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Śaṅkara on Kramamukti University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2020-08-31 Śaṅkara on Kramamukti Peat, Campbell S. Peat, C. S. (2020). Śaṅkara on Kramamukti (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/112482 doctoral thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Śaṅkara on Kramamukti by Campbell S. Peat A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN RELIGIOUS STUDIES CALGARY, ALBERTA AUGUST, 2020 © Campbell S. Peat 2020 Abstract The Hindu theologian Śaṅkara reads scripture to say that people attain liberation when they comprehend brahman (God). Some authors claim that Śaṅkara has an extremely narrow view of who can attain liberation. These scholars argue that male brāhmaṇa saṃnyāsins (renunciates from the priestly class) are the only individuals who might attain liberation within Śaṅkara’s system of thought. Others argue for a more inclusive conception of Śaṅkara’s soteriology, according to which members of other groups might attain liberation as well. All of these scholars, however, tend to focus on sadyomukti (immediate liberation). In this dissertation, I consider Śaṅkara’s account of a second path to liberation – kramamukti (gradual liberation). I argue that Śaṅkara’s account of kramamukti makes his soteriology much more inclusive than most scholars tend to acknowledge. Kramamukti is a path to liberation by which devotees attain liberation after they die, while residing in a heaven called brahmaloka (the heaven of brahman). In order to attain brahmaloka, according to Śaṅkara, devotees must meditate on rituals, metaphysical doctrines, syllables, or deities. Śaṅkara’s view is that eligibility for kramamukti is a function of a person’s eligibility for brahmaloka. Since Śaṅkara allows that women, brāhmaṇas, kṣatriyas (members of the ruler class), vaiśyas (members of the merchant class), śūdras (members of the servant class), brahmacārins (students), gṛhasthins (householders), vānaprasthins (forest dwellers), and saṃnyāsins can attain brahmaloka, he allows that women, brāhmaṇas, kṣatriyas, vaiśyas, śūdras, brahmacārins, gṛhasthins, vānaprasthins and saṃnyāsins might attain liberation by means of kramamukti. Analysis of Śaṅkara’s account of kramamukti demonstrates that he holds that nearly anyone might go to brahmaloka and attain liberation by means of kramamukti. I also argue that my analysis is finally consistent with the work of most of ii the scholars whose work I consider – so long as they are taken to advance accounts of who might attain liberation by means of sadyomukti. Keywords: Śaṅkara, Advaita Vedānta, upāsana, saguṇavidyā, devayāna, brahmaloka, kramamukti, mokṣa. iii Preface This thesis is original, unpublished, independent work by the author, Campbell S. Peat. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor Chris Framarin for all his time, insight, and patience. I would also like to acknowledge the support I received from the University of Calgary. And finally, I would like to thank my family for their love and encouragement. v To Sharon, Geordie, and Jackie vi Table of Contents Abstract ii Preface iv Acknowledgements v Dedication vi Table of Contents vii List of Abbreviations ix Introduction 1 Chapter 1: A Standard Interpretation of Śaṅkara 8 1.1 Jñānayoga and Mokṣa 9 1.2 The Study of the Upaniṣads and Mokṣa 18 1.3 The Renunciation of Karman and Mokṣa 25 1.4 Conclusion 32 Chapter 2: Alternative Interpretations of Śaṅkara 36 2.1 Non-Saṃnyāsins and Jñānayoga 38 2.2 Non-Saṃnyāsins and Scripture 42 2.3 The Renunciation of Karman 48 2.4 The Need to Become a Saṃnyāsin 55 2.5 Conclusion 59 Chapter 3: Śaṅkara on the Devayāna 61 3.1 Devayāna, Upāsana, and Saguṇavidyās 63 3.2 The Consistency of Śaṅkara’s Account of the Devayāna 74 vii 3.3 Conclusion 86 Chapter 4: Śaṅkara on Kramamukti 88 4.1 Kramamukti 89 4.2 Śaṅkara on the Attainment of Brahmaloka 102 4.3 Who Might Attain Kramamukti 118 4.4 Conclusion 121 Chapter 5: Kramamukti and Sadyomukti 123 5.1 Kramamukti and the Standard Interpretation 124 5.2 Kramamukti and the Alternative Interpretations 134 5.3 Conclusion 144 Conclusion 145 Bibliography 151 viii Abbreviations Bhagavad Gītā – BG Bhagavadgītābhāṣya – BGBh Brahma Sūtra - BS Brahmasūtrabhāṣya – BSBh Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad – BṛU Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣadbhāṣya – BṛUBh Chāndogya Upaniṣad - ChU Chāndogyopaniṣadbhāṣya – ChUBh Kaṭha Upaniṣad – KaṭhU Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad – KauU Upadeśasāhasrī - Upad ix Introduction Śaṅkara is one of the most celebrated thinkers in the Hindu traditions. The school of thought to which Śaṅkara belonged is called Advaita Vedānta. When someone refers to classical Advaita Vedānta, they are usually referring to Śaṅkara and his immediate disciples. There are currently five monastic orders in India that trace their lineage back to Śaṅkara. Eight major hagiographies describe Śaṅkara’s life. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, former President of India, said that “Śaṁkara stands out as a heroic figure of this first rank… His philosophy stands forth complete, needing neither a before nor after. It has a self-justifying wholeness characteristic of works of art” (414). Certainly high praise to say the least. Śaṅkara reads scripture to say that the ātman (self) is brahman (God). Any perceived difference between the ātman and brahman is a consequence of avidyā (spiritual ignorance). Śaṅkara states that people will attain further rebirths as long as they see themselves as different from brahman. People attain liberation when they comprehend brahman. This metaphysical knowledge is called brahmajñāna (knowledge of brahman). To possess brahmajñāna, according to Śaṅkara, is to attain mokṣa (liberation). There are two paths to liberation within Śaṅkara’s system of thought – sadyomukti and kramamukti. Sadyomukti means immediate (sadyo) liberation (mukti). People who attain mokṣa by means of sadyomukti acquire brahmajñāna during their human lives. These devotees become jīvanmuktas (people who are liberated while alive) and attain final emancipation when they die. Kramamukti means gradual (krama) liberation (mukti). Within Śaṅkara’s system of thought, kramamukti is a path to liberation by which devotees attain brahmajñāna after they die, while residing in a heaven called brahmaloka (the heaven of brahman). Since brahmajñāna is 1 liberation, these people attain liberation in brahmaloka. The devotees that have acquired brahmajñāna in brahmaloka attain final emancipation at the time of pralaya (the periodic dissolution of the universe). Some authors claim that Śaṅkara has an extremely narrow view of who can attain liberation. These scholars argue that saṃnyāsins (renunciates) are the only individuals that can attain brahmajñāna and liberation. According to Śaṅkara, males that belong to the brāhmaṇa varṇa (priestly class) are the only individuals that can become saṃnyāsins. Thus male brāhmaṇa saṃnyāsins are the only individuals that can attain liberation on this standard reading of Śaṅkara. In the first chapter, I will review three common arguments advanced by proponents of the standard reading of Śaṅkara. The first argument states that Śaṅkara claims that jñānayoga (the yoga of knowledge) is the means to attain brahmajñāna. Proponents of the standard view state that only saṃnyāsins might be jñānayogins (practitioners of jñānayoga). Since only male brāhmaṇas might become saṃnyāsins, the argument entails that only male brāhmaṇa saṃnyāsins might attain brahmajñāna by means of jñānayoga. The second argument for the standard interpretation states that in order to attain liberation, devotees must study the Upaniṣads under a saṃnyāsin guru. These saṃnyāsin gurus only accept other saṃnyāsins as students. Since only male brāhmaṇas might become saṃnyāsins, only male brāhmaṇa saṃnyāsins might study the Upaniṣads under a saṃnyāsin guru. So this argument, too, implies that only male brāhmaṇa saṃnyāsins might attain liberation. The third argument for the standard interpretation states that devotees must renounce karman (action) in order to attain liberation. While they disagree about the range of actions that must be renounced, all of the proponents of this argument agree that a person must renounce dharmic actions (religious actions) in order to attain liberation. Since saṃnyāsins are the only individuals 2 who can renounce dharmic action, the argument entails that only male brāhmaṇa saṃnyāsins might attain liberation. If male brāhmaṇa saṃnyāsins are the only individuals who can attain liberation, then Śaṅkara claims that only a small subset of people might attain mokṣa. If this reading is correct, then Śaṅkara denies that women can attain liberation. He also denies that members of the three other varṇas (classes) can attain liberation. That is, he denies that kṣatriyas (members of the ruler class), vaiśyas (members of the merchant class), and śūdras (members of the servant class) might attain liberation. This reading also implies that members of the other three āśramas (modes of life) cannot attain liberation. So brahmacārins (students),
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