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PRIMARY SOURCE READERS Martin Luther Jr.

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5301 Oceanus Drive Huntington Beach, CA 92649-1030 714.489.2080 FAX 714.230.7070 www.shelleducation.com S964 Martin Luther King Jr.

Wendy Conklin, M.A.

1 Table of Contents

The Dreamer ...... 4–5 The Father Who Was an Activist ...... 6–7 King Gets an Education in Segregation ...... 8–9

Publishing Credits Transportation Segregation ...... 10–11

Historical Consultant Sitting Down to Get the Job Done ...... 12–13 Shannon C. McCutchen Editor The Battle for Birmingham ...... 14–15 Torrey Maloof Editorial Director A Letter from Jail ...... 16–17 Emily R. Smith, M.A.Ed. Editor-in-Chief on Washington ...... 18–19 Sharon Coan, M.S.Ed. Creative Director We Want to Vote! ...... 20–21 Lee Aucoin Illustration Manager From Selma to Montgomery...... 22–23 Timothy J. Bradley Publisher King Clashes with Some ...... 24–25 Rachelle Cracchiolo, M.S.Ed. Poor People’s Campaign ...... 26–27 The Fate of a Nonviolent Man ...... 28–29 Glossary...... 30 Index ...... 31 Teacher Created Materials Publishing Image Credits ...... 32 5301 Oceanus Drive Huntington Beach, CA 92649-1030 http://www.tcmpub.com ISBN 978-0-7439-0671-5 © 2008 Teacher Created Materials Publishing

2 3 The Dreamer A Famous Court Case In 1892, a man named Homer If ever there was a dreamer, it was Martin Luther King Jr. Plessy wanted to test the When he was just a little kid, he told his mother he was going to Fourteenth Amendment. This amendment says that all men turn this world upside down. There is no denying that this fi rst dream have equal protection under the came true. At that age, he had no idea he would fi ght his nation’s law. In other words, all men second civil war. It is certain that King had many more dreams, but should be treated equally. there was one that stood out from the rest. He said, “ Seven out of eight of Plessy’s that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they great-grandparents were will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of white. But laws in the South their character.” said that because Plessy had African American relatives, he was not a white man. When Plessy sat in the part of the King was a very gifted speaker. His words train for white people, the motivated people across the country. police arrested him. Plessy’s case went to the King grew up during a very diffi cult time United States Supreme in the South. The South had laws that kept Court. They ruled that races separate from one another. African as long as both African Americans and whites could not go to the Americans and whites had seating on trains, same restaurants or drink from the same then it was okay fountains. This treatment is called segregation that they had to sit (seg-rih-GAY-shuhn). separately. This was People in the South called these laws, the called “separate but . This referred to a character equal.” In the end, the case of Plessy v. from the 1800s. At that time, some white Ferguson made the actors painted their faces black. Then they put Jim Crow laws legal. on shows for entertainment. Jim Crow was This movie theater had two entrances, one for white people and one for African Americans. a famous character from those shows. This African Americans had to enter upstairs through a separate door. character made African Americans look silly.

4 5 The Father Who Was an Activist King’s father, Reverend Martin Luther King Sr., was the minister of a church in Atlanta, Georgia. He joined the National Booker T. Washington Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). This group Two Leaders felt that African Americans should be The African American community was not always treated the same as white people. Getting united. Booker T. Washington rid of the Jim Crow laws was a goal of the was the son of a white man NAACP. So, the group’s lawyers went to and a slave. He thought that court. When a judge threw out one of the African Americans should make laws, segregationists (seg-rih-GAY-shuhn- the best of their lives. He felt Martin Luther King Sr. greatly African Americans could istz) passed new Jim Crow laws. It seemed infl uenced his famous son. advance if they worked hard as if the NAACP made very little progress. and educated themselves. His Reverend King was an activist. He school, the Tuskegee Institute, led a march to get African Americans to taught African Americans crafts vote. He also argued that Atlanta should and trades so they could get better jobs. pay African American teachers the same as white teachers. W. E. B. Du Bois (doo-BOZ) Reverend King did not like Washington’s idea of waiting for “separate stood up for what but equal” to end. He he believed. He wanted everything to be taught his son to equal for African Americans do the same. These students are learning immediately. This is what important skills at Tuskegee led to the formation of Institute. the NAACP. W. E. B. DuBois

6 7 King Gets an Education in Segregation

As a boy, one of King’s friends was a white boy. This boy’s An Important Lawyer father owned a nearby store. During the school year, King went to Thurgood Marshall was an African the colored school and his friend went to the white school. (In the American lawyer. He worked for early 1900s, people used the word colored instead of black or the NAACP. African American.) Schools for white children had better facilities In the Brown v. Board of (fuh-SIL-uh-teez). In many of the schools for African American Education case, Marshall children, there were few desks and books. One day, King was told argued that separate could that he could not be friends with this white boy anymore. This never be equal. He said that made him very upset. Segregation did not make sense to him. having separate schools sent the message that African Americans were not as good as whites. This policy kept the African American students African Americans around the country celebrated from learning. The Supreme Brown v. Board of Education. Court agreed and ruled that segregation in schools was In 1954, a major segregation law changed. illegal (il-LEE-guhl). It was A seven-year-old named Linda Brown lived a huge victory. close to a white’s only school. Because she In 1967, President Lyndon was African American, she had to go to the Johnson appointed colored school across town. Her father sued Marshall to the Supreme Court. Marshall was the the school system and won. This famous case fi rst African American to is called Brown v. Board of Education of serve in this role. Topeka, Kansas. From then on, the law stated that schools had to be desegregated (dee-SEG- rih-gay-tuhd). Separate was not equal. Many states refused to enforce this law. King attended a school much like this one when he was a child.

8 9 off the buses. This made the city offi cials mad, so they outlawed the Transportation boycott. They sent King to jail and fi ned him $500 for violating this new law. The media printed stories in papers and showed King on Segregation television. NAACP lawyers fought the case in court. At the same time, Montgomery’s African Americans made a difference on the Buses in the South had signs that streets. Finally, the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was said African Americans could only ride against the law. in the back. While in high school, King ’s arrest report traveled to a town 90 miles (145 km) away to give a speech. He spoke about African Saying “No” Americans and the Constitution. While In 1955, an African American traveling home, he had to give up his seat woman named Rosa Parks on the bus to a white person. made a choice. She decided not to give up her seat when It was usually the lawyers who the bus she was on fi lled up. fought against segregation. But for real The bus driver told her to move change to take place, everyone needed to the back of the bus, but she to stand up against unfair laws. African just sat there quietly. He did Americans needed to join together as a not know that Parks was an NAACP activist. The bus driver community. In this way, they could called the police and had bring about change. her arrested. King was just a young preacher in This was not the fi rst time an Montgomery in 1955. On December 1, African American refused to Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat give up a seat on a bus. But this on a bus. A local civil rights activist, time was diff erent. The African , helped start a bus Americans in Montgomery joined boycott. King and other leaders gathered together. This type of peaceful protest was new. at King’s church. They decided to make the boycott last more than just one day. King said, “We have no alternative but to protest.” He encouraged people to stay Rosa Parks is fi ngerprinted after being arrested.

10 11 King is arrested after a sit-in. He was arrested Sitting Down to 30 times during the . Get the Job Done On February 1, 1960, four African American college students The CORE Leader walked into a Woolworth’s department store. They bought school was the leader of the supplies and then sat down at the lunch counter to eat. At that Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). time, however, African Americans could not eat at white-only lunch His group came up with a way to counters. The young men sat there until the store closed without test segregated interstate travel. getting any food. The next day, more African American students They organized the . This was a group of returned to the store and sat at the lunch counter. Again, they were African American and white not served. This type of protest was called a sit-in. The media soon people. They traveled together found out about this story and followed it. It took six months, but on buses, trains, and planes the sit-in worked. This lunch counter was desegregated. across state lines. They waited in the same waiting rooms and sat together. Some southern states were refusing to follow desegregation laws. King liked that these students protested in a peaceful way. Some supporters of King Farmer believed that the worried that these young activists would make Freedom Rides would create a crisis. Then white people mad. This placed King in an the government would awkward position. He felt he had to bridge have to step in. He was the gap between the older generation and the right. Angry crowds in younger one. Alabama attacked these In the end, King felt that the young people groups. Mobs slashed the buses’ tires, beat were right. Later that year, King participated the riders, and set some in a sit-in at the same kind of counter in his of the buses on fi re. town. The police arrested King and others. This got the attention They were charged with trespassing. Sit-ins like of the government. this led to the desegregation of lunch counters. Desegregation of buses, This is the second day of the Woolworth’s sit-in that took place in Greensboro, North Carolina. trains, and planes was fi nally enforced.

12 13 The Battle for Civil Rights President It was the Freedom Rides that Birmingham introduced President John F. Kennedy to the Civil Rights Birmingham was a segregated city in Movement. Newspapers Alabama. King knew he had to go there. around the world carried He planned to protest at department pictures of burned-out buses. Kennedy decided to do stores. The stores wanted African something about civil rights. Americans to shop there. But, African Americans were not allowed to use the Kennedy started to enforce desegregation laws. At times stores’ restrooms. And, they could not Kennedy called the governors of eat at the lunch counters. southern states and pressured King showed up in old clothes. He Police offi cers sometimes used fi re hoses to spray protesters. them into controlling the wanted to show that he would rather violence. Other times, he sent wear old work clothes than shop for nice troops to protect the civil rights workers. clothes at these stores. He called the plan Project C. The C stood for confrontation It was the events in Birmingham, (kon-fruhn-TAY-shuhn). He hoped to Alabama, that made Kennedy realize that the nation needed a get the store owners to react in a bad way civil rights bill. In June 1963, to his peaceful protest. Then, the media Kennedy proposed a bill that would report it. That would bring made it illegal to practice attention to what was happening. segregation. This included lunch Many African Americans in counters, jobs, and restrooms. Kennedy’s plans gave many Birmingham did not want to get involved. African Americans hope that Some were middle-class citizens. They did things would change for good. not want to give up what they had worked But this bill upset some so hard to achieve. Others knew they southerners, and they still refused would lose their jobs if they joined in the to obey these laws. protest. King ended up being arrested. King is arrested in Birmingham for taking a stand against segregation. That got the media’s attention!

14 15 While in jail, King wrote a very famous letter known as the Letter from a Birmingham Jail. —Hero His arrest got the attention King Medgar Evers spent his short life wanted. More than 1,000 children working toward a peaceful and young adults joined together at a integrated (IN-tuh-gray-ted) church. They held a peaceful meeting. society. When he was young, Unfortunately, the police brought in dogs Evers wanted to register to vote. to attack them and fi re hoses to spray He was turned away. When he wanted to enter law school, them. The media caught this on tape, and he was turned away because the nation watched these terrible events in he was African American. horror. Through peaceful actions, King Evers worked for the NAACP in got the nation’s attention focused on the Mississippi. He investigated civil rights problems. crimes against African American people. One famous case was the killing of an African American teenager named Emmitt Till. Evers worked to fi nd out who killed Till. He risked his life helping A Letter from Jail witnesses, who identifi ed the white killers, escape to safety King’s time in the Birmingham jail was hard. At fi rst, police outside of Mississippi. placed King all alone in a narrow cell that did not have a mattress. On June 12, 1963, a white He knew his supporters had run out of bail money. To top it man shot Evers in the back off, eight white ministers in the town wrote a statement for the and he died. Evers’s death local paper. In this statement, they urged African Americans to inspired many African stop protesting. Americans to work toward integration. More than King felt that he must respond to this statement. He had 3,000 people attended nothing to write with in jail. So, over a couple of days, his lawyer his funeral. It took more smuggled in a pen and paper. In his response letter, King explained and Medgar Evers are arrested while than 30 years to bring why African Americans had to protest. He said that the only way peacefully demonstrating. These two men were leaders Evers’s killer to justice. to spur change was to bring attention to it. Protesting does this. of the NAACP. Only then, will people see that change is needed.

16 17 March on Washington

The nation needed to see that African These civil rights leaders More About Marches Americans and whites could stand are promoting the A. Philip Randolph was the together in peace. So, African American Washington, D.C., march. editor of a Harlem magazine. leaders planned a march. They marched He felt that people were powerful. If you get large for freedom and for jobs. In 1963, in the numbers of people to protest, heat of summer, 250,000 people gathered change will happen. The 1963 in Washington, D.C. march in Washington, D.C., They chose King to deliver the fi nal was his idea. speech on that August day. King had He planned his fi rst march a speech prepared, but the words were in 1941 to protest racial bitter. He felt frustrated having to wait discrimination. Some for civil rights. As he spoke, he noticed companies received money from the government, but they the crowd was joyful and excited. He put were not fair to African American aside his prepared speech and spoke from workers. President Franklin his heart about his own dreams. His Roosevelt agreed to create a words were very powerful and moving. committee that banned racial It was fi tting that he spoke these discrimination in the workplace. In return, Randolph agreed to words in front of Abraham Lincoln’s cancel the march. statue. One hundred years earlier, Lincoln had freed the slaves in the South. Over 250,000 people This day was a powerful moment in attended the March on Washington on American history. This march changed August 28, 1963. how the nation felt about civil rights. It is still remembered today.

18 19 Freedom marchers help this man register to vote. A Student and a Marcher We Want to Vote! became the fi rst African American student to enter In the summer of 1964, there were bombings, burnings, and the University of Mississippi in beatings. Segregationists did this because of an event called 1962. At fi rst, the governor of . Young people from the North made their way Mississippi tried to block Meredith to Mississippi. They hoped to register African American voters. from the campus. The federal In 1964, Jim Crow laws made African Americans pass tricky government had to send in troops to protect Meredith. The tests in order to vote. The questions on these tests were unfair. white crowd turned violent and These summer workers set up schools. At these schools, African gunfi re broke out. The campus Americans were taught important literacy skills. This helped turned into a battlefi eld and them pass the unfair voting tests. If these African Americans President Kennedy ordered could vote, then they could change the policies in their states 16,000 more troops to keep the peace. Meredith stayed on as and towns. a student, but his years there were diffi cult. Years later, Meredith decided to . He did this to get people’s attention Although the focused on African American gave African Americans the right to vote, rights. He planned to some towns still held on to their Jim Crow march from Tennessee to laws. This was the case in Selma, Alabama. Mississippi. On the second day of his march, a white There were 15,000 African Americans who man shot and wounded lived there, but fewer than 350 of them had him. This tragedy caught registered to vote. King planned a campaign the attention of King there hoping that it would force the town to and other leaders. They obey the law. rushed to the hospital and vowed to fi nish Police beat marchers and poked them with his march. cattle prods. With every march, the jail fi lled up with African Americans. By this time, King King leads marchers into Mississippi to help African Americans register to vote. was a Nobel Peace Prize winner. Whenever he went to jail, the media paid attention. 20 21 The Civil Right’s President From Selma to Montgomery President Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. Vice In February 1965, a police offi cer killed an African American President Johnson took over as man. The young man was trying to protect his family from being president. Johnson understood beaten. King and others decided to lead a civil rights march to the need for African Americans protest this violence. Many people made their way to Selma, to have equal rights. Johnson Alabama, to join the march. Marchers planned to walk from signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law. This law banned Selma to the Alabama state capitol building in Montgomery. segregation in some public As they neared a bridge in Selma, troopers attacked the locations. However, this law did marchers. Police used clubs and bullwhips. Today, that awful day not protect African Americans is called Bloody Sunday. Luckily, the media caught this violence from violence or guarantee their on camera. When the public saw it, they were outraged and right to vote. planned marches in their own cities. President Lyndon B. Johnson During the 1964 campaign, vowed to pass a stricter voting rights bill. This new law banned Johnson showed preference to voting tests and restrictions. Now, African Americans could some southern white supporters. Many African Americans felt fi nally vote. They had more control over who would stay in offi ce. betrayed. But Johnson had to be careful not to off end voters who would give him the nomination. After his election, Johnson looked to King to help him. He went on television and said, “It is wrong— deadly wrong—to deny any of your fellow Americans the right to vote in this country.” He helped push through the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law in 1964. A young African American woman proudly casts her vote.

22 23 Marcus Garvey King Clashes with Some Hopes for Africa Marcus Garvey was an African There were some African Americans who did not like King’s American leader. He led a large tactics. One of these included a man named . He felt black nationalist movement in the 1920s. His message was that King’s idea of left African Americans vulnerable one of pride. He wanted to (VUHL-nur-uh-buhl). He wanted African Americans to stand up see African Americans return and fi ght back. Unlike King, Malcolm X wanted the races to stay to Africa. separate. People who were impatient for change took sides with Malcolm X. His strong stance gave hope and pride to many The African Americans. Malcolm X followed the Other African Americans were against King’s tactics, too. One teachings of the Nation of Islam. This was an African group was called the for Self-Defense. They American group in America. carried guns to protect themselves. King tried to convince others (ih-LIE-juh that African American supremacy was as bad as white supremacy. moh-HAH-muhd) was their He felt violence was not the answer to this problem. leader. He taught that white people were evil. He preached that African Americans should form a separate nation. Malcolm X was a powerful speaker. He traveled around the country speaking for the About this time, the United States entered Nation of Islam. In March 1964, Malcolm X left the the Vietnam Confl ict. President Johnson Nation of Islam. He no shifted his focus from civil rights to the war. longer believed in what King was upset that Johnson spent billions Muhammad preached. of dollars on the war. He thought it was He was later shot to more important to help the poor African death by members of the Nation of Islam. Americans in the streets of America. When King spoke out against the war, Johnson took it personally. Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X meet after a press conference.

24 25 The Black Panthers The Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was a group who caught the attention of Poor People’s Campaign the media. They dressed in black leather jackets, wore King’s nonviolent approach did rid the South of Jim Crow laws. berets (bur-RAYZ) on their But it did not fi x all the problems that African Americans faced. heads, and carried guns. King saw that poverty was a big problem. African Americans They believed in making their believed that poor white people lived better than they did. It was point by causing whites to easier for white people to fi nd good neighborhoods. They had clean fear them. This stance did not sit well with King. He taught streets and low crime. They could get jobs, too. others that “” was King went to to protest, but what he found shocked just another form of racism. him. Both the white mayor and African Americans who lived there opposed King’s ideas. The mayor said he was already working to end poverty. King knew the mayor’s plan was not working. He also Poverty was a serious problem knew he could not get close to the poor unless he lived among them. The Black Panther Party (shown above) in many cities. was So in 1966, King moved into the Chicago slums to prove his point. one of them. Laws in California began in California in 1966. were making it harder to fi nd He hoped to convince people to stand up for their rights by using and jobs. In 1965, a nonviolent means. Still, many people refused to listen to King. white police offi cer pulled over King organized the Chicago Freedom Movement to work for two young African Americans. better jobs and higher pay. This group wanted to help the city’s As the offi cer questioned the poor through nonviolent means. men, a crowd gathered. A fi ght broke out and more police offi cers got involved. This sparked a riot in the African American community. African Marches like this helped Americans who were frustrated bring attention to the came out to the streets and problems in American cities. destroyed businesses. To get equal rights, they felt they had to demand it. After six days of riots, the violence ended.

Thirty-fi ve people were killed and thousands more were injured during the Los Angeles riots. 26 27 Free At Last The Fate of a These words are engraved on King’s tomb in Atlanta, Georgia. Nonviolent Man “Free at last. Free at last. Thank God Almighty In 1968, King traveled to Memphis to help workers get I’m Free at last.” better pay. As they marched, some marchers got violent. They broke store windows and caused other damage. King A Supporter of Civil and other leaders had to leave Memphis quickly. King was Rights, Too blamed for the violence. He decided to go back to Memphis was also a and try again. But this time, it would be a peaceful march. supporter of civil rights. She On April 4, 1968, King was at his hotel in Memphis. As wanted to march alongside her husband to show that she cared he was getting ready to go out to dinner with other civil for civil rights, too. But people rights leaders, a white man assassinated him. The news of thought it was too dangerous. King’s death shook the nation. There were riots in many Since King was gone much cities around the United States. King spent his life fi ghting of the time, Mrs. King stayed against violence. And it killed him in the end. home to raise their children. Just days after King’s death, Johnson signed another civil After his death, she marched rights bill. This bill made it against the law to discriminate in Memphis where King (dis-KRIM-uh-nate) when selling or renting . King’s was shot. She devoted her life to teaching others work inspired other nations to seek civil rights laws, too. about King’s ideas of In the 1990s, segregation in South Africa fi nally came to nonviolence. Wherever an end. King dreamed of the day that his children would she went, she was a sign “not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of hope and a reminder of their character.” King did not see this dream through of the meaning of the Civil Rights Movement. to completion. But his dream of nonviolence has lived on She continued working through today. for civil rights until her death in 2006.

Over 50,000 people walked behind King’s casket. It was a very peaceful funeral.

28 29 Glossary Index

activist—someone who protests and facilities—buildings or places where Alabama, 13–14, 21, 23 March on Washington, 18–19 fi ghts for something he or she believes people meet Atlanta, 6, 29 Marshall, Thurgood, 9 in generation—a group of individuals Birmingham, 14–15 Memphis, 28–29 assassinated— murdered by surprise born around the same time Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, Meredith, James, 21 attack; usually a prominent person for illegal—against the law 24, 26 Mississippi, 17, 20–21 political reasons Bloody Sunday, 23 Montgomery, Alabama, 10–11, 23 integrated—opened to everyone no berets—small fl at hats Brown v. Board of Education of Muhammad, Elijah, 25 matter what race they are Topeka, Kansas, 9 betrayed—to have broken an NAACP, 6, 9–11, 17 legal—based on laws or rules agreement with someone California, 26 Nation of Islam, 25 literacy—having to do with reading Chicago, 27 Nobel Peace Prize, 21 black nationalist— a person who and writing Chicago Freedom Movement, 27 believes that African Americans North Carolina, 12 Civil Rights Act of 1964, 21–22 should set up their own social, media—newspapers, radios, and Parks, Rosa, 10–11 political, and economic systems television Constitution, 10 Plessy, Homer, 5 CORE, 13 Plessy v. Ferguson, 5 separate from white people Nobel Peace Prize —international DuBois, W. E. B., 6 boycott—to not buy from or give awards given out each year; King was Project C, 14 Fourteenth Amendment, 5 business to presented with the award in 1964. Randolph, A. Phillip, 18 Evers, Medgar, 17 Robinson, Jo Ann, 10 citizen s—people who have the right segregation—forced separation of Farmer, James, 13 Roosevelt, Franklin, 18 to live in a country because they were groups based on race Freedom Riders, 13 Selma, Alabama, 21, 23 born there or people who have received segregationists—those who want to Freedom Summer, 20 the legal papers needed to live in a Tennessee, 21 keep groups separated because of race Garvey, Marcus, 25 country Till, Emmitt, 17 smuggled—sneaked; hid from offi cials Georgia, 6, 29 Tuskegee Institute, 6–7 confrontation—to have a face to face Harlem, 18 University of Mississippi, 21 meeting between people who disagree supremacy—better than; to be superior Jim Crow laws, 5–6, 20–21, 27 U.S. Supreme Court, 5, 9, 11 desegregated—stopped separation trespassing—to walk on private Johnson, Lyndon B., 9, 22–23, 25, 28 Vietnam Confl ict, 25 property based on race Kennedy, John F., 14, 21–22 Voting Rights Act of 1965, 22 discriminate—to treat unfairly because vulnerable—open to attack King, Coretta Scott, 29 Washington, Booker, T., 6 of race King, Martin Luther, Sr., 6–7 Washington, D.C., 18–19 Letter from a Birmingham Jail, 16 Watts, 26 Lincoln, Abraham, 18 Wilkins, Roy, 17 Los Angeles, 26 Woolworth’s, 12 Malcolm X, 24–25

30 31 Image Credits

cover The Library of Congress; p.1 The Library of Congress; p.4 The Library of Congress; p.5 The Granger Collection, New York; p.6 (top) The Library of Congress; p.6 (bottom) The Library of Congress; p.7 (top) Hulton Archive/Getty Images; p.7 (bottom) The Library of Congress; p.8 Corbis; p.9 (left) Bettmann/Corbis; p.9 (right) The Library of Congress; p.10 The National Archives; p.11 The Granger Collection, New York; p.12 Bettmann/Corbis; p.13 (left) Flip Schulke/Corbis; p.13 (right) The Library of Congress; p.15 (top) Bettmann/ Corbis; p.15 (bottom) The Library of Congress; p.16 Bettmann/Corbis; p.17 Bettmann/Corbis; p.19 (top) The Library of Congress; p.19 (bottom) The Library of Congress; p.20 Bettmann/ Corbis; p.21 Bettmann/Corbis; p.22 The Library of Congress; p.23 The Library of Congress; p.24 The Library of Congress; p.25 The Library of Congress; p.26 (top) David Fenton/Hulton Archive/Getty Images; p.26 (bottom) Hulton Archive/Getty Images; p.27 The Library of Congress; p.29 Lynn Pelham/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images

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