Helper Bacteria Halt and Disarm Mushroom Pathogens by Linearizing Structurally Diverse Cyclolipopeptides
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Helper bacteria halt and disarm mushroom pathogens by linearizing structurally diverse cyclolipopeptides Ron Hermenaua, Susann Kugela, Anna J. Komora, and Christian Hertwecka,b,1 aDepartment of Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research und Infection Biology (HKI), 07745 Jena, Germany; and bFaculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07743 Jena, Germany Edited by Joan Wennstrom Bennett, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, and approved July 22, 2020 (received for review April 1, 2020) The bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas tolaasii severely damages via membrane pore formation and shows hemolytic activities, white button mushrooms by secretion of the pore-forming toxin which precludes its use as a biocontrol agent (20, 21). More tolaasin, the main virulence factor of brown blotch disease. Yet, promising is the use of helper bacteria that neutralize the effect of fungus-associated helper bacteria of the genus Mycetocola (Mycetocola tolaasin. Examples of this tolaasin negation activity are provided tolaasinivorans and Mycetocola lacteus) may protect their host by by members of the genus Mycetocola (M. tolaasinivorans and M. an unknown detoxification mechanism. By a combination of met- lacteus), which were jointly isolated from the rotting fruiting abolic profiling, imaging mass spectrometry, structure elucidation, bodies of mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus (16, 17). The saprophytic and bioassays, we found that the helper bacteria inactivate tolaa- gram-positive bacteria, the first members of the novel genus sin by linearizing the lipocyclopeptide. Furthermore, we found Mycetocola in the family of Microbacteriaceae, are nonpathogenic that Mycetocola spp. impair the dissemination of the pathogen with respect to the mushroom and were shown to detoxify by cleavage of the lactone ring of pseudodesmin. The role of pseu- tolaasin (16). Yet, the mechanism of tolaasin detoxification by dodesmin as a major swarming factor was corroborated by iden- these helper bacteria has remained elusive. Here, we report the tification and inactivation of the corresponding biosynthetic gene molecular basis of the antivirulence strategy of two different cluster. Activity-guided fractionation of the Mycetocola proteome, Mycetocola species. We show that they not only efficiently inacti- matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) analyses, and vate the antifungal agent, but also cleave an important bacterial heterologous enzyme production identified the lactonase respon- swarming mediator, thus, blocking both pathogenicity and motility sible for toxin cleavage. We revealed an antivirulence strategy in MICROBIOLOGY of the pathogen. the context of a tripartite interaction that has high ecological and agricultural relevance. Results and Discussion To gain insight into the pathogen-helper bacteria interaction, we antivirulence | brown blotch disease | cyclic lipopeptides | Mycetocola | conducted coinoculation experiments of P. tolaasii with M. tol- tolaasin aasinivorans or M. lacteus on mushroom slices (A. bisporus). Whereas mushroom blocks inoculated with P. tolaasii alone dible mushrooms are an important food source. To maintain showed brown sunken lesions, the presence of M. tolaasinivorans Ehigh-yield industrial-scale mushroom farming, it is vital to prevented infection symptoms. Nonetheless, A. bisporus was prevent infections. Numerous bacterial pathogens are known to found to be a suboptimal infection model to monitor the inac- cause detrimental mushroom diseases, such as cobweb, soft rot, tivation of tolaasin since inoculation with M. lacteus alone led to cavity, and brown blotch disease (1). Therefore, many studies slight browning of the mushroom tissue, likely owing to its sap- have been directed toward understanding the factors promoting rophytic lifestyle. Therefore, we turned to potato tubers that virulence, which provides the basis for development of rational measures to prevent mushroom destruction. In general, bacterial Significance pathogens require signal molecules and surfactants to colonize mushrooms (2). To weaken the host and to overcome defense mechanisms, they typically employ virulence factors including P. tolaasii is the causative agent of brown blotch disease in the chitinolytic enzymes and antifungal agents (3, 4). A set of common button mushroom Agaricus bisporus and responsible cyclolipopeptides (CLPs) including tolaasin I (1) has been for tremendous losses in mushroom farms every year. The pathogen relies on two different cyclic lipopeptides during identified as the major virulence factor of P. tolaasii, the causa- infection: the pore forming toxin tolaasin and the motility tive agent of brown blotch disease (1, 5–7). The pore-forming conferring biosurfactant pseudodesmin. In this study, we show toxin (8, 9) causes characteristic browning symptoms in the white how enzymes produced by helper bacteria of the genus Mycetocola button mushroom (A. bisporus), one of the most important cul- provide protection to the mushroom via lipopeptide cleavage. Us- tivated mushrooms worldwide (10, 11). Furthermore, tolaasin- ing bioactivity guided fractionation of the proteome, we could producing bacteria cause diseases of strawberries, cauliflower, identify the key enzyme in toxin inactivation. Deciphering such and tobacco (12, 13), which calls for unifying strategies to control protective interactions paves thewayforthedevelopmentofbio- these pervasive pathogens even beyond mushroom farming. control agents for use in both agriculture and medicine. In contrast to the highly unfavorable use of antibiotics in ag- riculture, the concept of employing helper bacteria to control Author contributions: R.H., S.K., A.J.K., and C.H. designed research; R.H., S.K., and A.J.K. pathogens is a potentially less disruptive alternative (Fig. 1). As performed research; R.H. and A.J.K. analyzed data; and R.H. and C.H. wrote the paper. counterparts to the bacterial pathogen, several antagonistic bac- The authors declare no competing interest. teria have been discovered that either show predatory behavior This article is a PNAS Direct Submission. toward the toxin producer (14) or inactivate its main virulence This open access article is distributed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- factor (15–19). For example, the helper bacterium Pseudomonas NoDerivatives License 4.0 (CC BY-NC-ND). ‘reactans’ produces a CLP named white-line-inducing principle 1To whom correspondence may be addressed. Email: [email protected]. (WLIP) that precipitates together with tolaasin, thus, forming a This article contains supporting information online at https://www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/ characteristic white line when cocultivated with P. tolaasii on solid doi:10.1073/pnas.2006109117/-/DCSupplemental. agar (18). However, WLIP is also toxic against the mushroom host www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2006109117 PNAS Latest Articles | 1of5 Downloaded by guest on September 25, 2021 configuration of the leucine residue at position 5 (SI Appendix, Fig. S5) (23, 24). A mass difference of 18 Da compared to the reported CLPs, and the MS/MS fragmentations (Fig. 3C) im- virulence factors plied that the observed species corresponds to the linearized brown blotch disease form of one of these molecules. To determine its structure, we isolated the CLP from an up-scaled P. tolaasii culture (2 L). By analysis of the NMR spectra and comparison of 1H and 13C Pseudomonas tolaasii Mycetocola spp. Agaricus bisporus chemical shifts with reference data (24, 25), we found that the isolated CLP is 4 (Fig. 3D, see also SI Appendix), a member of the viscosin family of biosurfactants involved in bacterial virulence factors? swarming and motility (24). We named the linearized congener no browning pseudodesmin C (5) (Fig. 3E) and confirmed its identity further Fig. 1. Tripartite interaction of mushroom pathogen, helper bacteria, by comparison with an authentic reference generated by hydrolysis and fungal host. P. tolaasii produces virulence factors that cause bacte- rial brown blotch in A. bisporus. Mycetocola spp. can prevent decay of the mushroom cap. AB2 1 P. tolaasii P. tolaasii reportedly develop black spots in the presence of the toxin (17). P. tolaasii M. lacteus + M. lacteus + Blackening caused by alone was completely inhibited P. tolaasii P. tolaasii in coinoculated potato slices (Fig. 2A), indicating effective pro- tection against tolaasin. M. tolaasinivorans + M. tolaasinivorans + P. tolaasii P. tolaasii To shed light on the chemical fate of the peptide toxin, we monitored the metabolic profiles of liquid cocultures by HPLC-MS. NaCl (control) 1 In the axenic P. tolaasii culture, we detected 1 as the main 1 component of a mixture of known tolaasins (22). In contrast, we Infection model + LiOH 1 found that the titers of were drastically reduced in cocultures 6 7 8 9 10 with each of the helper bacteria (Fig. 2B). The intensity of a C t / min 100 double-charged ion with a m/z difference of 9 was dominant. H N tolaasin I 2 O NH2 O This mass difference of 18 Da in the uncharged molecule could 50 994.1153 calc: 544.3453 N H O result from the hydration of one of the dehydrobutyrine units or 0 O O HN H H O 1 N N the hydrolysis of one of the amide bonds in the cyclic part of . 100 R N N H H Tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) measurements ruled out tolaasin C O 50 OH these possibilities and unequivocally showed that the lactone is 1003.1216 tolaasin I (1) 0 2+ cleaved to yield the linearized congener known as