sign in sign up
<<
Home , Asura (Buddhism), Brahmaloka, Buddhist mythology, Devaloka, Indra, Vasu

The Place of in Early Prefatory Note: HE scope of the following dissertation is a detailed study of the mytho- logical concept of Sakka as found in . The historical T evolution of this concept from that of Indra of the Rg Veda and its development during the period of the compilation of the early Canon are the two main points kept in . The chief sources for the facts investigated and discussed have been the following: - Majjhima Nikaya AIiguttara Nikaya Samyutta Nikaya Suttanipata Therigatha Udana j ataka Pitaka (Mahavagga). The Commentaries have been drawn upon only when it was thought necessary to do so either for the purpose of elucidation or for comparison with the later trends of development. Among the authorities consulted on the origin and development of the concept of Indra in special mention must be made of the authoritative treatises of Macdonell, Keith and Mackenzie. On the development of the Buddhist concept of Sakka the important contribu- tions of Professor and Mrs. Rhys Davids have been given special consideration although the main thesis put forward herein runs counter to their conclusions. Other authors consulted have been listed in the bibliography.

List of Abbreviations.

AB. Aitareya Brahrnana AV. Atharva Veda B.C. Before Christ Brhad. Up. Brhad :Ara':lyaka Upanisad Ch. up. Chandogya Upanisad cpo Compare Dial. Dialogues of the EB. The Ethics of Buddhism j. feminine f.n. footnote ib .• ibid. ibidem-in the same book ss«: Up. Kausitakl Upanisad lac. cit. loco citato--in the passage already quoted UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

Mtu. Mahavastu p. page PLL. Pali Language and Literature RPV. Religion and Philosophy of the Veda RV. ~g Veda s. sub-under SB. Satapatha SBE. Sacred Books of the East sg. singular s.v. sub verbo-under the word (heading) TB. Taittirtya Brahmana TS. Taittiriya TPU. The Thirteen Principal u.l, varia lectio-variant reading Vol. Volume VM. Vedic Mythology YV. Yajur Veda Add to these abbreviations of titles of Pali books as used in the Pali-Englisb Dictionary ().

Bi bliography. General: Eliot, Charles and Buddhism. Vol. I Geiger, W. Pali Language and Literature (translated by Ghosh). Grousset, Rene In the Footsteps of the Buddha Keith, A. B. Religion and Philosophy of the Veda. (Harvard Oriental Series, Vols. XXI and XXII) Law, B. C. and Hell Macdonell, A. A. Vedic Mythology Mackenzie, Donald, A. Indian and Legend Muller, Max F. Six Systems of Indian Philosophy Reed Primitive Buddhism Rhys Davids, T. W. Buddhist India Rhys Davids, (Mrs.) C. A. F. , A Manual of Buddhism Smith, Sir G. Elliot .. In the Beginning (Thinkers' Library) Tachibana, S. The Ethics of Buddhism (Colombo, 1943) Winternitz, Maurice A History of , Vol. II Translations: Eggeling, Julius Satapatha Brahmana (SBE.) Griffith, Ralph T. H. The Hymns of the Atharva Veda, Vols. I and II Griffith, Ralph T. H. The Hymns of the Rg Veda, Vols. I and II Hume, Robert Ernest The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Keith, A. B. , (Harvard Oriental Series, Vol. XXV.) Rhys Davids, T. W. and Olden- berg, H. Vinaya Texts I. (SBE.), Vol. XIII. Rhys Davids, T. W. and (Mrs.) C. A. F. Dialogues of the Buddha II Rhys Davids, (Mrs.) C. A. F. The Book of the Kindred Sayings I. (Samyutta Nikaya) 42 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

Lexicons: Childers, R. C. The Dictionary of the Pali Language Grassmann, Hermen Worterbuch Zum Rig-Veda Malalasekara, G. P. Dictionary of Pali Proper Names Monier-Williams, Sir Monier .. -English Dictionary Stede, Williams and Rhys Davids, T. W. Pall-English Dictionary Journals: Indian Culture Vols. I, VII University of Ceylon, Review Vol. I, No.2

§1. INDRA-his Indo-European Character. Indra, the favourite of the Vedic Indian, is celebrated in more than one fourth of the number of hymns in the J;tg Veda (VM. p. 54). Indra is an Indo-European conception. Mackenzie' shows how Indra bears resemblances to other' hammer gods.' It is difficult to indicate with certainty, the original home and the time in which Indra first took shape. Mackenzie surmises that Indra was first worshipped on the Steppes during the Stone-Age. The Nomads of the Steppes in their migrations distributed the central idea of the god to different countries. Thus the idea of the god grew according to climatic conditions and different cultural environments (ib. p. 2). According to Mackenzie, Indra's counterpart in is P'an Ku, who uses the' thunder hammer' in shaping the hills. In Scotland his replica is Fin-mac-Coul. The ancient Egyptians knew him as Ptah. In Southern Europe he is -pater (), the wielder of the thunder-bolt; in Northern Europe he is . Among the Hittites, he is Tarku; he is our Indra in and in the Punjab (ib. pp. 2-3). It will be endeavoured to show in the following paragraphs that Sakka is another form of the development of Indra. The resemblances between the Teutonic Thor and the Vedic Indra are very close. It is a remarkable fact that Thor's frightening of Loke with his hammer has a resemblance to Sakka's (as Vajirapani) frightening of Ambattha and Saccaka in early Buddhism (§4. s. Vajirapat],i). That the name Indra did not originate in India, receives support from an inscription at Boghas Koi in Asia Minor, referring to a peace treaty between the Kings of the Hittites and Mitanni. Professor Hugo Winckler has decip- hered the word" In-da-ra " as the name of a Mittanni god who had associations with , and Nasatya (ib. pp. xxxi. etc.). It is the belief of scholars that the derivation of the word Indra is from

1. Donald A. Mackenzie, Indian Myth and Legend, pp. 1-2. 2. See' Birth of Gods' by Dr. Ghosh in Indian Culture, V:ol.VII. 43 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW lost ground in India Zoroaster developed the figure of Ahura Mazdah, and deprived him of a rival by bringing Indra to the degraded rank of a demon (ib. p. 468). It is suggested by Gray that Indra's degradation from divine to demonic character is due to his connection with the bringing of beneficent rains during the monsoons in India and heavy rains of water that bring malaria in Iran.r Indra's Vedic epithet Vrtrahan which appears in the Avesta as uerethrag- na is not connected with Indra (VM. p. 68). The god in the Avesta is a per- sonification of victory.s Benveniste shows that Indra ultimately absorbed the divine figure Vrtrahan (ibid). Macdonell thinks that even in the Avesta there was a god approaching to the Vedic Vrtra-slaying Indra (VM. p. 68). According to ! the word Tndra means the person who sends rain (indu = drop of rain), that is to say, Indra is a "rainer ' or 'irrigator.' This etymology of Indra seems probable as we find that Vedic Indra is also a god of ram. The earliest Indo-Europeans were familiar with the story of a - slaying hero." The counterparts of Indra and Vrtra are to be found in Indo- European mythology, as Keith has pointed out. We have the of Zeus and Typhon, Hercules and Hydra, Apollo and Python, Thor and the , Marduk and Tiamat, Gilgames and Humbaba.s The Indo-European character of Indra is thus established.

§2. Sakka identified with Indra. Sakka, to whom reference has already been made, is the Buddhist counter- part of the Vedic god Indra. The Jataka commentary clearly identifies Sakka with Indra: "Sakko ti Indo" (J,V. IIS). In the Pali Suttas Sakka is generally alluded to by the' triple worded appellative' as Mrs. Rhys Davids has aptly described it," namely, ' Sakko devanam indo' (S.I. 216-240; IV. 100-2; 201-2; 269-80; A.I. 143; III. 370; IV. 89, 105, 163, 242; D.I. 2I7; II. 180,208-209, 22I-2, 263-89; M.I. 252 et. seq.). It is necessary to observe here that the word' inda ' is used in the sense of ' ruler' as generally implied in Pali and not as the Vedic proper name' Indra '. He is also referred to as 'devanam indo' especially in places where he is addressed as such (S. IV. I02 ; D. II. 277-85). In other instances where Sakka's rulership of the gods is specifically implied he is just known as ' indo' (D. I. 221; II. 284; III. 176; M. I. I40, 261, 274; Sn. 316, 679, I,024 ; J, IV. 133, verse 104; V. 52, verse 26, 158, verse 30). This application, however, is to be regarded as distinct from other occurr- ences of the term' Inda' in the Suttas (D. I. 244; III. 204) where it is used

3. See' Indra and Vrtra ' by Keith in Indian Culture, Vol. 1. No. I. p. 465. 4. Keith. loco cit .• p. 462. 5· Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, p. 46. 6. Sakya. p. 276. 44 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

with particular reference to the Indra of Vedic mythology and without any relation to his Buddhist counterpart. It is significant that in these passages relating to Vedic ritual and sacrifice it is only the historical term' Inda ' (Indra) that is always used but never' Sakka ' (S~kra). This seems to indicate that by the time of the writing of the Buddhist books the new character of Sakka had developed far from it's original Vedic prototype and the necessity was felt to distinguish between the two terms although in the Veda both were merely epithets of one and the same god. In the Vedic Indra is said to be the greatest god (RPV. p. 124). The only exception, if at all, appears to be Varuna, but it is necessary to add that he too is sometimes regarded as nothing more than just equal, in might, to Indra (ibid.). As Indra is the chief god of the Vedic , so has Sakka turned out to be the chief and popular god of the Buddhist. The number of the gods is given as thirty-three in the ~g Veda and it is significant that the Iranian number of gods is also the same (RPV. p. 35). There are said to be thrice eleven gods: eleven in heaven, eleven on earth and eleven in the' waters' i.e., air (RV. 8. 35). In another place is prayed to bring with him the thirty-three (gods) to the sacrifice (trayas-trimsatam a vaha, RV. I. 45.2.) The Atharva Veda similarly divides the gods into dwellers in heaven, air and earth, but does not specify their number as thirty-three. The Satapatha and Aitareya give the number of gods as thirty-three, dividing them into three groups comprising eight , eleven and twelve Adityas. The Satapatha Brahmana adds to these, either and Prthivi (4· 5.7) or Indra and (II. 6. 3). The Aitareya Brahmana (2. 18. 8) adds Vasapkara and Prajapati to make up the total number of gods as thirty-three (VlVl.p. 19). Monier-Williams cites a list adding the two Asvins to make up the total thirty-three.? The Satapatha Brahmana passage (II. 6. 3) recurs in the Brhad Ara.t;lyaka Upanisad (3. 9. 2). When Vidagdha Sakalya questions Yajfiavalkya as to the real number of the gods, Yajfiavalkya replies: .. There are just thirty-three gods." They are said to be the eight Vasfis, eleven Rudras, twelve adityas, Indra and Prajapati (ibid.). The word' tidasa ' (Sn. 679) .. thrice ten" has led Mrs. Rhys Davids" to believe that the number of gods is only thirty. It is quite obvious that the word represents the Thirty-Three gods reduced to the round number of Thirty. 9 The word "tidasa ' need not be taken literally, for the word "tavatimsa ' (LSkt. trayas trimsa) clearly establishes the historical number of the gods as thirty-three. According to one account (SB. II.6.3) Indra is regarded as one of the thirty-three gods, and according to another (AB. 2.18.8) Indra is not included

7. Sanskrit-English Dictionary, s., trida~a. 8. Siikya. p. 276. 9. Sanskrit-English Dictionary, lac. cit., and Pali-English Dictionary, s. tid.asa. 45 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW in the group of the thirty-three gods, but appears as a god apart from, but ruling, the thirty-three. In the Pali Suttas it is clearly laid down that Sakka is not just one of the Thirty-Three but their Chief who stands separately (D. II. 22I). Thus the representation of Sakka as the ruler of the Thirty- Three gods in Buddhism is clearly a development from the Vedic conception of Indra as the most powerful or Monarch of the gods (RV. I. r65; 2.32-4; 8.5I.7; 7.21.7) and also from his association with the particular number of gods enumerated as thirty-three, as we have discussed earlier in this paragraph.

§3. The designation' Sakka.' The usual name by which this god is known in Buddhism is Sakka. In Vedic literature the epithet' Sakra' is used to indicate Indra's power (from root sak = to be able) 10 especially in his capacity as friendly helper (RV. 1.IO.5-6; cpo : "Sakta indrah "). Sometimes this word appears also as an epithet of other gods. But it is significant that it is used many more times as an epithet of Indra than of any other god, in the ~g Veda. In fact, it applies to Indra about forty times and only five times to other gods (V~L p. 58). Thus we see that the word ~akra, which is admittedly the Vedic form from which is derived Pali Sakka, denotes in the ~g Veda only a particular attribute of the god Indra, and it is of the utmost significance to observe that the word liad assumed an independent character even before the time of the Buddha. It is already found as a name in the Atharva Veda: "Sakra gives his gift of treasure" (AV. 5.2.7); "Sakra gives precious wealth to him who sheds the juice () and worships him "(AV. 20.51.3);" Sakrais free from unrighteous deed" (AV. 3.31.2 ).ll Thus it is difficult to agree with Professor and Mrs. Rhys Davids, when they say (Dial. II. p. 296) that this word is not found as a name in pre-Buddhistic literature, for as we shall see below, the pre-Buddhistic nature of the subject matter of the Atharva Veda cannot be doubted. We are informed= that the real names of gods are not mentioned aloud in certain ceremonial rites, as enemies are apt to do harm when they come to know of the real significance of the performance. In the Upahavya rite between the gods and the , the ~ame of Indra was never uttered aloud. Instead they used his popular epithet Sakra to represent his name (ibid). Hence the word Sakka may have become the popular designation for the Vedic god Indra, and in course of time gained currency, as a proper name. The fact that Sakra was only an epithet of Indra may have been forgotten, thus making Sakka the important god and reducing' Inda ' (LSkt. Indra) to a mere epithet of Sakka -the state of affairs as actually found in early Buddhism.

10. See also AV. 3·31.2; 4.11.2; 8-4-21 ; 9.4·5; 12.J.37; 20.17.6; 20.77.6; 20.89·3 20.II1.2. , II. Cp.' Sakrliya sakine saciuate,' (RV. I.54.2). 12. See Keith, RPV. p. 338. THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

In the Grhya Siitras, we see that the three Aryan castes, viz., the , the Ksatra and the Vis, were identified with Agni, Indra and Visvedevah respectively (SBE. Vol. xii. p. xvi). Indra, Varuna, etc., are represented as Ksatras (= rulers) in the Brhad Aral).yaka Upanisad (lA.II). We see that Indra here is a symbol of Ksatrahood. It is therefore conceivable that in time he became exclusively a Ksatriya god. Mrs. Rhys Davids says that' Sakka ' is a dynastic name" referring to the supposed divine origin of the Sakya clan. '4 Since the Buddha by birth be- longed to the Sakya (Pali Sakka or Sakiya) of the Ksatriyas it is possible to surmise with Mrs. Rhys Davids (ib. pp. 276-7) that the members of the Sakya clan were greatly taken up with this popular epithet of Indra, as it was identical with their own clan name. We may also agree with her that it is because of this reason that the name Sakka was favoured by the Sakyans. But the evidence at our disposal does not in anyway support the further contention of Mrs. Rhys Davids that no such name as Sakka for the governor of the' thirty- worlds "5 was in use when Sakya or early Buddhism began. We have already alluded to the fact that the Atharva Veda contains material that is even older than the facts preserved in the ~g Veda, and according to reliable authority must be placed at any rate earlier than the Taittiriya Samhita of the Black and the earlier Upanisads, and, therefore must be considered pre-Buddhistic, 16 it is evident that Mrs. Rhys Davids' contention cannot be maintained with any justification. The very fact that the word Sakka was a very popular name during the time of the Buddha, who in many of his Suttas used it to represent the god in question, indicates its pre-Buddhistic origin. Professor Rhys Davids thinks that during the period in question Sakka almost ousted Indra." He believes that it was a case like Jupiter ousting Chronos or Indra ousting Varuna, We know that Jupiter and Chronos are separate gods. So are Indra and Varuna, Sakra is only an epithet of Indra and nowhere in Vedic mythology do they appear as separate gods. Thus we see that the statement of Professor Rhys Davids can be justified only if it is taken to mean that the epithet Sakra of the Vedic Indra became crystallized in course of time as a separate name for the same god. If as Mrs. Rhys Davids holds, the name' Sakka ' is a substitute for Vedic Indra used by the Sakya clansmen because of its phonetic similarity to their own clan name, it is natural to expect in the early Nikayas a derivation of the

13. A Manual of Buddhism. p. 185. 14· Sakya. p. 277. 15· Ibid. p. 277- J6. A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II. pp. 125. etc. 17. Buddhist India. p. 235. 47 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

word suggesting such connection with the Sakya clan. But nowhere do we find such an etymology offered in Buddhist books, whether text or commentary. On the other hand a fanciful etymology given in the Samyutta Nikaya makes it very improbable that there was the least association in the author's mind of the designation' Sakka ' (for Indra) with' Sakya,' the clan name. Thus it is said that the god is known as ' Sakka ' because he gave munificently in his former births (" Sakkaccarn danarn adasi " S. 1. 229). What is meant here is that as an ordinary person in the past Sakka performed many meritorious deeds as the result of which he gained the rulers hip of the gods. Buddha- ghosa too says that the State of Sakka is procurable by liberality (" danarn hi loke Sakka-sampattim deti " DA. II. 472). These considerations are sufficient to show that the Buddhist Conception of Sakka is a historical growth out of the Vedic epithet Sakra which is characteristically used for Indra from the time of the ~g Veda and becomes a COmmon designation for him in the Atharva Veda.

§4. Epithets of the god in Buddhism. Sakka has many epithets in . The Sakka-Samyutta enumerates a list of seven epithets, viz., Maghava, Purindada, Sakka, Vasava, Sahassakkha, Sujampati and Inda, interesting, though fanciful, etymologies for them (S. 1. 229, 230). It is important to observe that these very epithets were generally used in the case of Indra also in the ~g Veda. Maghavii : In the text above cited (S. 1. 229, 230) it is said that Sakka was, in one of his previous births a young named Magha (" Magho nama manavo ahosi ") ; hence the name Maghava. (Dh. A. 1. 265, etc.) de- scribes the particular good deeds performed by Magha-Manava that ultimately won for him the rulership of the gods (Cp. DA. II. 478). Sakka is sometimes called'Maghava Sujampati ' (J. III. 146, verse 183) or ! Maghava Sakko ' (J. V. 141, verse 61).18 This popular epithet of Sakka helps to confirm his identity with Vedic Indra. In the ~g Veda, Indra is said to be a god of unbounded generosity. So, he is Maghavan 'bountiful,' an attribute "almost entirely monopolized by him in the ~g Veda" (VM. p. 63). In later Vedic texts too, this title is common. It occurs as a name of Indra in the Upanisads (Kaus. 2.II; Kena 1.3.10). The Satapatha Brahmana (SB.14.I.1.13) says that Indrais Makhavat (Makha = Sacrifice) 'possessed of Makha' and Makhavat is the one who is mystically called Maghavat. As the sacrifice was the most important feature in the Brahmanas, there is no wonder that Maghavan gained this new inter-

18. Cp. Mtu. I. 165, 167, (" Sahasranetro Maghavan va Sobhase") and, Mtu., III. 366 (" sakro aha: Maghavan ti me ahu ~ya lake.") See Dpp. II. p. 406. I.n. I (s. Magha). THE PLACE OF INDE.A IN EARLY BUDDHISM

pretation. It may be that, as he is propitiated by various sacrifices, he has in turn become the benefactorof the suppliant and turned out to be the' bounti- ful one' according to the principle of Do ut des. Purindada ., This epithet of Sakka is worthy of note. According to the explanation offered by the Sakka-Samyutta, the term means that he ' gave gifts from town to town' (" pure pure danam adasi," loco cit.). In other places in the com- mentaries he is said to be called Purindada because he was a " giver of alms in the past" (" pure danam dadatl ti purindado ti vuccati " Vv. A. 171). In the Veda, the clouds were the fortresses (puralJ,) which Indra attacked. Hence the epithets purbhid (RV. 1.51.5. cp. VM. p. 60) 'fort-shatterer' and pura'l']ttara, primarily applied to Indra, though often it refers to Agni (VM. p. 98). The earlier meaning of the word 'purandara' and' purbhid ' was forgotten, and a new meaning was attached to the mispronounced word 'Purindada.' Purindada is thus to be regarded as a distorted form of Vedic Puramdara.w V iisava : This is another interesting epithet of Sakka (S. 1. 229, 230; D. n. 260. 288; J. III. 215, verse II7 ; 391, verse II3). In the Sakka-Samyutta Vasava is represented as a houseowner ; in a previous birth he is s,aid to have given dwelling places (" pubbe manussabhiito samano avasatharp adasi," loco cit.). The Digha [ikaya (D. II. 260), says that Vasava is the' Lord of the Vasiis ' (" vasfinarn Vasavo settho "). According to the Upanisads there are eight Vasiis: fire, earth, wind, atmosphere, sun, sky, moon and stars. "These an- Vasiis, for upon them this excellent () world is set, for they give a dwelling (vasayante) to the world. Therefore they are called Vasiis."? In another Upanisad the vital breaths (pranah) are called' vasfis.' They are so called because they cause everything in this word to continue to live( v-vas; Ch, up. 5.3.16.1). Indra is identified with Prima, the source of all vital breaths and their chief (KatES. UP:·3.2; Brhad. Up. 1.5.12) showing how, even in the mystic symbolism of the Upanisads, Indra is related to the Vasiis. The Satapatha Brahmana says that Indra is the' Vasu' of the gods (SB. 1.6-43), that is to say, he is the benefactor or the treasure of the gods, a comment tallying with Sayana's usual gloss on ' Vasu ' as' dhanarupa '! The text has a play on the word vasu for' vas' , to dwell' may as well be intended here."? Even in the Veda (RV. 7.10.35) Indra is invoked with the Vasus. "Indra was attended in his heaven by vague spirits, called Vasus, who '}ppear to have

19. Cp. Pali-Engtisk Dictionary, S.V. ; Geiger, PLL. §44.3·

20. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, p. 120. Brhad, Up. 3,9·3)·

21. See SBE. Vol. XII, p. 176. f.n. I. 49

492-D UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

acted as his Counsellors. "22 The Vedic ' Vasupati' translated as 'lord of wealth' may equally well mean the ' lord of the Vasiis.' The Samyutta explanations of the terms Vasava quoted above betrays the manner in which the Buddhist author has invented the meaning to suit his purpose. But Buddhaghosa commenting on the word as found in the Digha Nikaya says that Vasava is the lord of the Vasu gods (" Vasu-devatanarn Settho," D.A. II. 481), a gloss which is obviously of greater historical value when the Vedic and Upanishadic references to Vasu gods are taken into account. Therefore it is clear that as a synonym of Buddhist Sakka it shows an unmistakable historical connection with Indra of the , Brahmanas and the U panisads. Sahassakkha : Sakka is called so because he could think of a thousand matters in a moment: "Sahassal11 pi atthanam muhuttena cinteti " (S. I. 229, 230). Sahassacakkhu and Sahassanetta are two other synonyms of the word (Dial. II. 297). In the B>g Veda Indra and are already called Sahasriiksa (RV. 1.23.3). 5 uja'l!tpati : This is another interesting epithet of Sakka (Sn. verse 1024; S. I. 229, 230). Sakka Samyutta says that he is called Sujampati because Suja, the Maiden, was his consort (" Sakkassa devanam indassa Suja nama asurakafifia pajapati ahosi," lac. cit. Cp, Ud. 29). The word' Sacipati ' (lord of might) occurs as an epithet of Indra, eleven times in the ~g Veda (VM. p. 58). In Brahmanical mythology, Saci is the daughter of Asura Puloma and, the Brahmanas take him to be the husband of Saci.23 According to Buddhist books Suja or Sujata was Vepacitti's daughter (DPP. s. Suja). B.C. Law believes that' Suja ' is a different reading of the Vedic word , saci ': but it is philologically impossible to derive' Suja ' from 'Saci.' In the Satapatha Brahmana Indra is called "Yajfiapati,' leader of Sacrifices (SBE. Vol. xxvi. p. 262). The epithet Sujampati, therefore, may be an approximation to ' Yajfiapati ' in meaning. This suggestion receives support from the fact that in the ~g Veda Sruc, (f) means' sacrificial ladle ' and its genitive plural' srucarn ' could be the origin of Pali ' Sujam,' for the change of ,c to j is co-nm m in Pali.v- In the Atharva Veda' divine power of the highest 'order' is ascribed to different sacrificial ladles (VM. p. 155). So, we may not be far from the truth if we say that Indra, originally the' lord of sacrificial ladles' (Sujampati), came to be later regarded as 'lord of sacrifices.'

22. Donald A. Mackenzie, Indian Myth and Legend, p. 17. 23. B. C. Law, Heaven and Hell, p. 13. 24. See, Geiger. PLL. §23.2. 50 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

It is more probable.s! however, both on philological and ideological grounds, that the Pali ' Sujarppati ' may, correspond to a Vedic Suy"iim-pati, where' Suja ' is the Vedic feminine substantive made from Su (prefix) + jii (radical nounr=, meaning' well-born', hence' divine '. The word Sujiita is clearly applied to gods in the J;tg Veda (Grassmann s.v.) and, therefore, Sujam- pati must mean 'lord of gods,' a sense agreeing very well with "devanam indo' in Pali.

Inda : The word Inda (LSkt. Indra, §2) itself is used as a mere name of Sakka in early Buddhism. In the Sakka-Samyutta, it is said, that Sakka is called , Indra ' because he ruled over the Tavatirpsa gods with perfect sovereignty " Devanam Tavatimsanam issariyadhipaccam rajjarn karesi " loco cit). As (we have seen already (§2) Sakka is called' ruler of the gods' (devanarn indo). This sense of' inda ' to mean' king, ruler and chief' is not found in the Vedas, Brahmanas or Upanisads-? and is therefore probably of Buddhist origin. But it is significant that in the Brahmanas there is a clear reference to how the other gods anointed Indra as their king (AB. 8.3.12). In Pali the word' Inda ' meaning' ruler' is to be found in compounds like' asurinda ' (= asura + inda; S. 1. 221) or manujinda (Sn. 553, etc.).·8 (Nd. 1. 177; S. 1. 236) and (J. V. 397, verse 228, 4II, verse 285) are some other epithets of Sakka that clearly refer to the fact that he was the ruler of the gods. Vajirapa?Ji : Indra in the Veda is represented as 'bearer of the ' -the mythological representation of the stroke. He comes under the names of Vajrabhrt-' bearing the bolt,' vajrabahu or vajrahasta . holding the bolt' in his arm or hand' and vajrin ' armed with the bolt' (VM. p. 55) although in Buddhist mythology Inda is nowhere represented as a violent character, nevertheless he sometimes appears with his bolt, even if it is only for the purpose of frightening an antagonist of the Buddha or any of his followers. He is called Vajirahattha (D. II. 259; §I5). As the Buddha converted Sakka and caused him to enter the first Path of Sanctification (§I6) perhaps it was thought improper that he should use his weapon for any violent purpose. In the Ambattha Sutta (D. 1. 95) we see how Sakka comes as Vajirapani Yakkha armed with his thunderbolt to threaten Ambat tha,"? who refrained from

25. I am indebted to my tutor, Dr. O. H. de A. Wijesekara, for this suggestion. 26. See Grassmann, Worterbuck Zum Rig Veda, s. jll. 27. See' Indra ' in Sanskrit-English. Dictionary, where Monier-Williams cites only Manu and Hitopadesa, for this derived sense.

28. See Pali-English Dictionary, s. inda. 2. 29· Cp." Silence, thou evil one," roared Thor, .• or else with my hammer shall I strike thy head off and end thy life." Teutonic Myth and Legend, p. 173. Quoted by Mackenzie in Indian Myth and Legend, p. 16. 51 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW answering the questions of the Buddha. Here, we see Sakka as a patron of the new- religion. He used his weapon only to frighten a person who did not agree with the Teacher. The same Vajirapani (M. I. 231) is said to have appeared before Saccaka and frightened him for having such audacity as to debate with the Buddha. These are the only instances in the Suttas in which Sakka comes in the guise of a Yakkha bearing a bolt. In the Sambula Jataka (J. V. 92, verse 284) Sakka comes with his thunderbolt to frighten the goblin who harasses Sambula, Again in the Ayakuta jataka (J. III. 146, verse 180) Sakka appears with his fiery bolt to frighten the Raksasas who some to kill the Bodhisatta. In the Khandahala jataka (J. VI. 155, verses 732-36) Sakka frightens the tyrant king Khandahala and his minister for trying to harm Khandahala's eldest son. These instances are sufficient to show that Sakka uses his weapon for the good purpose of helping the distressed. - Sakka's weapon is a blazing mass of iron (D. I. 95; J. III. 146, verses 181-2). In the Veda too, it is described as iiyasa, metallic (RV. 1.52. This striking similarity of detail is another proof of the identity of Vedic Indra and Buddhist Sakka. Yakkha: Although the word does not appear to be an epithet of Sakka, yet in his capacity of the holder of the thunderbolt () he is, as we have seen above, frequently spoken of as a Yakkha (D. I. 95; M. I. 252). He is also alluded to as Yakkha even without any reference to his weapon: "Sakka namako Yakkho " (S. I. 206). Similarly, Inda, Soma, Varuna and Pajapati appear in a list of protective Yakkhas (D. III. 204). The use of this word is also signi- ficant for the historical origin elfthe concept in so far as it is seen that the term Yaksa is applied to various mythological objects and such as Hiranya- garbha, , Brahman in the sense of ' mysterious' or ' adorable' in pre- Buddhistic literature, as has been shown by Dr. Wijesekaraw. In this sense it is also used as an epithet of the Buddha or is applied to Devat as in Buddhism.v Kosiya: This epithet of Sakka (D. II. 270; M. 1. 252) is a derivation from the original word Kausika, an epithet of Vedic Indra (RV. I. 10) which implies that Indra favoured the family of the Kusikas (VM. p. 63). Sakka was ad- dressed as Kosiya by the Buddha when he first met him (D. II. 270). Accord- ing to Sayana Kausika means "favourable to the Kusikas".32 In the Satapatha Brahmana Indra is called Kausika Gautama and it appears that Kusika desired to have a son equal to Indra, whence the latter was born as

30. University of Ceylon Review, Vol. I. No, 2, pp. 24, etc. 31. lb., P·32, In. 84; 32. SBE. Vol. XXVI. p. 82, In.!. 52 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

Kuslka's son Gathin or Gadhin (ibid). Thus Indra may have become -the tutelary god of that particular clan to have gained this epithet.» According to Professor and Mrs. Rhys Davids" Kosiya is used, not in speaking of, but in speaking to Sakka, just as the family (gotta) name, not the personal name, is used by polite persons in addressing a man" (ib. pp. 296-7). It is difficult for us to agree with this, however, as we see that the word' Kosiya ' is defi- nitely used as a name in speaking of Sakka (J. V. 395, verse 223; 396, verse 224; M. I. 253). . Vatrabhii : It is highly significant that Sakka is called Vatrabhfi at least in one place in (J. V. 153, verse 93); 'SA. I. 83 ' cited (s. Sakka) in the DPP. for an occurence of Vatrabhii seems to be an error. The epithet is clearly reminiscent of Vedic Vrtrahan ' slayer of Vrtra ' which is used about seventy times in the ~g Veda (VM. p. 60). The Pali form' Vatrabhii ' can well be a phonetic development of the same compound. The first word , Vatra ' is clearly derived from Vedic Vrtra where the vowel -r- has become -a-, as is very common in Pali.s- The second member of the compound' -bhii ' appears to be a phonetic development of Vedic' -han ' (radical noun, masculine from root han). This same form in -ii occurs in other places in Pali. We may compare bhiinahu (voc.) Sn. 664, bhiinahuno (gen. sg.) M. I. 502, bhiina- huno nom. (pl.) J. V. 266, which are clearly made up of bhiina (= embryo) + han (= killer). Thus Pali 'Vatrabhu ' 35 may, have come through an inter- mediate form "vatra-hu ' with the substitution of -bh- for -h- due to the analogy of forms as abhibhu, gotrabhii, etc. Faust.oll has indeed suggested, the alternative readings Vatrahii and Vatraha (}. V. 153, f.n, 3). Gandhabbariija : This word occurs (}. VI. 260, verse 7) in the sense of' king of the Gandha- bbas,' as another epithet of Sakka. 36 The Gandhabbas had a king of their own, known as Timbaru (D. II. 268). But we also hear how Sakka once appointed Paficasikha a king of the Gandhabbas (ib. 288). Sakka's intimate association with the Gandhabbas can be seen also from the fact that Matali (§I3) who is perhaps the closest companion of Sakka was also a Gandhabba. In the ~g Veda the is represented as grasping the bridle of the steed mounted by Indra (RV. 1.163 ; cpo YV. (TS.) 4.6.7). It may, therefore, be in- ferred that Sakka who had the authority to appoint' governors' like Paficasikha to rule the Gandhabbas on his behalf was naturally regarded as the' monarch of the Gandhabbas.'

33. Cp. Dial, II. p. 297. 34. Geiger, PLL. §I2.I. 35. I owe thus suggestion (-han > bhu) to Dr. O. H. de A. Wijesekara. 36. Cp, J. VI. 260: "Gandhabbarajoti Sakkam Sandhaya aha." 53 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

Mtiytivi (?) : It is recorded (S. 1. 238,239) that once Sakka visited Vepacitti when he was ill, and the latter seeing Sakka coming at a distance, said: "Heal me, o Ruler of the gods." Sakka demanded in return the knowledge of' Sambara's magic art' (Sambarimayam) 37 if he were to heal him. Vepacitti having con- sulted the Asuras thought it wise to refuse Sakka's request, and recited the following verse:-

" pi (v. I. mayavi] Maghava Sakka devaraja Sujampati Upeti nirayam ghoram sambarova satam sarnam." In the Kindred Sayings I, Mrs. Rhys Davids renders the verse thus:

" Thou of the Maghas, Sakka, king of gods, Sujampati, the conjuror's magic art Leads to the dread abyss where Sambara The Asura hath been a century."

This translation, however doubtful, is definitely nearer the mark than the construction put upon it by the Commentary. Buddhaghosa's comment is obviously mistaken inasmuch as he identifies Vepacitti with Sambara. Ac- cording to him Sambara's disease was due to a curse pronounced upon him by sages alluded to earlier in the Sakka Samyutta (S. 1. 227). It is added there that being unable to bear up the pain Sambara shot up in horror three times during the night (tikkhattum ubbijji, ib., 228) and Buddhaghosa remarks that it is because of this trembling (vepati) of Sambara's mind that he came to be called Vepacitti (SA. 1. 347). Sambara is clearly Sambara, the demon of drought, of the ~g Veda (Sanskrit-English Dictionary, s.v.), and Vepacitji very probably Vaipascita (or Vaipasyata) met with in the Asvalayana Srauta Siitra mentioned as maternal patronymic of the Tarksya (Sanskrit- English Dictionary, s.v.). Mrs. Rhys Davids' rendering of' upeti ' as' leads to' is, however, erroneous since upeti never means that but always' goes to, attain, fall into (Cp. Pali- English Dictionary). Thus what is meant is not that' maya leads .. .' (in which case' pi ' hangs loose !) but that' the rnayavi (possessor of magic art) goes to hell .. .' ' Mayav! ' or Mayavant ' already occurs as an epithet of asuras (Mitra, Varuna, etc.) in the J?-,gVeda (VM. pp. 24, 156), and Indra's connection with' magic powers' (Mayabhih) is also referred to in the ~g Veda (6-47.18). Thus the implication of the verse may be that Vepacitti, unwilling to give Sakka greater powers (rnaya) by teaching him the Sambarirnaya also, makes the veiled threat that' one who practises maya will go to hell like Sambara who has been in hell for full hundred years.'

37. Sambara is said to have been one of a band of Mayavins killed by Indra, (RV. 1.54·4); Cp. 1.51.6. 54 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

§5. The Buddhist cosmic system and Sakka's place in it. The Buddhist cosmos consists of three Dhatus or world systems. They are the Kiima, Rupa and Arilpa worlds. This division we may consider as an echo of the Vedic division of the Universe into the regions of the earth, air and heaven. The classification of the various is as follows :- Catummaharajika, Tavatimsa, , Tusita, Nimmanarati, Paranimmita Vasavatti and , which comes last (D. I. 216-9; M. II. 194-5). B. C. Law compares the seven with the seven Vedic regions :-Bhil}" BhuvalJ" Soar, Maha, [ana, , or Brahmaloka. He says that Bhuvar has its counterpart in the Tavatimsa Heaven.s'' where Sakka reigns supreme.

§6. The cause of Sakka's divine sovereignty, Sakka's status in the present birth, as Buddhaghosa points out (DA. II. 472), is very much due to the practice ofliberality (dana] in his previous births. This forms the first step in the practice of the teaching of the Buddha. Liberality, the pride of the Buddhists in India, was inherited by them from their ancestors. Abundant records are found in the Vedas, Brahmanas and the Sfitras of the emphasis laid on this particular form of benevolence. We may quote an example from an ancient workss illustrating the efficacy of the results of hospitable actions performed for a guest: " He who entertains guests for one night obtains earthly happiness, a second night gains the middle air, a third heavenly bliss, a fourth the world of unsurpassable bliss; many nights procure endless worlds. That has been declared in the Veda." Buddhist books record many instances in which givers enjoyed heavenly bliss, after the dissolution of their bodies. So, liberality, whether in Buddhism or Brahmanism, is always followed by great rewards in the present life or in the next. 40 It is, therefore, assumed that Sakka's attainment of celestial sovereignty was due to the practice of this eminent of his in the past. There is the possibility for any man to become a Sakka,« only if he is capable of practising the necessary . We hear of the Bodhisatta becoming a Sakka for thirty-six times (A. IV. 89). again the Teacher Sunetta had become Sakka for thirty-six times (ib. !O5). . Once, Sakka himself admonishing the gods said that one should observe the eight vows on religious days if one were to become a Sakka (A. I. 144). The phrase" Sakko nama devanam indo" (D. I. 216)-the chief of the gods

38. See Heaven and Hell, pp. 2-3. 39· Apastamba (II. 7.16), cited by Tachibana. EB .• pp. 141'2. 40. See EB.. pp. 143. etc. 41. A woman cannot become a Sakka (A.!. 28; M. III. 65).

55 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW named Sakka-brings to light the belief held that any person would have the opportunity of becoming' the chief of the gods' only if he had fulfilled the necessary moral obligations during his previous births. It is significant that according to the Veda Indra conquered heaven by ,tapas-religious fervour (RV. 10.167). In the age of sacrifices it was deemed possible for a person with a will even to usurp Indra's throne by performing numerous sacrifices .• 2 Thus it is possible to infer that Indra attained celestial power by performing great sacrifices. We have already seen (§4) how the epithets Makhavat (Maghavat) " possessed of sacrifices" and perhaps Sujam- pati "lord of sacrificial ladles " emphasize the importance of sacrifice for the attainment of Indra-hood during the period of the Brahrnanas. It is highly important to observe how Indra once prevented the Asuras from offering sacrifices by overturning their fire-altar (SB. 2.1.2.14-17). Thus Indra did not wish to see the Asuras prevailing over him by their sacrifices. The Jataka too states how once Indra tried to wean an ascetic from practising asceti- cism (tapas) through fear of losing his celestial kingdom (J. V. 153, etc., verses 93, etc.) According to the Dhammapada (p. 5, verse 30), Maghava attained to the sovereignty [setthatam) of the. gods through moral earnestness (appamada), With the growth of philosophical ideas in Vedic literature tapas came to be regarded as one of the greatest virtues conferring on one who practised it the highest power. The gods attained divine rank by tapas (TB. 3.12.3). They even overcame by tapas (AV. 11.5). A change, however, came over during the Brahmana period, when the conception of tapas gave place to the conception of Yajfia (sacrifice). In the teaching of the Buddha much import- ance is not attached to tapas as the practice of asceticism. The Buddha never favoured the practice of sacrifices enjoined in the Brahmanas. According to the Dhammapada, it is Appamiida, moral earnestness, that is the way to deathlessness" Appamado amatapadam " (p. 4, verse 21). The fact that , deathlessness' is the most important attribute of divinity in the ancient mythology of many races-a brings the term into particular relation with Sakka's attainment of divine sovereignty through appamada. In the U panisads immortality (amr:atva) is synonymous with life in the heavenly world or Svargaloka (Kafha 1-13). Thus it may be considered that Appamada in Buddhist culture has replaced the two conceptions, viz . .' Vedic Tapas and Brahmanic Yajiia, and appamiida in performing virtuous deeds has become the way to the attainment of divinity and, consequently, of the kingship of the gods. This is probably the origin of the Buddhist emphasis on appamiida for the attainment of Sakkahood (Sakkattam), .

42. Reed, Primitive Buddhism. p. 185. 43. Sir G. Elliot Smith. In the Beginning, pp. 58-60 (Thinkers' Library). 56 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY 'BUDDHISM

§7. Kingdom of Sakka. The Kingdom of Sakka is referred to as ' Tidiva ' or' Tavatimsa.' "- loka ' is the general name given to it (J. IV. 450, verse 204). 'Tidiva' occurs several times (D. II. 167, 272 ; III. 176; S. I. g6, 181 ; J. IV. 322, verse 125 ; 450, verse 205; V. 14, verse 33) referring to the Tavatimsa Heaven, as the Pali-English Dictionary (s. v.) has already taken it. Professor and Mrs. Rhys Davids have translated the word generally as " Heaven" (Dial. II. p. IgI) and" " (in., p. 307). But as the verses in which the second and third citations occur clearly show that' Tidiva ' refers to no other heaven but that of Sakka or Inda.s+ there need not be any hesitation to regard' Tidiva ' as synonymous with' Tiioatimsa.' The term already occurs in the Vedas (RV. 9.Il3.9 ; AV. 9.5.IO; "tri, like tridive ") with reference to Indra. It also occurs in the Satapatha Brahmana-s and Prasna Upanisad (2.13) and the word is translated as "third heaven ".46 Tile Tavatirnsa heaven is only superior to the heaven of the Catummaharajikas, and the other worlds up to the Brahmaloka are all superior to it (§5). Sakka is the lord of the Tavatimsa Heaven. This heaven is said to be located on the summit of (Sn. verse 682). A terrestrial century is equivalent to one day and night of the Tavatirpsa gods. Thirty such days and nights make their months. Their year com- prises twelve such months. Their life span is a thousand of such celestial years, that is, in human reckoning, thirty-six million (D. II. 327-8). There are statues of Inda at the well-adorned Cittakfita Gateway of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (J. VI. 126, verses 561-2). The chief city of the kingdom is Masakkasara (J. VI. 271, verse Il75). The city is beautiful on account of its great palaces, pleasure parks, lakes and what not. The pleasure gardens are filled with the notes of peacocks. herons and various kinds of sweet- singing birds (J. VI. 272, verse Il76). Every kind of bird that was ever known took its abode in these beautiful gardens. One of Sakka's pleasure gardens is Ekapundarika Uyyana ' Lotus Pleasaunce' and he spends his sweet leisure hours in the company of celestial maidens who play on five hundred musical instruments (M.I. 252). The Vidhura Jataka (J. VI. 278, verse 1216) mentions four other gardens of Sakka: Pharusaka, Cittalata, Missaka and Nandana. The Jatakas say that a certain creeper known as ' asavati ' grew in the Cittalata grove, and after the lapse of a thousand years it bore just one fruit and the Devas visited the spot to see the wonder (J. III. 251, verse 26). Again

44· Cp. Buddhaghosa "tidivapuravarena Sakkena.' 45· See Sanskrit-English Dictionary, s, tridiva. 46. Sanskrit-English Dictionary, s.v. and Hume, Thirteen Principal UPani~ads, p. 382; Grassmann, Worterbuch sum Rig- Veda, s.v. 47, cp, Heaven and Hell, p. 32. 57 - .

UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

the Anguttara Nikaya gives us information about the Paricchattaka tree. This tree according to Childers-? is Erythrina Indica which is known as ' Coral tree' or ' Umbrella tree.' It is said that the gods sport at the foot of this tree for four celestial months indulging in the five pleasures of the senses, when the tree is in full bloom. The gods express their joy when the tree is sere in leaf, saying, "There will be a fall of leaves soon." They in like manner express their joy when its leaves fall, when the buds appear, when the shoots are set, when the blossoms come forth and are shaped like red lotuses. When the tree is in full bloom its sweet fragrance is spread full fifty leagues. The per- fume is blown even against the wind for a hundred leagues (A. IV. II7).

§8. Sakka's palace. Sakka dwells in a beautiful palace called Vejayanta 'Victoria.' The Majjhima Nikaya gives a description of this palace (M. I. 253). It is interesting to note that an illustration of this palace is to be found on the Bharahat Tope.s!

§9. Council Hall and Assembly. According to the Jataka (J. VI. I27, verses 567, 568) Sakka's Council Hall is said to be artistically built, supported by firmly wrought octagonal columns of lapiz lazuli. The gods meet in the Council Hall to discuss matters of moment. Sakka presides over the meetings and" consults with them rather than issues to them his commands" (Dial. II. 296). Sakka would burst into a hymn of praise on occasions when the gods express their satisfaction on hearing the greatness of the Buddha (D. II. 208) :

•• The Thrice-and-Thirty, verily both gods and lord rejoice, Tathagata they honour and the cosmic law sublime Whereas they see the gods new-risen, beautiful and bright, Who erst the holy life had lived, under the Happy One, The Mighty Sage's hearers, who had won to higher truth, Come hither; and in glory all the gods outshine. Thus they behold right gladly, both lord and Thirty-Three Tathagata they honour and the cosmic law sublime." (Dial. II. pp. 242-3)

§10. Meetings of the Assembly. The gods have regular meetings on days of religious importance: they meet on the fifteenth day at the full moon, in the month when enter upon (D. II. 207), or on the fifteenth day of the Pavarana ceremony (ib.220). At the meetings Sakka takes the chair. At the four sides sit the four Great Kings (D. II. 207). We may agree with the idea of Professor and Mrs. Rhys Davids49 that these Four Great Kings were the Record Keepers who kept the minutes of the meetings.

47. R. C. Childers, The Dictionary of the Pali Language, s,u, 48. See Cunningham, Stu pa of , p. 137. cited at Dial. II. 296. 49. Dial. II. p. 263, In. 1. 58 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

Sakka in making his presidential address would burst into a hymn of praise of the Buddha. He: would include in his speech eight true facts in praise of the Buddha (D. II. 22I-2). Visitors of great renown came to the Sudhamma Hall to speak to the gods. Sanatkumara was aneverfailing figure (D. II. 2IO). The Janavasabha Sutta of the Digha Nikaya (ib., 200) gives a vivid description of this eloquent orator. As we saw (§7) that Sakka was a lover of music it is natural to infer that there must have been many a theatrical performance in his Council Hall. We hear of his favourite attendant Paficasikha, the divine musician with his famous vina (D. II. 264). We learn that Sakka took delight in music per- formed by celestial maidens with five hundred musical instruments in his Ekapundarika Uyyana (§7). These very same maidens must have played a prominent part in giving admirable musical items at the Hall. The fact, that Suriyavaccasa used to dance at the Sudhamma Hall (D. II. 268) makes this very probable.

§11. The Denizens of Sakka's Heaven. The Tavatirnsa gods have a very bright complexion. They possess a radiance powerful enough to illuminate the whole area of their visit on earth. When the gods visited the brahmin village Ambasanda (D. II. 264), the village folk went about saying: "For sure the Vediya Mountain is on fire today, for sure the Vediya Mountain is burning today, for sure the Vediya Mountain is in flame today" (Dial. II. p. 300). Professor and Mrs. Rhys Davids point out that " On ordinary peaceful occasions Sakka consults with them rather than issues to them his commands" (Dial. II. 296). This may indicate that Sakka treated the Thirty-Three gods as his equals. But the texts also assert that they were inferior to him in ten matters-" in length of life, in beauty, in happiness, in renown, and in lordship, and in the degree of his five sensations, sight, hearing, smelling, taste and touch," (ibid.).

§12. Sakka's personal traits and power. Sakka's personality reflects the warrior of the time of the Buddha. He wore buskins and a sword hung at his side; he walked under a canopy of state borne over his head (S. 1. 226). In the fights between the gods and the Asuras, Sakka took a prominent part in instructing his generals for the fight (S. 1. 2I6-8) and the gods were asked to draw inspiration by looking to his banner(ib.,2I9). He surpassed the other gods in ten respects-length of life, beauty, happiness, renown, lordship, the strength of his five senses, sight, hear- ing, smelling, taste and touch, (A. IV. 242; Cp. Dial. II. p. 296). He was inferior to the Buddha, of whom he becomes a pupil (D. II.284). The Arahants too, were his superiors (S. 1. 235).

59 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

His anthropomorphic nature is shown clearly by the fact that he is not in any way free from general human weaknesses. He is passionate, full of hatred, ignorant, timid and cowardly (S. I. 219). He is subject to birth, old age, death, lamentation, sorrow, dejection and despair (A. I. 144). The verse recited by Sakka concerning the fleeting nature of all existence when the Buddha passed away, shows by implication that Sakka did not consider himself as being free from decay and death. But the Veda takes a quite contrary view when it is said there that Indra is unaging (RV. 3.46). This definitely reflects the change in philosophical attitude that had taken place by the time of early Buddhism. The Vedic ideal of divine immortality is ironically shown to be a mere temporary state however long its duration may appear in comparison with life in the world of men. Sakka is a good orator. His words " belong to the sphere of persuation and mildness of concord, amity and harmony." (Kindred Sayings, I. 287). The adds that Sakka possessed a voice like that of a golden bell proceeding from the exquisite screen of his teeth.> He is a great teacher, for he could teach the word of the Buddha to Samanas and Brahmanas (D. II. 284). He was so averse to drinking that he wished others would not be addicted to such a vicious habit, and uttered many a stanza to the king of Benares showing him the evils of drinking (J. V. 15-18, verses 36-59). This fact, it is hardly necessary to point out, is in ironic contrast to the general impression of Indra as an addict to the Soma-drink in Vedic mythology. He highly commended exertion and energy (S. I. 216-7). He is a quelier of demons (J. V. 92, verse 284) a trait that can be traced back to the Veda (VM. pp. 160-1). In the Veda he appears as a great helper and giver of boons to his suppli- cants. Indra increases the wealth of the person who offers sacrifices and praises to him (AV. 4.21). The same good quality of our god could be seen in several places in Buddhist literature. Paficasikha was granted a boon by him: Bhadda, the' Sun-maiden,' whom Paficasikha longed for was given to him (D. II. 288; Cp. §I6). He granted King Vessantara eight boons (J. VI. 573, verse 2332). Guttila once went to him for help to defeat his pupil (J. II. 252, verse 184). He once ordered Matali to offer ambrosial food to a fainting ascetic (J. V. 396, verse 224). Once at his express command Vissa- kamma created a palace called 'Righteousness' for the 'Great King of Glory,' Mahasudassana (D. II. ISO). He is full of understanding (S. I. 221). He is a lover of sport (M. I. 252). Sakka could read the minds of others (D. II. 180). He once raised rain and storm to uproot a banyan tree (A. III. 370). In this instance we see Sakka in his original capacity of ' rain god' (§r). He once helped king Koravya by causing the banyan tree to bear fruit (A. III. 370). We have already seen how Sakka showed his supernormal powers when he appeared as Vajirapani Yakkha (§4). Sakka could assume any form at will.

50. Kindred Sayings, I. p. 302, In. 2. 60 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

When Sakka wanted to give alms to Venerable Mahakassapa he appeared as a weaver of Rajagaha (Ud. 29). When the Buddha visited Rajagaha, Sakka taking the guise of a young brahmin went in front of the Buddha reciting a few stanzas (Vin. I. 38). We can trace the origin of this idea to the ~g Veda, where Indra is said to take many shapes by his magic powers (RV. 6.47.I8; Cp. Brhad. Up. 2.5.I9).

§13. Sakka's . Sakka is borne in a chariot which had a team of a thousand thoroughly trained horses (S. I. 224; M. VII. 79). The horses were as swift as the wind and the sound of the chariot echoed through the firmament. It shook the sky, sea and earth (J. V. 408, etc., verses 275-8). The chariot being such, it is no wonder that the noise of its wheels roused the Buddha from his meditation, when Sakka came in it to see him (D. II. 27I). In the Veda, Indra's car is said to have had two, hundred, thousand, and sometimes thousand and ten horses yoked to it (RV. 2.I8 ; 4.46; 6-47). An Upanisadic passage makes it clear that Indra had thousand steeds yoked to his car iBrhad, Up. 2.5.I9). In Buddhist books too, the number of horses is a thousand (S. I. 224; M. VII. 79). We have learnt that Sakka's chariot was as swift as the wind. In the Veda, Indra's car" is golden and is swifter than thought" (RV. 1O.II2; Cp. VlVI.p. 55). Indra came down in his chariot to the sacrificial ground (VM. P.55). Similarly Sakka used his celestial car in visiting the Buddha and other notable personages, (D. II. 27I). Sakka has Matali for his charioteer. Matali is a Gandhabba Chieftain and he is said to have visited the bhikkhus in a forest glade with other Gandhabba chiefs (D. II. 258). Though Matali is represented as Sakka's Charioteer, we see him more as one of his favourite companions (Sakka-Samyutta). Once Matali asked Sakka the reason for his silence when he waS rebuked by Vepacitti the Asura leader (S. I. 22I), and Sakka replied that it was his way not to be irritated at angry words. The word' Matali ' is not found in the earliest part of the 1;lg Veda. It is first found in a very late passage (RV. 1O.I45), and is not used in the sense of a charioteer; it is used to represent a divine person. Sayana, however, com- menting on the word says that Matali is Indra's charioteer (" Matalir indrasya sarathih "). In a passage in the Atharva Veda (I1.6.23) it is implied that Matalj was Indra's charioteer. Thus the historical development of the Buddhist conception of Matali as Sakka's charioteer and comrade is not difficult to understand.

§14. Sakka's Associates. The Four Great Kings appear as Sakka's companions. They are closely associated with him. Of the Four Great Kings, Vessavana seems to be his favourite. He went with Sakka to show the grandeur of his palace' Victoria' (Vejajanta) to the Great Elder Moggallana (lVI.1. 253). It was King Vessa- 6I UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW vana who informed Sakka of Elder Uttara's preaching at Mount Sankheyya (A. IV. 163); informedby Vessavana, Sakka also came to the Elder Uttara to hear the Dhamma (ibid.). When Sakka come to see the Buddha for the first time, he saw Bhufijati, king Vessavana's consort waiting on the Buddha and as he could not personally see the Buddha as the latter was engaged in medi- tation at that moment he asked Bhufijati to salute the Buddha on his behalf (D. II. 270). This makes it clear that Bhufijati and Vessavana were familiar with the Buddha before Sakka knew him. Many a time, Sakka visited the Buddha with Brahma (S. I. 233; Th.1.64. verse 628; D. II. 157). When the Elder ' destroyed the intoxicants' Sakka came to pay him homage in the company of Brahrna, (Th. 1.64, verse 628). When the Buddha passed away Sakka and Brahma were on the spot to utter two stanzas, (D. II. 157). Vepacitti; the Asura king appears in the Nikayas as Sakka's chief opponent in the battles between the gods and the Asuras (S. I. 221). In spite of this antagonism Sakka is later said to have visited Vepacitti when he was ill (S. 1. 238; Cp. above p. 16). Buddhaghosa says that he was the father-in- law of Sakka (SA. I. 265; Cp. DPP. II. p. 926, s Vepacitti). This figure is probably the same as Vaipascita (or Vaipasyata) mentioned in the Asvalayana Srauta Siitra (see above p. 17). Verocana, another' asurinda,' is said to have visited the Buddha in the company of Sakka although the latter was his rival (S. I. 225). It is significant that, according to the Chandogya Upanisad, once Indra and Verocana, the respective leaders of the gods (deva) and the Asuras, approached Prajapati to obtain the knowledge of the real self: "Then Indra from among the gods went forth unto him, and Verocana from among the Asuras. Then without communicating with each other, the two came into the presence of Prajapati, fuel in hand (in token of studentship). Thus for 32 years the two lived the students life," (Clt. Up. 8.7.2-3). Pajiipati, a companion of Sakka, appears as one of the kings of the devas with Varuna and Isana (S. 1. 219; D. 1. 244). He is at times mentioned with Brahma (M. 1. 140). He is mentioned among the Mahayakkhas in the Atana- tiya Sutta (D. III. 204; cp. DPP. s. Pajiipati). Paiicasiklta, the divine musician was the most trusted attendant of Sakka. When Sakka wanted to meet the Buddha, he asked Paficasikha to pave the way for him (D. II. 263). It was through his kindness that Sakka was admitted to the presence of the Buddha (ib., 288). So, Paficasikha was largely responsible for the meeting of Sakka and the Buddha. The first step of Sakka's spiritual attainment was due to him. Paiicasikha was made king of the Gandhabbas. He was granted the boon of gaining his much-sought-for prize, Suriyavaccasa (ibid.). It is recorded that 62 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

Paficasikha acted as the messenger to the Buddha conveying a report of the happenings in the heaven of the Thirty-Three when the gods praised the Buddha (D. II. 220). It appears that Paficasikha was a favourite of the Buddha, for, it is said that he performed before the Master on his beluvapandu- vil)a and that the Master appreciated his music and song (D. II. 267). Buddha- ghosa says that Paficasikha was loved by all the devas, and they wished to resemble him (DA. II. 260; cpo DPP. s. Paiicasikha). We have already seen that Matali was Sakka's charioteer and friend (§I3.) It was with Matali's son Sikhandi, that Suriyavaccasa was in love, thus bring- ing a lot of anxiety to Paficasikha (D. II. 268). The conception of Pafica- sikha can be traced to the notion in the Atharva Veda of" the hither dancing crested Gandharva " (4.37.7). Vissakmnma, the divine architect was also a companion of Sakka. Sakka once asked Vissakamma to build a palace for king Mahasudassana (D. II. 180). Tvastr is the Vedic counterpart of Vissakamma. In the Veda Visvariipa is an epithet of Tvastr (VM. p. I2). The word Visoakarman, owing to its meaning could have given the idea of an architectonic aspect (VM. p. II8). In the Purana Tvastr is identified with Visvakarman (VM. p. II7)· In the Veda Visvakarman is represented as a universal father and generator, the one all-seeing god who has on every side eyes, faces, arms and feet (RV. 10.81.82),51 The personal character of Visvakarman is very vague and un- certain, a fact which can be seen from the Taittiriya Brahrnana where the very acts ascribed to Vigvakarman are also, ascribed to Brahman; at a later time Visvakarrnan, the All-maker became a mere subordinate spirit.s= Thus it is clear that Pali Vissakamma is a development from the character of Tvastr the divine architect in the Veda. Suoira and Susima are two other companions of Sakka. We learn of them only in the Sakka-Samyutta (S. I. 2I6-8). When the Asuras marched against the gods, Suvira and Susima were asked to go and meet them. It is said, that Sakka once visited a parrot (§I7) in the company of his consort who, according to the Atthakatha (]. III. p. 49I) was Suja. Again, Sakka disguising himself as a weaver came with his wife Sujata (Suja) and offered alms to Venerable Mahakassapa (Ud. 29). Therefore it is very pro- bable that Sakka was usually accompanied by his wife in his sojourns. It is interesting to note that the Elder Mahamoggallana was responsible to a great extent for satisfying Sakka's spiritual needs. When the hand-maids of Sakka asked who Moggallana was, Sakka said that he was a fellow with him in the higher life, " Sabrahmacari me eso " (M. I. 255). Thus it is clear that Sakka was familiar with Moggallana,

51. "Sanskrit-English Dictionary, s, Visvakaf'man. Cp. Six Systems of Indian Philo- sophy, p. 47. 52. Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, p. 59. 63 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

§15. Sakka as leader of the gods against the Asuras. The gods and the Asuras fought each other many a time and Sakka appears as a great hero of the gods along with Pajapati, Varuna and fsana (S. I. 2I9). In case of fear the gods were requested by Sakka to look up tothe crest of his banner or the crests of the banners of Pajapati, Varuna and Isana (ibid.). In these fights sometimes the gods were victorious and the Asuras were defeated (D. II. 285; M. I. 252) and at other times the Asuras were able to defeat the gods (S. I. 224). When the gods were defeated they decided not to have any dealings with the Asuras (A. IV. 432, etc.) but after the heat of the defeat was over, they again resolved to defeat the Asuras. In their attempt the gods fought the Asuras to a finish and drank the' Asura nectar,' and became more and more powerful (D. II. 285). It is said that the Asuras defeated and panic-stricken entered their city (A. IV. 433). The Sakka Samyutta gives three names of Asura leaders viz. Vepacitti, Verocana and Sambara. Rahu (A. II. I6), Paharada (A. IV. I97, 200) Bali (D. II. 259) and Sucitti are some other Asura chiefs mentioned in the Suttas. The Asuras are spoken of as living in the ocean being conquered by Vajirahattha, and are called Vasava's brethren (D. II. 259; cpo DPP. s. Asura). A sura in Vedic literature is the name of the celestial demons (VM. p. I56). In the tenth book of the ~g Veda Asuras are mentioned as opposed to the gods in general (ibid.). Macdonell believes that the conflict between the gods and Asuras as found in later Vedic literature, is a development of the early Vedic notion of the conflict of a single god with a single demon, as the case of Indra and Vrtra (ibid.) The word Asura in the Atharva Veda means demon. In the ~g Veda it is a designation of both demons and gods. In the Avesta the word Ahura (= asura) is the name of the highest god. Thus, we see that the word originally meant god. Later the word' Sura' was used for a benevolent god and Asura for a bad angel (ibid.). This conflict between the Suras and Asuras in Buddhist mythology reminds us of the hostilities between Indra's band and the Dasas in the Veda.

§16. Sakka meets the Buddha. The Sakkapafiha Sutta (D. II. PP.263-289) narrates how Sakka first met the Buddha when he was residing on the Vediya Mountain in the cave called , Inda-sala guha (ib., 269). For a long time he had been anxious to see the Buddha. He was unable to meet him as he was preoccupied with the work he had to perform for the Thirty-Three gods (ib., 27I). Sakka himself ex- plains to the Buddha that he on one occasion went to Savatthi to see him, but as the Buddha was deeply buried in meditation at that time that he could not meet him (ibid.). The Atthakatha tells us that the Buddha did not give Sakka the opportunity of having this meeting, as he was not ripe enough to understand the Dhamma. It is added that the Buddha knew that after a few days he would visit him at ' Inda-Sala guha ' when he would see the ' five 64 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

omens' and, further that Sakka would come with the devas of the two Deva- lokas and attain the First Path of Sanctification with eighty-thousand devas (DA. II. 697-8). Sakka realized the greatness of the Buddha only when he discovered new gods appearing in his domain outshining the others in ever increasing numbers (D. II. 208). 'Gopaka Devaputta' played a highly important part in the conversion of Sakka (ib., 271). In his previous birth he was a girl by name Gopika. Gopika put her trust in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the ; she fulfilled the precepts and abandoned the thoughts of a woman and cultivated manly thoughts. After her death she was born in the realm of the Thirty-Three gods. This incident caused Sakka to appreciate the greatness of the Buddha all the more (ibid.). Everafter his conversion Sakka remained a staunch supporter of the new faith. We find him constantly attending on the Buddha and his disciples, whenever he wanted to do some service to them or to gain spiritual insight (cp. §17). . In fact, Sakka in course of time became very familiar with the Buddha (S. I. 230). He once came to the Buddha to find out what constitutes a pleasant spot. The Buddha told Sakka that the varied beauties of pleasure parks, forests, or lakes of lotuses are of little worth with regard to man's happiness. The Buddha added that a beautiful spot on earth is the place where Arhants dwell (ib., 232-3). The Vinaya Mahavagga records how, one beautiful night, Sakka came to listen to the preaching of the Buddha (Vin. I. 26). Sakka, when he visited the Buddha with Verocana, the Asura king, told him that forbearance is an excellent virtue (S. I. 225). Sakka at another time visited the Buddha when he was sojourning at the" Vultures' Peak" and learnt that whatever is given to the Order of Bhikkhus entails great fruit in the life hereafter (ib., 233). On another occasion he visited the Buddha to find out why some beings in this world are completely set free, while others are still bound by bonds (S. IV. 97). On a further visit he asked the Buddha how a obtains deliverance on the extirpation of craving and he was told that such deliverance results from the realisation that it is improper to adhere to any' dhammas ' (M. I. 251). The Vinaya Mahavagga (Vin. I. 38) also gives us information regarding Sakka's personal service to the Buddha. When the Buddha was entering the city of Rajagaha, at the kings invitation, Sakka, taking the form of a young Brahmana, walked in front of the Buddha reciting the verses:-

•• Danto dantehi saha puranajaj.ilehi vippamutto vippamuttehi, Singinikkha savanno Rajagahani pavisi bhagava Mutto muttehi saha puranajatilehi vippamutto vippamuttehi Singinikkha savanno Rajagaham pavisi bhagava Tir;lI;1Otinnehi saha puranajatilehi vippamutto vippamuttehi Singinikkha savanno Rajagaham pavisi bhagava vaso dasabalo dasadhammavidii dasabhi c'iipeto So dasasata parivaro Rajagaham pavisi bhagava," (ibid.).

492-E UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

••The self-controlled One with the self-controlled, with the former Ja~i1as,the released One with the released, the Blessed One, gold-coloured like an ornament of singi gold, has entered Rajagaha, The emancipated One with the emancipated, with the former Ja~i1as,etc. He who has crossed (the ocean of passion) with them who have crossed (it), with the former Jatilas, the released One with the released, the Blessed One, gold-coloured like an ornament of singi gold, has entered Rajagaha, He who is possessed of ten Noble States and of ten Powers, who understands the ten Paths of Kamma and possessesthe ten (attributes of Arahatship), the Blessed One surrounded by ten hundred of followers, has entered Rajagaha." (SBE. Vol. XIII. Vinaya Translations, pp. 141-2). Sakka told the people of Raj agaha that he was an attendant of the Buddha (Vin. 1. 38). One day he dug a tank with his own hands, when the Buddha needed water to wash his rags (ib., 29). It is recorded that this tank was seen by Hsuan-tsang. a a Sakka created a stone slab for the Buddha to place his rags on, and another stone on which to rub his rags, while they are being washed (ibid.) . At the moment of the Buddha's passing away Sakka who was present there with Brahma Sahampati uttered the following stanza:- " Anicca vata Sankara Uppada vaya dhammino Uppajjhitva nirujjhanti tesam viipasamo sukho." (D. II. 157; S.1. 158) . ••They're transient all, each being's part and powers, Growth is their nature, and decay. They are produced, they are dissolved again. To bring them all into subjection-that is bliss." (Dial. II. pp. 175-6).

§17. Sakka visits Arahants and other good men. Sakka is said to have visited several good men on earth. He paid honour to these good men and Arahants though he himself was worshipped by brah- mins and nobles on earth. Sakka, with his following, came to see some bhikkhus, who met them in a forest glade (D. II. 260). Once, invited by king Vessavana, Sakka came to see the Elder Uttara preaching at Mount Sankheyya (A. IV. 163). At another time he, in the company of Brahrna, came with clasped hands to pay homage to the Elder Sunita, who had destroyed the Asavas (Th, 1.64). Therl Subhii was worshipped by Sakka and his band of gods (Th. 2.158). Sakka visited king Nimi and informed him that the gods in heaven praised him, and requested the king to pay a visit to the Devaloka (M. VII. 79). Sakka on certain occasions visited some good men to save them from troubles of some kind or other. Once when a goblin was on the point of harassing Sambula Sakka with his thunderbolt was able to frighten and drive away the goblin (J. V. 92, verse 284). When a certain Raksasa came to kill

53. Rene Grousset, In the footsteps of the Buddha, p. 163. 66 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

the Bodhisatta, Sakka used his fiery bolt to drive him away (J. III. 146, verses I8I-2). These two instances reveal to us that Sakka here appears in the capacity of the queller of demons like Indra in the Veda (cp. §IS). Again we see that the tyrant king Khandahala and his minister were frightened by Sakka in his effort to save the king's eldest sol). (J. VI. I5S, verse 732). Sakka once consoled an ascetic, when he was lamenting over a dead deer (J. IV. 21S, verse II6). He even went to the extent of helping a parrot who clung to a withered tree out of a sense of gratitude, thereby running the risk of being starved to death (J. III. 492-3, verses 22-7).

§18. Sakka's interest in the Dhamma. The Sakka Pafiha Sutta records an important discussion between the Buddha and Sakka (D. II. pp. 276-289). Sakka, in appreciation of the Buddha's utterances, says: "Passion is a disease, passion is a cancer, passion is a dart, passion drags a man about by one and then another, so that he finds himself now up above, now down below (Dial. II. p. 317). As was referred to above Sakka once questioned the Buddha concerning the real nature of a beautiful spot and learns from him that it is the land, where Arahants dwell (S. I. 232). At another time he questioned the Buddha about the fruits of actions that men do, and the Buddha tells him that whatever men give to the wise and virtuous Sangha entails great fruit in the future (ib., 233). The Cula-tauha-Sankhaya Sutta of the Majjhirna Nikaya tells us how Sakka wanted to know how a bhikkhu gets deliverance by the extirpation of craving (M. I. 2S1). Sakka visits the Buddha at the Vultures' Peak and asks him why some beings are set free in this very life and why others are not and Sakka learns that it is due to the indulgence of five senses (S. IV. 97). All these references to Sakka's interest in the good things of life and religion and the humility with which he frequently approached the Buddha for spiritual instruction show to what extent the blustering Indra of the ~g Veda has been' moralized' in early Buddhism, as we shall see in the next paragraph.

§19. Sakka's moral character. We have seen that Sakka in a previous birth practised- seven virtues (§6) whereby he attained celestial sovereignty. These seven virtues are :- (I) Maintaining his parents. (2) Showing reverence to the head of the family. (3) Using gentle words. (4) Uttering no slander. (5) Practising liberality with an unselfish and pure mind. (6) Speaking the truth. (7) Not giving way to anger. The attribution of these virtues to Sakka shows clearly that in Buddhism Sakka is an ethical conception, representing the moral side of his'Vedic counter- 67 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW part. The Buddha has, in the words of Dr. Tachibana (EB. p. 3), " humanized and moralized" the Indra of the Veda. That is to say, Indraappears in Buddhist literature with a personality of a moral nature. It must be re- membered, however, that even in the Veda, Indra is not depicted only as a violent character. In many places he is represented as a benevolent god; " an ethical character is attributed to him" (VM. p. 65). It is this good side of Indra's nature that is characteristically emphasized in Buddhist literature. Perhaps it was felt that such an ideal in the divine sphere as Sakka-hood with all its celestial bliss and greatness would be of assistance to the lay adherents as an encouragement to them to lead the good life, just as in the material world Cakkavatti-sovereignty represented the highest peak of attaiment, with as its counterpart in the spiritual sphere. These three ideals are sometimes mentioned together as possessing certain similarities (A. I. 28; M. III. 65). In the Veda, Indra appears as a god who took delight in capricious violence. As a result of drinking some juice frequently Indra is said to have acted several times in an unruly manner. Sakka in Buddhist literature is averse to drinking (J. V. 15-18, verses 36-59) as we have already seen (§I2). Although sometimes he is thought of as a god of immoral character in the Veda, still in many an instance he is described as a god of good character, as may be seen from the following quotation :- " More generally Indra is spoken of as the one compassionate helper (RV. 1.84; 8, 55,69), as the deliverer and advocate of his worshippers (RV. 8.85) as their strength (7.31), and as a wall of defence (8.69). His friend is never slain or conquered (10.152). Indra is very often called the friend of his worshippers, sometimes even a brother (3.53), a father (4, 17; 10, 48) or a father and mother in one (8.87) " (VM. p. 62, etc.). In Buddhism, morality is the first step to Supreme Enlightenment. It is this moral demand in Buddhism that made Sakka an agent of morality. The Sarnyutta Nikaya tells us how Sakka was honoured as a righteous god (S. I. 227). As he has no wrath in him, he does not give way to angry words (ib., 238). He deplores anger and praises love and kindness (ib., 240). He is polite and honours the wise (ib., 226). He says that the highest virtue is for- bearance (ibid.). It is said that Sakka in his fight with the Asuras was vic- torious because of his righteousness (ib., 225). Sakka was so true to his word that he did not betray even his enemy (ibid.). He commends gentleness and forbearance (ib., 22I-2). It is interesting to note that Sakka once came from heaven in a disguised form to offer alms to Venerable Mahakassapa (Ud. 29). On this occasion he told Mahakassapa that, although a god, he himself felt the need to do meritorious deeds (ib., 30). There is an interesting story in the Sakka Samyutta (S. I. 237, 238), which tells us how Sakka held himself in check, even under provocation, heedful of his spiritual growth. . 6S· THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

Once when Sakka was running away from his enemy, he showed more concern for a bird's nest than for his own life. He asked the charioteer Matali to turn back lest he should kill the innocent birds, and thereby he ran the risk of being captured by the enemy (S. I. 224; cpo Kulavaka Jataka). It seems that Sakka practised the habit of worshipping the Buddha and other virtuous persons, such as Arahants and good "upasakas,' before he started his work. Sakka world extend his clasped hands towards the direction of the Buddha and those good men, even on occasions in which he used to go to the gardens for enjoyment (S. I. 234-236). His large-heartedness is really due to the moral change wrought in him by his conversion to the Buddha Dhamma. On the day he became a ' Sotapanna.' we hear the Buddha saying that he had lived a pure life for a long time (D. II. 275). Once the Great Elder Moggallana visited Sakka (M. I. 252) and was honoured by him. Sakka, with spiritual reverance, took a low seat, offering the Great Elder a higher one. Sakka in another instance pays homage to a bhikkhu of good conduct (J. III. 305-7, verses r ro-S). He was so good at heart that he even went to see his enemy when ill (S. I. 238). When the Venerable Mahakassapa went on his begging round to Rajagaha, Sakka appeared in the guise of a weaver, and offered cooked rice to him. The rice offered by Sakka came to be full of many sweet dishes. Mahakassapa knew that the weaver was no less a person than Sakka the ruler of the gods. He advised Sakka not to do so again, but Sakka replied that he himself wished to do meritorious deeds (Ud. 29,30). This fact makes it very clear that the Buddhist god was bent on performing good acts.

§20. Similarities between Buddhist Sakka and Vedic Indra. Sakka is represented in Buddhist books as the chief of the gods. So is Indra in the Veda (§z). The epithets Vasava, Maghava, Purindada, Kosiya, Vajirapani, etc., apply to Sakka as.well as to Indra(§4). It is said that Sakka attained celestial sovereignty through' appamada.' We find a parallel in the Veda, with regard to Indra, for, Indra is said to have conquered heaven by , tapas' (§6). Sakka's wearing buskins, using a sword and fighting with the Asuras (§I2) clearly indicate that he still retains the warlike spirit of Indra. Sakka is a queller of demons. This is an important character of Indra too (§I5). The trait of Sakka which makes him a helper and a giver of boons is to be found in Indra also (§I9). Sakka at times retainsIndra's character as a god of rain (§I2). In the Veda we see that Indra is the' son of truth.' An Atharva Veda passage (3.31.2) says that Sakra is free from unrighteous deed. Truthfulness and righteousness are, as we have seen, very prominent traits in Sakka's nature also (§I9). Sakka's chariot is mentioned in terms similar to those describing Indra's (§I3). Sakka's rivalry with the Asuras reminds us of Indra's fights with various Asuras in the Veda (§IS). Sakka's heaven is called tidiva just as Indra's abode is named tridiva in the Veda (§7). Sakka's charioteer Matali has his parallel in the earlier period (§I3). Sakka and 69 UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

Verocana meet the Buddha just as Indra and Virocana go to Prajapati for spiritual instruction in the Chandogya Upanisad (§I4).

§21. Differences between Sakka and Indra. The above discussion of the character of Buddhist Sakka in its relation to the corresponding figure of Vedic Indra has shown to what extent the similarities due to historical connection are apparent. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that there are certain differences between the two characters, which cannot be passed unnoticed. These differences are partly due to the changes consequent on the distance in time that separates Indra of the ~g Veda from the Buddhist Sakka of the sixth century, B.C., and, perhaps, also partly due to the cultural differences between the two geographical areas, the Upper-Indus Valley and the Lower-Gangetic basin, which formed the cradles of the early Vedic religion and Buddhism respectively. The chief trait of Vedic Indra is his blustering and boastful truculence due to the fact that he came into prominence among the warlike Vedic , whereas Buddhist Sakka is conspicuous for his geniality and softness of character due to his Buddhist environment. Thus the drunkenness of Vedic Indra, which fits in well withthe martial atmosphere about the warriors of Vedic Indra, became almost out of place in the Buddhist culture of the Magadhan region of the sixth century B.C., which grew up in comparatively peaceful times. The description of the Cosmos along with Sakka's place in it (§s) is - parently a Buddhistic creation. The conception of these world stages was a religious necessity, for man after death, had to find a state of existence proper and in proportion to his merits and spiritual attainments. Sakka's kingdom (§7), its pleasure gardens, the palace Vejayanta (§8) and Sudhamma Hall (§9) are probably all creations of the Buddhist poets, who were, no doubt, influenced by the analogous institutions of the time as well as a mythological tradition of the eastern area quite different from that of the M adhyadesa, Sakka's ethical character seems to have evolved on the model of the character of a Buddhist Upasaka (§I9).54

§22. Conclusion. In the light of the above facts, we may come to the conclusion that Buddhist Sakka is a development of the Vedic god Tndra with a pronounced emphasis on the moral side of his nature which was found, as we have seen above, only in an incipient stage in the ~ Veda. These considerations, it is hoped, well help to refute the theory of Professor and Mrs. Rhys Davids" that Sakka and Indra are quite different conceptions. 55 It is therefore by no means true that Sakka is a .• direct contrary "56 of Indra.

54. See, Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, p. 333. 55· Dial., II. p. 297. Cp. Malalasekara, DPP. s. Inda. 56. See Pali-Engiisb Dictionary. s. Inda. 70 THE PLACE OF INDRA IN EARLY BUDDHISM

We have shown (§4) how the epithets of the Vedic god Indra were used for Sakka too. The historical connections of these words, although the meanings came to be twisted into different shapes, show us the way in which Vedic Indra gradually evolved into Buddhist Sakka. Indrain primitive mythology was only a deified representation of Thunder. So, in the first place, he was regarded as the god of Thunder. By and by the notion of the natural phenomenon began to disappear, and its place was taken by a psychological unification of human motives and passions in accordance with the growing tendency towards anthropomorphism. Indra became a glorified human being though always superior to mankind. He was conceived as the god of battle giving aid to the Aryans in subduing their enemies the Dasas or the Dasyus. He was the protector and helper of his worshippers. He was favourable to the warriors. Sometimes, he was sensual, unruly and even , immoral.' In short he was a picture of the warlike Aryan who was bent on the conquest of new lands and the repelling of his enemies. As the legend of Indra passed from mouth to mouth various stories must have grown round the central character according to the individual fancy of the story-teller. And it is only in this manner that we can explain those many traits in Sakka's personality which appear as novel and original in Buddhism. The Vedic Aryan hoped to derive benefit through prayers to the god. The gods were propitiated in this way and man hoped to be benefited through their favour. But during the period of the Brahmanas ceremonial rites were considered the most important feature in life. They believed that a god could be moved by means of ceremonies. Indra became 'Y ajfiapati ' lord of sacrifices (§4). So, in the Veda and Brahmanas we see that Indra was a supreme being to whom man had to offer his prayer and sacrifices as remarked above. A change, however, came with the tendency of early Buddhism to minimise the value of rites and sacrifices. Indra consequently lost his dig- nified state. He was regarded as a person inferior to the Buddha or an Arahant or to a virtuous man in point of inner greatness (§I7). The Buddha as a Bodhisatta was a Sakka for thirty-six times (§6). An ordinary man who could observe the could become a Sakka himself (§6). The great power and glory of the Vedic god has thus faded into insignificance with the change in spiritual outlook, for, as Dr. Tachibana correctly points out (EB. p. 3), according to the Buddha, those who have attained the position of self-perfection through their own power are more highly esteemed than any gods. When we realize that Buddhist Sakka has reached his celestial sovereignty through nothing but his moral efforts (§6), it becomes easy for us to under- stand the significance of the place given to Sakka in the ethical cosmology of early Buddhism. Buddhism has no gods to pray to. Sacrifices to gods do not permit one to attain enlightenment. No outside influence except one's self, can bring release from the misery of existence. The Buddha does not preach a salvation through a god. So it is no wonder that the Buddha does not pay

71 ------~~~-~------

UNIVERSITY OF CEYLON REVIEW

the least regard to the denizens of a fairy land, so far as man's salvation is concerned. Thus Indra in Buddhism does not enjoy that dignified position in which he was placed in the Veda (cp. EB. p. 23). Accordingly, we can understand how" the savage infuriated Vrtra-slayer of the Veda" came to be" the exponent of ethics of mildness and non-violence, and a master in the art of self-command," without ignoring the basic fact of the historical identity of two characters. It may be justifiable to think of Sakka as a reflection of the Magadhan culture of the 5th and 6th century B.C., symbolizing the atmosphere around a great Magadhan monarch, who lived in a kingdom of wealth and luxury. The Vejayanta Palace with its celestial damsels may refer to an Indian Castle, with a harem of young girls. The pleasure gardens and lakes with all their natural beauty may truly be the replicas of gardens and lakes of the Magadhan king's territory. The Sudhamma Hall brings to mind vividly the picture of the Mote Hall of the Indian Raja. The discussions of the gods in the Hall remind us of the kind of business that must have been performed in such an assembly. Dancing and various musical performances reflect the pastimes indulged in by Indian monarchs of all times. Thus, we may conclude that whatever is new in the conception of Sakka in Early Buddhism as compared with his Vedic prototype, Indra, could have easily sprung from the needs and conditions of the new culture which was the cradle of the new religion. CHARLES GODAGE.