (v.) + way (n.). orientations (QFU) such as Meaning "artificial sloping track" 05L / 23R 180° apart and is attested from 1883; airfield are generally some distance sense is from 1923. from the terminal buildings. The runways may be parallel, offset or intersecting 42 runway lighting along the complex runway centre complex centreline longitudinal axis of runway line light: ašı̇ ̀nis lighting kilı̇ ̀mo ir ̃ tūpı̇ ̀mo tãko žiburỹs 43 runway a series of painted marks complex centreline showing the runway marking centreline 44 runway edge white lights, usually on complex lighting stalks, on each side of the 45 runway exit a short taxiway which complex allows aircraft to leave a runway 46 runway exit an airport sign which complex sign indicates an approaching taxiway to vacate a runway 47 runway painted markings of complex holding point / continuous and broken position yellow lines which indicate marking where aircraft must hold until cleared onto a runway 48 Satellite a terminal building at an satellite (n.) simple airport, attached to a larger 1540s, "follower or attendant of a terminal, which is located to superior person," from Middle bring passengers nearer to French satellite (14c.), from Latin the gates satellitem (nominative satelles) "attendant, companion, courtier, accomplice, assistant," perhaps from Etruscan satnal (Klein), or a compound of roots *satro- "full, enough" + *leit- "to go" (Tucker); compare English follow, which is constructed of similar roots.
Meaning "planet that revolves about a larger one" first attested 1660s, in reference to the moons of Jupiter, from Latin satellites, which was used in this sense 1610s by German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630). Galileo, who had discovered them, called them Sidera Medicæa in honor of the Medici family. Meaning "man-made machinery orbiting the Earth" first recorded 1936 as theory, 1957 as fact. Meaning "country dependent and subservient to another" is recorded from 1800. 49 secondary an ATC radar system which complex antrı̇ ̀nis complex n antrinis sekimo complex surveillance detects and measures the apžvalgõs radaras radar (SSR) position of aircraft as well radiolokãtorius obtaining its identity and altitude by means of a transponder onboard the aircraft: Mode S is a SecondarySurveillance Radar (SSR) with a selective interrogation of aircraft and a unique 24-bit worldwide addresswhich removes the risk of confusion due to overlapping signals. 50 stand (n) the place where the aircraft stand (n.) simple aircraft stand: complex parks, where passengers Old English stand "a pause, delay, órlaivio board and disembark. state of rest or inaction," from the stovė́jimo vietà root of stand (v.). Compare Dutch and German stand (n.). Sense of "action of standing or coming to a position" is attested from late 14c., especially in reference to fighting (1590s). Sense of "state of being unable to proceed" is from 1590s.
Meaning "place of standing, position" is from early 14c.; figurative sense is from 1590s. Meaning "raised platform for a hunter or sportsman" is attested from c. 1400. Meaning "raised platform for spectators at an open-air event" is from 1610s; meaning "piece of furniture on which something is to be set" is from 1690s. Sense of "stall or booth" is first recorded c. 1500. Military meaning "complete set" (of arms, colors, etc.) is from 1721, often a collective singular. Sense of "standing growth" (usually of of trees) is 1868, American English. Theatrical sense of "each stop made on a performance tour" is from 1896. The word formerly also was slang for "an erection" (1867). 51 Strip Strip can also refer to an strip (n.) simple airstrip or small runway. "long, narrow, flat piece," mid- 15c., "narrow piece of cloth," probably related to or from Middle Low German strippe "strap, thong," and from the same source as stripe (n.1). Sense extension to wood, land, etc. first recorded 1630s.
Sense in comic strip is from 1920. Airport sense is from 1936; race track sense from 1941. Meaning "street noted for clubs, bars, etc." is attested from 1939, originally in reference to Los Angeles' Sunset Strip. Strip mine (n.) attested by 1892, as a verb by 1916; so called because the surface material is removed in successive parallel strips. 52 stopway additional paved area simple stãbdymo tãkas complex beyond the normal end of the runway to allow for aircraft overrunning in an emergency 53 stop bar a series of lights indicating complex stòp lı̇̀nijos complex whether access to a runway žiburỹs is authorised or not: do not proceed if the stop bar lights are red 54 surface a radar system to monitor complex movement aircraft movements on the radar ground 55 take -off point a position on the runway, complex beyond which an aircraft is travelling too fast to slow down again safely, and therefore must take off 56 taxi location airport sign which indicates complex sign the taxiway that an aircraft is currently on 57 taxiway paved way for aircraft to simple riedė́jimo tãkas complex n riedėjimo takas, complex n riedėjimo takas complex move to and from the greittakis terminals and different parts of the airport 58 taxiway painted markings complex ending consisting of striped lines marking on the far end of an intersection indicating the end of a taxiway 59 transient a place for planes to park complex parking temporarily 60 TWY taxiway abbreviation riedė́jimo tãkas complex n riedėjimo takas complex
Table 5.1.7 aviation terms in semantic field Emergencies
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. bird strike impact by a bird. Birds can complex n susidūrimas su complex hit the aircraft at different paukščiu points. Effects will depend on the location of the impact and the size and number of the birds (See Units 5 and 6). The ingestion of large birds may cause engine stall or failure. Although windshields are tested for bird strikes, large birds can crack or break windshields impairing vision and affecting cabin pressurisation. The crew will need to make a precautionary landing. 2. blow -out (n) a tyre burst: The blow-out blow out (n.) also blowout, 1825, complex left some rubber debris 600 American English colloquial, metres from the threshold of "outburst, brouhaha" (what, in Runway 17 Left. modern use, would be called a blow up), from blow (v.1) + out. Meaning "abundant feast" is recorded from 1824; that of "flat tire" is from 1908. 3. bogged down stuck in the mud, damp complex earth or sand: a tug is required to tow the Regional Jet which is bogged down off Taxiway Lima. 4. bomb scare threat or fear that there may complex be a bomb on a plane or on the ground 5. bomb warning a threat of a bomb on board complex or on the ground; a bomb scare. Even bomb scares which do not seem credible have to be taken seriously and the aircraft must divert and land as soon as possible. 6. breakdown failure, disintegration, breakdown (n.) "a collapse," 1832, simple n gedimas; avarija simple collapse: Radio malfunction from break (v.) + down (adv.). and inadequate language The verbal phrase is attested from proficiency can both result late 14c. The noun, specifically of in a breakdown in machinery, is from 1838; meaning communication. "an analysis in detail" is from 1936. Nervous breakdown is from 1905. 7. Cabin loss of cabin pressurisation complex depressurisati and an increase in cabin on altitude; the cabin altitude, normally maintained at between 6,000 and 8,600 feet, increases and at 14,000 feet cabin altitude the passenger oxygen masks are automatically deployed in the cabin. Cabin depressurisation is a perfectly manageable failure, but will result in the passenger oxygen masks dropping, an unscheduled descent, poor communication as the crew will be wearing their oxygen masks and possibly injuries (concussion, broken ribs, bruises, cuts) among the passengers and cabin crew who did not have their seat belts fastened. 8. CFIT CFIT happens when an abbreviation (Controlled aircraft, which is airworthy Flight Into and under the control of the Terrain) flight crew, is flown unintentionally into terrain, obstacles or water, usually without the crew being aware. 9. Controlled happens when an aircraft, Flight Into which is airworthy and Terrain under the control of the (CFIT) flight crew, is flown unintentionally into terrain, obstacles or water, usually without the crew being aware. 10 contingency a plan B; a pre-prepared complex plan plan to be implemented in case events do not take place as initially planned: we need a contingency plan in case we have to divert 11 Debris the general name for debris (n.) 1708, from French simple n nuolaužos, lūženos simple n lūženos, simple objects which are where débris "remains, waste, rubbish" nuolaužos they shouldn’t be: Debris (16c.), from obsolete debriser on the ground can be "break down, crush," from Old extremely dangerous for French de- (see de-) + briser "to aircraft break," from Late Latin brisare, possibly of Gaulish origin (compare Old Irish brissim "I break"). 12 Ditching alighting on water in an ditch (v.) simple priverstı̇ ̀nis complex n priverstinis complex emergency: the successful late 14c., "surround with a ditch; tūpı̇̀mas añt tūpimas ant vandens ditching in the Hudson dig a ditch;" from ditch (n.). vandeñs River of US Air 1549 has Meaning "to throw into a ditch" is become famous in aviation from 1816, hence sense of history "abandon, discard," first recorded 1899 in American English. Of aircraft, by 1941. Related: Ditched; ditching. 13 don (v) to put on a mask or life vest don (v.) simple early 14c. contraction of do on (see doff). "After 1650 retained in popular use only in north. dialect; as a literary archaism it has become very frequent in 19th c." [OED]. Related: Donned; donning. 14 Emergency any unplanned, threatening emergency (n.) simple n Comple situation which requires "unforeseen occurrence requiring nenumatytas/blogia x immediate action immediate attention," 1630s, from usias atvejis; Latin emergens, present participle kritiška padėtis; of emergere "to rise out or up" avarija simple (see emerge). Or from emerge + - ency. As an adjective by 1881. 15 emergency rapid descent using complex n avarinis leidimasis complex descent following a cabin į žemesnį aukštį, depressurisation žemėjimas 16 Evacuation exiting the aircraft in an evacuation (n.) simple Emergency complex n evakuacija simple emergency, often via the c. 1400, "discharge from the evacuation: emergency escape slides body" (originally mostly of avãrinė blood), from Old French evakuãcija évacuation and directly from Late Latin evacuationem (nominative evacuatio), noun of action from past participle stem of evacuare "to empty" (see evacuate). Military sense is by 1710. Of persons, by 1854. 17 explosive bomb complex device 18 Failure an inoperative state or the failure (n.) simple n 1 gedimas; complex n 1 gedimas, Simple, process of becoming 1640s, failer, "a failing, avarija; prastas complex inoperative: a temperature deficiency," also "act of failing," veikimas sensor failure; 2) an from Anglo-French failer, Old omission or the inability to French falir "be lacking; not perform an action: there succeed" (see fail (v.)). The verb was a failure by the crew to in Anglo-French used as a noun; use the Standard Operating ending altered 17c. in English to Procedures conform with words in -ure. Meaning "thing or person considered as a failure" is from 1837. 19 fuel running short of fuel. Fuel complex emergency emergencies do not usually occur suddenly, but are the result either of incorrect automatic or manual fuel management or prolonged holding. Avianca Flight 052 remains the classic case of a fuel emergency where inadequate communication, non-standard phraseology and poor language skills by the crew led to fuel exhaustion on all four engines. Different degrees of urgency (distress – pan calls; and emergency – Mayday) are at the crew’s disposal once they have communicated their fuel endurance to ATC. 20 flameout / a loss of combustion in a simple liepsnõs simple liepsnos atotrūkis simple flame-out gas turbine engine atótrūkis complex 21 foam carpet a layer of foam put down on complex the runway by fire tenders to cushion the impact of an aircraft making a wheels-up landing. 22 FOD (foreign damage to the aircraft from abbreviation object stray objects on the ground damage) or birds in flight 23 INS warning a warning about a complex malfunction in the Inertial Navigation System, i.e. the main system using gyros and geographical coordinates to calculate the aircraft’s precise position 24 metal debris parts which may become complex detached from aircraft during take-off and landing; they can have devastating effects as was shown by the Air France Concorde accident at Charles de Gaulle 25 precautionary an anticipated landing complex landing decided on by the crew in order to manage an abnormal situation (technical failure, illness etc.) but which is not an emergency: due to the failure of engine 1, we have decided toreturn to Bogota and make a precautionary landing 26 rescue (v) to save, to recover, to free rescue (v.) simple gélbėjimas paieška ir gelbėjimas; complex n (iš)gelbėjimas simple from danger: search and c. 1300, from stem of Old French v (iš)gelbėti rescue; all the passengers rescorre "protect, keep safe; free, and crew were rescued from deliver" (Modern French the icy water recourre), from re-, intensive prefix (see re-), + escourre "to cast off, discharge," from Latin excutere "to shake off, drive away," from ex- "out" (see ex-) + - cutere, combining form of quatere "to shake" (see quash). Related: Rescued; rescuing. 27 risk factor an aspect which can be a complex source of danger or threat: Poor visibility, crew fatigue, failure to follow SOPs are all potential risk factors during approach and landing 28 risk identification, assessment complex management and prioritization of risks followed by coordinated use of resources to minimize them 29 runway a pilot approaching, complex confusion entering, or landing on the wrong runway 30 seize (v) 1) to block, lock or jam: the seize (v.) simple užsikirsti (apie simple flap linkage appears to be mid-13c., from Old French seisir variklį) seized up 2) to grab or take "to take possession of, take by hold of: seize the handle force; put in possession of, bestow and turn clockwise upon" (Modern French saisir), from Late Latin sacire, which is generally held to be from a Germanic source, but the exact origin is uncertain. Perhaps from Frankish *sakjan "lay claim to" (compare Gothic sokjan, Old English secan "to seek;" see seek). Or perhaps from Proto-Germanic *satjan "to place" (see set (v.)).
Originally a legal term in reference to feudal property holdings or offices. Meaning "to grip with the hands or teeth" is from c. 1300; that of "to take possession by force or capture" (of a city, etc.) is from mid-14c. Figurative use, with reference to death, disease, fear, etc. is from late 14c. Meaning "to grasp with the mind" is attested from 1855. Of engines or other mechanisms, attested from 1878. Related: Seized; seizing. 31 skid (v) to move in an uncontrolled skid (v.) simple n 1 (ratų) šliaužimas, simple (ratų) šliaužimas, simple way, typically because the 1670s, "apply a skid to (a wheel, slydimas; slydimas surface is slippery (due to to keep it from turning)," from v slysti, šliaužti oil, ice, standing water etc.) skid (n.). Meaning "slide along" or because it was going too first recorded 1838; extended fast to grip the surface sense of "slip sideways" (on a wet road, etc.) first recorded 1884. The original notion is of a block of wood for stopping a wheel; the modern senses are from the notion of a wheel slipping when blocked from revolving. 32 slippery which is likely to cause slippery (adj.) simple a slidus simple sliding or skidding: the "having a slippery surface," c. runway is slippery when wet 1500, from Middle English sliper (adj.) "readily slipping," from Old English slipor "slippery, having a smooth surface" (see slip (v.)) + -y (2). Metaphoric sense of "deceitful, untrustworthy" is first recorded 1550s. Related: Slipperiness. In a figurative sense, slippery slope is first attested 1844. Slippery elm (1748) so called for its mucilaginous inner bark. 33. smoke fumes caused by smoke (n.1) simple dū́ mai simple n dūmai simple n dūmai simple combustion. Both smoke late Old English smoca (rare) and fire remain number one "fumes and volatile material given hazards on board the off by burning substances," related aircraft. Response time is to smeocan "give off smoke," critical. The crew’s priority from Proto-Germanic *smuk- is to land as soon as (cognates: Middle Dutch smooc, possible while trying to Dutch smook, Middle High contain and extinguish the German smouch, German fire. The flight crew will be Schmauch), from PIE root working under a lot of *smeug- "to smoke; smoke" stress. Communication will (cognates: Armenian mux be less clear as they crew "smoke," Greek smykhein "to will be wearing masks. It burn with smoldering flame," Old will be necessary to make Irish much, Welsh mwg "smoke"). an emergency evacuation There is no fyre without some using the escape slides as smoke [Heywood, 1562] soon as the aircraft is on the The more usual noun was Old ground. English smec, which became dialectal smeech. Abusive meaning "black person" attested from 1913, American English. Smoke-eater "firefighter" is c. 1930. Figurative phrase go up in smoke "be destroyed" (as if by fire) is from 1933. Smoke-alarm first attested 1936; smoke-detector from 1957. 34 surge a sudden irregular flow of surge (v.) simple pompãžas simple n 1 staigus complex v banguoti; kilti simple fluid, especially in the 1510s, "to rise and fall," from padidėjimas (elektros engine, electrical or surge (n.), or from Middle French srovės ir pan.) hydraulic system, which surgir "rise, ride (as a ship does a 2 viršįtampis causes a malfunction; in the wave), spring up, arrive." case of an engine, this Meaning "rise high and roll results in an engine stall forcefully" is from 1560s. Related: Surged; surging. 35 threat (n) 1) a suggestion that threat (n.) simple n grėsmė, pavojus simple something unpleasant or Old English þreat "crowd, troop," violent will happen: there is also "oppression, coercion, a threat of airport closures menace," related to þreotan "to caused by the strike; the trouble, weary," from Proto- threat of tropical storms 2) Germanic *thrautam (cognates: a danger: Bird strikes Dutch verdrieten, German remain a serious threat to verdrießen "to vex"), from PIE aircraft safety *treud- "to push, press squeeze" (cognates: Latin trudere "to press, thrust," Old Church Slavonic trudu "oppression," Middle Irish trott "quarrel, conflict," Middle Welsh cythrud "torture, torment, afflict"). Sense of "conditional declaration of hostile intention" was in Old English. 36 torching flames coming from the torch (v.) simple n degimas, simple engine exhaust duct due to 1819, "illuminate with a torch," liepsnojimas the presence of fuel which from torch (n.). Meaning "set fire has not been burnt to" is from 1931. Related: Torched; torching. 37 Warning a crew alert symbolised by warning (n.) simple n įspėjimas, simple the colour red and requiring "notice beforehand of the perspėjimas immediate crew action. We consequences that will probably have an engine fire warning follow continuance in some particular course" [Century Dictionary], Old English warnung, verbal noun from warnian (see warn (v.)).
Table 5.1.8 aviation terms in semantic field Flight condition
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. Crabbing flying with drift due to simple crosswind 2. buffeting the effects of being buffet (v.) c. 1200, "to strike with simple bãftingas simple n lėktuvo kratymas Termino knocked around by the fist or hand; cuff, box, slap; skrydžio metu dėl logical turbulence or the rapid from Old French bufeter "to stipraus vėjo phrase oscillation of flight control strike, slap, punch," from bufet surfaces (see buffet (n.2)). Related: Buffeted; buffeting. 3. drift (n) gradual lateral movement drift (n.) simple núonaša simple n deviacija, simple n nuonaša simple off course usually caused by c. 1300, literally "a being driven" nukrypimas a crosswind (of snow, etc.); not recorded in Old English; either a suffixed form of drive (v.) (compare thrift/thrive) or borrowed from Old Norse drift "snow drift," or Middle Dutch drift "pasturage, drove, flock," both from Proto- Germanic *driftiz (cognates: Danish and Swedish drift, German Trift), from PIE root *dhreibh- "to drive, push" (see drive (v.)). Sense of "what one is getting at" is from 1520s. Meaning "controlled slide of a sports car" attested by 1955. 4. drift -down (n) losing height gradually complex žemė́jimas complex kreiseriniù režimù 5. Dutch roll aircraft oscillating from complex olándiškasis complex pokrypis ir complex side to side: our Yaw žiñgsnis posvyris Damper system is inoperative and we are experiencing some Dutch roll 6. Stall a sudden breakdown of simple órlaivio smukà complex n smuka; srauto simple n 1 smuka simple fluid flow around the stall (n.3) atitrūkimas; 2 greičio aerofoil (wing) or in an "action of losing lift, power, or atótrūkis v 1 prarasti greitį complex mažėjimas/netekima complex engine: stall can result in motion," 1918 of aircraft, 1959 of 2 užgesti (apie s the aircraft losing stability automobile engines, from stall variklį) v netekti greičio and lift and in engine (v.1). failure stall (v.1) "to come to a stand" (intransitive), c. 1400; "to become stuck or be set fast," mid-15c., from Old French estale or Old English steall (see stall (n.1)). Transitive sense "place in office, install" is 14c.; specifically "place an animal in a stall" (late 14c.). Of engines or engine-powered vehicles, it is attested from 1904 (transitive), 1914 (intransitive); of aircraft "to lose lift," 1910. Related: Stalled; stalling. 7. surge (n) a breakdown of airflow surge (n.) late 15c., "fountain, simple n 1 staigus complex n 1 augimas, complex resulting from local stall stream," of uncertain origin, padidėjimas (elektros kilimas and often accompanied by a probably from Middle French srovės ir pan.) 2 turbininio variklio muffled bang and an sourge-, stem of sourdre "to rise, pompažas increase in turbine swell," from Latin surgere "to rise, temperature arise, get up, mount up, ascend; attack," contraction of surrigere, from assimilated form of sub "up from below" (see sub-) + regere "to keep straight, guide" (see regal). Meaning "high, rolling swell of water" is from 1520s; figurative sense of "excited rising up" (as of feelings) is from 1510s.
Table 5.1.9 aviation terms in semantic field Flight procedures
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. abort (v) to stop doing something or abort (v.) 1570s, "to miscarry," simple n (skrydžio) complex v nutraukti simple stop a process that you had from Latin abortus, past participle nutraukimas simple intended to do or had of aboriri "to miscarry" (see v nutraukti, sustabdyti already started to do, abortive); 1610s as "to especially a take-off or deliberately terminate" anything, landing: take-off must be aborted before V1. 2. advance (v) to move forward the thrust advance (v.) mid-13c., avauncen, simple or throttle levers to increase transitive, "improve (something), engine power; the contrary further the development of," from of to retard: advance the Old French avancier "move thrust levers to TOGA forward" (12c.), from Vulgar (Take-off / Go-around) Latin *abanteare (source of Italian avanzare, Spanish avanzar), from Late Latin abante "from before," composed of ab- "from" (see ab-) + ante "before, in front of, against" (see ante).
The -d- was inserted 16c. on mistaken notion that initial a- was from Latin ad-. From c. 1300 as "to promote;" intransitive sense is mid-14c., "move forward." Meaning "to give money before it is legally due" is first attested 1670s. Related: Advanced; advancing. The adjective (in advance warning, etc.) is recorded from 1843. 3. back course a procedure when a reverse complex atgalı̇ ̀nis kùrsas complex ILS localizer signal can be used for an approach 4. backtrack (v) having landed on the simple runway in use, to turn 180° and proceed along the runway in the opposite direction or having entered the runway lower down, to taxi to the end of the runway and turn 180° in order to have a longer take- off run: backtrack Runway 27R 5. base turn a specified outbound track complex pósūkis į tūptı̇̀nę complex followed by a turn of more than 180° to intercept the inbound track 6. circuits and a training exercise by complex bumps which pilots practise approaches, touch down on the runway, but do not roll out and stop; also referred to as touch and go 7. climb -out (n) the initial climb from the complex aukštė́jimas simple n pakilimas; Simple airport of departure aukštėjimas; complex pradinis kilimas 8. deflect (v) to move along a pre- deflect (v.) simple v 1 nukrypti simple v pakeisti complex defined arc: the rudder 1550s, from Latin deflectere "to 2 nukreipti kryptį/kursą; deflects from left to right bend (something) aside or nukrypti downward," from de- "away" (see de-) + flectere "to bend" (see flexible). Originally transitive, the intransitive sense is first recorded 1640s. Related: Deflected; deflecting. 9. dump (v) to discharge fuel in flight in dump (v.) simple v išpilti, išmesti simple n degalų nupylimas complex order to reduce the aircraft’s early 14c., "throw down or fall v atsikratyti; nupilti weight; to jettison: we are with force," perhaps from a degalus over our MLW(Maximum Scandinavian source (compare Landing Weight) and need Danish dumpe, Norwegian dumpa to dump 2 tonnes of fuel "to fall suddenly"). The sense of "unload en masse" is first recorded in American English 1784. That of "discard, abandon" is from 1919. Related: Dumped; dumping. Dump truck is from 1930. 10 drift the action by which the complex correction pilot corrects the horizontal flight path by bringing the aircraft back onto the extended runway centreline or localizer beam 11 engine run-up operating the engine on the complex ground over its full power range for testing purposes after an engine change or repair 12 established in in level flight at its terminologi cruise maximum or cruise altitude, cal phrase which is typically between 35,000 and 41,000 feet 13 extend the to deploy the Ram Air terminologi RAT (v) Turbine, a small electrical cal phrase generator driven by a propeller, which is lowered into the airstream below the wing to provide essential electrical (and hydraulic) power in the event of multiple engine-driven generator failures 14 fast landing a landing made above the complex usual landing speed of the aircraft either because of adverse wind conditions or because the flaps are not fully extended. This will probably result in a hard landing. 15 ferry flight a flight whose purpose is to complex pérskraidinimas simple n perskraidinimas simple reposition an aircraft to another location and not to transport a payload: the crew are making a ferry flight to Casablanca so that there is an aircraft in place to ensure theCasablanca- Paris flight tomorrow 16 flaps -up occurs when the crew is not complex landing able to extend the high-lift flaps. This results in the minimum speed of the aircraft being higher and so the aircraft landing at a higher speed and probably requiring a longer stopping distance 17 flare the final nose-up pitch flare (v.) simple Išlýginimas Simple n 1 tūpimo complex movement of a landing 1540s, "spread out" (hair), of išlyginimas airplane. The landing flare unknown origin, perhaps from is a manoeuvre that enables Scandinavian or from Dutch a pilot to reduce an vlederen. Meaning "shine out with airplane’s vertical speed a sudden light" is from 1630s. The without applying engine notion of "spreading out in power. display" is behind the notion of "spreading gradually outward" (1640s). Related: Flared; flaring. 18 full -stop a normal landing which complex landing ends with the aircraft stopping and exiting the runway rather than doing a training exercise of touch and go 19 go -around (n) a missed approach, complex tūpı̇̀mo complex n tūpimo complex discontinuing an approach, nutraukı̇̀mas nutraukimas; pulling up and performing a kilimas kartoti traffic pattern or circuit: if we are not visual at 250 feet, we will perform a go- around 20 go around (v) to discontinue an approach: complex if we are not visual at 250 feet, we will go around 21 high -speed an approach at a higher complex approach than normal airspeed using a flaps-up (clean) aircraft configuration for longer in the early stages in order to expedite arrival 22 in -flight when the crew decides to complex turnback return to the airport of departure. This is dangerous because the aircraft is likely to be full of fuel and therefore over its maximum landing weight: the certified value above which fuel must be jettisoned or burnt off if landing becomes urgently necessary and structural damage is to be avoided 23 intercept (n) joining a path, trajectory or intercept (n.) simple v 1 perimti simple navigation beam: fly the "that which is intercepted," from 2 sustabdyti DME arc to intercept the intercept (v.). From 1821 of a ball ILS thrown in a sport; 1880 in navigation; 1942 in reference to secret messages.
intercept (v.) c. 1400, "to cut off" (a line), "prevent" (the spread of a disease), from Latin interceptus, past participle of intercipere "take or seize between, to seize in passing," from inter- "between" (see inter-) + -cipere, comb. form of capere "to take, catch" (see capable). Related: Intercepted; intercepting. 24 Instrument the procedure for a given complex artė́jimo tū̃pti complex n artėjimo tūpti complex approach ILS approach pagal ̃ prı̇ ́etaisus pagal prietaisus procedure tvarkà tvarka (IAP) 25 jettison (v) to discharge fuel in flight in jettison (v.) simple v 1 išpilti (degalus) simple n avarinis kuro complex order to reduce the aircraft’s 1848, "to throw overboard," 2 išmesti išpylimas weight; to dump especially to save a ship in danger, v išpilti kurą ore from jettison (n.) "act of throwing overboard" to lighten a ship. This noun was an 18c. Marine Insurance writers' restoration of the earlier form and original sense of the 15c. word that had become jetsam, probably because jetsam had taken on a sense of "things cast overboard" and an unambiguous word was needed for "act of casting things overboard."
Middle English jetteson (n.) "act of throwing overboard" is from Anglo-French getteson, Old French getaison "act of throwing (goods overboard)," especially to lighten a ship in distress, from Late Latin iactionem (nominative iactatio) "a throwing, act of throwing," noun of action from past participle stem of iactare "to throw, toss about" (see jet (v.1)). Related: Jettisoned. 26 late flare a late flare occurs when the complex aircraft passes the runway touchdown target area before it is rotated. 27 land long (v) to land after the target / complex touchdown zone: They landed long because of the windshear and heavy rain 28 land short (v) to land before the target / complex touchdown zone 29 lateral track the fact that in RVSM complex offset conditions aircraft often fly procedure a few miles to the left or right of the actual route in order to increase separation 30 level change climbing or descending complex 31 line up (v) to align the aircraft on the complex v išriedėti prie complex runway centreline ready for vykdomo starto take-off: line up and wait linijos; iš(si)rikiuoti 32 long straight- an approach which does complex in approach not involve a turn and during which the crew has time to stabilise 33 long way a change of heading in complex round which the aircraft turns more than 180°. 34 low pass a flight at low altitude in complex žemųjų dažnių filtras complex landing configuration above the aerodrome usually so that the Tower controllers can check whether the landing gear seems correctly extended and locked down 35 miss (n) a near-collision, an airprox: miss (n.1) simple v pavėluoti simple It was a near miss, as late 12c., "loss, lack; " c. 1200, separation was reduced to "regret occasioned by loss or 650 feet vertically and absence," from Old English miss 1,200 metres horizontally. "absence, loss," from source of missan "to miss" (see miss (v.)). Meaning "an act or fact of missing; a being without" is from late 15c.; meaning "a failure to hit or attain" is 1550s. To give something a miss "to abstain from, avoid" is from 1919. Phrase a miss is as good as a mile was originally, an inch, in a miss, is as good as an ell (see ell).
miss (n.2) "the term of honour to a young girl" [Johnson], originally (c. 1600) a shortened form of mistress. By 1640s as "prostitute, concubine;" sense of "title for a young unmarried woman, girl" first recorded 1660s. In the 1811 reprint of the slang dictionary, Miss Laycock is given as an underworld euphemism for "the monosyllable." Miss America is from 1922 as the title bestowed on the winner of an annual nationwide U.S. beauty/talent contest. Earlier it meant "young American women generally" or "the United States personified as a young woman," and it also was the name of a fast motor boat. 36 non -precision an instrument approach complex approach which uses horizontal guidance (Localizer, DME, VOR, NDB etc.), but not vertical guidance (glideslope) 37 nose -down the action by which the complex correction pilot pitches down to lose altitude or increase speed 38 nose -up refers to when the pilot complex elevator pulls on the control wheel or stick in order to raise the nose of the aircraft by acting on the elevators 39 offload (v) to remove from the aircraft: simple as the passenger did not show up at the gate, his baggage had to be identified and offloaded 40 orbit (v) to perform a 360° circuit orbit (v.) simple suktis, skrieti, simple usually in order to delay: 1946, from orbit (n.). Related: apskrieti for safety reasons, the ATC Orbited; orbiting. will tell the pilot whether to orbit left or right. orbit (n.) late 14c., "the eye socket," from Old French orbite or directly from Medieval Latin orbita, transferred use of Latin orbita "wheel track, beaten path, rut, course, orbit" (see orb). Astronomical sense first recorded 1690s in English; it was in classical Latin, revived in Gerard of Cremona's translation of Avicenna. The Old English word for "eye socket" was eaghring. 41 overfly (v) to fly over: aircraft overfly simple v perskristi simple waypoints and beacons 42 overshoot (v) to fail to stop before the overshoot (v.) simple tūpı̇̀mo complex n tūpimo perskrida Comple runway exit or the runway mid-14c., "to shoot, run, or pass pérskrida v perskristi, x threshold beyond (a point or limit)," over- + nepataikyti simple shoot (v.). Related: Overshot; overshooting. 43 perform a 360 to make a complete turn or terminologi (v) traffic pattern, to orbit, cal phrase usually as a delaying action 44 pitch -down a nose-down movement of complex movement the aircraft attitude 45 recovery 1) the completion of a recovery (n.) simple išlýginimas simple n atstatymas; Simple n išlyginimas; Simple flight manoeuvre and return mid-14c., "return to health," from grįžimas į pirmykštę complex to straight and level flight Anglo-French recoverie (c. 1300), padėtį 2) the return to normal Old French recovree "remedy, operation, for example the cure, recovery," from past restarting of engine of the participle stem of recovrer (see regaining of a previously recover). Meaning "a gaining lost system possession by legal action" is from early 15c. That of "act of righting oneself after a blunder, mishap, etc." is from 1520s. 46 retract the to set the landing gear lever complex gear (v) on the right centre part of the instrument panel to UP; the landing gear is unlocked, folds and enters the landing gear bays: the landing gear bay doors open to allow the landinggear to retract 47 reverse thrust engine thrust whose reverse (adj.) complex atgalı̇ ̀nė traukà complex n atgalinė trauka complex direction is changed during c. 1300, from Old French revers the landing roll-out by a "reverse, cross, opposite" (13c.), translating cowl, doors or from Latin reversus, past buckets in order to reduce participle of revertere "turn back, aircraft speed and assist the turn about, come back, return" wheel braking (see revert). Reverse angle in film- making is from 1934. Reverse discrimination is attested from 1962, American English.
thrust (n.) 1510s, "act of pressing," from thrust (v.). Meaning "act of thrusting" (in the modern sense) is from 1580s. Meaning "propulsive force" is from 1708. Figurative sense of "principal theme, aim, point, purpose" is recorded from 1968. 48 run up (v) to test the engine at full complex (variklio) bandymas; complex n variklio bandymas complex power: we need to run up prieš kilimą the engines after the inspection; engine run-up (n) 49 separate (v) to maintain a safe distance separate (v.) simple a atskiras simple a 1 atskiras simple between aircraft. An aircraft late 14c., from Latin separatus, v atskirti 2 skirtingas, in difficulty will need more past participle of separare "to pull individualus airspace; manoeuvring may apart," from se- "apart" (see v skirti; at(si)skirti, be slower and more secret) + parare "make ready, iš(si)skirti difficult; the crew need to prepare" (see pare). Sever (q.v.) is be able to concentrate on a doublet, via French. Related: handling the failure and not Separated; separating. on possible conflicts with other aircraft: ATC must separate the aircraft in distressfrom other traffic 50 SID (Standard a pre-planned, coded ATC abbreviation standártinis complex n standartinė complex Instrument IFR departure routing išskridı̇ ̀mas išvykimo pagal Departure) pagal ̃ prı̇ ́etaisus prietaisus iš aerodromo sistema 51 stabilized to be on the glidepath at the complex approach correct airspeed, in the correct configuration (flaps, slats, gear) and to have completed the checklists 52 step climb (n) gaining altitude by a series complex pakopinis complex of steps, i.e. periods of level aukštėjimas flight, between phases of climbing 53 straight -in an instrument approach in complex artė́jimas tū̃pti complex Straight-in complex which the final approach is tiesè approach: begun without a prior n artėjimas tūpti procedure turn. In VFR, tiese straight-in means the entry of a traffic pattern by interception of the extended runway centreline without executing any portion of a traffic pattern. 54 take -off roll the process of accelerating complex Take-off run: complex down the runway in order to n kilimo rieda take off 55 touch and go a training exercise by complex tū́ psnis simple (n) which pilots practise approaches, touch down on the runway, but do not roll out and stop; also referred to as circuits and bumps 56 track (v) to fly along a radial etc., to track (v.) simple sekı̇ ̀ ma s simple v stebėti, sekti simple v sekti (radaru) simple join a navaid or ILS fix "to follow or trace the footsteps of," 1560s, from track (n.). Meaning "leave a footprint trail in dirt, mud, etc." is from 1838. Of film and TV cameras, 1959. Related: Tracked; tracking. 57 visual an approach to a given complex vizualùsis complex approach runway where the pilot artė́jimas tū̃pti relies on visual references such as VASI (Visual Approach Slope Indicator), PAPI (Precision Approach Path Indicator) and topography rather than using the Instrument Landing System
Table 5.1.10 aviation terms in semantic field Meteorology
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term type aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. CB cumulonimbus cloud cumulonimbus (n.) abbreviation kamuolı̇ ̀niai complex n kamuoliniai complex formation Dictionary.com lietaũs débesys lietaus debesys 1887, from cumulo-, comb. form of cumulus, + nimbus.
cumulus (n.) 1650s, "a heap," from Latin cumulus "a heap, pile, mass, surplus," from PIE *ku-m- olo-, suffixed shortened form of root *keue- "to swell" (compare Sanskrit svayati "swells up, is strong," Greek kyein "to swell," Lithuanian šaunas "firm, solid, fit, capable"). Meteorological use for "rounded mass of clouds" first attested 1803.
nimbus (n.) 1610s, "bright cloud surrounding a god," from Latin nimbus "cloud," perhaps related to nebula "cloud, mist" (see nebula). Meaning "halo" is first recorded c. 1730. Meteorological sense of "a rain cloud" is from 1803. 2. clear air significant turbulence giẽdro dangaũs complex n giedro dangaus complex turbulence where no clouds are turbuleñcija turbulencija (CAT) present, normally at high altitude near a Jetstream 3. crosswind a wind blowing in a simple šóninis vė́jas complex n šoninis vėjas complex n šoninis vėjas complex direction perpendicular to the direction of travel of the aircraft 4. cumuliform cloud formation made of a Classical Latin cumuli, plural of complex cloud large aggregate or mass of cumulus + -form cloud Webster's New World College Dictionary. http://www.yourdictionary.com/cu muliform. 5. cumulonimbus a type of cloud simple kamuolı̇ ̀niai complex n kamuoliniai complex (CB) characterised by its density, lietaũs débesys lietaus debesys large size and height, its tendency to create stormy conditions and the hazard it represents for aircraft. It often has a characteristic ‘anvil’ shape 6. Ceiling 1) bottom of cloud cover 2) ceiling (n.) mid-14c., celynge, "act simple apatı̇ ̀nė debesų̃ complex n riba, lubos; simple n apatinė debesų complex aircraft’s highest operating of paneling a room," noun formed ribà riba altitude 3) top of the cabin (with -ing) from Middle English verb ceil "put a cover or ceiling over," later "cover (walls) with wainscoting, panels, etc." (early 15c.); probably from Middle French celer "to conceal," also "cover with paneling" (12c.), from Latin celare (see cell). Probably influenced by Latin caelum "heaven, sky" (see celestial).
Extended to the paneling itself from late 14c. The meaning "top surface of a room" is attested by 1530s. Figurative sense "upper limit" is from 1934. Colloquial figurative phrase hit the ceiling "lose one's temper, get explosively angry" attested by 1908; earlier it meant "to fail" (by 1900, originally U.S. college slang). Glass ceiling in the figurative sense of "invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing" in management, etc., is attested from 1988. 7. dew point / the temperature at which dewpoint (n.) simple dew-point complex n rasos taškas complex dewpoint condensation begins in 1833; see dew + point (n.). temperature: cooling air. The dew point rasõs tãško varies with different levels dew (n.) temperatūrà of atmospheric pressure, air Old English deaw, from Proto- humidity, etc: Temperature Germanic *dawwaz (cognates: 11, Dewpoint 9 Old Saxon dau, Old Frisian daw, Middle Dutch dau, Old High German tau, German Tau, Old Norse dögg "dew"), from PIE root *dheu- (2) "to flow" (cognates: Sanskrit dhavate "flows, runs").
point (n.) c. 1200, "minute amount, single item in a whole; sharp end of a sword, etc.," a merger of two words, both ultimately from Latin pungere "to prick, pierce," related to pugnus "a fist" (see pugnacious). The Latin neuter past participle punctum was used as a noun, meaning "small hole made by pricking," subsequently extended to anything that looked like one, hence, "dot, particle," etc. This yielded Old French point "dot; smallest amount," which was borrowed in Middle English by c. 1300.
Meanwhile the Latin fem. past participle of pungere was puncta, which was used in Medieval Latin to mean "sharp tip," and became Old French pointe "point of a weapon, vanguard of an army," which also passed into English, early 14c.
The senses have merged in English, but remain distinct in French. Extended senses are from the notion of "minute, single, or separate items in an extended whole." Meaning "small mark, dot" in English is mid-14c. Meaning "distinguishing feature" is recorded from late 15c. Meaning "a unit of score in a game" is first recorded 1746. As a typeface unit (in Britain and U.S., one twelfth of a pica), it went into use in U.S. 1883. As a measure of weight for precious stones (one one-hundredth of a carat) it is recorded from 1931.
The point "the matter being discussed" is attested from late 14c.; meaning "sense, purpose, advantage" (usually in the negative, as in what's the point?) is first recorded 1903. Point of honor (1610s) translates French point d'honneur. Point of no return (1941) is originally aviators' term for the point in a flight "before which any engine failure requires an immediate turn around and return to the point of departure, and beyond which such return is no longer practical." 8. downdraught / a downward movement of simple žemyneı̇ gis̃ complex n žemyneigis complex downdraft air caused by a descending sraũtas srautas body of cool air 9. drifting snow snow that has been blown complex pùstymas simple (DRSN) by the wind to form a deep deposit 10 drizzle (DZ) very light but constant rain simple Freezing complex n smulkus lietus, Complex drizzle: ledı̇ ̀janti dulksna simple dulksnà 11 forecast estimation of future forecast (n.) simple orų̃ prognòzė complex n prognozavimas simple n orų prognozė Complex weather early 15c., "forethought, prudence," probably from forecast (v.). Meaning "conjectured estimate of a future course" is from 1670s. A Middle English word for weather forecasting was aeromancy. 12 freezing level the altitude at which the complex apledė́jimo lỹgis complex temperature in the atmosphere drops to 0° C 13 Gusty gusty conditions are when gusty (adj.) simple the wind speed changes c. 1600, from gust (n.) + -y (2). suddenly Related: Gustily; gustiness.
gust (n.) 1580s, "sudden squall of wind," possibly a dialectal survival from Old Norse gustr "a cold blast of wind" (related to gusa "to gush, spurt") or Old High German gussa "flood," both from Proto- Germanic *gustiz, from PIE *gheus-, from root *gheu- "to pour" (see found (v.2)). Probably originally in English as a nautical word. 14 Hail GR (French, grźle) hail (n.) simple krušà simple n kruša simple precipitation in the form of "frozen rain, pellets of ice falling compacted ice and snow: in showers," Old English hægl, hail storms can cause hagol (Mercian hegel) "hail, significant structural hailstorm," also the name of the damage rune for H, from Proto-Germanic *haglaz (cognates: Old Frisian heil, Old Saxon, Old High German hagal, Old Norse hagl, German Hagel "hail"), probably from PIE *kaghlo- "pebble" (cognates: Greek kakhlex "round pebble"). 15 Haze ( HZ) fine dust or vapour causing haze (n.) "opaqueness of the simple n nedidelis rūkas, Complex an unclear, clouded atmosphere," 1706, probably a miglelė, dūmelis simple atmosphere back-formation of hazy (q.v.). Sense of "confusion, vagueness" is 1797. The differentiation of haze, mist, fog (and other dialectal words) is unmatched in other tongues, where the same word generally covers all three and often "cloud" as well; this may be an effect of the English climate on the English language. 16 headwind a wind blowing in a simple n priešinis vėjas complex direction opposite to the direction of travel of the aircraft. Its opposite is tailwind. 17 ice patches intermittent ice cover on complex the ground 18 IMC weather conditions (cloud, abbreviation meteorològinės Terminolo n meteorologinės Terminolo (Instrument fog) which make it są́lygos pagal ̃ gical sąlygos skrydžiams gical Meteorologica impossible to fly visually prı̇ ́etaisus phrase pagal prietaisus phrase l Conditions) (VMC) and so which require the crew to use their instruments to fly 19 jet streams high altitude, fast-moving complex n čiurkšlinė tėkmė complex currents of air 20 low ceiling the height of the first of complex cloud cover at a short distance from the ground 21 met office meteorological office: an complex organisation gathering and distributing updated weather reports and forecasts: the met office has announced the likelihood of electric storms in the vicinity of Adis Ababa 22 MET / met meteorology / abbreviation n sutr. simple meteorological, relating to meteorologija the weather: met office, met report 23 METAR a weather report from an abbreviation reguliarùsis complex airport or weather station aviãcinis orų̃ often used by pilots as a pranešı̇ ̀mas print-out during the preflight briefing. It can be obtained for any location in the world and is usually updated hourly 24 mountain the result of a powerful air complex wave effect mass immediately downstream of a transverse mountain range, rotating about a horizontal axis 25 Microburst a dangerous vertical gust of simple n ypač stiprus vėjo Terminolo wind poslinkis kartu su gical audra phase 26 NOSIG no significant change for abbreviation the next two hours in a METAR 27 obscuration decreased visibility caused obscuration (n.) simple by fog, smoke, sandstorm late 15c., from Latin etc. obscurationem (nominative obscuratio) "a darkening, obscuring," noun of action from past participle stem of obscurare (see obscure (v.)). 28 overcast complete cloud cover, 0.9+ overcast (adj.) simple apsiniaukı̇ ̀mas simple n apsiniaukimas; simple (OVC) (i.e. over 90%) cloud cover c. 1300, of weather, past participle didelis complex adjective from verb overcast debesuotumas (early 13c.), "to overthrow," also "to cover, to overspread" as with a garment, usually of weather, from over- + cast (v.). 29 overshoot windshear characterized by complex windshear an increase in aircraft airspeed 30 precipitation moisture released from the precipitation (n.) simple n krituliai simple atmosphere and falling as late 15c., "a casting down" (of the rain, snow, hail etc. evil angels from heaven), also, in alchemy "separation of a solid substance from a solution," from Middle French precipitation (15c.) and directly from Latin praecipitationem (nominative praecipitatio) "act or fact of falling headlong, haste," noun of action from past participle stem of praecipitare "fall, be hasty," from praeceps "steep" (see precipice). Meaning "sudden haste" is c. 1500. Meaning "act of falling from a height" is attested from 1610s. Meteorological sense of "rain, snow, dew, etc." is from 1670s. 31 QNH an atmospheric pressure abbreviation n atmosferinis slėgis Terminolo altitude setting with nuo vidutinio jūros gical reference to mean sea level lygio phrase within a certain defined region; also referred to as ‘Q’ in METAR: Q0994, Q1023 32 shallow mist (MIBR (French, mince complex brume)) a thin layer of mist near the ground, usually in the early morning, above which the aircraft climbs quickly 33 shift (n) 1) a change of wind shift (n.1) simple póslinkis simple n 1 pakeitimas, simple n 1 pasikeitimas, simple direction: there has been a c. 1300, "a movement, a perkėlimas permaina shift in the wind which is beginning," from shift (v.). This is 2 pamaina 2 perėjimas; now blowing from the the word in to make shift "make pakeitimas northeast 2) a period of efforts" (mid-15c.). Sense of V keisti(s); working time: the next shift "change, alteration" is from 1560s. pa(si)keisti is ready to take over Sense of "means to an end" is from 1520s; hence "an expedient." Meaning "mechanism for changing gear in a motor vehicle" is recorded from 1914. Typewriter shift key is from 1893; shift-lock is from 1899.
Meaning "period of working time" (originally in a mine) is attested from 1809, with older sense "relay of horses" (1708); perhaps with sense influenced by a North Sea Germanic cognate word (such as North Frisian skeft "division, stratum," skaft "one of successive parties of workmen"). Similar double senses of "division" and "relay of workers" exist in Swedish skift, German schicht. 34 smooth tops cloud tops with no complex irregularities 35 snow flurries sudden rapid falls of snow complex 36 squall (SQ) a sudden violent wind often squall (n.) simple n škvalas, viesulas, Simple with rain or snow "sudden, violent gust of wind," staigi trumpa audra complex 1719, originally nautical, probably from a Scandinavian source (compare Norwegian skval "sudden rush of water," Swedish skvala "to gush, pour down"), probably ultimately a derivative of squall (v.). 37 stratiform a stratified or layered cloud complex cloud 38 surface wind wind measured near complex pãžemio vė́jas complex n pažemio vėjas complex ground level 39 Tailwind a wind blowing in the same simple n pavėjis simple n pavėjis simple direction as the direction of travel of the aircraft. Its opposite is headwind. 40 undershoot windshear characterized by Related to aircraft complex windshear a decrease in aircraft airspeed 41 updraught an ascending current of air updraft (n.) simple aukštyneı̇ gė̃ complex n aukštyneigė srovė complex also updraught, "rising air srovė ̃ current," 1909, from up (adj.) + draft (n.). 42 upper level winds blowing at altitudes complex Upper wind: complex winds typically between 23,000 n aukštuminis vėjas and 39,000 feet for the polar jet streams and at higher levels for the subtropical jet streams. They blow from west to east and, as a result, make eastbound flying times across the North Atlantic approximately one hour shorter than the westbound ones. 43 wake a downdraught caused by wake (n.1) complex turbuleñtiškasis complex valkčio turbulencija complex n valkčio complex turbulence the movement of a large "track left by a moving ship," valktis̃ turbulencija aircraft through the air. For 1540s, perhaps from Middle Low this reason, ATC usually German or Middle Dutch wake provides additional "hole in the ice," from Old Norse horizontal separation after vök, vaka "hole in the ice," from the passage of particularly Proto-Germanic *wakwo. The large aircraft; also sense perhaps evolved via "track wakevortex made by a vessel through ice." Perhaps the English word is directly from Scandinavian. Figurative use (such as in the wake of "following close behind") is recorded from 1806.
turbulence (n.) early 15c., from Late Latin turbulentia "trouble, disquiet," from Latin turbulentus (see turbulent). In reference to atmospheric eddies that affect airplanes, by 1918. Related: Turbulency. 44 weather station gathering and complex bureau distributing updated weather reports and forecasts. See also met office. 45 windshear a large local wind gradient, simple n vėjo poslinkis complex i.e. sudden changes in wind speed and direction which may cause aircraft to lose airspeed and altitude and are especially dangerous close to the ground during approach and landing
Table 5.1.11 aviation terms in semantic field Navigation
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. approach instrument approach charts complex charts show holding procedures, instrument approach procedures and missed approach procedures. In addition to the plan and profile views of various instrument procedures, the charts provide a wealth of other information: obstacle location and clearance height (OCH); ground speeds versus rates of descent; VOR-DME, LOC, G/S, IAF identifiers and frequencies; transition altitudes and levels; airfield elevation in feet and metres; Tower, Approach, Ground and ATIS radio frequencies; the location of outer, middle and inner markers, fixes and missed approach point; ILS minima; minimum safe /descent altitudes; final approach course; decision height / altitude; threshold crossing heights (TCH); missed approach procedure etc. 2. area area navigation allows complex zònos complex n zonos navigacija complex navigation pilots to fly on a direct navigãcija (RNAV) course using, but not actually overflying, groundbased radio aids. RNAV systems can provide distance to waypoints in nautical miles, crosstrack deviation from the selected course, groundspeed in knots and time-to- waypoints: LORAN-C and GPSare forms of area navigation. 3. bearing 1) the angular direction of a bearing (n.) "carrying of oneself, simple pèlengas simple n pelengas; simple distant point measured in deportment," mid-13c., verbal azimutas; rumbas degrees clockwise from a noun from bear (v.). Mechanical local meridian or other sense of "part of a machine that reference. Usually relative bears the friction" is from 1791. bearings are described clockwise from 000° to 360° 2) a surface that supports and reduces friction between moving parts. Types of bearing include ball, roller and needle bearings 4. chart map used for navigation: chart (n.) 1570s, "map for the use simple n diagrama; schema; simple n 1 diagrama, simple arrival chart of navigators," from Middle lentelė; schema, lentelė French charte "card, map," from 2 žemėlapis Late Latin charta "paper, card, map" (see card (n.1)). Charte is the original form of the French word in all senses, but after 14c. (perhaps by influence of Italian cognate carta), carte began to supplant it. English used both carte and card 15c.-17c. for "chart, map," and in 17c. chart could mean "playing card," but the words have gone their separate ways and chart has predominated since in the "map" sense. In the music score sense from 1957. 5. abeam the indicating that the runway abeam (adv.) "at right angles to terminologi runway is to the side of the aircraft, the mainmast," 1826, nautical, cal phrase at a bearing of literally "on beam;" see a- (1) + approximately 90° or 270° beam (n.). relative to the aircraft, i.e. to the right or the left 6. approach the parts of an instrument complex segments approach: arrival, initial approach, intermediate approach, final approach and missed approach segments 7. Attitude the position of the aircraft attitude (n.) 1660s, via French simple órlaivio padėtı̇ ̀s complex aviahorizontas; simple n lėktuvo padėtis complex in relation to the three axes: attitude (17c.), from Italian erdvėjè ore lyginant su pitch, roll and yaw. Attitude attitudine "disposition, posture," horizontu is conventionally displayed also "aptness, promptitude," from on the Attitude Director Late Latin aptitudinem Indicator (ADI) or artificial (nominative aptitudo; see horizon, now often aptitude). Originally 17c. a incorporated into the technical term in art for the Primary Flight Display posture of a figure in a statue or (PFD). painting; later generalized to "a posture of the body supposed to imply some mental state" (1725). Sense of "settled behavior reflecting feeling or opinion" is first recorded 1837. Connotations of "antagonistic and uncooperative" developed by 1962 in slang. 8. blind spot a point on a radar screen complex where information is not displayed or an area outside the aircraft hidden from the pilot by the airframe 9. decision the altitude at which the complex apsisprendı̇̀mo complex altitude (DA) flight crew must decide to absoliutùsis land or go around aũkštis 10 decision the height above the complex apsisprendı̇̀mo complex n apsisprendimo complex height (DH) ground shown on the radio santykı̇ ̀nis absoliutusis aukštis altimeter in final approach aũkštis at which the pilot must decide to land or go around: ‘100 above’ – ‘Continuing’ 11 downwind in a direction away from simple pavėjui simple the source of the wind, 180° from the landing direction: the pilot is flying the downwind leg and is about to make the base turn 12 eastbound moving towards the east: simple a vykstantis į rytus complex eastbound flights from Beijing to Tokyo 13 elevation vertical distance above sea elevation (n.) simple viẽtos aũkštis complex n aukštis (virš jūros simple n vietos aukštis; complex (elev) level: airfield elevation late 14c., "a rising, height of lygio) aukštis virš jūros something, height to which lygio something is elevated," from Old French elevation and directly from Latin elevationem (nominative elevatio) "a lifting up," noun of action from past participle stem of elevare "lift up, raise" (see elevate). Meaning "act of elevating" is from 1520s. 14 final approach the heading flown by the complex final approach complex Final approach: complex track crew during the final path: n priartėjimas tūpti approach: the final priartė́jimo tū̃pti approach track to Runway trajektòrija 24 atAomori is 231degrees 15 flightpath / trajectory of the aircraft in simple/ skrỹdžio complex n skrydžio complex flight path the vertical and horizontal complex trajektòrija trajektorija; planes: the aircraft’s maršrutas; kelias flightpath can bereconstituted from DFDR data 16 flight plan specified information complex skrỹdžio plãnas complex n skrydžio planas complex relating to the whole or portion of an intended flight: we filed our flight plan at 06: 38; we wish to amend our flight plan 17 glide path the flight path of an aircraft complex tūptı̇nė̀ simple Tūptinės complex during approach, especially trajektorija/kelias when making an ILS landing. Also glidepath, glideslope. 18 Glideslope See glide path. simple n tūptinės nuolydis, complex glisada 19 heading the angle between the heading (n.) simple kùrsas simple n (skrydžio) kursas simple n kursas simple (HDG) horizontal reference datum c. 1300, "a beheading," from (compass north, magnetic present participle of head (v.). north or true north) and the Meaning "an advancing in a longitudinal axis of the certain direction" is from c. 1600. aircraft: turn left heading Meaning "title at the head of a 230. It is not to be confused portion of text" is from 1849. with the track which is either 1) the path of the aircraft over the Earth’s surface from take-off to touchdown, or 2) the angle between a reference datum and the actual flight path. 20 Higher a higher flight level simple request higher due icing conditions at this level 21 holding a three-letter code complex Holding pattern: complex pattern identifying the location of a n laukimo schema identifier particular hold or holding pattern by the beacon it refers to: LAM is the holding pattern identifier for Lambourne to the east of London Heathrow. 22 IAF See initial approach fix abbreviation 23 indicated the relative velocity complex prı̇ ́etaiso greı̇ tis̃ complex prietaiso complex n prietaiso greitis complex airspeed (IAS) between the aircraft and the rodomas oro greitis surrounding air: the indicated airspeed is displayed on the airspeed scale of the PFD 24 initial the point from which the complex pradı̇̀nio complex approach fix initial segment of an ILS artė́jimo tū̃pti (IAF) approach begins. kontròlinis tãškas 25 INS check remote location with well- complex point defined geographical coordinates where an aircraft’s inertial navigation system (INS) can be reset 26 intercept the heading the crew must complex heading follow in order to capture and follow the ILS or visual approach flight path 27 intercept ILS to capture the localizer and complex (v) glideslope radio transmitter beams which guide the aircraft during an ILS approach 28 Jeppesen charts used by pilots complex n aeronavigacijos complex charts worldwide; they represent a schema very high quality of cartography. The chart used as a model in Unit 8 Exercise 19a is an arrival chart for an ILS or LOC approach to Runway 16C at Seattle International Airport, Washington State, USA.
29 leg 1) part of a long-haul leg (n.) simple skrỹdžio rúožas complex n skrydžio ruožas, complex journey, where the plane late 13c., from a Scandinavian atkarpa stops to refuel one or more source akin to Old Norse leggr times on the way: The first "leg, bone of the arm or leg," from leg of the journey is from Proto-Germanic *lagjaz, with no Beijing to Anchorage; we certain ulterior connections, then fly on to Washington.2) perhaps from a PIE root meaning a phase of a circuit or traffic "to bend" [Buck]. Compare pattern: departure, German Bein "leg," in Old High crosswind, downwind and German "bone, leg." Replaced Old base legs English shank. Of furniture supports from 1670s. The meaning "a part or stage of a journey or race" (1920) is from earlier sailing sense of "a run made on a single tack" (1867), which was usually qualified as long leg, short leg, etc. Slang phrase shake a leg "dance" is attested from 1881. To be on (one's) last legs "at the end of one's life" is from 1590s. 30 magnetic track a track / course using the complex magnètinis complex Earth’s magnetic field. kẽlias Given the fluctuations in magnetic field in the polar regions, magnetic navigation cannot be used here 31 mean sea level the average height of the complex vidutı̇ ̀nis jū́ ros complex n vidutinis jūros complex (msl) sea surface lỹgis lygis 32 northerly in or from the north: they northerly (adj., adv.) simple a šiaurinis; Comple are flying a northerly route 1550s, from northern + -ly (2) on nukreiptas į šiaurę x pattern of easterly, westerly. adv 1 į šiaurę; šiaurėn simple 2 iš šiaurės 33 on runway flying on a heading which complex heading is an extension of the runway centreline 34 outbound flight away from a navaid complex nuskridı̇̀mo complex track fix kẽlias 35 radar a type of radar instrument complex surveillance approach provided by ATC; approach only an operational radio transmitter and receiver are required. The radar controller vectors the aircraft to align it with the runway centreline 36 radar vectors heading, altitude and vector (n.) complex Radar vectoring complex airspeed instructions given "quantity having magnitude and n radiolokacinis by ATC using secondary direction," 1846; earlier "line nukreipimas surveillance radar: radar joining a fixed point and a vectors are given to variable point," 1704, from Latin arriving flights to enable vector "one who carries or them to intercept an conveys, carrier" (also "one who approach aid rides"), agent noun from past participle stem of vehere "carry, convey" (see vehicle). Related: Vectorial. 37 radial a magnetic bearing from a radial (adj.) simple radiãlas simple a radialinis, simple n radialas simple navigation aid: a fix may be c. 1400, "of or like a ray or spindulinis; the intersection of two VOR radius," from Medieval Latin radials; proceed to PRL radialis, from Latin radius "shaft, along the 238 degree radial rod; spoke of a wheel; beam of FROM PRL light" (see radius). As a noun, a type of tire, attested from 1965, short for radial-ply (tire). Related: Radially. 38 radio altitude an altitude above the radio (n.) complex ground displayed by the "wireless transmission of voice radio altimeter during the signals with radio waves," 1907, last 2,500 feet of the abstracted from earlier approach combinations such as radio- receiver (1903), radiophone (1881), radio-telegraphy (1898), from radio- as a comb. form of Latin radius "beam." Use for "radio receiver" is first attested 1913; sense of "sound broadcasting as a medium" is from 1913. It is not a dream, but a probability that the radio will demolish blocs, cut the strings of red tape, actuate the voice "back home," dismantle politics and entrench the nation's executive in a position of power unlike that within the grasp of any executive in the world's history. ["The Reading Eagle," Reading, Pa., U.S.A., March 16, 1924] In U.S., stations were broadcasting news and music by late 1920, but the new medium caught on nationwide as a fad in the winter of 1921-22; as late as July 1921 the "New York Times" had called it wireless telephony, and wireless remained more widespread until World War II, when military preference for radio turned the tables. As an adjective by 1912, "by radio transmission;" meaning "controlled by radio" from 1974. Radio ______"radio station or service from ______" is recorded from 1920. A radio shack (1946) was a small building housing radio equipment.
altitude (n.) late 14c., from Latin altitudinem (nominative altitudo) "height, altitude," from altus "high" (see old). 39 reporting a specific location in complex pranešı̇̀mo complex n pranešimo taškas complex point relation to which the tãškas position of an aircraft should be reported 40 RVR a value representing the abbreviation kilı̇ ̀mo ir ̃ tūpı̇ ̀mo complex n matomas kilimo ir complex (Runway horizontal distance a pilot tãko matomùmo tūpimo tako Visual Range) will see centreline or edge núotolis atstumas lights or runway markings down the runway from the approach end measured from three points on the runway: threshold, mid point and stop end: R12/1200, i.e. RVR Runway 24 1,200 metres 41 step -down fix an identified point complex pakópinio complex permitting descent in a žemė́jimo segment of an ILS approach kontrõlinis once an obstacle has been tãškas overflown 42 terrain any rising ground, north, terrain (n.) simple n vietovė, teritorija simple south, east or west. Its 1727, "ground for training height and direction are horses," from French terrain important. Terrain "piece of earth, ground, land," determines the value of the from Old French (12c.), from Minimum Safe Altitude Vulgar Latin *terranum, from (MSA) or Minimum Descent Latin terrenum "land, ground," Altitude (MDA) in the noun use of neuter of terrenus "of aerodrome area. earth, earthly," from terra "earth, land," literally "dry land" (as opposed to "sea"); from PIE root *ters- "to dry" (cognates: Sanskrit tarsayati "dries up," Avestan tarshu- "dry, solid," Greek teresesthai "to become or be dry," Latin torrere "dry up, parch," Gothic þaursus "dry, barren," Old High German thurri, German dürr, Old English þyrre "dry;" Old English þurstig "thirsty"). Meaning "tract of country, considered with regard to its natural features" first attested 1766. 43 Upwind end the end of a runway upwind (adv.) simple adv prieš vėją complex which is the opposite end also up-wind, 1838, from up from where an aircraft starts (adv.) + wind (n.1). Originally a its take-off roll nautical term. As an adjective from 1892. 44 visual contact when something is visible; complex vizualùsis complex the expression ‘We are kontãktas visual’ is also used 45 visual topographical features, complex references markings and lights which contribute to situational awareness; also visual cues 46 visual the separation between two complex separation aircraft based on the pilots’ visual contact rather than a distance imposed by ATC 47 VOR (VHF a type of ground-based abbreviation Omnidirection navigation transmitter al Range) which sends signals in all directions to enable aircraft to identify their position. The intersection of two VOR radials provides the aircraft’s position.examples 48 waypoint a point on the journey to simple n maršrtuto taškas complex the final destination, i.e. a pilot may fly from Warsaw to London by flying first via Berlin and then Amsterdam 49 westbound moving towards the west: simple a vykstantis į complex westbound air traffic from vakarus; London to New York vedantis/einantis į vakarus
Table 5.1.12 aviation terms in semantic field Personnel (people)
No. Term Definition Origin (Online Etymology Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term type Dictionary) aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. Aircraft an aircraft mechanic or complex maintenance engineer who inspects and technician services the aircraft (engine (AMT) oil levels, tyre pressure and wear, signs of fuel or hydraulic leaks, impact damage to the engine air intakes and wing leading edges etc.), performs any small repairs and makes entries in the aircraft technical logbook. These activities are line maintenance 2. AMT See aircraft maintenance abbreviation technician 3. cabin flight crew member in complex n orlaivio palydovas complex attendant charge of looking after the safety and comfort of the passenger 4. coast guards members of a state service complex in charge of protecting territorial 5. commander the captain of an aircraft commander (n.) simple órlaivio vãdas complex early 14c., comandur, from Old French comandeor, from comander (see command (v.)). Commander in chief attested from 1650s. 6. customer the chief cabin attendant on complex service board a large aircraft manager 7. dispatcher the airport agent who dispatcher (n.) simple dispèčeris simple provides the weight and mid-16c., agent noun from balance sheet which must dispatch (v.). be checked and signed by the captain. The weight and dispatch (v.) balance sheet contains 1510s, "to send off in a hurry," updated information about from a word in Spanish the aircraft payload (despachar "expedite, hasten") or (passengers, baggage, cargo Italian (dispacciare "to dispatch"). and fuel) and its location. For first element, see dis-. The This allows the aircraft’s exact source of the second centre of gravity, which element has been proposed as must be within certain Vulgar Latin *pactare "to fasten, limits for safe take-off and fix" or *pactiare, or as Latin - flight, to be calculated pedicare "to entrap" (from Latin pedica "shackle;" see impeach); and the Spanish and Italian words seem to be related to (perhaps opposites of) Old Provençal empachar "impede." See OED for full discussion. Meaning "to get rid of by killing" is attested from 1520s. Related: Dispatched; dispatching. As a noun, from 1540s, originally "dismissal;" sense of "a message sent speedily" is first attested 1580s. 8. FBO (Fixed an American term for an abbreviation Base airport operator Operator) 9. F/O First Officer or co-pilot abbreviation Co-pilot: complex n antrasis pilotas complex antràsis pilòtas 10 flight crew captain, first officer, and crew (n.) mid-15c., "group of complex skrỹdžio į̇gulá complex n skrydžio įgula complex occasionally flight engineer soldiers," from Middle French working as a team crue (Old French creue) "an increase, recruit, military reinforcement," from fem. past participle of creistre "grow," from Latin crescere "arise, grow" (see crescent). Meaning "people acting or working together" is first attested 1560s. "Gang of men on a warship" is from 1690s. Crew-cut first attested 1938, so called because the style originally was adopted by boat crews at Harvard and Yale. 11 general a pilot who flies a light complex aviation pilot aircraft for pleasure and holds a PPL (private pilot’s license) 12 ground airport agent who usually complex handler installs and removes wheel chocks and supervises the push-back of the aircraft with a tractor / tow vehicle / tug 13 ground airport staff including the complex Groundling: n Terminolog handling dispatcher, the loadmaster, antžeminės įgulos ical phrase personnel baggage handlers, narys oro uoste ar mechanics or engineers, the karinėje oropajėgų tug driver, caterers, water bazėje servicing staff, waste water staff, refuelling agent, cleaners etc. 14 heads -down of a crew member who is complex focused on the flight instruments rather than looking outside the aircraft 15 hijacker terrorist who tries to take hijack (v.) simple n lėktuvo complex control of an aircraft and its 1922, American English, perhaps pagrobėjas; oro crew in order to obtain from high(way) + jacker "one who piratas demands, make a political holds up" (agent noun from jack statement using threats, or (v.)). Originally "to rob (a to deliberately crash the bootlegger, smuggler, etc.) in plane: the transponder code transit;" sense of "seize an aircraft 7500 isused in the event of a in flight" is 1968 (also in 1961 hijacker on board variant skyjack), extended 1970s to any form of public transportation. Related: Hijacked; hijacking. Related: Hijacker. 16 line mechanic an aircraft mechanic or complex engineer who inspects and services the aircraft (engine oil levels, tyre pressure and wear, signs of fuel or hydraulic leaks, impact damage to the engine air intakes, fan blades and wing leading edges etc.), performs any small repairs and makes entries in the aircraft technical logbook. This is line maintenance. 17 loadmaster person in charge of a team simple n žmogus, Terminolog of handlers loading and atsakingas už ical phrase unloading cargo and lėktuvo pakrovimą baggage. Baggage loading devices are one of the main causes of damage to the aircraft during turnaround 18 marshaller a person in charge of simple n signalininkas simple guiding the aircraft to its (žmogus, kuris stand using hand signals: rankomis rodo marshallers often use bats lėktuvui kelią į or lighted batons to give stovėjimo vietą) signals 19 no show (n) a passenger who is booked complex on a flight, but does not check in 20 pax a common abbreviation for pax (n.) abbreviation Sutr. Passengers n simple passengers: We have 164 mid-15c., "kiss of peace," from keleiviai pax on board Latin pax (genitive pacis) "peace," in Ecclesiastical Latin, "kiss of peace" (see peace). Capitalized, Pax was the name of the Roman goddess of peace. Used by 1933 with adjectives from national names, on model of Pax Romana (such as Pax Britannica, 1872; Pax Americana, 1886, with reference to Latin America). 21 PF (pilot the pilot who is actually abbreviation flying) doing the hands-on flying of the aircraft at a given moment. Captain and First Officer takes these roles in turn 22 pilot in the pilot flying (PF), the complex į̇gulos vãdas complex n įgulos vadas complex command pilot in control of the aircraft 23 PNF (Pilot the pilot who is monitoring abbreviation Not Flying or the PF, entering data, Pilot Non- communicating with ATC Flying) etc. Captain and First Officer takes these roles in turn. 24 purser the chief cabin attendant on purser (n.) simple vyresnỹsis complex medium size narrow-body mid-15c., "treasurer," especially palydõvas aircraft "caretaker of accounts and provisions on a ship," originally also "maker of purses" (late 15c.), agent noun from Middle English purse (see purse (n.)). From late 13c. as a surname. 25 radio operator initially, aircraft were flown operator (n.) complex flight radio complex by a five-man crew: 1590s, "one who performs operator: captain, first officer, flight mechanical or surgical skraı̇ dantysis̃ engineer, radio operator operations," agent noun from radı̇ ̀stas (whose language skills were operate (v.) or from Late Latin often better than those of operator. Meaning "one who ground radio the rest of the crew) and carries on business shrewdly" is operator: navigator. With the from 1828. Specific sense of "one antžemı̇ ̀nis advances of navigational who works a telephone radiooperãtorius technology and aircraft switchboard" (1884) grew out of system automation, these earlier meaning "one who works a five-man crews have telegraph" (1847). gradually been reduced to the two pilots on modern aircraft. 26 ramp person in charge of a team supervisor (n.) simple supervisor of handlers loading and "one who inspects and directs the unloading cargo and work of others," mid-15c., from baggage in case of any Medieval Latin supervisor, agent special cargo. Baggage noun from supervidere "oversee, loading devices are one of inspect" (see supervise). the main causes of damage to the aircraft during turnaround. 27 red cap airport agent who provides complex the weight and balance sheet which must be checked and signed by the captain. The weight and balance sheet contains updated information about the aircraft payload (passengers, baggage, cargo and fuel) and its location. This allows the aircraft’s centre of gravity, which must be within certain limits for safe take-off and flight, to be calculated 28 relief crew a flight crew on the ground relief (n.1) complex į̇guloś pamainà complex n įgulos pamaina complex or on board who replaces a late 14c., "alleviation of distress, crew at the end of their hunger, sickness, etc; state of period of duty being relieved; that which mitigates or removes" (pain, grief, evil, etc.)," from Anglo-French relif, from Old French relief "assistance," literally "a raising, that which is lifted," from stressed stem of relever (see relieve). Meaning "aid to impoverished persons" is attested from c. 1400; that of "deliverance of a besieged town" is from c. 1400. Earlier in English as "that which is left over or left behind," also "feudal payment to an overlord made by an heir upon taking possession of an estate" (both c. 1200).
crew (n.) mid-15c., "group of soldiers," from Middle French crue (Old French creue) "an increase, recruit, military reinforcement," from fem. past participle of creistre "grow," from Latin crescere "arise, grow" (see crescent). Meaning "people acting or working together" is first attested 1560s. "Gang of men on a warship" is from 1690s. Crew-cut first attested 1938, so called because the style originally was adopted by boat crews at Harvard and Yale.
Table 5.1.13 aviation terms in semantic field Physical and medical condition
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. bruise A mark on the skin caused bruise (n.) 1540s, from bruise (v.). simple n mėlynė, sumušimas simple by a blow: Some passengers suffered minor cuts and bruise (v.) Old English brysan "to bruises when the flight crush, bruise, pound," from Proto- encountered turbulence Germanic *brusjan, from PIE root *bhreu- "to smash, cut, break up" (cognates: Old Irish bronnaim "I wrong, I hurt;" Breton brezel "war," Vulgar Latin brisare "to break"). Merged by 17c. with Anglo-French bruiser "to break, smash," from Old French bruisier "to break, shatter," perhaps from Gaulish *brus-, from the same PIE root. Related: Bruised; bruising. 2. black -hole spatial disorientation and complex effect erroneous perception of altitude caused by a dark approach area and bright lights beyond the active runway 3. concussion blow to the head one of the concussion (n.) Dictionary.com simple passengers was in the aisle c. 1400, from Latin concussionem when we encountered the (nominative concussio) "a turbulence and is suffering shaking," noun of action from past from concussion. participle stem of concutere "shake violently," from com- "together" (see com-) + quatere "to shake" (see quash). Modern brain injury sense is from 1540s. 4. disorientation loss of a sense of one’s disorientation (n.) simple n dezorientacija, simple position in space: spatial 1860; see dis- + orientation. (su)klaidinimas; disorientation may be dezorientavimas caused by whiteout orientation (n.) 1839, originally "arrangement of a building, etc., to face east or any other specified direction," noun of action from orient (v.). Sense of "action of determining one's bearings" is from 1868. Meaning "introduction to a situation" is from 1942. 5. Hypoxia an inadequate amount of hypoxia (n.) 1941, from hypo- + simple hipòksija simple n hipoksija, deguonies Simple, n hipoksija, Simple oxygen being supplied to oxygen + abstract noun ending -ia. trūkumas audiniuose complex deguonies trūkumas the brain, for example at Related: Hypoxic. audiniuose complex high altitude in the event of cabin depressurisation. In the case of rapid decompression at 40,000 feet the resulting hypoxia will mean that the time of useful consciousness will be about 20 seconds; it is therefore essential to don oxygen masks and initiate an emergency descent immediately. 6. injury hurt done to a person’s simple n 1 sužeidimas, simple n sužalojimas, simple body: cuts, bruises, injury (n.) late 14c., "harm, trauma 2 pakenkimas sužeidimas; trauma fractures, concussion, damage, loss; a specific injury," (to) bleeding are all forms of from Anglo-French injurie injury "wrongful action" (Old French injure, 13c.), from Latin iniuria "wrong, an injustice, insult, unlawful violence, assault, damage, harm," noun use of fem. of iniurius "wrongful, unjust, unlawful," from in- "not, opposite of" (see in- (1)) + ius (genitive iuris) "right, law" (see jurist). 7. intoxicated under the effects of drugs intoxicated (adj.) simple or alcohol, drunk: there is a 1550s, "poisoned;" 1570s, very intoxicated and "drunk," past participle adjective belligerent passenger in the from intoxicate (v.). rear intoxicate (v.) mid-15c., "to poison" (obsolete), from Medieval Latin intoxicatus, past participle of intoxicare "to poison," from in- "in" (see in- (2)) + Latin toxicare "to poison," from toxicum "poison" (see toxic). Meaning "make drunk" first recorded 1570s (implied in intoxicated). Figurative sense "excite to a high pitch of feeling" is attested from 1590s. Related: Intoxicating. 8. Unconsciousn being without awareness unconscious (adj.) simple ess 1712, "unaware, not marked by conscious thought," from un- (1) "not" + conscious. Meaning "temporarily insensible, knocked out" is recorded from 1860. Related: Unconsciously; unconsciousness. In psychology, the noun the unconscious (1876) is a loan-translation of German das Unbewusste. The adjective in this sense is recorded from 1912.
Table 5.1.14 aviation terms in semantic field Radio communication
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term type Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas orlaivių techninės 1996 priežiūros terminų Terminų žodynas. 2012 Žodynas. 2014 1. acknowledge to say that you have heard acknowledge (v.) simple v patvirtinti simple (v) and understood. It is 1550s, a blend of Middle English important that the controller aknow (from Old English listens carefully to pilot oncnawan "understand," from on input on the nature of the + cnawan "recognize;" see know) emergency, requests and Middle English knowlechen clarification if in doubt, and "admit, acknowledge" (c. 1200; gives the crew reassurance see knowledge). In the merger, a that their problem is parasitic -c- slipped in, so that understood. Requesting and while the kn- became a simple "n" providing clarification, sound (as in know), the -c- paraphrasing, confirming stepped up to preserve, in this and acknowledging all play word, the ancient "kn-" sound. a key role in such Related: Acknowledged; exchanges: In case of radio acknowledging. failure,acknowledge by flashing headlights. 2. affirm Yes: ‘Confirm 8.33.’ – affirm (v.) c. 1300, from Old simple ‘Affirm. 8.33.’ French afermier (Modern French affirmer) "affirm, confirm; strengthen, consolidate," from Latin affirmare "to make steady, strengthen," figuratively "confirm, corroborate," from ad- "to" (see ad-) + firmare "strengthen, make firm," from firmus "strong" (see firm (adj.)). Spelling refashioned 16c. in French and English on Latin model. Related: Affirmed; affirming. 3. Approach the frequency used by the complex Control Approach controllers at a frequency given airport as distinct from the Tower or Ground frequencies 4. Are you ‘Have you got the runway Terminologi visual? in sight?’ cal phrase 5. Asap as soon as possible: a.s.a.p also asap, pronounced abbreviation immediately, very quickly either as a word or as four letters, 1955, from initial letters of phrase as soon as possible; originally U.S. Army jargon. 6. broken up an interrupted transmission complex 7. callsign identification used to simple Call sign: simple n lėktuvo šaukinys complex contact each flight for šaukinys example Qantas 358 8. CAVOK pronounced ‘CAV-O- abbreviation (Ceiling and KAY’. TAF SCAR 142230Z Visibility OK) 1500/1524 25005KT CAVOK TN18 9. challenge - a pilot-to-pilot exchange complex response call which consists of a request for confirmation and a response; in this way, each action and condition is double-checked: ‘Climb’ – ‘Climb set’; ’80 knots’ – ‘Checked’ 10 clear easy to understand, both in clear (adj.) late 13c., "bright," simple a aiškus simple terms of vocabulary and from Old French cler "clear" (of suprantamas; pronunciation: the briefing sight and hearing), "light, bright, was very clear shining; sparse" (12c., Modern French clair), from Latin clarus "clear, loud," of sounds; figuratively "manifest, plain, evident," in transferred use, of sights, "bright, distinct;" also "illustrious, famous, glorious" (source of Italian chiaro, Spanish claro), from PIE *kle-ro-, from root *kele- (2) "to shout" (see claim (v.)).
The sense evolution involves an identification of the spreading of sound and the spreading of light (compare English loud, used of colors; German hell "clear, bright, shining," of pitch, "distinct, ringing, high"). Of complexion, from c. 1300; of the weather, from late 14c.; of meanings or explanations, "manifest to the mind, comprehensible," c. 1300. (An Old English word for this was sweotol "distinct, clear, evident.") Sense of "free from encumbrance," apparently nautical, developed c. 1500. Phrase in the clear attested from 1715. Clear-sighted is from 1580s (clear-eyed is from 1529s); clear- headed is from 1709. 11 clearance 1) phraseology referring to clearance (n.) simple leidı̇ ̀mas simple n 1 leidimas simple authorisation: expect 1560s, "action of clearing," from onward clearance at time clear (v.) + -ance. Meaning "a 38 n2) removal of an clear space" is from 1788. obstacle: snow clearance is Meaning "approval, permission" under way 3) distance (especially to land or take off an between a moving object aircraft) is from 1944, American and a potential obstacle: English; national security sense monitor our wing tip recorded from 1948. Clearance clearance; the engine sale attested by 1843. ground clearance on the B737 is quite small 12 cleared given permission: cleared simple ILS approach Runway 03L 13 Confirm phraseology for ‘I request confirm (v.) mid-13c., confirmyn simple v pa(si)tvirtinti simple v patvirtinti simple clarification or verification’: "to ratify," from Old French confirm runway vacated confermer (13c., Modern French confirmer) "strengthen, establish, consolidate; affirm by proof or evidence; anoint (a king)," from Latin confirmare "make firm, strengthen, establish," from com-, intensive prefix (see com-), + firmare "to strengthen," from firmus "strong, steadfast" (see firm (adj.)). Related: Confirmative; confirmatory. 14 contact(v) phraseology for establish contact (v.) 1834, "put in contact," simple n kontaktas; Simple n 1 ryšys; simple communications with: from contact (n.). Meaning "get in bendravimas contact Tower 118.75 touch with" is 1927, American 2 spec. kontaktas English. Related: Contacted; contacting. 15 copy (v) phraseology for to hear and copy (v.) late 14c., from Old simple understand French copier (14c.), from Medieval Latin copiare "to transcribe," originally "to write in plenty," from Latin copia (see copy (n.)). Hence, "to write an original text many times." Related: Copied; copying. Figurative sense of "to imitate" is attested from 1640s. 16 correction phraseology which indicates correction (n.) simple n taisymas; simple n (iš)taisymas, simple that an error has been made mid-14c., "action of correcting," pataisymas, by the person making the from Old French correccion (13c.) atitaisymas transmission and that "correction, amendment; correct information will punishment, rebuke," from Latin follow: climb to reach correctionem (nominative Flight Level 290 at time 58. correctio), noun of action from Correction at time 55. past participle stem of corrigere "to put straight; to reform" (see correct (v.)). Meaning "chastisement" is from late 14c. Meaning "an instance of correction" is from 1520s. House of correction was in a royal statute from 1575. 17 current ATIS Information Kilo in a terminalogic Information K series of updates (…India, al phrase Juliet, Kilo…) so that pilots can check easily that they have the most recent meteorological information about the airport: Cleveland Hopkins InformationKilo, 1755 Zulu Automated Weather, Wind 260 at 15 gust 19, Visibility 6, light snow, 2,600 broken, 3,500overcast, Temperature -5, Dewpoint -11, Altimeter 2999. 18 Conditional when a clearance is given complex clearance by a controller conditional upon another traffic movement (departure or arrival) occurring first. For example: ‘Cathay Pacific 396, behind Boeing 777 on short final, line up behind.’ 19 emergency 4-digit international complex code transponder signals used by the crew to alert ATC in the event of an emergency. 7500 indicates unlawful interference, 7600 lost communication and 7700 a general emergency. 20 Frequency radio saturation which complex congestion occurs when there are too many transmissions on the same radio frequency; the pilot may have to wait for a break in transmissions to pass a message and may have to wait for a response from the ATCO. Congestion can result in important information (clearances, flight levels, headings, times etc.) being lost or only partially heard, conditional clearances and advice to expect being taken as clearances, pilots not being able to pass urgent information, information intended for one flight being adopted by another and a general loss of communication quality with the ensuing stress. 21 garbled unclear, inaudible, garbled (adj.) simple typically because of by 1620s of spices; by 1774 of technical problems: say language; past-participle adjective again, your last from garble (v.). transmission was garbled garble (v.) early 15c., "to inspect and remove the dirt and dross from (spices)," from Anglo-French garbeler "to sift" (late 14c.) and directly from Medieval Latin and Italian garbellare, from Arabic gharbala "to sift and select spices," related to kirbal "sieve," perhaps from Late Latin cribellum, diminutive of Latin cribrum "sieve" (see crisis). Apparently the word was widespread among Mediterranean traders (compare Italian garbellare, Spanish garbillare "to sift grain").
From late 15c. in a general sense of "sort out the finer parts" of anything, "removal of what is objectionable," then "distort for some devious purpose or to give false impression;" especially "mix up, confuse or distort language" (1680s). Related: Garbled; garbling. In Middle English garbeler (Anglo-French garbelour) meant "official who garbles spices and sometimes also other dry goods" (early 15c.); it is attested from 1690s as "one who mixes up or mutilates words or language." 22 hearback error a failure to notice when complex one’s own error is correctly repeated by the interlocutor 23 HF (High the high radio frequencies abbreviation a aukšto dažnio complex Frequency) (3 MHz to 30 MHz). HF radio bands are less used than VHF (30 MHz to 300 MHz) in aeronautical radio communication, but they are not limited by the line- ofsight characteristic of VHF, so may sometimes be convenient at low altitudes. 24 how do you ‘how clear is my terminologi read? transmission?’ cal phrase 25 Information identifies a specific ATIS terminologii Kilo, Lima, (Automatic Terminal cal phrase Mike etc. Information Service) broadcast in a series A, B, C, D etc. giving up-to-date information about conditions at the airport 26 negative contradicts a previous negative (adj.) simple a neigiamas simple n 1 nepritarimas, simple statement by the other c. 1400, "expressing denial," from nesutikimas speaker; no; permission not Old French negatif (13c.) and 2 draudimas granted; this is not correct; directly from Latin negativus "that not capable: ‘Are you going which denies," from negat-, past around?’ ‘Negative’ participle stem of negare "deny, say no" (see deny). Meaning "expressing negation" is from c. 1500; that of "characterized by absence" is from 1560s. Algebraic sense is from 1670s. The electricity sense is from 1755. Negative Capability, that is when a man is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts without any irritable reaching after fact and reason. [John Keats, letter, Dec. 21, 1817] Related: Negatively. 27 Noise 1) unwanted signals within noise (n.) simple n triukšmas; Simple an electronic system: We’re early 13c., "loud outcry, clamor, getting a lot of noise on the shouting," from Old French noise tower frequency 2) sound: "din, disturbance, uproar, brawl" What was that noise from (11c., in modern French only in the cabin? phrase chercher noise "to pick a quarrel"), also "rumor, report, news," apparently from Latin nausea "disgust, annoyance, discomfort," literally "seasickness" (see nausea).
Another theory traces the Old French word to Latin noxia "hurting, injury, damage." OED considers that "the sense of the word is against both suggestions," but nausea could have developed a sense in Vulgar Latin of "unpleasant situation, noise, quarrel" (compare Old Provençal nauza "noise, quarrel"). Meaning "loud or unpleasant sound" is from c. 1300. Replaced native gedyn (see din). 28 pass your to transmit or give your terminologi message (v) message cal phrase 29 pick up (v) 1) to detect something pick up (v.) complex heard on the frequency, the early 14c. as a verbal phrase, "lift Lan Chile crew picked up and take," from pick (v.) + up the pan call from the (adv.). Of persons, "make TAROM flight and relayed acquaintance or take along," it to ATC 2) In a more especially for sexual purposes, technical sense, it refers to 1690s. Meaning "cause (someone) sensors, detectors etc. to revive" is from 1857. Sense of detecting a signal, vibration, "tidy up" is from 1861; that of temperature etc.movement. "arrest" is from 1871; meaning "gain speed" is from 1922; meaning "to pay" (a check, tab, etc.) is from 1945. Pick-me-up "stimulating alcoholic drink" is attested from 1867. 30 PIREP (pilot Weather information from abbreviation reports) official sources is complemented by live updates from pilots about weather conditions they encounter en route or during approach and landing 31 Please give us a request by the pilot for a terminologi five miles horizontal separation of five cal phrase behind the miles between himself and heavy the preceding widebody aircraft in order to avoid the effects of wake 32 Position report the fact that the crew complex buvı̇̀mo viẽtos complex n buvimo vietos complex regularly informs ATC of pranešı̇ ̀mas pranešimas their current position: resume position reporting 33 radio silence not using the frequency in silence (n.) complex the event of another aircraft c. 1200, "muteness, state of being being in an emergency. silent," from Old French silence Silence is twofold: first, it "state of being silent; absence of means instructing other sound," from Latin silentium "a aircraft and controllers on being silent," from silens, present the frequency to maintain participle of silere "be quiet or radio silence, if necessary, still," of unknown origin. Meaning (‘Stop transmitting’) so that "absence of sound" in English is the frequency is fully from late 14c. available for the aircraft in distress; secondly, it is keeping the controller’s transmissions to a minimum so as not to disturb the flight crew. 34 read (v) to hear and understand: how read (v.) simple v suprasti; girdėti simple do you read me? Old English rædan (West Saxon), redan (Anglian) "to advise, counsel, persuade; discuss, deliberate; rule, guide; arrange, equip; forebode; read, explain; learn by reading; put in order" (related to ræd, red "advice"), from Proto-Germanic *redan (cognates: Old Norse raða, Old Frisian reda, Dutch raden, Old High German ratan, German raten "to advise, counsel, guess"), from PIE root *re(i)- "to reason, count" (cognates: Sanskrit radh- "to succeed, accomplish," Greek arithmos "number amount," Old Church Slavonic raditi "to take thought, attend to," Old Irish im- radim "to deliberate, consider"). Words from this root in most modern Germanic languages still mean "counsel, advise."
Sense of "make out the character of (a person)" is attested from 1610s. Connected to riddle via notion of "interpret." Transference to "understand the meaning of written symbols" is unique to Old English and (perhaps under English influence) Old Norse raða. Most languages use a word rooted in the idea of "gather up" as their word for "read" (such as French lire, from Latin legere). Read up "study" is from 1842; read out (v.) "expel by proclamation" (Society of Friends) is from 1788. read-only in computer jargon is recorded from 1961. 35 Readback an instruction to make the simple atkartójimas simple n atkartojimas simple interlocutor acknowledge specific instructions or information: The readback was both incomplete and given with the wrong stop altitude; the ATCO had corrected the omission but missed the stop altitude error 36 readback error a failure to correctly repeat complex all or part of message to verify accuracy 37 readback/ a failure to notice and complex hearback error correct a readback error 38 readout 1) data which is displayed simple n (prietaiso) simple visually: the FOB (Fuel On rodmenys Board) readout is showing 38 tonnes 2) data said / played audibly: the PNF made a radio altitude readout during approach 39 reclear (v) to modify a previous ATC simple clearance: recleared Flight Level 310; rest of clearance unchanged 40 report (v) to pass requested report (v.) simple v pranešti simple v pranešti simple information: report late 14c., "to make known, tell, airborne relate," from Old French reporter "to tell, relate; bring back, carry away, hand over," from Latin reportare "carry back, bear back, bring back," figuratively "report," in Medieval Latin "write (an account) for information or record," from re- "back" (see re-) + portare "to carry" (see port (n.1)). Early 15c. as "to submit" (to an authority, etc.). Meaning "to name someone as having offended somehow" is from 1885. Related: Reported; reporting. 41 report an instruction from ATC complex vacating / requesting the crew to vacated report that they are leaving or exiting a runway or parking stand 42 request (v) In radiotelephony, this request (v.) simple n prašymas; simple n prašymas; simple means ‘I would like to 1530s, from request (n.) or from (pa)reikalavimas pageidavimas know’ or ‘I would like to Middle French requester, from v prašyti; v prašyti; obtain’: request departure Old French requester "ask again, (pa)reikalauti (mandagiai) instructions request, reclaim," from requeste. reikalauti Related: Requested; requesting. 43 require (n) to need: we require 117 require (v.) simple v reikalauti; reikėti; simple v 1 reikėti simple tonnes of fuel for our next late 14c., "to ask a question, to ~ much 2 (pa)reikalauti, leg inquire," from Old French maintenance įsakyti requerre "seek, procure; beg, ask, reikalauti didelės petition; demand," from Vulgar techninės priežiūros Latin *requaerere, from Latin requirere "seek to know, ask," from re-, here perhaps meaning "repeatedly" (see re-), + quaerere "ask, seek" (see query (v.)).
The original sense of this word has been taken over by request (v.). Sense of "demand (someone) to do (something)" is from 1751, via the notion of "to ask for imperatively, or as a right" (late 14c.). Related: Required; requiring. 44 resume (v) to start using or doing resume (v.) simple v vėl pradėti, tęsti simple v atnaujinti; vėl simple again, to return to again early 15c., "to regain, take back;" pradėti, toliau after an interruption: mid-15c., "recommence, continue, daryti, tęsti (po resume own navigation begin again after interruption," pertraukos) direct CHN from Middle French resumer (14c.) and directly from Latin resumere "take again, take up again, assume again," from re- "again" (see re-) + sumere "take up" (compare assume). Meaning "begin again" is mid-15c. Intransitive sense "proceed after interruption" is from 1802. Related: Resumed; resuming.
45 revert (v) to return to: revert to flight simple v (su)grįžti (to) simple v (su)grįžti į complex plan call sign ankstesnę padėtį 46 roger ‘I have received all your Roger simple last transmission’. Roger is masc. proper name, from Old not to be used in reply to a French Rogier, from Old High question which requires a German Hrotger, literally "famous direct answer or readback with the spear," from hruod- "fame, glory" + ger "spear" (see gar (n.)). As a generic name for "a person," attested from 1630s. Slang meaning "penis" was popular c. 1650-c. 1870; hence the slang verb sense of "to copulate with (a woman)," attested from 1711.
The use of the word in radio communication to mean "yes, I understand" is attested from 1941, from the U.S. military phonetic alphabet word for the letter -R-, in this case an abbreviation for "received." Said to have been used by the R.A.F. since 1938. The Jolly Roger pirate flag is first attested 1723, of unknown origin; jolly here has its otherwise obsolete sense "high-hearted, gallant." Roger de Coverley, once a favorite English country dance, is so called from 1685, in reference to Addison's character in the "Spectator." French roger- bontemps "jovial, carefree man," is attested there from 15c. 47 RTF / R/T Radiotelephony: abbreviation n radiotelefoninis complex transmission of speech by ryšys radio: both standard phraseology and plain language are used in RT 48 RT loading the degree of saturation of complex radio frequency 49 say again is used when a terminologi transmission has not been cal phrase heard or understood or the listener is not sure of the content; ‘I say again’ announces a repetition or a rephrasing 50 Unable ‘I cannot comply with your unable (adj.) simple request, instruction or late 14c., "lacking in ability, clearance’; ‘unable’ is incapable," from un- (1) "not" + usually followed by a able (adj.). Modeled on Old reason. French inhabile or Latin inhabilis. 51 wilco Wilco means ‘I understood wilco simple your message and will 1945, in two-way radio slang, comply with it’. Wilco abbreviation and conflation of will should not be used in reply comply. to a question which requires a direct answer or readback. 52 words twice ‘Communication is complex difficult. Please send every word twice’ or ‘Since communication is difficult, every word in this message will be sent twice’. 53 We ‘may’ ATC has responded to terminologi request a utterances like this as full cal phrase diversion emergencies on several occasions due to the fact that they did not pick up the fact that the flight crew had used the modal verb ‘may’ or ‘might’ in a statement
Table 5.1.15 aviation terms in semantic field Units of measurement
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos type terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų Žodynas. 1996 terminų žodynas. 2014 2012 1. feet per a unit of measurement for complex minute (fpm) rate of climb or descent: we are descending at 1,500 feet per minute 2. fpm feet per minute: unit of abbreviation measurement of rate of climb and descent: the aircraft is descending at 1,200 fpm 3. hectoPascal the most common unit of simple (hPa) atmospheric pressure; in the plural, it does not take an ‘s’: 1021 hectoPascal. It is the equivalent of millibars (mb), which is still referred to in many countries. Inches of Mercury (in.Hg) is used in the United States. 1 in.Hg = 3.386 hPa 4. Hz (Hertz) a unit of measurement of Hertz unit of frequency equal to abbreviation hèrcas simple n hercas (dažnio simple frequency one cycle per second, 1928, vienetas) named in reference to German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857- 1894). Related: Hertzian. 5. in.Hg inches of mercury: unit of abbreviation measurement of barometric pressure in the United States. 1 in.Hg = 3.386 hPa. See also hectoPascal. 6. kt (knots) nautical mile per hour: The knot (n.) abbreviation mãzgas simple n mazgas (= 1,852 simple n mazgas (greičio simple aircraft is flying at 290 kt Old English cnotta "intertwining km/h) matas 1,85km per of ropes, cords, etc.," from Proto- val.) Germanic *knuttan- (cognates: Low German knütte, Old Frisian knotta "knot," Dutch knot, Old High German knoto, German Knoten, perhaps also Old Norse knutr "knot, knob"). Figurative sense of "difficult problem" was in Old English (compare Gordian knot). Symbolic of the bond of wedlock, early 13c. As an ornament of dress, first attested c. 1400. Meaning "thickened part or protuberance on tissue of a plant" is from late 14c.
The nautical unit of measure of speed (1630s) is from the practice of attaching knotted string to the log line. The ship's speed can be measured by the number of knots that play out while the sand glass is running. The distance between the knots on the log-line should contain 1/120 of a mile, supposing the glass to run exactly half a minute. [Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, "A Voyage to South America" 1760] Hence the word knot came also to be used as the equivalent of a nautical mile (in pre-WWII use in U.S. and Britain, 6,080 feet). A speed of 10 knots will cover ten nautical miles in an hour (equivalent to a land speed of about 11.5 mph). 1. Mach number the ratio of the speed of the Mach complex Mãcho skaı̇ čius̃ complex n Macho skaičius complex aircraft to the speed of measure of speed relative to the sound: The aircraft is flying speed of sound (technically Mach at Mach 0.89 number), 1937, named in honor of Austrian physicist Ernst Mach (1838-1916). 7. Millibars unit of atmospheric simple pressure measurement which refers to the same unit value as hectoPascal 8. nautical mile 1,853.18 metres. Compare complex jū́ rmylė simple n jūrmylė simple (NM) statute mile, 1,609.34 metres. 9. statute mile 1,609.34 metres, land mile. complex (SM) Compare nautical mile (1,853.18 metres).
Table 5.1.16 aviation terms in semantic field General terms of aviation
No. Term Definition Origin Term type Civilinės Term type Mokomasis anglų– Term Anglų- Lietuvių Term type aviacijos lietuvių kalbų orlaivių type Kalbų Aviacijos terminų žodynas techninės priežiūros Terminų 1996 terminų žodynas. Žodynas. 2014 2012 1. ahead of the a desirable condition Terminologi prep priekyje; simple aircraft meaning that the flight crew cal phrase prieš can anticipate what the aircraft will do and what they should plan for in advance: the crew must stay ahead of the aircraft at all times. 2. Airborne 1) in the air 2) installed or airborne (adj.) simple a ore, pakilęs į complex carried on the aircraft: The 1640s, "carried through the air," orą ADF is an airborne navaid from air (n.1) + borne. Of military units, from 1937. 3. angle of attack AOA or á the angle complex atãkos kam̃ pas complex atakos kampas; complex n atakos kampas complex between the chord line of the wing of an aircraft and the vector representing the relative motion between the aircraft and the atmosphere. Information from the angle of attack sensor, or alpha probe, is used to trigger a stall warning. 4. asymmetry unequal position or force asymmetry (n.) 1650s, "want of simple on the two sides of the symmetry or proportion," from aircraft; flap asymmetry, Greek asymmetria, noun of asymmetric thrust quality from asymmetros "having no common measure; disproportionate, unsymmetrical," from a- "not" + symmetros "commensurable" (see symmetry). 5. aviation Aviation English is broader complex English than ICAO standard phraseology, but it is the language used by pilots and controllers in an operational context. In the ICAO context, fuel prices, low- cost airlines, aerobatics or the four forces of flight are not Aviation English. Non- aviation English would also include vocabulary from completely unrelated fields, idiomatic language, slang, etc. 6. Avoidance the action of distancing avoidance (n.) simple n (iš)vengimas simple oneself from an obstacle, late 14c., "action of emptying," danger etc from avoid + -ance. Sense of "action of dodging or shunning" is recorded from early 15c.; it also meant "action of making legally invalid," 1620s; "becoming vacant" (of an office, etc.), mid- 15c. 7. enplane (v) to go on board the aircraft; simple v lipti/sodinti į Simple to board lėktuvą complex 8. ETA the time at which an e.t.a. abbreviation of estimated abbreviation apskaičiúotasis complex (Estimated aircraft is expected to arrive time (of) arrival, first attested atskridı̇ ̀mo Time of at its destination or pass a 1939. laı̇ kas̃ Arrival) waypoint 9. ETD the time at which an abbreviation apskaičiúotasis complex (Estimated aircraft is expected to depart išskridı̇ ̀mo Time of laı̇ kas̃ Departure) 10 flap when the flaps are not complex asymmetry extended the same amount on both wings: A B737 flap asymmetry occurred on final approach to a short runway. The Captain requested vectors to a nearby airport with a longer runway 11 flight idle lowest engine power complex setting and r.p.m at which the engine can safely operate in flight: the engine should go from flight idle to take-off power in 6 seconds for a missed approach