DOCSLIB.ORG

Urban Climatic Map Studies: a Review

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Urban Climatic Map Studies: a Review INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY Int. J. Climatol. (2010) Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/joc.2237 Urban climatic map studies: a review Ren Chao,a* Ng Edward Yan-yunga and Katzschner Lutzb a School of Architecture, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territory, Hong Kong b Department of Landscape and Urban Planning, University Kassel, Kassel, Germany ABSTRACT: Since their introduction 40 years ago, worldwide interest in urban climatic map (UCMap) studies has grown. Today, there are over 15 countries around the world processing their own climatic maps, developing urban climatic guidelines, and implementing mitigation measures for local planning practices. Facing the global issue of climate change, it is also necessary to include the changing climatic considerations holistically and strategically in the planning process, and to update city plans. This paper reviews progress in UCMap studies. The latest concepts, key methodologies, selected parameters, map structure, and the procedures of making UCMaps are described in the paper. The mitigation measures inspired by these studies and the associated urban climatic planning recommendations are also examined. More than 30 relevant studies around the world have been cited, and both significant developments and existing problems are discussed. The thermal environment and air ventilation condition within the urban canopy layer (UCL) of the city are important in the analytical processes of the climatic-environmental evaluation. Possible mitigation measures and planned actions include decreasing anthropogenic heat release, improving air ventilation at the pedestrian level, providing more shaded areas, increasing greenery, creating air paths, and controlling building morphologies. Further developments have and will continue to focus on the spatial analysis of human thermal comfort in urban outdoor environments and on the impacts and adaptations of climate change. Mapmakers must continue to share lessons and experiences with city planners and policy makers, especially in the rapidly expanding cities of developing countries and regions. Copyright 2010 Royal Meteorological Society KEY WORDS urban climate; climatopes; thermal environment; air ventilation; urban planning; urban climatic map Received 10 November 2009; Revised 11 August 2010; Accepted 31 August 2010 1. Introduction However, urban climatic consideration has thus far had a low impact on planning (Schiller and Evans, 1990/1991; More than half of the world population now lives in Eliasson, 2000). There is a need to bridge the gap between urban areas (UNFPA, 2007). By 2030, nearly 60% of urban climatology and town planning and urban design, the humanity will be urban dwellers (UN, 2008). The and to transfer the climatic knowledge into planning rapid urbanization in the past half a century has not only languages (Schiller and Evans, 1990/1991; Eliasson, brought new immigrants into the urban areas but has also 2000; Alcoforado et al., 2009). One important link is gradually changed the physical urban environment. Both to create an information platform for interdisciplinary the landscape transformation and the associated activities of urban areas have modified the city’s meteorology and communication and collaboration. urban climate (Esser, 1989; Lambin et al., 1999; Zhou The urban climatic map (UCMap) is an information et al., 2004; Lam, 2006; He et al., 2007), especially the and evaluation tool to integrate urban climatic factors climate below the rooftops of buildings or the urban and town planning considerations by presenting climatic canopy layer (UCL)(Oke, 1987; Mills, 1997; AMS, phenomena and problems into two-dimensional spatial 2010). In this layer, the climate is dominated by micro- maps (Baumuller¨ et al., 1992; VDI, 1997; Scherer et al., scale processes and exchanges, which are highly relevant 1999). It has two major components: the urban climatic to human comfort and the environmental health of the analysis map (or synthetic climate function map) (UC- city (Leung et al., 2008; Jendritzky et al., 2009). There AnMap) and the urban climatic planning recommenda- has been a worldwide vision to design cities that are tion map (UC-ReMap). This concept of UCMapping was sustainable, healthy, comfortable, and even enjoyable first developed by German researchers in the late 1970s (UN, 2008). To achieve this goal, it is necessary to (Matzarakis, 2005). To date, there are over 15 countries understand and apply urban climatic information in the around the world processing their own UCMap, apply- urban planning and design process (Cleugh et al., 2009). ing climatic measures and guidelines to local planning practices. In order to further develop our knowledge and to * Correspondence to: Ren Chao, School of Architecture, Room 514, Wong Foo Yuan Building, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, plan project studies concerning urban climatic planning Shatin, New Territory, Hong Kong SAR. E-mail: [email protected] strategies and application, it is useful to study past Copyright 2010 Royal Meteorological Society R. CHAO et al. developments and projects of UCMap. This paper is on the urban climate and air quality of study areas. Anal- the first review of the development of the UCMap tool. ysis of the thermal image and meteorological data was More than 30 relevant studies in the world are cited, conducted, and the car traverse measurement was also and both significant developments and existing problems carried out for examining the air temperature profile of are discussed. Selected examples of UCMap studies urban areas. A geographical distribution of topography, from different countries are compared and summarized. aerial views, thermal image, real land use, and urban air Secondly, the structure and the map-making procedure of paths were synergized and mapped with a grid resolution the UCMap are described by citing key examples. The of 250 m × 250 m with map drawings done manually analytical aspects and consideration parameters, as well (Mayer, 1988; Matzarakis, 2005; Matzarakis and Mayer, as any planning instructions and climatic considerations 2008). in planning, are elaborated. Thirdly, the advantages and In the 1990s, after the re-unification of Germany, sev- limitations of UCMap studies are discussed critically. eral cities in the northern part of the country conducted Finally, the review delineates the opinions of the authors synthetic climate function mapping (VDI, 1988; Helbig on the future of UCMap research and application. There et al., 1999; Matzarakis, 2005). Since 1992, the Section is still the need to apply and to refine the methodology, of Urban Climatology of the Office for Environmental and it is important to continue the communication and Protection in Stuttgart has conducted a series of cli- implementation of results in collaboration with city mate analysis studies, consequently providing a set of planners. climatic atlases for Neighborhood Association Stuttgart (Klimaatlas Nachbarschaftsverband Stuttgart), including synoptic maps, thermal maps, emission maps, climatic 2. Review of the development of UCMap study analysis map, and UC-ReMap in the geographic infor- mation system (GIS) (Klimaatlas, 1992). Thus, local In the field of UCMap study, German researcher Prof. planners could easily assess various climatic information Knoch (1951, 1963) first proposed a climate-mapping and evaluation results using the Stuttgart UCMap. The system for planning purposes. He suggested a series of project ‘STUTTGART 21’ developed over one hundred UCMapping with different scales in his publication Die climatic map layers at diverse scales that could be imple- Landesklima-aufanhme, which should be fitted into the mented at regional, city, and district planning levels. In local planning system. Since the 1970s, West Germany Berlin, another project titled ‘Berlin Digital Environmen- has intensified its geoscientific activities in presenting tal Atlas’ has been conducted since 1995. The UCMap, as maps relevant to planning (Luttig,¨ 1972, 1978a, 1978b). one of its eight environmental topics, has been produced Stuttgart climatologists led by Dr Baumuller¨ were the first for planning purposes to assist the design of settlement to conduct UCMap studies for mitigating air pollution areas, green and open space, to control traffic-related problems under weak wind conditions, and to apply air pollution, and to improve the air exchange of the the climatic knowledge into land use planning and urban areas (Berlin Government, 2008). For guiding prac- environmental planning (Baumuller¨ and Reuter, 1999; tice in Germany, the National Guideline-VDI 3787: Part Baumuller,¨ 2006). 1, namely, Environmental Meteorology Climate and Air In the 1980s, with the aim to control heavy metal pol- Pollution Maps for Cities and Regions, was published lution in the old industrial areas of the Ruhr, the Associ- in 1993 by the workgroup of UCMap at the German ation of Local Authorities of Ruhr Areas (Kommunalver- National Committee of Applied Urban Climatology. It ban Ruhrgebiet: KVR, 1992) implemented clean air man- aimed to define the symbols and representations used in agement programs using the UC-AnMap to differentiate UCMap studies to recommend methods of developing the areas according to their different climatic functions urban climatic and air pollution maps, and to create a and characteristics. More than 25 cities in the Ruhr Areas standard for their application. Thus, this Guideline-VDI were involved in this project;
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Improving City Vitality Through Urban Heat Reduction with Green Infrastructure and Design Solutions: a Systematic Literature Review
    buildings Review Improving City Vitality through Urban Heat Reduction with Green Infrastructure and Design Solutions: A Systematic Literature Review Helen Elliott, Christine Eon and Jessica K. Breadsell * Curtin University Sustainability Policy Institute, School of Design and the Built Environment, Curtin University, Building 209 Level 1, Kent St. Bentley, Perth, WA 6102, Australia; [email protected] (H.E.); [email protected] (C.E.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 29 September 2020; Accepted: 23 November 2020; Published: 27 November 2020 Abstract: Cities are prone to excess heat, manifesting as urban heat islands (UHIs). UHIs impose a heat penalty upon urban inhabitants that jeopardizes human health and amplifies the escalating effects of background temperature rises and heatwaves, presenting barriers to participation in city life that diminish interaction and activity. This review paper investigates how green infrastructure, passive design and urban planning strategies—herein termed as green infrastructure and design solutions (GIDS)—can be used to cool the urban environment and improve city vitality. A systematic literature review has been undertaken connecting UHIs, city vitality and GIDS to find evidence of how qualities and conditions fundamental to the vitality of the city are diminished by heat, and ways in which these qualities and conditions may be improved through GIDS. This review reveals that comfortable thermal conditions underpin public health and foster activity—a prerequisite for a vital city—and that reducing environmental barriers to participation in urban life enhances physical and mental health as well as activity. This review finds that GIDS manage urban energy flows to reduce the development of excess urban heat and thus improve the environmental quality of urban spaces.
    [Show full text]
  • Planning with Urban Climate in Different Climatic Zones
    GEOGRAPHICALIA (2010), 57, 5-39 PLANNING WITH URBAN CLIMATE IN DIFFERENT CLIMATIC ZONES Maria-Joao Alcoforado* Centro de Estudos Geográficos Instituto de Geografia e Ordenamento do Território (IGO/UL) - University of Freiburg [email protected] Andreas Matzarakis Meteorological Institute - University of Freiburg [email protected] Resumen: Se discuten primero los principales cambios climáticos indu- cidos por los asentamientos, con el fin de establecer los principales obje- tivos de este trabajo: mostrar la importancia de la información climática para la planificación urbana y hacer hincapié en que las medidas ade- cuadas “para planificar y construir con el clima” varían de acuerdo con el clima del área donde está localizada la ciudad. Los balances de radia- ción y energía urbanos, la isla de calor, las condiciones del viento, la contaminación del aire y el confort térmico se tratan en detalle. También son revisados los estudios de las últimas décadas que consideran los beneficios económicos y para la salud de la utilización de información climática. La consideración del clima urbano debe formar parte de los procesos de ordenamiento territorial para lograr una mejor “calidad del clima” en los asentamientos. Se proponen también medidas que pueden reducir los efectos negativos o aprovechar las ventajas de urbanizar una zona basándose en su clima (frío, cálido y húmedo, cálido y árido, con- trastes estacionales del clima). Palabras clave: clima urbano, planificación, macroclima, microclima, cambio climático. Abstract: The main climatic changes induced by settlements are dis- cussed first, in order to introduce the main objectives of this paper: to show the importance of urban climate information for planning and to * Miembro del Jury International de Géographie “Vautrin Lud”.
    [Show full text]
  • Urban Planning and Urban Design
    5 Urban Planning and Urban Design Coordinating Lead Author Jeffrey Raven (New York) Lead Authors Brian Stone (Atlanta), Gerald Mills (Dublin), Joel Towers (New York), Lutz Katzschner (Kassel), Mattia Federico Leone (Naples), Pascaline Gaborit (Brussels), Matei Georgescu (Tempe), Maryam Hariri (New York) Contributing Authors James Lee (Shanghai/Boston), Jeffrey LeJava (White Plains), Ayyoob Sharifi (Tsukuba/Paveh), Cristina Visconti (Naples), Andrew Rudd (Nairobi/New York) This chapter should be cited as Raven, J., Stone, B., Mills, G., Towers, J., Katzschner, L., Leone, M., Gaborit, P., Georgescu, M., and Hariri, M. (2018). Urban planning and design. In Rosenzweig, C., W. Solecki, P. Romero-Lankao, S. Mehrotra, S. Dhakal, and S. Ali Ibrahim (eds.), Climate Change and Cities: Second Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network. Cambridge University Press. New York. 139–172 139 ARC3.2 Climate Change and Cities Embedding Climate Change in Urban Key Messages Planning and Urban Design Urban planning and urban design have a critical role to play Integrated climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in the global response to climate change. Actions that simul- should form a core element in urban planning and urban design, taneously reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and build taking into account local conditions. This is because decisions resilience to climate risks should be prioritized at all urban on urban form have long-term (>50 years) consequences and scales – metropolitan region, city, district/neighborhood, block, thus strongly affect a city’s capacity to reduce GHG emissions and building. This needs to be done in ways that are responsive and to respond to climate hazards over time.
    [Show full text]
  • Urban Clmatology and Its Relevance to Urban Design
    WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION TECHNICAL NOTE No. 149 URBAN CLMATOLOGY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO URBAN DESIGN by T. J. Chandler Prepared with the support of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) WMO - No. 438 Secrétariat of the World Meteorological Organisation - Ceneva - Switzerland THE WMO The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations of wlùch 145 States and Territories are Members. It was created: — To facilitate international co-operation in the establishment of networks of stations for making meteorological and geophysical observations and centres to provide meteoro­ logical services and observations; — To promote the establishment and maintenance of Systems for the rapid exchange of meteorological information; — To promote standardization of meteorological observations and ensure the uniform publication of observations and statistics; — To further the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems, agri­ culture, and other human activities; — To encourage research and training in meteorology. The machinery of the Organization consists of the following bodies: The World Meteorological Congress, the suprême body of the Organization, brings together the delegates of ail Members once every fo\ir years to détermine gênerai policies for the fulhlmcnt of the purposes of the Organization, to adopt Technical Régulations relating to international meteorological practicc and to détermine the WMO programme. The Executive Commitlee is composed of 24 directors of national Meteorological Services and meets at lcast once a year to conduct the activities of the Organization and to implement the décisions taken by its Members in Congress, to study and makc recommandations on matters affecting international meteorology and the opération of meteorological services.
    [Show full text]
  • E. Gregory Mcpherson
    Cooling Urban Heat Islands with Sustainable Landscapes E. Gregory McPherson Introduction The rapid urbanization of U.S. cities during the past fifty years has been associated with a steady increase in downtown temperatures of about o.1° to 1.1°C (0.25° to 2°F) per decade. Because the demand of cities for electricity increases by about 3 to 4 percent for every increase of one degree Celsius (1.5 to ?- percent per degree Fahrenheit), about 3 to 8 percent of current electric demand for cooling is used just to compensate for this urban heat-island effect (Akbari et al. 1990). Other implications of growing urban heat islands include -increases in. carbon dioxide emissions from power plants, municipal water demand, concentrations of smog, and human discomfort and disease. Global warming, which may double the rate of urban temperature rise, could accentuate these environmental problems. More- over, the accelerating world trend toward urbanization may expand the local influence of urban heat islands, as megalopolises begin to modify regional climate and airflow (Tyson et al. 1973). This paper is directed to the policy-makers who are responsible for urban design and its climatological consequences. It summarizes our current knowledge on the structure, energetics, and mitigation of the urban heat island. Special attention is given to physical features of the environment that can be easily manip- ulated, particularly vegetation. Prototypical designs illustrate how concepts of sustainable landscapes and urban climatology can be applied to counteract urban warming in street canyons, parking lots, urban parks, and residential streets. In a previous study (McPherson 1990a), sustainable landscapes were defined as ·multi- functional, low maintenance, biologically diverse, and expressive of "place." l 152 Urbanization and Terrestrial Ecosystems I Urban Heat Islands •I Warmer air temperatures in cities compared to air temperatures in surrounding rural areas is the principal diagnostic feature of the urban heat island.
    [Show full text]
  • Strong Contributions of Local Background Climate to Urban Heat Islands
    LETTER doi:10.1038/nature13462 Strong contributions of local background climate to urban heat islands Lei Zhao1,2, Xuhui Lee1,2, Ronald B. Smith3 & Keith Oleson4 The urban heat island (UHI), a common phenomenon in which sur- 3.0 6 0.3 kelvin (mean and standard error) in humid climates but face temperatures are higher in urban areas than in surrounding decreasing DT by 1.5 6 0.2 kelvin in dry climates. In the humid east- rural areas, represents one of the most significant human-induced ern United States, there is evidence of higher DT in drier years. These changes to Earth’s surface climate1,2. Even though they are localized relationships imply that UHIs will exacerbate heatwave stress on human hotspots in the landscape, UHIs have a profound impact on the health in wet climates where high temperature effects are already lives of urban residents, who comprise more than half of the world’s compounded by high air humidity6,7 and in drier years when pos- population3. A barrier to UHI mitigation is the lack of quantitative itive temperature anomalies may be reinforced by a precipitation– attribution of the various contributions to UHI intensity4 (expressed temperature feedback8. Our results support albedo management as as the temperature difference between urban and rural areas, DT). a viable means of reducing DT on large scales9,10. A common perception is that reduction in evaporative cooling in The conversion of natural land to urban land causes several notable urban land is the dominant driver of DT (ref. 5). Here we use a cli- perturbations to the Earth’s surface energy balance.
    [Show full text]
  • J3.8 Urban Heat Islands and Environmental Impact
    J3.8 URBAN HEAT ISLANDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT Suryadevara S. Devi* Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India ABSTRACT pollution dispersal which will result in an increase in pollution concentration. The urban heat island The rapid urbanization and industrialization have adds to the development and self sustenance of a brought about microclimatic changes particularly ‘dust-dome’ and a ‘hazehood” of contaminating with regard to its thermal structure. The well particles. It also helps in setting up of the documented climatic modification of the city is urban recirculation of pollutants thus making the pollution heat island. The present paper discusses the nature problems more serious. With the increasing and intensity of heat islands at Visakhapatnam, the emphasis on planning for healthier ad comfortable tropical coastal city of South India. A detailed study physical environments in cities, the need to was carried out with regard to urban heat islands recognise the role of cities in causing and meeting for the last ten years. The study reveals that the the challenges posed by climate change has intensity of heat island varies from 20C to 40C and become greater. The very presence of a city affects intensity is high during winter season compared to the local climate and as the city changes, so does, summer and monsoon seasons. At Visakhapatnam its climate. The modified climate adds to the city the formation of heat island is controlled by residents’ discomfort and even ill-health. The well topography and urban morphology. The land and documented climatic modification of the city is urban sea breeze circulation also interacts with the heat heat island.
    [Show full text]
  • How Is Urbanization Altering Local and Regional Climate?
    How is urbanization altering local and regional climate? Book or Report Section Accepted Version Grimmond, C. S. B., Ward, H. C. and Kotthaus, S. (2015) How is urbanization altering local and regional climate? In: Seto, K. C., Solecki, W. D. and Griffith, C. A. (eds.) The Routledge Handbook of Urbanization and Global Environmental Change. Routledge. ISBN 9780415732260 Available at http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/52737/ It is advisable to refer to the publisher’s version if you intend to cite from the work. See Guidance on citing . Publisher: Routledge All outputs in CentAUR are protected by Intellectual Property Rights law, including copyright law. Copyright and IPR is retained by the creators or other copyright holders. Terms and conditions for use of this material are defined in the End User Agreement . www.reading.ac.uk/centaur CentAUR Central Archive at the University of Reading Reading’s research outputs online Grimmond CSB, Ward HC, Kotthaus S 2016: How is urbanisation altering local and regional climate? In The Routledge Handbook of Urbanization and Global Environmental Change ed KC Seto & W Solecki, CA Griffth, 582pp www.routledge.com/products/9780415732260 How is urbanization altering local and regional climate? CSB Grimmond, Helen C Ward, Simone Kotthaus, Department of Meteorology, University of Reading, United Kingdom Urbanization has profound effects on climate. The materials and morphology of the urban surface, along with emissions from domestic, commercial and transport activities, result in changes in local climate often greater in magnitude than projected global- scale climate change. Cities are commonly 2-3 °C warmer than their surrounding environments, with the greatest differences at night and in winter.
    [Show full text]
  • Meteorology Applied to Urban Air Pollution Problems
    COST { the acronym for European COoperation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research { is the oldest and widest European intergovernmental net- work for cooperation in research. Established by the Ministerial Conference in November 1971, COST is presently used by the scientific communities of 35 European countries to cooperate in common research projects supported by national funds. The funds provided by COST { less than 1% of the total value of the projects { support the COST cooperation networks (COST Actions) through which, with only around 20 million per year, more than 30.000 Eu- ropean scientists are involved in research having a total value which exceeds 2 billion per year. This is the financial worth of the European added value which COST achieves. A \bottom up approach" (the initiative of launching a COST Action comes from the European scientists themselves), “`a la carte participa- tion" (only countries interested in the Action participate), \equality of access" (participation is open also to the scientific communities of countries not be- longing to the European Union) and “flexible structure" (easy implementation and light management of the research initiatives) are the main characteristics of COST. As precursor of advanced multidisciplinary research COST has a very important role for the realisation of the European Research Area (ERA) anticipating and complementing the activities of the Framework Programmes, constituting a \bridge" towards the scientific communities of emerging coun- tries, increasing the mobility of researchers across Europe and fostering the establishment of \Networks of Excellence" in many key scientific domains such as: Physics, Chemistry, Telecommunications and Information Science, Nan- otechnologies, Meteorology, Environment, Medicine and Health, Forests, Agri- culture and Social Sciences.
    [Show full text]
  • The Effect of Urbanisation on the Climatology of Thunderstorm Initiation
    Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc. 141: 663–675, April 2015 A DOI:10.1002/qj.2499 The effect of urbanisation on the climatology of thunderstorm initiation Alex M. Haberlie,a,b* Walker S. Ashleya,b and Thomas J. Pingelb aMeteorology Program, Northern Illinois University, De Kalb, USA bDepartment of Geography, Northern Illinois University, De Kalb, USA *Correspondence to: A. M. Haberlie, Department of Geography, Northern Illinois University, De Kalb, IL 60115, USA. E-mail: [email protected] This study assesses the impact of urban land use on the climatological distribution of thunderstorm initiation occurrences in the humid subtropical region of the southeast UnitedStates,whichincludestheAtlanta,Georgiametropolitanarea.Initially,anautomated technique is developed to extract the locations of isolated convective initiation (ICI) events from 17 years (1997–2013) of composite reflectivity radar data for the study area. Nearly 26 000 ICI points were detected during 85 warm-season months, providing the foundation for first long-term, systematic assessment of the influence of urban land use on thunderstorm development. Results reveal that ICI events occur more often over the urban area compared to its surrounding rural counterparts, confirming that anthropogenic-induced changes in land cover in moist tropical environments lead to more initiation events, resulting thunderstorms and affiliated hazards over the developed area. The ICI risk for Atlanta is greatest during the late afternoon and early evening in July and August in synoptically benign conditions. Greater ICI counts downwind of Atlanta suggest that prevailing wind direction also influences the location of these events. Moreover, ICI occurrences over the city were significantly higher on weekdays compared to weekend days – a result that was not apparent in a rural control region located west of the city.
    [Show full text]
  • Review of Urban Climatology 1973-1976
    WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION TECHNICAL NOTE No. 169 REVIEW OF URBAN CLIMATOLOGY 1973-1976 by T. R. Oke CoSAMC Rapporteur on Urban Climatology WMO - No. 539 Secrétariat of the World Meteorologîcal Organization - Geneva - Switzerland The WMO The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations of which 145 States and Territories are Members. It was created: — To facilitate international co-operation in the establishment of networks of stations for making meteorological and geophysical observations and centres to provide meteoro­ logical services and observations; — To promote the establishment and maintenance of Systems for the rapid exchange of meteorological information; — To promote standardization of meteorological observations and cnsure the uniform publication of observations and statistics; — To further the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems, agri­ culture, and other human activities; — To encourage research and training in meteorology. The machinery of the Organization consists of the following bodics: The World Meteorological Congress, the suprême body of the Organization, brings together the delegates of ail Members once every four years to détermine gênerai policies for the fulfilment of the purposes of the Organization, to adopt Technical Régulations relating to international meteorological practice and to détermine the WMO programme. The Executive Committee is composed of 24 directors of national Meteorological Services and meets at least once a year to
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing the Impacts of Urbanization on Albedo in Jing-Jin-Ji Region of China
    remote sensing Article Assessing the Impacts of Urbanization on Albedo in Jing-Jin-Ji Region of China Rongyun Tang 1,2, Xiang Zhao 1,2,*, Tao Zhou 3,4, Bo Jiang 1,2 ID , Donghai Wu 5 ID and Bijian Tang 6 1 State Key Laboratory of Remote Sensing Science, Jointly Sponsored by Beijing Normal University and Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100875, China; [email protected] (R.T.); [email protected] (B.J.) 2 Beijing Engineering Research Center for Global Land Remote Sensing Products, Institute of Remote Sensing Science and Engineering, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China 3 Key Laboratory of Environmental Change and Natural Disaster of Ministry of Education, Academy of Disaster Reduction and Emergency Management, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; [email protected] 4 State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China 5 College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; [email protected] 6 Division of Environment and Sustainability, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-10-5880-0152 Received: 4 May 2018; Accepted: 5 July 2018; Published: 10 July 2018 Abstract: As an indicative parameter that represents the ability of the Earth’s surface to reflect solar radiation, albedo determines the allocation of solar energy between the Earth’s surface and the atmosphere, which plays an important role in both global and local climate change.
    [Show full text]