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Climate and Urban Development Climate and Urban Development World Meteorological Organization WMO - No. 844 Climate and Urban Development WMO-No. 844 Geneva, Switzerland 1996 For more information contact: The World Meteorological Organization World Climate Programme 41 Avenue Ciuseppe-Motta CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland ©: (41-22)730 83 14/730 83 15 FflX: (41-22) 734 23 26 E-mail: ipa @www.wmo.ch Cover. Urban design is determined by climate. (Photos: Anne Duhamel von Moos, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology/1 Morimoto) WMO-No. 844 © 1996, World Meteorological Organization ISBN 92-63-1 0844-7 NOTE The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. FOREWORD Urban populations are growing very rapidly with issues that relate to urban weather and throughout the world and by the turn of the climate. The Twelfth World Meteorological century almost half of the world's popula­ Congress, which met in June 1995, recognized tion will live in urban areas. The rate of «that a broad new thrust to which WMO urbanization, particularly in developing should attach special attention was ... the countries, necessitates new ways of gover­ urban environment in which most people live, nance. For example, a city of one million most energy is consumed, and many disas­ inhabitants generates 25 000 tons of carbon ters, including pollution, took place». dioxide and 300 000 tons of waste water This brochure relates to some of the every day. activities of WMO with regard to urban The temperature is normally higher in a environment and was one of the WMO city. In some cases, especially in the tropics, contributions to the Second United it leads to excessive heat stress. The pollu­ Nations Conference on Human Set­ tion in the urban air blocks solar radiation tlements (HABITAT II), held in Istanbul, and can be a health hazard itself. By design­ Turkey from 3-14 June 1996. I should like to ing and building urban areas in harmony express my gratitude to Mrs Anne Duhamel with climate and the environment, it is von Moos of the Swiss Federal Institute of possible to mitigate many of the negative Technology, who prepared this brochure in impacts related to urbanization. As most of cooperation with staff of the WMO the energy is used in urban areas, energy Secretariat. Thanks are also due to efficient urban planning and design can Professors Ernest Jauregui and Tim Oke for contribute to the decrease of greenhouse their advice on the development of WMO gas emissions and, thus, lessen the threat programmes in the area of urban climatol­ of global climate change. By arranging for ogy and in reviewing this brochure. appropriate warning systems and related preparedness schemes, the impacts of severe storms and flooding can be mini­ mized. The World Meteorological Organization G. O. P. Obasi (WMO) has for a long time been engaged Secretary-General through several programmes and projects World Meteorological Organization Human settlement The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate interacts with the Change (IPCC) has stated that "during environment in a complex the past few decades, two important fashion involving many different scales. factors regarding the relationship between humans and the Earth's climate have become apparent. First, human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels, land-use change and agriculture, are increasing the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases {which tend to warm the atmosphere) and, in some regions, aerosols {microscopic airborne particles, which tend to cool the atmosphere). These changes in greenhouse gases and aerosols, taken together, are projected to change regional and global climate and climate-related parameters such as temperature, precipitation, soil moisture and sea level. Second, some human communities have become more In its second assessment vulnerable to hazards, such as storms, report IPCC concludes that floods and droughts, as a result of "the balance of evidence, increasing population density in sensitive from changes in global areas, such as river basins and coastal mean surface air tempera­ plains. Potentially serious changes have ture and from changes in been identified, including an increase in geographical, seasonal, and some regions in the incidence of extreme vertical patterns of atmos­ high-temperature events, floods and pheric temperature, droughts, with resultant consequences for suggests a discernible fires, pest outbreaks, and ecosystem human influence on global composition, structure and functioning, climate". including primary productivity". INTRODUCTION Human life and socio-economic activities populations are forced to use more and have always been subject to many chal­ more marginal land, thereby augmenting lenges, among which climate variations and the potential impacts of climate change, change are the most important. Many including sea-level rise, and the possible regions are particularly sensitive to short- increase in severe weather events and term climate variations, leading on occasion flooding. to societal transformations, migrations The objective of this brochure is to and/or upheavals. These consequences can outline the relationship between urbaniza­ be, and have been, dramatic with profound tion and climate. The influence of various effects on human activities and social struc­ characteristics of an urban structure, such tures. Urbanization is one phenomenon that as surface roughness and cover, urban may cause changes in local and even design, and "green space area" benefits regional climate. At the same time, climate will be discussed. In this context, an over­ changes may lead to socio-economic riding goal is to convey the message that changes, including migration patterns to urban planners should carefully consider cities. Urban populations are growing very environmental conditions in order to rapidly throughout the world. achieve and enhance the quality of life in The potential for anthropogenic inter­ different geographical areas, while keeping ference with the climate system has been the environmental capital unchanged. assessed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Special attention is directed towards Climate Change (IPCC). the implementation of Agenda 21 and the Determined to protect the climate global plan of action, "The HABITAT system for present and future generations, Agenda", resulting from the HABITAT II Governments have agreed to a United Conference in Istanbul (June 1996). The Nations Framework Convention on Climate HABITAT Agenda deals with a range of Change (UN/FCCC). issues that concern builders, operators, Urbanization is related to the climate regulators, and users of human settle­ change issue in at least two ways. Firstly, a ments. Their related activities are affected significant amount of energy is used in to a greater or lesser extent by local and urban areas which it is, indirectly, a major regional climate, which, in turn, affect local source of greenhouse gases. By designing, climate. Although each impact is minimal, building, and operating urban areas in an the cumulative effect may be considerable. energy efficient way, significant decreases in All deliberations on the HABITAT issues greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved. must, therefore, take account of the climate Secondly, the rapidly increasing urban factor. Excerpt from a INTERACTION BETWEEN URBANIZATION AND CLIMATE declaration of municipal leaders-. Global "The abatement of The urban environment issue has become one of the most important within the overall The ultimate objective of the UN/FCCC, fossil fuel emissions context of global change and development of as expressed in Article 2 is-. sufficient to response strategies. Urban activities are "...stabilization of greenhouse gas stabilize major contributors to the increasing emis­ concentrations in the atmosphere at a concentrations of sions of greenhouse gases due to their greenhouse gases in relatively intense use of energy. The rapidly level that would prevent dangerous the atmosphere will growing populations in many urban areas are anthropogenic interference with the also the most vulnerable to the impact of climate system. Such a level should be require policies and climate and climate change. These conclu­ achieved within a time-frame sufficient initiatives based on sions were noted during the Twelfth World to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally a thorough Meteorological Congress (1995), which to climate change, to ensure that food understanding of decided that an enhanced effort should be the urban made by WMO, in cooperation with other production is not threatened and to environment as an organizations concerned, to address the enable economic development to proceed meteorological and hydrological aspects of in a sustainable manner." energy system". urbanization. Annual global mean temperature anomalies as departures from the 1961-1990 base-period means. Local — urban The urbanization process is influenced by introduced by urbanization may also have a local climatic conditions. At the same time, negative influence on structures and mate­ urban development has introduced changes rials. A most direct impact relates to the in land surface characteristics which, in turn, local ability to withstand the forces in has changed the local climate into what can connection
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