Water Development in Ethiopia's Pastoral Areas

2012

Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Areas

A synthesis of existing knowledge and experience

Magda Nassef with Mulugeta Belayhun Published in 2012 by Save the Children USA and Overseas Development Institute Contents

Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from this report for their own publications, as long as they are not being sold commercially. As copyright holder Save the Children request due Tables, figures & boxes iv acknowledgement and a copy of the publication. Abbreviations v Acknowledgements vi The research for this publication was co-funded Executive summary vii by the Overseas Development Institute (ODI), working through the Research-inspired Policy and 1 Introduction 1 Practice Learning in Ethiopia (RiPPLE) Programme 1.1 Context and rationale 1 in Ethiopia (2006–2011); Save the Children USA 1.2 Scope and structure 2 (SC-US) working through the Enhanced Livelihoods in Southern Ethiopia/Enhanced Livelihoods in the 2 Pastoralism and water: an introduction 5 Mandera Triangle (ELSE/ELMT) Program (2007–2010); and CARE Ethiopia, working through the Global 2.1 Importance of pastoralism to livelihoods and the economy 5 Water Initiative (GWI). 2.2 The pastoral livelihood strategy 7 2.3 Challenges to pastoralism and the rangelands 8 The editing, design and printing of this publication 2.4 Social organisation and customary institutions for land and water management 8 was made possible by the support of the American people through the United States Agency for 3 ‘External’ water development, 1970s–1991 11 International Development (USAID) under the Cooperative Agreement No 663-A-00-09-00413-00. 3.1 Rangeland and pastoralism under the Derg regime 11 The contents are the responsibility of the authors 3.2 Water development under the Derg 11 and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID 3.3 Changes in thinking 14 or the United States Government, ODI, Save the Children USA or Care. 4 Water development, 1991–the present 17 Photo credits: 4.1 The evolving landscape: actors and interventions 17 pp. x, 1, 5, 6, 7, 12, 16, 19, 28, 30, 42 © Kelly Lynch, 4.2 Pastoralists 17 Save the Children USA. 4.3 Federal government 18 pp. 2, 8, 9, 14, 15, 17, 22, 23, 25, 35, 36, 37, 40 4.4 Regional government 23 © Save the Children USA, Ethiopia Country Office, 4.5 NGOs and development agencies 25 Livelihood Unit. 5 Lessons learnt and ways forward 31 Designed by Nicky Barneby @ Barneby Ltd Edited by Nat Mason 5.1 Good practice: the practitioners’ perspective 31 5.2 Unpacking the challenges and reviewing successes 32 5.3 Recommendations 39

References 43 Annex 1: National strategies and laws inﬂuencing development in pastoral areas 46 Annex 2: Major government water and pastoral development programmes 48 Annex 3:Water development guidelines 50 Tables, ﬁgures & boxes Abbreviations

Tables CDD Community-driven Development OGPC Oromia Growth Corridors Plan Table 1: Ministries involved in water and pastoral DFID UK Department for International OPDC Oromia Pastoral Development Commission development in Ethiopia ...... 20 Development OWWDSE Oromia Water Works Design and Table 2: National government programmes and EC European Commission Supervision Enterprise projects including water development components in ECHO Humanitarian Aid Department of the EC PA Peasant Association pastoral regions ...... 21 ELMT Enhanced Livelihoods in the Mandera Triangle PADD Pastoral Areas Development Department Table 3: Water development in humanitarian ELSE Enhanced Livelihoods in Southern Ethiopia PASDEP Plan for Accelerated and Sustained response and development scenarios ...... 25 EPRDF Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Development to End Poverty Table 4: ‘Good practice’ principles for water Democratic Front PCAE Pastoralist Concern Association Ethiopia development in pastoral areas ...... 31 EU European Union PCDP Pastoral Community Development Project Table 5: Selected coordination efforts relevant to FAO Food and Agriculture Organization PLI Pastoral Livelihood Initiative water and pastoral development in Ethiopia ...... 34 FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal GIS Geographic Information System PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Figures GIZ German Agency for International Cooperation PSNP Productive Safety Net Programme Figure 1: Annual Rainfall ...... 3 GNP Gross National Product PSNP-PAP PSNP Pastoral Areas Pilot Figure 2: Pastoralist, agro-pastoralist and non-pastoral GWI Global Water Initiative RDD Regional Drought Decision populations in Afar, Oromia and Somali regions ...... 7 HRF Humanitarian Response Fund RDP Rangelands Development Project Figure 3: Timeline of events influencing water IDP Irrigation Development Programme RDPP Regional Drought Preparedness Programme development and the rangelands in Ethiopia ...... 13 IIED International Institute for Environment and RDPS Rural Development Policies, Strategies and Figure 4: Formal governance structure in Ethiopia ...... 18 Development Instruments Figure 5: NGOs and development organisations IRC International Rescue Committee RiPPLE Research-inspired Policy and Practice working on water development in pastoral IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management Learning in Ethiopia areas of Ethiopia ...... 33 LDC Local Development Committee SC-US Save the Children USA Figure 6: Functionality of boreholes in Daro Lebu MDG Millennium Development Goal SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities and woreda, Oromia region ...... 35 MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Peoples Region Development UAP Universal Access Programme Boxes MoFA Ministry of Federal Affairs UK United Kingdom Promoting irrigated agriculture in Ethiopia ...... 2 MoFED Ministry of Finance and Economic UN United Nations WUAs in Ethiopia and relevance in the Development UNDP UN Development Programme pastoral context ...... 18 MoI Ministry of Information US United States Use of natural resource and socioeconomic MoWR Ministry of Water Resources USAID US Agency for International Development mapping and analysis in the PSNP ...... 22 MST Mobile Support Team WSDP Water Sector Development Programme Platform for integrated water development MUS Multiple Use Services WSSDP Water Supply and Sanitation Development in Oromia region ...... 32 NGO Non-governmental Organisation Programme OCHA Office for the Coordination of WSSP Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Humanitarian Affairs Programme ODI Overseas Development Institute WUA Water Users’ Association OFDA Office of US Foreign Disaster Assistance

iv Tables, figures and boxes Abbreviations v Acknowledgements Executive summary

The authors would like to express their thanks to the initiating this study. Thanks to Eva Ludi, Research In Ethiopia’s arid areas, where pastoralism is the development and humanitarian agencies. Solutions to partners who supported this research, namely: the Fellow at ODI, London, Adrian Cullis, former dominant livelihood, practical field experience over water shortages at the time were technocratic and Overseas Development Institute (ODI), working Director of the Food and Livelihoods Programme, as the past forty years indicates that water development top-down, with little consideration of pastoral through the Research-inspired Policy and Practice well as the rest of the team at SC-US Ethiopia divorced from an in-depth understanding of pastoral livelihood strategies or the customary institutions Learning in Ethiopia (RiPPLE) Programme in Ethiopia including and especially Fiona Flintan, former Regional livelihoods can compromise sustainable development underpinning them. The construction of large ponds, (2006–2011), funded by UKaid from the UK NRM Technical Advisor for the ELSE/ELMT Program in the long term, even if it stems water shortages in for example, made water available year-round, Department for International Development (DFID); and Coordinator for the NRM Technical Working the short term. encouraging permanent settlement and perennial CARE Ethiopia, working through the Howard G. Group in Addis Ababa, and Charles Hopkins, Pastoral Pastoral water point construction significantly grazing in areas which were previously used only Buffet Foundation-funded Global Water Initiative Program Manager for CARE Ethiopia, and the rest of predates the involvement of the state and other seasonally. Overgrazing and erosion were frequently (GWI); and Save the Children USA (SC-US) working the team at CARE for support during the study and actors. Customary water management practices were observed around these water points, and increasingly through the US Agency for International comments on earlier drafts. I would also like to thank (and still are) tailored to a mobile livelihood system, sedentary herds amplified the incidence of human and Development (USAID)-funded Enhanced Livelihoods the staff of ODI’s RiPPLE Programme in Addis Ababa which itself is a response to the requirements of livestock health problems. in Southern Ethiopia/Enhanced Livelihoods in the and Hawassa, who have facilitated the work in Ethiopia. dryland environments where climate is highly variable Shifts in thinking regarding water development in Mandera Triangle (ELSE/ELMT) Program. The authors would also like to thank Alan Nicol, in time and space. Pastoralists use water management pastoral areas are now emerging as a result of lessons Numerous individuals from donor and Ced Hesse, Axel Weiser and Eva Ludi for their as a means to manage the wider rangelands, given that learned over the past forty years. These shifts have development agencies, non-governmental review and comments. access to and availability of water affect who and how been observed in practice in a number of organisations (NGOs), research and academic This report, edited by Nathaniel Mason (ODI), is many have access to surrounding pasture and grazing government, development agency and NGO projects institutes and government contributed their time and based on a draft report written in 2010/11 based on areas. By carefully locating water points, especially in and programmes. Increased awareness and emphasis expertise to the study. Particular thanks go to the information collected in 2009. vulnerable dry season pastures, and regulating access is now in evidence, that over 50 informants who participated in interviews for Financial support for editing, layout and printing of through customary systems dependent on negotiation the study. the report from Save the Children (USA) through its and reciprocity, mobility is both facilitated and made • Water points can alter usage patterns for other The authors would like to thank Alan Nicol, former USAID-funded Pastoral Livelihoods Initiative (PLI) necessary. Mobility itself is a sophisticated response to resources, such as pasture, to the detriment of Director of ODI’s RiPPLE Program in Ethiopia for Phase II Project is appreciated. the unique characteristics of dryland environments, rangeland quality and livelihoods. and is central to ensuring that pastures can recover • Pastoral livelihoods are influenced by internal and seasonally, allowing the pastoral livelihood to remain external social, cultural and political aspects which sustainable in an environment where other sedentary often differ from those in sedentary highland land uses have failed. communities. The healthy economic performance of the pastoral • Pastoralists themselves have an important role to production system in some of the harshest landscapes play in the water development process, especially in the country attests to its value. In Ethiopia, the given their detailed knowledge of the rangelands. livestock sector is a significant foreign exchange Approaches are evolving, from end users simply earner – in 2006, the country earned $121 million expressing demand for water and being tasked with from livestock and livestock-related products (IIED the operation and maintenance of water points, to and SOS Sahel, 2010). The direct value of pastoralism involvement throughout planning, construction and is estimated to be $1.68 billion per annum (SOS management. Sahel Ethiopia, 2008) – and this does not reflect • Water development should be coupled with other substantial unofficial trade in livestock and livestock development interventions in the rangelands, such products. as improving marketing opportunities for livestock From the 1970s, especially after the severe drought and providing veterinary services. in 1973, pastoral regions became a focus of attention • The ‘software’ component of any water for government as well as national and international development (embedding local capacity to operate,

vi Acknowledgements Executive summary vii manage and maintain) is as important as the development actors, including non-governmental • Simultaneously address other development needs • Increase the capacity of locally representative physical infrastructure. organisations (NGOs), development agencies and in the rangelands besides the need for water (e.g. water users to plan, construct, operate, manage and • Rehabilitating existing water points can help in government, creating an environment where it is easy human and livestock health and access to markets) maintain water points, fostering an environment in avoiding the risks associated with new for inappropriate water development to go to effectively address vulnerability and poverty in which communities (including pastoralists) are developments, especially when project duration is unchecked. the long term; implementers rather than merely recipients of short (e.g. in emergency relief interventions). Today’s realities in many of the country’s drylands • Make better use of existing research to inform development; • Linking emergency relief interventions to longer- cannot be ignored, including the facts that population water development planning and implementation • Promote coordinated and harmonised approaches term development objectives can reduce the risk is increasing, people require diverse livelihood and promote knowledge-sharing between among development and humanitarian practitioners of inappropriate or negative outcomes. opportunities which may lie outside pastoral practitioners and projects, for example through working on water development in the rangelands. • Sustainability can be enhanced by increasing production, and highland populations are being learning and practice alliances; community buy-in to water development by resettled to the lowlands. Ultimately, multiple needs requiring a cash or labour contribution; selecting and priorities in the rangelands must be simpler water point technologies which are familiar acknowledged and all options fully and fairly explored and have easily obtainable spare parts; and training to enhance national economic growth and ensure a local cadre of artisans able to construct and sustainable livelihoods – including pastoral livestock maintain water points. production. • Partnerships and dialogue can facilitate cross- To date, no broad overview exists of water fertilisation of ideas and approaches to development in Ethiopia’s pastoral regions. This development in the rangelands and reduce report fills this gap and presents a synthesis of fragmentation. experience over the past 40 years in the water development sector in the country’s pastoral regions. Despite these shifts, water delivery approaches It reflects on experiences derived from water designed for sedentary communities continue to developments undertaken by pastoralists, predominate. A paradox persists at the heart of government, development agencies and NGOs, national government policy on pastoral development consolidating a diverse range of documentary in the rangelands, including the role of water within it. evidence and the opinions of over 50 experts The short-term aim is to support customary pastoral interviewed. Findings are evaluated and ‘good production systems. But in the long term, national practices’ identified, culminating in a set of policy focuses on ‘voluntarily’ settling pastoralists by preliminary guidelines to inform water development providing livelihood diversification opportunities, in the pastoral context. These guidelines constitute mostly around irrigated agriculture. Ambitious the report’s recommendations, including government targets for water supply and irrigation expansion incentivise hardware construction at the • Promote the use of rigorous assessments to expense of participation and ‘software’ components. measure the impact of water developments on Technocratic approaches still predominate, despite livelihoods and learn from documented ‘good’ and instances of highly participatory methods geared ‘poor’ experiences; towards understanding particular social, political, • Ensure water is developed as part of a environmental and economic contexts, including participatory rangeland development process, with customary institutions. Water is still too often a prerequisite in-depth analysis of broader political, developed in isolation from broader natural resource institutional, economic and environmental context management, even though it is recognised as a key to inform planning; resource. It is also frequently developed without due • Promote effective participation through the attention to other critical development needs such as involvement of recognised institutions or groups access to markets, health services for people and representative of local communities. These groups livestock and education. This is especially the case or institutions may exist (customary institutions, among short-term emergency relief and humanitarian water user associations (WUAs), pastoral responses, as opposed to longer-term development- associations) or may still need to be established. oriented interventions. Additional understanding may need to be Finally, an overarching constraint is incoherence in developed of customary institutions as dynamic, approach and weak communication between water evolving entities;

viii Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Executive summary ix 1 Introduction

1.1 Context and rationale that the availability and exploitation of water resources does not jeopardise other resources, Water development enables the provision of a vital particularly by avoiding high concentrations of resource to sustain humans, animals and plants in animals, which can threaten the health of the Ethiopia’s arid areas. Pastoralism is the dominant form rangeland and livestock itself and lead to conﬂict. of livelihood in such areas. One deﬁnition of pastoral - Within the past 40 years, inspired especially by the ism is where more than 50% of income is obtained 1973 drought, non-pastoral actors, namely, from livestock and livestock products and mobility is government, development agencies and non- essential to avoid climatic risk and ensure sustainability. governmental organisations (NGOs) have joined in For centuries, pastoral communities have developed a contributing to water development with both positive sophisticated network of water resources – including and negative consequences. Hand-dug wells along rivers, rainwater and groundwater-fed permanent rivers give communities much-needed access to clean sources – and complex customary institutions water, whereas oversized ponds encourage through which to coordinate development and sedentarisation and overconcentration of people and manage access. This system, including both its physical livestock in potentially vulnerable landscapes. and its institutional components, critically ensures Meanwhile, pastoral communities themselves

Introduction 1 continue to dominate the technology options offered Red Sea International Boundary Eritrea Regional boundary Promoting irrigated agriculture by development agencies, who equate traditional Tigray Annual Rainfall (mm) in Ethiopia technologies with sustainability, no matter how they 2200 are applied. 90 In the past 50 years, as per 2003 estimates, As much as water point development can have Lake around 60,000 ha of key dry season grazing areas positive short-term consequences, practical field 05025 100 150 km has been developed for irrigated agriculture Afar experience over the past 40 years indicates that, Gulf of Aden Administrative Boundary: CSA Amhara (2007 pop.census purpose) along the Awash River. In Somali region, the Rainfall Data: NMA without an in-depth understanding of needs, land use Djibouti Gode irrigation scheme has 27,000 ha The boundaries and names shown and patterns and ecological functions associated with Sudan the designations used on the map do earmarked for irrigation expansion. In South Benishangul not imply official endorsement or pastoral livelihoods, resources and livelihoods acceptance by the United Nations Omo in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Gumuz themselves can be compromised in the long term. Dire Dawa Somalia Peoples Region (SNNPR), large-scale commercial Water development also needs to be situated within Addis Ababa Harari irrigation schemes are planned which may also the wider ‘development’ agenda – for example the result in the loss of key grazing lands. Estimates encouragement of irrigation which is placing severe in 2003 indicate that about 1.9 million ha has pressure on pastoral livelihoods and the resource Gambella Oromiya been excised from the rangelands for crop base in arid regions. production. This figure is undoubtedly higher Somali To date, no broad overview exists of water SNNPR today as irrigation expansion continues to be development in Ethiopia’s pastoral regions. This pursued in Ethiopia’s pastoral regions. report aims to fill this gap and presents a synthesis of Source: Yemane (2003). experience over the past 40 years. The purpose is first and foremost to inform and improve the quality of project partners’2 work. It is also hoped that this synthesis will usefully inform the water development Kenya sector more broadly. Uganda Figure 1 Annual Rainfall (as of 7 March 2012) (Source: UN OCHA, Ethiopia)

1.2 Scope and structure approaches have changed over the past decades; and degradation and the weakening of rangeland- what some of the current major interventions are dependent livelihoods. This report considers water development undertaken (additional information in this regard is presented in The partners have specifically restricted the by government, both regional and national, NGOs, Annex 2). content of this report to a discussion of water development partners and pastoralists themselves – The analysis presented in the main report goes development for livestock use (which by default often with that of the latter having evolved (and continuing beyond an enumeration of actors and activities to extends to direct human use) in arid areas of Ethiopia to evolve) for far longer than the past 40 years. The evaluate what is and what is not working, not only where livestock keeping is the dominant livelihood findings are based on an extensive review of within each actor’s activities but also as these interact and where agricultural production is limited owing to published and unpublished documents and over 50 in- with other interventions and with the social, political insufficient and unreliable rainfall. These areas are continue to evolve their practices, with similarly depth interviews with development practitioners and and environmental context in Ethiopia’s arid inhabited predominantly by pastoralists (rather than negative as well as positive consequences. The representatives of government and donor agencies lowlands3. It is hoped that, in addition to facilitating sedentary land users) and generally are the lowland proliferation of birkado – cement-lined underground engaged in water development in pastoral regions. learning among partners, the findings will inform parts of the country. Regions covered in this review cisterns – driven by pastoralists in Somali region in The report maps the institutions, policies, other actors engaged in water development in are Afar, Somali and the arid zones of Oromia and the 1960s has in some cases led to the programmes and activities of different actors, so as to pastoral areas, encourage reflection on current SNNPR (see Figure 1). This report does not include overconcentration of people and livestock1. Lessons understand who is involved; where and how they are approaches and practice and assist in developing information from other pastoralist areas such as parts are being learnt by some (Gomes, 2006), but birkado undertaking water development; whether and how water programmes in pastoral areas which can of Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz and Tigray regions. address water shortages and meet the demand for After this introduction (Section 1), the main report water without encouraging conflict, rangeland is structured in four sections. Section 2 introduces 1. Though there is nothing intrinsically wrong with birkado, their Overseas Development Institute (ODI), now continuing as a construction in wet season grazing areas encouraged people to project under Hararghe Catholic Secretariat; Save the Children pastoralism in Afar, Oromia, Somali and SNNPR, and settle permanently around them, and to use rangelands year- USA (SC-US) working through the US Agency for International 3. The report considers the government’s drive to diversify the relationship between pastoral livelihoods and round, leading to rangeland degradation and disease proliferation Development (USAID)-funded Enhanced Livelihoods in Southern pastoral livelihoods by introducing and expanding medium-and water: current status and challenges and the 2006 (Gomes, ). Ethiopia/Enhanced Livelihoods in the Mandera Triangle large-scale irrigation schemes and promoting more settled forms customary management strategies that in many cases 2. The Research-inspired Policy and Practice Learning in Ethiopia (ELSE/ELMT) program; and CARE Ethiopia, working through the of livestock production. However, it is beyond its scope to give a (RiPPLE) Programme, originally funded by UKaid from the UK Howard G. Buffet Foundation-funded Global Water Initiative detailed analysis of the socioeconomic ramifications of predate, but continue to evolve with, such challenges. Department for International Development (DFID) through the (GWI). agricultural expansion and resulting sedentarisation. Sections 3 and 4 provide an overview of the actors

2 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Introduction 3 that have become involved in the past 40 years report were collected over a two-month period in and their different activities in relation to water 2009 primarily in Addis Ababa but with visits to development in pastoral areas. Section 3 covers the Afar, SNNPR and Somali Region. Semi-structured 2 Pastoralism and water: period up to the fall of the Derg regime in 1991 and interviews were conducted with over 50 Section 4 the period from 1991 to the present, representatives from national and regional framed by the current government’s policies and government, development organisations, donor an introduction programmes (at national and regional level) and the agencies, research institutions and pastoral activities of its development partners and NGOs. associations. An extensive review of published and These sections go beyond the descriptive, however, unpublished documents was also conducted. An introducing the complex challenges that arise at the Ethiopian consultant was brought on board to focus 2.1 Importance of pastoralism to In Afar region, pastoralists make up 90% of the many intersections – between pastoralism and other on interviews and documentation review in Afar and livelihoods and the economy estimated 1.4 million population, with the remainder livelihoods, water and other resources and customary Somali regions, to determine whether feedback at practising agro-pastoralism (Figure 2). A total of 85% and administrative institutions. Section 5 consolidates regional level corroborated findings at federal level. Pastoral production remains the dominant land use in of Somali region’s 4.4 million people are pastoralists, the analysis and draws out ‘good practice’ from the Data, viewpoints and documentation were also Ethiopia’s lowlands, which occur below an elevation of (FDRE, 2007; World Bank, 2008), and pastoralists also preceding sections and the contributions of experts obtained through email communications with several 1500m and constitute between 54% and 61% of the represent a significant proportion of the population in interviewed. The report closes with a suggestion of international experts with expertise in pastoral country’s surface area (Coppock, 1994). Pastoralists Oromia and SNNPR’s arid lowlands (World Bank, principles which, it is hoped, can inform the development and with experience in Ethiopia. are defined variously in the literature as those who 2008). Agriculture has to date extended to a relatively development of guidelines for water development in Additional literature was collected from experts and obtain more than half their income from livestock and small area – about 0.3% of the total land area in Afar the pastoral context. practitioners in the field and from resource centres in livestock products and who characteristically practise region and 5.5% in Somali region (ibid.). However, The present report is a summary of a longer draft Addis Ababa and elsewhere. mobility to avoid risk, respond to variable climatic crop production is becoming more widespread in version produced in 2011. Data for the original conditions and ensure healthy livestock and some areas. For example, in Oromia, where only rangelands. A further category of agro-pastoralists is around 5% of the land is under cultivation defined as those who practise some degree of (OWWDSE, 2009) the area set aside for crop mobility but obtain less than half their income from production in one study area has increased by a livestock, with most of the remainder coming from factor of 12, from 1.4% in 1986 to 16.3% in the late crop cultivation. 1990s (McCarthy et al, 2001).

4 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Pastoralism and Water: an introduction 5 Afar Somali Oromia

0.14 0.66 4.32 Pastoral Pastoral Pastoral and Agro-pastoral Agro-pastoral Agro-pastoral and other Other

1.26 3.74 27

Figure 2 Pastoralist, agro-pastoralist and non-pastoral populations in Afar, Oromia and Somali regions (millions) Sources: FDRE (2007); OWWDSE (2009); World Bank (2008).

Livestock production makes a major contribution proposes that individual herders eventually overgraze to the national economy, generating significant foreign and deplete open access pasture by indiscriminately exchange ($121 million in 2006 – IIED and SOS Sahel, increasing herd size (Hardin, 1968), does not reflect 2010), while pastoral livestock production contributes reality in the rangelands. In fact, access is not ‘open’, 30% of gross national product (GNP) and 90% of hard but rather is regulated through negotiation and currency generated from live animal exports reciprocity within a system of communal land tenure. (Kassahun et al., 2008). The direct value of pastoral Groups are often associated with specific territories livestock production has been put at $1.22 billion per which contain critical natural resources such as annum, with additional indirect values of almost half a grazing land and water resources, but membership, billion from draught power, manure, tourism and and boundaries between these territories, is often rangeland products such as gums and resins (SOS ‘fuzzy’ to accommodate mobility in times of scarcity Sahel Ethiopia, 2008). Unofficial earnings may exceed (Mwangi and Dohrn, 2006). The variable location of official figures significantly – Scott-Villiers (2006) rainy season and dry season pastures from year to estimated cross-border livestock sales in Somali year increases the need for such a flexible system. region at three to six times the official figures for the Reciprocity is expected when the tables are turned whole country. (Beyene and Korf, 2008). Traditional institutions allow different clans or groups to be represented in decision-making regarding access to land and water 2.2The pastoral livelihood strategy (Gomes, 2006). The persistence of the pastoralist livelihood Within the extensive rangelands of these regions, strategy in much of the arid lowlands attests to its scarce and variable rainfall dictates the presence or rationality and flexibility, but mobility is essential. absence of pasture on which livestock depend. The Devereux (2006) finds that where mobility is rainy season permits pastoralists to disperse over a unhindered, pastoral households are more wide area, while the grazing range contracts in the dry season around permanent water sources such as rivers or groundwater-fed wells. The high degree of mobility during grazing allows dry season grazing areas to recover between seasons and contributes to rangeland health by stimulating vegetation growth, fertilising the soil, aiding seed dispersal to maintain pasture diversity and preventing bush encroachment (Hesse and MacGregor, 2006). Comparison with areas around permanent settlements reveals higher levels of degradation than in open rangeland where mobile pastoralism is practised (Fuller, 1999). The ‘tragedy of the commons’ hypothesis, which

Pastoralism and water: an introduction 7 economically and food-secure than their settled With powerful underlying drivers, including climate, counterparts, and that many pastoral settlements in conflict, poverty and demographics, these factors Ethiopia were partially or entirely abandoned in the contribute to shrinkage of land available for grazing droughts of 2004 and 2006. Little et al. (2008) reach a and reduced opportunities for mobility. Among similar conclusion, showing that households are less Ethiopia’s pastoral communities, the effects are likely to lose their livestock assets and become food- decreased per capita holdings of livestock, an insecure if they remain mobile. Despite this, tragedy increased trend towards agro-pastoralism (Yemane, of the commons thinking greatly influenced 2003) and more pastoral dropouts who seek approaches in the early years of development in petty labour in permanent settlements (Desta et al., Ethiopia’s lowlands, and continues to do so. 2008). Pastoralism is not the only livelihood in the rangelands, and multiple needs and priorities as well 2.3 Challenges to pastoralism and as livelihood strategies must be explored fully and the rangelands impartially to enable enhanced national economic growth without compromising sustainable livelihoods. Despite the positive contributions of pastoralism to This importantly includes mobile pastoral livelihoods. livelihoods, the economy and rangeland health, certain The policy response to date, however, has been realities cannot be ignored: incoherent and on the whole favours settled forms of livelihoods, which puts certain livelihoods at a • Population increase, including via the resettlement disadvantage from the outset National government of highland populations to the lowlands, who will leans towards promoting settlement as a long-term likely require livelihood options based on objective, believing this to be the only lasting and agriculture; sustainable solution to protect livelihoods. This • Stubborn encroachment of prosopis juliflora; attitude is shared by some donors, NGOs and • Excision of grazing areas for irrigation, especially development agencies. Others staunchly support dry season pastures near to permanent water mobility. Many NGOs continue to make water sources; development decisions based primarily on technical • Further demarcation and enclosure for uses such considerations with insufficient consideration of natural pans for as long as it naturally lasts, and points. Decisions on access to and control of natural as national parks, private grazing and crop livelihood dynamics and the risk of increasing therefore to surrounding pastures (Helland, 1980 in resources are made by the village council, which cultivation (including by pastoralists, as well as sedentarisation. However, both NGO and local Sandford, 1983). For seasonal water points, like ponds, consists of the clan leader, clan elders, local wise men immigrants and refugees); government staff recruited from pastoral areas have some regulation and labour may be required to and a traditional rule-enforcing unit (Hundie, 2006). In • Increased sedentarisation and the proliferation of first-hand knowledge of the need for livestock maintain the water point (Helland, 1980; Hogg, 1997). the wet season, Afar livestock graze open rangelands water points, which promote settlement; and mobility and seasonal recovery of rangelands. Access to water from permanent water sources in managed by the different tribal units. However, • Poor rangeland management and continued dry season grazing areas is likely to be controlled scarcity of water in the dry season leads pastoralists degradation. more strictly – especially in times of scarcity – to back to the Awash River, which is the principal dry 2.4 Social organisation and support a limited number of people and livestock season water source. Grazing around the river is customary institutions for land and (Helland, 1980 in Sandford, 1983). delineated and managed by clans through a leader’s water management Customary institutions have evolved over time: council (Getahun, 2004). they are not fossilised entities which conform to Identity plays a central role across Ethiopia in terms historical descriptions – a fact which should be kept Borana of who has access to what land. In Afar and Somali in mind in the following overview of how pastoral Ethiopia’s Borana have some of the most elaborate regions for example, clans or sub-clans are associated groups in different regions manage land and water. water control and management systems in the with specific home areas, although other groups are country. In terms of access to land (pasture), allowed access based on established relationships and Afar management is traditionally the responsibility of negotiation (Getahun, 2004; Hogg, 1997). While Land in Afar is divided into sultanates, which are territorial units (deedhas), the boundaries of which different customary rules and regulations modulating further divided into tribe and clan territories are porous and changeable depending on the water access and use exist among different pastoral (Getahun, 2004). Indigenous pastoral law determines resources available. A complex customary groups across the country, these share a few common access to and control of natural resources. Each clan administrative structure, the gaada, administers the characteristics. In the wet season, anyone with grazing usually presides over a number of strategic resources, deedhas, according to the customs and laws of the rights in a given area has access to water collected in such as wet and dry season grazing areas and water Borana, the ada seera (Tache, 2000).

8 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Pastoralism and water: an introduction 9 In terms of access to water, which in turn water available and the rate of water seepage4 (Bassi, influences which pasture can be used when and by 2005). whom, access is determined on different bases 3 ‘External’ water development, depending on type and season. For ponds and pools Somali that fill up in the wet season, a contribution to Territories in Somali region are associated more maintenance usually secures access. Construction, closely with clans and sub-clans, with boundaries that 1970s–1991 maintenance and cooperation around the use of have shifted historically on the basis of inter-clan ponds and surface catchments is usually undertaken power dynamics (Hogg, 1997). Prior to the 1960s, the at the level of the reera, a smaller territorial scale than Haud plateau was predominantly wet season grazing the deedha – members are encouraged to use ponds land, with associated permanent dry season water 3.1 Rangeland and pastoralism governance in the rangelands alongside customary in their own reera to avoid overusing neighbouring points located in Somaliland (Walker and Sugule, under the Derg regime governance. Where pastoral groups previously resources (Tache, 2000). When water levels in ponds 1998). However, the construction, by pastoralists,of negotiated access to land and water resources across are observed to be dropping too fast, precedence is birkado in wet season grazing land allowed people to Before the 1970s, protection and sustaining liveli - fuzzy boundaries to permit mobility, PA boundaries given to the domestic use of the closest ollas (groups settle permanently around these structures, hoods received little attention in pastoral regions, and ‘legitimized and hardened clan-based claims to land of households with associated cattle enclosures) and effectively establishing dry season nuclei across a interventions concentrated on developing land for and water resources’, being loosely based on maadda adult cattle are excluded in favour of calves. If formerly wet season landscape. Birkado are usually commercial irrigated agriculture along rivers. [a traditional Borana territorial unit] in Borana and on necessary, even calves will be excluded and must be owned by wealthier individuals (or sometimes However, measures and policies implemented under the home areas of Somali sub-clans in Somali region moved to other ponds or wells (Bassi, 2005). groups) who have the means to pay for the the Derg regime (1974–1991) left a lasting impact on (Hogg, 1997). PA chairmen, usually officials with the Traditional wells are critical sources of dry season considerable construction costs. Those who cannot land and people in the rangelands, with a number of received wisdom of the agricultural highlands, but water and ‘belong’ to clans, as considerable labour afford to construct their own birkado have to pay for top-down solutions imposed and little participation with little appreciation for traditional land inputs are needed for both construction and access, on a negotiated basis but with the highest from the grassroots. The most important were: management systems, were given authority to allocate extraction of water. An individual, called the konfi, prices in the dry season (Gomes, 2006). The private land, preside over issues related to resource use and instigates the digging of a well, becoming ‘father of the ownership of birkado means potential exclusion from • Prohibition of controlled burning to manage the make decisions on water rights, effectively replacing well’, or abbaa ellaa, securing access priority and water access for those with no means to pay (or for rangelands, which saw an increase in bush traditional elders (Kamara et al., 2003). Individual decision making privileges rather than absolute other reasons), which in turn means exclusion from encroachment and shrinkage of the land usable for pastoralists (and non-pastoralists) could disregard the ownership. Though the konfi has decision making surrounding grazing forcing herders to seek out other grazing; codes and decisions of customary institutions and privileges with regards the well, he is closely observed birkado with more agreeable owners or provoking • Aggressive promotion of agricultural expansion; seek potentially more favourable outcomes from PA by clan elders who make sure that he makes decisions conflict over access (Devereux, 2006). • Creation of Peasant Associations (PAs) as lowest- authorities (Sandford, 1983; Tache, 2000). Without in line with the customs and laws of the Borana In areas with adequate groundwater, hand-dug wells level administrative units; formal recognition of communal tenure, individuals (Helland, 1980). The konfi recruits assistance from are common, usually belonging to clans but • Enforcement of policies to sedentarise pastoralists often sought to secure access by creating private within his own clan and from other clans and lineages sometimes owned individually. When water is (Kamara et al., 2002); and reserves for different purposes within the commons in terms of obtaining the labour and the cattle plentiful, clan-owned wells are available for other • Land nationalisation in the highlands. (Helland, 2006). necessary to sustain the digging crew during the clans living in the area and for those migrating in construction work. Contributing clans thereby also search of water, usually for free. However, access to The 1975 Nationalisation of Rural Lands earn access rights to the well. Borana who have not water follows an established hierarchy, which is Proclamation in principle granted pastoralists rights 3.2 Water development under contributed to well construction may also be strictly enforced, especially in times of scarcity. The to access grazing land, but in practice their priorities the Derg extended temporary access rights in times of need. person who constructed the well and their family are came second to those of the state (Elias, 2008), which Traditional regulations determine access to the well in first in line to the water, followed by clan members, was mandated ‘to improve grazing areas, to dig wells Shortly after the rise of the Derg regime, the World terms of the day and the position in the queue for with non-clan members last (Gomes, 2006). Deep and to settle the nomadic people for farming Bank and government-funded Rangelands that day, overseen by the ‘father of turns’ (abbaa wells, which require considerable labour for purposes’ (Hogg, 1993). All commercial agricultural Development Project (RDP) was initiated (1975), with herregaa), who is chosen by the abaa ella. The number excavation and water extraction, follow a similar concessions granted under Emperor Haile Selassie an emphasis on developing water infrastructure. The of positions in the queue depends on the amount of management system to the Borana’s. were nationalised, and the regime aggressively RDP aimed to ‘restructure’ what were perceived ‘low pursued the expansion of state farms, with special output traditional range practices’ (World Bank, support provided for agricultural development. 1991) by promoting ranching and settled forms of 4. Each well has its own capacity to produce water. When pastoralists drain water out, the water accumulated in the bottom Choice areas set aside for state irrigation projects livestock production. These interventions were seen of the well decreases, but is constantly fed by seepage. Seepage often lay in key pastoral dry season grazing areas as solutions to the perceived irrational and varies with the season, affecting the number of cattle that can be which were essential for livestock survival in times of unproductive pastoral use of the rangelands (Hogg, watered daily. The use of mechanised pumps in the vicinity of drought (Helland, 2006). 1993). In essence, the project did not recognise the traditional wells is likely to affect this capacity (Marco Bassi, Research Officer, African Studies Centre, University of Oxford, PAs (similar to today’s kebeles) effectively productivity of mobile livestock production systems. U.K, personal communication). introduced a parallel system of natural resource On completion of the project, the World Bank

10 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas ‘External’ water development 1970s–1991 11

The Derg regime The Derg Ethiopian People’s Ethiopian

Timeline of events

revoked.

Derg’s sedentarisation policy Derg’s

Afar and Somali regions. regions. Somali and Afar

important role, especially in especially importantrole,

ministriesan play still

strategies. Though Though strategies. central

federal policies, plans, and plans, policies, federal

policies and plans in line with line in plans and policies

for drafting/implementing for

1974 and central power, comes to reach extends to government the through level community Associations Peasant (PA), established as lowest PA units. administrative boundaries based on were legitimizing ethnic boundaries, clan-based claims to resources. and policies: Major events 1) ban on use of controlled range burning for 2) emphasis management, on agricultural expansion, of policy3) enforcement to sedentarise pastoralists.

governments are responsible are governments

responsibilities. Regional responsibilities.

development become regional become development

Water as well as pastoral as well as Water

development planning. planning. development

emphasis on participation on emphasis in

decentralization policy with decentralization

power, introducing a introducing power,

Front (EPRDF) comes to comes (EPRDF) Front

RevolutionaryDemocratic 1991 inﬂuencing water development and inﬂuencing water development the rangelands in Ethiopia Figure 3 Figure Rangeland Pastoralism Pastoralism 1973 drought Severe 1975 Project Development major non- (RDP) – first development pastoral intervention in the rangelands. 1984 drought Severe 1994 as a livelihood in the acknowledged Constitution of Federal but emphasis 1994, on expansion of agriculture continues.

1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s Increasing government, donors and development government, Increasing rangelands. the in developing interest organizations ‘tragedy the refuting undertaken Considerable research of it rangelands – much of the commons’ scenario in the RDP. based on lessons learned from and increasing democratization for Global pressure planning. emphasis on participation in development service partners to address continue Development to emergencies in pastoral and respond provision from away though donors shift focus areas, in lowlands. development (1999) to Management Policy Resources Water on water development. national coherence promote thinking towards Major shift in pastoral development holistic and participatory (Pastoral development Pastoral (PCDP), Project Development Community to this is slow However, (PLI)). Initiative Livelihoods translate into practice. security food on resilience, National strategies focusing and growth to achieve transformation and livelihood Activities identified to climate change adaptation. such as expanding irrigated these objectives achieve social and economic services or promoting agriculture in the longer might, settled communities, designed for undermine pastoralists resilience. term, admitted there had been a lack of knowledge of Poverty (PASDEP), the Productive Safety Net available at the local level; and increasing focus pastoralists’ behaviour and the drivers behind Programme (PSNP) and others). Implications for among practitioners on training local artisans to traditional land use practices (World Bank, 2001).One water development include increased awareness and decrease dependency on external support; of the only project components where headway was recognition that • The potential for rehabilitation of existing water made was in water point construction – mainly points to avoid the risks associated with new boreholes on ranches where water catchment was • Pastoral areas require a different approach to developments, especially when project duration is restricted and ponds in wet and dry season grazing highland areas where sedentary farming practices short (e.g. in emergency relief interventions); and areas. However, this took place top-down, with little predominate, and pastoral areas are not • The need to improve partnerships and linkages understanding of pastoral dynamics and the logic homogenous; between different projects and programmes to behind pastoral natural resource management • The pastoral livelihood is influenced by internal and streamline approaches to water development. strategies. Construction of large ponds encouraged external social, cultural and political aspects, which permanent settlement and year-round usage of differ between and within regions; surrounding pasture, leading to overgrazing and • Mobility is an important strategy to adapt to erosion and opening space for competing modes of increasing resource variability; production such as small-scale crop production Livestock Project, the first real attempt at rangeland • The existing natural resource base in a location (Gebre-Mariam, 1982). Insufficient recognition of development, with an emphasis on pastoral (water and pasture) and the patterns whereby customary boundaries between grazing areas, participation to avoid the pitfalls of previous people use these resources are altered by water relationships and rights defining use of these and approaches. While this attempt was hampered by the development; water’s importance in traditional regulation of political situation at the time and by the costs of • Water provision in the rangelands should be resource use led to frequent fighting around access to sustaining a bloated pastoral development coupled with other development interventions to water points. Government retention of ownership bureaucracy (Hogg, 1993), approaches to participation support and improve livelihoods, including and management by local administrations resulted in continue to evolve: from end users simply expressing improved livestock marketing opportunities, poorly controlled access (Sandford, 1983) and demand for water points, to assuming a role in veterinary services and rangeland rehabilitation; inadequate maintenance. operation and maintenance, to full involvement in all and As Helland (1980) pointed out, although, stages, including planning and construction. • Scientific and customary knowledge can combine technically, available pasture can easily be expanded by The RDP and other such interventions across East through grassroots participation. digging ponds or sinking boreholes, making water Africa also prompted researchers to critically review available freely strips existing social organisations of the underlying thinking for the conventional, Other lessons which apply in the rangelands and in major functions, which include regulating labour commercial rangeland development approaches water development more generally are: inputs, access to water and control over pasture. He promoted by the World Bank and others. This predicted that weakening the social control of included the tragedy of the commons theory, as well • The critical importance of ‘software’ components existing management systems in this way would lead as the assumption that rangelands constitute for the sustainability of water developments. to long-term degradation despite short-term equilibrium grazing systems. Such systems are Innovations include promoting community buy-in expansion of pastoral resources. Though factors commonly found in temperate regions, where relative to water development (either in cash or in kind); implicated in rangeland deterioration are multiple and climatic stability means availability of feed is a selecting water points for which construction complex, Helland’s hypothesis of 30 years ago seems relatively predictable limiting factor on expansion of materials and spare parts (where needed) are to have come to bear. the livestock population. But in the non-equilibrium systems of arid and semi-arid parts of Africa, ‘extremely variable rainfall […] may have a much 3.3 Changes in thinking stronger effect than animal numbers on vegetation’, requiring ‘management in the sense of adaptive Although early experiences in water development coping, rather than optimisation and control’ (Behnke, had obvious negative impacts in the rangelands, they 1994). also provided a valuable opportunity for practitioners Water development in the rangelands is now and researchers to learn what works and what does focused more on protecting lives and livelihoods, and not in the pastoral context. A key lesson learnt from the pastoral production system is a recognised form the RDP is that the ‘participation of intended of land use mentioned explicitly in the current beneficiaries in defining the project concept is government’s Constitution, as well as in national fundamental’ (World Bank, 1991). Towards the end of development plans and programmes (e.g. the Plan for the 1980s, the World Bank funded the Fourth Accelerated and Sustained Development to End

14 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas ‘External’ water development 1970s–1991 15 4 Water development, 1991–the present

4.1The evolving landscape: actors water, and organise community meetings to identify and interventions priorities. Appeals made to district government are in any case often delegated to NGOs and development This section provides a brief overview of more recent agencies for implementation. However, to date and ongoing shifts in water development approaches there is no structured way in which local pastoral among pastoralists, government (national and, communities can demand water development support increasingly, regional level) and development agencies from local government or development agencies and and NGOs. The private sector is also an increasingly NGOs, and sporadic expressions of demand generally important player, for example in the development of result in a disjointed and uncoordinated response. irrigation schemes which may be in tension with Furthermore, using a demand-led approach does pastoral activities, but a dedicated focus on their role not result in participation in and of itself: much is beyond the scope of this report. deeper involvement is needed to ensure an appropriate and sustainable response. The inﬂuence pastoralists can exert on planning and siting of water 4.2 Pastoralists points differs depending on the entity constructing (and funding) the facility and the type constructed. As noted, both government and donors have broadly Communities tend to lead decision-making on the acknowledged the importance of participation of traditional structures they continue to develop pastoralists in water development. However, the themselves, such as ponds, springs and customary extent to which participation occurs in practice deep wells. For structures funded and constructed by varies, and principles are by no means mainstreamed non-pastoralists, especially those that are technically across the country. more complex (like boreholes), the extent to which A starting point for greater participation which communities participate in decision-making varies. does appear to have been widely adopted is for Many donor agencies that fund long-term interventions to be demand-led, at least in name. development place participation in planning, As water scarcity (and now pasture scarcity) is a management and maintenance high on their agenda. persistent challenge, communities make appeals for However, for many NGOs and local government water to government and development agencies/ NGOs, either to remedy water shortages or to open up new pasture. Direct appeals to development agencies and NGOs are possible where these external actors have previous experience in an area or with a particular community, and potentially avoid administrative biases within local government (e.g. in Jiiga woreda (district), Somali region, more water points can be observed in areas which are home to the majority of local administrative staff). Local baseline surveys are sometimes, but not always, carried out. NGOs and development agencies can also approach woreda ofﬁces, which are required to identify PAs or kebeles where there is a need for

Water development 1991–present 17 WUAs in Ethiopia and relevance in the pastoral context

In the past 10 years, government and NGOs have WUAs than ensuring their effective operation. introduced WUAs as a means for communities to WUAs therefore suffer from weak management, take on the operation, management and operation and maintenance capacity. Often, water maintenance of water points instead of, or often points are in practice managed by government, even alongside, government. WUAs generally have about though they are meant to be handed over to seven members meant to represent a cross-section WUAs to manage. There is also limited of water users in a given locality. Training is consideration of the potential for synergies with provided to enable them to perform their duties, customary water management systems. yet often more attention is given to establishing the

bureaus, participation is often symbolic. How much 4.3 Federal government communities contribute materially to the construction, operation and maintenance of water The EPRDF, which came to power in 1991, has points also varies, although cost recovery is pursued a decentralisation policy with the federal increasingly emphasised to encourage a sense of state devolved along ethnic regional lines. In this ownership of infrastructure. Eliciting payments for context, water development and pastoral water from local communities remains a considerable challenge, whereas labour is provided more readily. Whether organisations engage with communities Sets national level policy directly or through the kebele, in both cases proposals Ethiopian priorities must be submitted to regional bureaus for pastoral Federal development or water, depending on the focus of the Government project. Following implementation, facilities are development more broadly have become regional develop small and medium schemes) and both handed over either to the administrative authority or Sets regional policy and responsibilities (Figure 4). Nonetheless, federal supply water for livestock (MoARD explicitly for to Water User Associations (WUAs). Both NGOs Regional plans in line with national ministries, strategies, laws, policies and programmes livestock and MoWR for human as well as livestock and government increasingly encourage the setting up Government level responsibilities remain important and provide a framework for the consumption). of WUAs to improve downward accountability and to (9 regions) regional levels. • MoFA is responsible for pastoral livelihood issues enable communities to manage and operate local which cut across sectors, including agriculture and water points, rather than the responsibility lying Ministries5 water. MoFA is therefore very involved in setting solely with government or with the customary Three line ministries play a central role in guiding cross-sector priorities for these areas together institutions that previously managed water resources Zonal water development and pastoral development in the with relevant ministries. The above observations assume that non- administrations regions: the Ministries of Water Resources (MoWR), • Even though planning and implementation are pastoralists more than pastoralists determine the Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) and regional responsibilities, central ministries are degree of participation. However, more recently, Federal Affairs (MoFA). By extension, the Ministry of heavily involved in planning and technical expertise pastoralists have formed pastoral associations to Finance and Economic Development (MoFED) also provision at regional level in Afar and Somali, and directly and formally voice pastoral concerns to Woreda/ inﬂuences planning. Table 1 indicates their nominal also in pastoral areas of Oromia and SNNPR. government (in Oromia region in 2006 and Afar District responsibilities, which result in a number of potential region in 2008 – the former having been formally administrations overlaps: However, there are also several notable efforts to recognised by regional government). There is enhance horizontal and vertical coordination: potential for such associations to organise and PA boundaries loosley based • There is an overlap in responsibility for water- • The Livestock Policy Forum under MoARD, with streamline communication between local Peasant on ethnic boundaries in related issues between MoARD and MoWR. Both support from the Feinstein International Centre communities and government (as well as development Associations pastoral areas are involved in irrigation development (MoWR agencies) and open up necessary discussions on (PAs) develops large schemes, MoARD and the regions (FIC) at Tufts University, is a ﬁrst-of-its-kind priority macro-level issues related to water and platform which brings together 70 NGO pasture at regional level. 5. The structure and ministries’ responsibilities and names representatives, the private sector, bilateral and Figure 4 Formal governance structure in Ethiopia changed slightly in 2011 (after this report was written). multilateral donors, Ethiopian research institutions,

18 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Water development 1991–present 19 under the new Ensuring Equitable Development Federal Rural Land Law, a principal criticism is that Table 1 Ministries involved in water and pastoral development in Ethiopia Directorate, established in 2008, which has the emphasis on private landholdings disregards the Institution Mandate developed strategic goals and a roadmap to close rationale of traditional communal landholding, which the development gap between regional states over goes against the federal Constitution (Abdulahi and MoWR Responsible for the country’s water supply and for planning and implementing large-scale the next six years. Adenew, 2007). irrigation projects Sets policy and coordinates planning and development related to water in Ethiopia Policies, laws and strategies Programmes and projects Produces strategies and programmes, develops and implements water sector laws and A number of national development policies and laws Federal ministries lead a number of projects and regulations, conducts studies and research activities and provides technical support to regional have implications for water development in pastoral programmes involving water development in water bureaus regions, including the Poverty Reduction Strategy Ethiopia’s pastoral regions, some of which address Paper (PRSP) (2001); PASDEP (2006) and the Federal water specifically and others coupling water Provides technical and institutional support to the emerging pastoral regions (Afar and Somali) Rural Land Law 2005 (see Annex 1 for key details). development with broader pastoral development to embed capacity at regional level to plan and implement projects These reflect evolutions in thinking. In the last 10 (rangeland rehabilitation, improved veterinary MoARD Plans, develops and manages the country’s agricultural resources and develops policies, years the discourse has changed dramatically, from services, etc.). The past 10 years have seen significant strategies and programmes scant mention of pastoralism, and when mentioned and various departures from a ‘generic’ approach to cast in a negative light and in need of an overhaul to water development, whereby local government or Develops small- and medium-scale irrigation projects and is also responsible for the livestock increase production through technical fixes, to NGOs develop water points based on community sector, including water development, primarily via ponds and birkado to harvest rainwater highlighting mobility, the importance of customary requests, selecting technologies from a menu of Through the Emerging Regions Development Coordination Office, provides coordination institutions and supporting livelihoods. But these options and siting them according to hydro-geological support to small-scale agricultural activities in Afar and Somali regions, as well as technical policies and laws also reflect the persistent paradox context. The projects listed in Table 2 provide a range backstopping for Oromia and SNNPR when needed at the heart of the policy direction regarding of examples, which integrate participation and other pastoralism: whereas in the short term government key issues (addressing other development needs, Oversees the Livestock Policy Forum aims to support customary pastoral production context specific planning, etc.) to different degrees. MoFA Hosts the Pastoral Areas Development Department (PADD), which provides development and systems, the long-term focus is on ‘voluntarily’ settling The examples listed in Table 2 vary in terms of capacity-building support to emerging regions (Afar and Somali), assists in appropriately pastoralists by providing livelihood diversification fundamental assumptions about what constitutes structuring government institutions from regional down to local level, drafts pastoral policies opportunities, most notably fixed on irrigated appropriate water development in the rangelands, and designs specific development programmes for pastoral regions informed by the country’s agriculture. Policy relating to water development may which suggests that ministries as well as regional rural development vision and strategies. exacerbate the sedentarising effect. For example, offices work independently of one another with little MoFA’s 2008 Draft Policy Statement for the Facilitates vertical support between line ministries and regional governments, as well as Sustainable Development of Pastoral and Agro- Table 2 National government horizontal support between regional governments of developed regions and those of less pastoral Areas of Ethiopia states that ‘in the long- programmes and projects including water developed (emerging) regions term, the government envisions a stable pastoral and development components in pastoral Actively participates in preparing regional- down to woreda-level action plans, provides agro pastoral community through the facilitation of Lead ministry Programmes technical backstopping and is directly involved in monitoring and evaluation of development gradual and voluntary transition towards permanent activities settlement especially along the perennial river banks’ MoWR The Water Sector Development (MoFA, 2008). However, many practitioners in the Programme (WSDP), including the MoFED Responsible for budget allocations to line ministries and also engaged in national policy field believe sedentarisation will gravely exacerbate Water Supply and Sanitation coordination, therefore plays an implied role in sectoral activities the challenges facing pastoral livelihoods. Tenure Development Programme security for pastoral communal rangelands also does Source: Tekele (2005). (WSSDP) and Irrigation not seem high on the national or regional agenda. Development Programme (IDP) Where the documents refer to what can be professional associations and government pastoral regions and discuss planning. MoFA also regarded as best practice principles, there is rarely a The Water Supply, Sanitation and departments (Behnke et al., 2008). This introduces facilitates the exchange of information between clear indication of how these are to be implemented Hygiene Programme (WSSP) a more livelihoods-based approach to emergency ministries and the regions. (e.g. increasing understanding of communal range The Universal Access Programme relief, allowing members to share and learn from • Emerging regions are given support by management strategies, as emphasised in the (UAP) field experience and developing guidelines on neighbouring developed regions, coordinated and PASDEP). With regard to participation, development emergency livestock interventions. facilitated by MoFA. Prior to 2008, support to Afar of the PRSP and PASDEP involved consultation with MoARD The PSNP Pastoral Areas Pilot • MoFA chairs an inter-ministerial board which brings and Somali regions was provided by respective pastoralists, but in both cases these do not appear to (PSNP-PAP). together representatives from the various line coordination departments under MoFA. have strongly influenced the final documents MoFA The PCDP ministries to take stock of current activities in Effectiveness has increased now they are subsumed (Pastoralist Forum Ethiopia, 2009). In terms of the

20 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Water development 1991–present 21 coordination around water development issues and pastoral livelihood strategies and customary institu - which is also used by livestock – and small- to limited sharing of best practice. This creates an tions, through tools such as natural resource mapping. medium-scale irrigation). In regions where pastoralists environment where it is easy for inappropriate water Overall, federal government programmes show some represent only a portion of the total population, development to go unchecked. A short overview is evidence of considering and responding to the issues specific to pastoral livelihoods are handled by provided here, and further details are presented in particularities of water development in pastoral areas, specialised commissions/bureaus dedicated to Annex 2. such as the complex interrelation between water and pastoral development (including water development, A broad distinction can be made between MoWR- land resources and the role of traditional manage- often a dominant feature). In Oromia region, this led programmes, which are aimed primarily at water ment arrangements. There is also evidence of ongoing function is performed by the Oromia Pastoral development, with differing degrees of recognition for learning: for example, Phase II of the PCDP emphasises Development Commission (OPDC); the Pastoral pastoralists as a sub-category of users, and MoARD development of small-capacity water points that will Affairs Bureau is the responsible entity in SNNPR. In and MoFA programmes, which focus on pastoral not encourage sedentarisation. Nonetheless, as regions considered entirely pastoral, agricultural and development generally but in which water Annex 2 indicates, there is often a gap between well rural development bureaus assume this responsibility development emerges as a major concern. informed and well-intentioned programme – the Agriculture and Rural Development Bureau in MoWR activities are marked by an emphasis on guidance; and special guidelines have been produced documents and implementation on the ground. Afar region and the Natural Resources, Livestock and hardware, driven by ambitious targets embedded in for implementation of WSSP in pastoral areas. Crop Bureau in Somali region. the flagship UAP, which aims to provide access to safe Programmes led by MoFA and MoARD, meanwhile, Regional plans and policies often do not differ water for 98% of the rural population by 2012. The have an explicit focus on pastoralists’ needs. The 4.4 Regional government substantially from national plans and policies, continue particular needs of pastoral areas are recognised to PCDP includes innovations such as Mobile Support to emphasise agriculture and sedentary livelihoods varying degrees: the UAP refers to multiple uses of Teams (MSTs), which are intended to facilitate the Bureaus and generally perceive water supply and irrigation water (which could conceivably include livestock) but strong participatory and community-driven ethos of Regional governments have the autonomy to adapt projects to be designed primarily to serve people, does not make separate reference to pastoral areas; the project, helping communities to identify and national plans and policies to suit regional contexts, even as they recognise that livestock are part and the WSDP refers to water development for livestock express their priorities. The PSNP-PAP targets food and regional bureaus responsible for water, parcel of pastoral landscapes. in nomadic areas as a priority but has little specific security and has a strong focus on understanding agriculture and rural and pastoral development prepare strategic plans touching on water. For Policies and strategies example, in Afar region, the Bureau of Water Regional governments are responsible for drafting Use of natural resource and socioeconomic mapping and analysis in the PSNP Resources Development and the Bureau of policies and preparing and implementing plans, but Agricultural and Rural Development are both these do not generally differ from the ‘template’ According to the draft PSNP-PAP guidelines, simple arrangements and patterns of mobility (of both involved in planning and implementing water policies, plans and strategies at federal level. Policies mapping kits should be used with the planning local and visiting communities); development for productive use (both water supply – related to land tenure are an exception: these are team, comprising the community leader at kebele • Identifying and discussing any problems that exist level, four male-headed households representing in relation to mapped items, including natural different social groups, four female-headed resources, traditional systems, mobility and households representing different social groups, conflict. Different maps can be produced to one youth representative, one religious capture different aspects, for example one for representative and others as required by the natural resources, one for social services and community. This involves: one for mobility; • Jointly prioritising issues to be addressed and • Marking obvious features on the ground, which identifying potential solutions and could be pastoral unit boundaries, roads, hill community/external (public works) actions to tops, rivers, settlements, etc.; rectify the problem. • Adding more detail to the map, which includes the location of different natural resources such Prioritised public works as identified through the as pasture, water sources, agricultural land, above planning process should then be presented, forest, etc. and any areas where degradation is discussed, amended and approved in a general observed. Features of traditional natural assembly representing the wider community. resource management should be marked, Agreed-on public works should then be included in including customary land divisions for grazing the kebele plan which is submitted to woreda level management, customary water management for approval. Source: MoARD (2007b).

22 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Water development 1991–present 23 prepared at regional level by agricultural and rural planning to inform decision-making around the most development bureaus and have important implications appropriate use of different areas (utilising semi- 4.5 NGOs and development agencies for the pastoral way of life, given reliance on detailed soil maps at district level), for example cash communal lands. Regional-level policies related to food crops, agro-industrial development, livestock Development vs. humanitarian land tenure in the focus regions include (Abdulahi and production and resettlement (OWWDSE, 2008). interventions Adenew, 2007) Community consultations are held to discuss the Besides government, the principal external actors plans, from which area development programmes are intervening in development in pastoral areas are • Afar: The Afar draft Rural Land Administration and drafted. Land use planning for Borana zone revealed NGOs and development agencies. These provide Use Proclamation (2009) recognises, as per the that two of three basins included, where dry season construction and rehabilitation of water points, Constitution, that pastoralists have the right to the grazing areas are vital for pastoral livelihoods, are develop small-scale irrigation and work on capacity- use of grazing land. Further, traditional communal most suited for livestock production – this is possibly building and training. A broad distinction between grazing land cannot be privatised. This seems to the first time a government programme has interventions aiming at long-term development and extend exclusive rights to pastoralists over the use recognised that livestock production is more suitable those of a humanitarian or emergency response of communal rangelands. However, the than crop production in certain areas (Taye nature (Table 3) persists. Given the short-term nature proclamation also says that land is ultimately Alemayehu,6 personal communication). of humanitarian interventions, practitioners tend government and one another. Just as for government, owned by the state and that communal land can be However, the development model for the OCGP towards top-down, technical responses at the approaches run the gamut from conventional privatised and/or given to investors when still aims for ‘voluntary’ settlement of pastoralists in expense of planning, participation and sustainability. technocratic methods to those which are highly considered appropriate and with the consensus of the long term. A total of 2,000km of planned water Limited communication or collaboration between participatory and location-specific. Incoherence in local communities. pipeline to transport water from boreholes to emergency response and development donors and approach to water development and weak linkages • Oromia: The Oromia Rural Land Use and support multiple land uses, coupled with the practitioners also frustrates ambitions for longer- between practitioners creates an environment where Administration Proclamation (2007) largely delineation of livelihood zones with boundaries that term development. However, a few examples of it is easy for inappropriate and poor quality water excludes pastoralists and does not recognise are likely to harden over time, will certainly livelihoods-based emergency interventions are development to go unchecked. communal ownership. The term ‘possession’ is used contribute to curtailed mobility. The OGCP also currently underway in Ethiopia (e.g. USAID’s PLI and in such a way as to focus on individual ownership. emphasises irrigation, including the setting aside of the European Commission (EC)’s Humanitarian Aid Highlighted programmes and projects • SNNPR: The SNNPR Rural Land Administration 36,000 ha for the Fentale I and II irrigation schemes, Department (ECHO)’s Regional Drought Decision This section picks out certain programmes and and Utilisation Proclamation (2007) recognises the with the aim of shifting Kerrayu and Itu pastoralists (RDD)), suggesting the beginnings of a trend among projects being undertaken by development agencies existence of communal land and specifies how it away from dependence on ‘unsustainable’ pastoral certain donors towards ensuring community and NGOs, primarily focussing on innovations being should be registered, with some provisions to production. A need for revision of pastoral land resilience to shock rather than simply providing developed. While it is safe to assume that challenges protect pastoralists. holding systems has been identified, on the grounds emergency relief. Coordination and communication do exist for these projects and programmes as well, • Somali: The regional government is currently in that planned multiple uses of lowlands will be beyond between development-oriented NGOs and the author did not have relevant documentation the process of drafting a new Land Use the management capacity of traditional pastoral development agencies could also be improved, as available at the time of writing. Projects include the Proclamation. institutions (Taye Alemayehu, personal individual organisations usually work in isolation from USAID-funded PLI, the ECHO-funded Regional communication, 2009). The pilot plan also makes In terms of relevant regional strategies, Oromia explicit reference to the tragedy of the commons, regional government is leading the four regions especially with regard to ‘herd management vis-à-vis Table 3 Water development in humanitarian response and development scenarios considered in this study, with at least some attention the carrying capacity of the pastureland’ (OWWDSE, Type Duration Activities Push factors Major donors to the particular challenges encountered in the 2009). However, the OGCP aims to succeed where lowlands evident in its overall growth and previous projects promoting settled forms of Emergency Typically Water trucking Increased incidence of drought Office of US Foreign response 3–6 months and floods and weakened Disaster Assistance development planning. The five-year Oromia Growth livestock production have failed, by providing Rehabilitation capacity to cope, aggravated by (OFDA), Office for the Corridors Plan (OCGP) was prepared in 2006 as a transport, communication, health, education and of water points holistic regional development effort using water as an market information and services besides water. poverty and conflict, firmly Coordination of entry point. By tapping ‘permanent’ groundwater with This model is currently being imported by Somali Construction entrenching the need for Humanitarian Affairs deep wells and developing surface water harvesting, and Amhara regions. SNNPR regional administration of water points reactive emergency response (OCHA) the OGCP aims to open up possibilities for multiple has also expressed interest in adopting such a model Development A year or Rehabilitation Increased awareness that root USAID, European 7 land uses, including livestock production as well as (Kaidaki Gezahegn, personal communication). more of water points causes of vulnerability must be Union (EU), UN irrigation. An important underlying driver in addressed and adaptive capacity Development Construction development of the OGCP was a desire to explore increased to decrease the need Programme (UNDP) the potential for resettlement from the of water points 6. Deputy General Manager of the Oromia Water Works Design for, and dependence on, overpopulated and degraded highlands. and Supervision Enterprise (OWWDSE). emergency response A key feature is the pioneering use of land use 7. Bureau Head, Pastoral Affairs Bureau.

24 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Water development 1991–present 25 Drought Preparedness Programme (RDPP) and the lessons arising from the programme include the programme (18 months), emphasis is placed on the production of this review. Like the PLI and the ECHO GWI, funded by the Howard G. Buffet Foundation. In following: strategic distribution of water points to open up programme, the GWI brings together NGOs to addition, a range of NGOs utilise a number of existing pasture, as opposed to rehabilitating heavily harmonise approaches and increase effectiveness. The innovative approaches, such as geographic information • Community contributions are easier to obtain degraded areas. In order to correctly distance and project aims to ensure that vulnerable populations system (GIS) mapping and local development where customary institutions prioritise the place water points, focus is placed on mapping have reliable access to clean water without committees (LDCs), which bring together traditional intervention, organise the labour and carry out the existing water infrastructure as well as the physical compromising dignity, rights, culture and the natural institutions with local government. work.9 attributes of an area. The mid-term evaluation of the environment (GWI, 2008). The GWI emphasises • Customary institutions are capable of assuming RDPP recommended the mapping techniques be capacity-building and the ‘software’ aspects of water The PLI began in 2005 and is implemented by a responsibility for maintenance and already manage applied across drought preparedness activities in the schemes, and promotes water for multiple uses consortium of international and local NGOs8 a large number of traditional water points. Horn of Africa region (ibid.). However, it also (human consumption, livestock and small-scale (including two of the partners supporting this study) • Harmonisation between NGOs, and with observed that irrigation). In its first phase, the project concentrated in Afar, Oromia (Borana) and Somali regions. The government, is possible through regular on rehabilitating existing water points (wells, ponds, programme is currently in its second phase, PLI II, communication and careful coordination. • Opening up pasture by strategically constructing boreholes, etc.); construction of new schemes was which runs from 2009 to 2013. It reflects the new Programme staff work closely with woreda Water water points carries the risk of permanent also envisaged up to 2011. CARE, under the GWI, has emphasis of the donor, USAID, on taking a livelihoods- Resource Development Offices to identify water settlement and the conversion of rangelands for developed a how-to guide for practitioners to based approach to emergency interventions. Water points in need of rehabilitation and organise farming purposes, and therefore must be planned recognise and avoid water-triggered conflict in water development is undertaken within a broader workshops to bring together NGOs, grassroots very carefully. development planning (Demeke, 2008), and an landscape context, recognising the intricate community groups and local government. Tufts • Very little can be said to date about the direct and Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) relationship between water, pasture and pastoral University organises regional technical indirect impacts of water developments on strategy has been developed (Pankhurst, 2009). mobility and the risks of water-related environmental coordination meetings in Afar and Oromia as fora livelihoods, as impacts on livelihoods are not As recommended by the strategy, CARE and degradation and conflict. Participatory natural for consortium members to inform local monitored. programme partners have established and are resource mapping is used so as to benefit from government on project progress and to harmonise • A large number of water points are non-functional. supporting certain key structures at woreda level and pastoralists’ detailed knowledge of the extent and practice and approach (CARE Ethiopia, 2008). For example, 60% of Somali region’s birkado are below, to facilitate participatory and context- quality of local rangeland resources, users of these Close linkages with the Livestock Policy Forum damaged and unused, calling into question the appropriate planning and monitoring and to enable resources and patterns of use. The maadda is used as under MoARD have been an effective way for the building of new birkado versus rehabilitating exchange of learning. A woreda development the basis. Customary institutions and mobility project to communicate lessons learnt in the field existing structures. coordination committee includes community patterns, as well as physical entities such as pasture for the benefit of a wide audience. • Constructing water pans by mechanical means to representatives (including representatives of and water resources, are identified using community • The PLI is the first project in the rangeland to collect surface water, as practised in the RDPP, is customary institutions and women), representatives feedback. Following this, problems related to natural gauge the impact of interventions on livelihoods, costly and, when not done properly, leads to from local government sector offices and NGOs resources are identified by communities and Kebele through the use of participatory impact structural damage. working locally. This has actively participated in and Associations officials (lowest level of administration) assessments pioneered by Tufts University. • WUAs, which require cash contributions, especially facilitated participatory monitoring sessions to review (who are closely involved and trained to use the for motorised systems, are very often implementation during the pilot phase of the GWI tool), and a community action plan is prepared. The RDPP, begun in 2007, is another example of an unsustainable; organisation of water point and facilitated the identification and prioritisation of Participatory resource mapping is currently being emergency intervention with a livelihoods emphasis in management should be decided by communities interventions and target groups for the longer-term explored for the dheedha level, to better understand the rangelands. Like the PLI, it brings disparate actors themselves if management is to be sustainable. portion of the GWI initiative. This latter role has also broader mobility patterns which can affect and be together to work towards a common goal. The Food • External support should be limited to technical been fulfilled by the community-based participatory affected by water development interventions. and Agriculture Organization (FAO) coordinates the input and the provision of financial facilities to monitoring group, established to ensure New water points are constructed under the PLI, programme, which is implemented by numerous cover costs exceeding the immediate capacity of representative participation of all social groups within but a strong emphasis is put on rehabilitating existing development agencies and NGOs.10 Access to water the community. a community in planning and monitoring, comprising water points, as well as training and contracting local for humans and livestock is a prominent theme, with • Water point designs are often inappropriate and of local leaders, leaders of customary pastoral masons to carry out this task. The PLI also focuses on priority given to traditional, affordable technologies poor quality, suggesting a lack of technical skill. institutions, elders and women. The woreda learning other development needs in the rangelands, including familiar at the local level (Schimann and Philpott, Furthermore, standard technical designs are rarely alliance includes NGOs, community groups and local veterinary health and access to markets. Important 2007). However, given the limited timeframe of the adapted or adjusted to suit the local context. government. This has held three fora to review the experiences and best practice of stakeholders. 8. NGO partners in Phase I included SC-US, Save the Children 9. Community contributions were not initially required by SC-US The GWI, initiated in 2007 and funded by the Through these, partners have harmonised programme UK, the International Rescue Committee (IRC), Agricultural but were introduced following a review of the programme in Afar Howard G. Buffet Foundation, focuses specifically on Cooperative Development International/Volunteers in Overseas region (CARE Ethiopia, 2008). water development as a means of improving pastoral 11. The GWI is also active in the Rift Valley, but this is not a Cooperative Assistance, the Global Livestock Collaborative 10. ECHO partners include DanChurchAid , Save the Children livelihoods. The GWI consortium in Ethiopia is active pastoral area and therefore is outside the scope of this report. Research Support Programme under the Pastoral Risk UK, Action Contre La Faime, Vétérinaires Sans Frontières, FARM The GWI consortium in Ethiopia comprises CARE International, 11 Management project, Tufts University, CARE International, the US AFRICA, Cooperazione Italiana, Caritas/Hararghe Catholic in the Borana zone of Oromia region and is led by Oxfam US and Catholic Relief Services along with local Ethiopian Forest Service and Action for Development. Secretaria, Cordaid and Oxfam GB. CARE International, a partner supporting the NGOs.

26 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Water development 1991–present 27 knowledge and finding avenues of merging modern The German Agency for International Cooperation and traditional methods in ways which empower (GIZ) and SOS Sahel in Ethiopia have pioneered communities, avoid altering traditional well mapping approaches to better understand the management systems and ensure the enhanced location and relation of physical resources (including involvement of women. Management groups received water, pasture and other land), settlements and training on improved water and sanitation practices infrastructure. Lay Volunteers International and on operation, management and maintenance of Association has developed a GIS-based atlas for parts the systems developed. of Borana in Oromia region, which identifies existing water resources, water points and pasture. FAO has Innovative approaches by local NGOs: A decade also produced maps on behalf of the ECHO RDD ago, Pastoralist Concern Association Ethiopia (PCAE) consortium, which identify different land uses, surface introduced the concept of LDCs in Somali region. and groundwater resources, different types of water These are based on traditional institutional structures points, towns, roads and other features. The IRC and are chaired by local elders, but also bring in local conducts comprehensive surveys of all water government for the purpose of dialogue and developments (and functionality) in its areas of work, consensus-building. Clan or sub-clan heads sit on the such as in Mieso, Daro Lebu and Boke woredas in committee to ensure representation from different Oromia region. Such work appears to be influencing allegiances and interests. Once the LDC is formed, a government, as indicated by the Oromia regional mapping exercise takes place which identifies areas government’s promotion of land use maps to guide with water potential and sets criteria for water point development decision-making for the region. Regional site selection. However, according to PCAE, the government in Somali region has also recently put approach is not without challenges, for example together a comprehensive assessment of all existing where community decisions are at odds with the water infrastructure. wishes of local administrations (Abdida’ad Ibrahim,12 personal communication). implementation approaches and identified gaps to be • New developments (deep wells and/or surface addressed, including the need for wider coordination water harvesting systems) in areas where there is among stakeholders in the programme area. no permanent water sources within a short The strategy also recommends that non- distance, including two hand-dug shallow water controversial interventions be prioritised, such as wells and one rock catchment for rainwater water point rehabilitation, rather than new water harvesting; one new deep well is planned, informed points such as permanent or deep wells and large by in-depth technical and socioeconomic capacity water points, which can affect mobility. As a considerations to identify and mitigate impacts on result, the programme focuses mainly on upgrading or mobility and livelihoods; and rehabilitating existing permanent and temporary • Supplementary water supply technologies such as water supply sources, with the aim of improving ten rainwater harvesting systems constructed water quality and access and reducing the time and across five schools. labour required to collect water from source. The CARE team aims to do this based on the decision of In keeping with the strategy’s recommendation to customary water resource management groups. The analyse equity of access to water, with particular pilot and long-term programme includes consideration of women’s concerns and needs, CARE has developed a seasonal calendar through a • Rehabilitation/upgrading of five ponds, four participatory process which identifies basic malfunctioning motorised water supply sources and information on trade, division of labour and access to three traditional wells (increasing water availability, resources by different gender groups disaggregated by efficiency, water point protection and ease of age and sex. access); CARE has also supported the establishment of • Expansion of two already established groundwater community-based groups to manage water supply and supply systems to facilitate access by additional sanitation facilities, once they are developed. These users; have a special focus on building on existing customary 12. Executive Director, PCAE.

28 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Water development 1991–present 29 5 Lessons learnt and ways forward

5.1 Good practice: the practitioners’ Despite widespread agreement on these principles, perspective it should be noted that very little has been done to systematically assess the impacts of water The over 50 interviews held in the course of this development on livelihoods in the rangelands. study led to the identiﬁcation of a set of ‘good Furthermore, as the examples in Section 4 show, practice’ principles, on which there was broad good practice is achieved only in a few instances. agreement (Table 4). Much that occurs in the water development sector

Table 4 ‘Good practice’ principles for water development in pastoral areas Issue Good practice principle Understand the Understand the broader natural resource base and grazing patterns before rangeland context for planning and constructing water points – making water development part effective planning and parcel of natural resource management and recognising that water availability and use affect the way other natural resources are used and managed Understand local contexts and dynamics, including social, political and cultural aspects in a given location Identify existing water points and explore options for rehabilitation to improve what is already there

Rehabilitate and develop In rangelands, select technologies that do not encourage settlement and water points with sensitivity adequately space points to alleviate pressure on any single water point to rangeland dynamics and Couple water development with other pastoral development interventions pastoralists’ needs (e.g. access to markets, veterinary health, rangeland rehabilitation) Promote meaningful engagement with water users in the planning and implementation phase of any interventions and promote the use of participatory/consultative methods, avoiding reliance on external agents

Secure sustainability Strengthen the management, operation and maintenance capacity of water through capacity-building, users and select technologies for which construction materials and spare user contributions and use parts are locally available of customary institutions Understand existing traditional water management systems and strengthen and practices customary institutions, building on their know-how for water scheme management Promote user buy-in and commitment by requiring a labour/cash contribution to construct water points

Lessons learnt and ways forward 31 (in pastoral areas as well as elsewhere) continues to International boundary APD N Platform for integrated water Regional boundary CARE Development Fund follow business as usual based on a technocratic development in Oromia region Regions with large Farm Africa pastoral areas FAO model, with little community participation and little Eritrea Gudina Tumsa Foundation Islamic Relief emphasis on issues beyond putting in place physical The OPDC implements projects focused on 0 50 100 200 300 km Lutheran World Federation Oxfam International infrastructure. The following section reviews the main pastoral livelihoods, often with water delivery ORDA Disclaimer: Tigray SC-Norway components, whereas water and agriculture The designations employed and the SC-UK underlying challenges, as well as expanding on the presentation of material on this map SC-US sectoral bureaus plan and implement water do not imply the expression of any UNICEF above principles. opinion whatsoever on the part of the WELTHUNGERHILFE Secretariat of the United Nations WVE supply and irrigation projects in both pastoral concerning the legal status of any Afar country, territory, city or area or of its and highland regions. In 2009, a structural authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or Amhara 5.2 Unpacking the challenges and amendment was made at regional level to allow boundaries. Djibouti for better coordination between the OPDC and reviewing successes Benishangul sectoral bureaus. A new board was created at Gumuz the behest of the regional president and cabinet, Dire Dawa Fragmentation: an overarching Somalia Addis Ababa to be hosted by the OPDC and to ensure that Harari ACF obstacle to good practice ADRA the strategies and interventions of sectoral CARE An overarching problem, not necessarily picked up on CCM bureaus are better suited to the pastoral CRS Catholic Relief Services-Ethiopia by the principles in Table 4, is fragmentation of Sudan Gambella Oromiya CHF context. Sectoral bureau representatives must CONCERN responsibilities and a lack of overarching COOPI present their intended development plans for Somali Development Fund coordination, which impedes uptake of good practice. Hararghe Catholic Secretariat SNNPR Intermon OXFAM This leads to water interventions that are sectorally pastoral areas during board meetings, and the AFD IRC ADRA Islamic Relief task of the OPDC is to ensure these consider Catholic Relief Service LVIA driven, either for domestic consumption, livestock use EPARDA Ethiopian Pastoralist Research Action for Development Lutheran World Federation Mercy Corps the realities in the region’s lowlands. and Development Association ADRA Mercy Corps Norwegian Church Aid or agriculture. But pastoralists use water for multiple Ethiopian Catholic Church CARE Merlin ORDA Source: Abebe Wolde,13 personal communication. Ethiopian Evangelical Church CCF Netherland Development Oxfam-GB purposes, regardless of the intended purpose of the Farm Africa CDI Organizations Oxfam-International GOAL Christian Aid Norwegian Church Aid PCAE Pastoral Concern Association water point. This is beginning to be recognised by IRC COOPI ORDA Ethiopia Norwegian Church Aid Catholic Agency for Overseas Oromo Self Help Organization Samaritan's Purse many practitioners, who now often construct troughs ORDA Development Oxfam-US Save the Rural Society Samaritan's Purse CISP PRO PRIDE SC-UK intended for livestock watering attached to water SIM Society for International Machinery Kenya CRS SC-US SC-US are all led by different agencies. The sheer number of UNICEF Development Fund TROCAIRE UNICEF WELTHUNGERHILFE Engage New Foundation-ETH UNICEF ZOA Refugee Care points intended for domestic use. Multiple use of coordination groups and fora suggests there is much GOAL WELTHUNGERHILFE Hararghe Catholic Secretariat WVE water is also beginning to be recognised in federal coordination but little harmonisation. Where water is Uganda IRC WVI plans and policies, such as the PASDEP and UAP. In a central topic (such as in coordination fora on access Oromia region, steps are being taken to address the to safe drinking water), discussions concentrate on Figure 5 NGOs and development organisations working (in 2009) on water development in pastoral areas of Ethiopia* sectoral disconnect (see box). However, no common water for human use rather than water for livestock Source: OCHA (2009). guidelines exist for the development of water for or agriculture. productive use in the pastoral context. Partnerships and dialogue between different coordination. There is also interest among multiple coordination groups concerned with Meanwhile, a huge diversity of approaches, tools stakeholders are beginning to emerge outside these humanitarian donors in improving the effectiveness of development and development-oriented emergency and technologies persists between the different formal fora, indicating cross-fertilisation of ideas and emergency interventions by tapping into the relief in pastoral areas serves as a good opportunity actors. The sheer number of NGOs and development approaches between actors. The PSNP is actively experience of development programmes – evidenced to mainstream developed guidelines into practice. agencies working on water development in pastoral promoting knowledge-sharing and partnerships with by the impact assessments produced under USAID’s Section 5.3 presents a preliminary set of these, which areas is shown in Figure 5. Between humanitarian and NGOs to address capacity shortages within govern - PLI to help gauge the effect of emergency relief on could inform the development of comprehensive development practitioners, the diversity arguably ment. Furthermore, at regional level, the OGCP livelihoods and long-term development, identify guidelines. extends to a fundamental difference in aims. invites NGOs and donors to participate in imple - weaknesses and improve practice. This lack of coordination is not lost on the mentation, and regional implementers are learning There is a wide range of guidelines for water Good practice unpacked government and the various development and from NGO experiences in Borana, such as the PLI’s development, participatory mapping and conflict- Understand the rangeland context for humanitarian assistance actors in Ethiopia. Many experience with controlled burning of the rangelands. sensitive planning in Ethiopia and the wider region effective planning coordination groups, fora and consortia have been On the humanitarian front, dialogue between major (Annex 1). These could provide a foundation for The first set of ‘good practice’ principles (Table 4) established to promote communication and common humanitarian donors such as the Humanitarian developing a specific set of guidelines on water for relate to understanding context. The irony of approaches on a wide array of issues (Table 5). Response Fund (HRF) under OCHA and OFDA productive use in pastoral regions. The existence of developing water to satisfy demand is that, as much as However, water issues are then fragmented between under USAID is occurring for the first time, in it can alleviate immediate pressures in the short term, different coordination groups, which are either acknowledgement of the need for better * Institutions represented here work on water supply or it can potentially bring with it lasting and serious irrigation or both in the capacity of relief or long term project-specific or related to particular themes such development. Data compiled from OCHA 3W as well as other negative impacts, when local needs, land use patterns as emergency relief or agriculture/food security, and 13. OPDC Deputy Commissioner. sources. and ecological functions are not sufficiently

32 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Lessons learnt and ways forward 33 are still evident around them. This trend is not limited Table 5 Selected coordination efforts relevant to water and pastoral development in to SNNPR but is observed across regions, for Focus Fora example 60% of Somali Region’s birkado are damaged and unused (Schimann and Philpott, 2007). In Oromia, Emergency relief Overall coordination of emergency interventions led by OCHA a recent survey conducted by the IRC shows that, of Coordination forum for all PLI projects (led by Tufts University)* the 14 boreholes in Daro Lebu woreda in 2005, 12 were functional and 2 non-functional. Of the Coordination forum for all ECHO RDPP projects (led by FAO)* additional 15 boreholes constructed in the same *These have joined, and the joint coordination group is now led by regional woreda since 2005, 7 are non-functional and 8 are agricultural bureaus. functional (Figure 6). Development Coordination group for the Agricultural Growth Programme under the Extremely ambitious water development targets Rural Economic Development and Food Security subgroup of the Donor for water supply, as outlined in the UAP, the PASDEP Assistance Group, led by the World Bank. A livestock/pastoral working and the WSDP (Section 4.3), based in part on meeting subgroup has been formed by MoARD, USAID, FAO, Tufts University and the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets, are EC to promote livestock production as a vehicle for agricultural growth uses through a comprehensive land use mapping and likely to see continued heavy emphasis on planning exercise. infrastructure development at the expense of The Livestock Policy Forum A particularly contentious issue at the intersection sustainability and appropriateness. The policy Coordination group for the PCDP, led by the World Bank of natural and social, economic and political issues is emphasis on outputs is shared by project reporting the tension between settled agriculture (particularly systems, which currently focus on reporting numbers Coordination group for the PSNP, led by the World Bank with a taskforce irrigation) and ‘mobile livelihoods’ such as of schemes built at the expense of measuring quality for pastoral areas pastoralism. To enable understanding on the topic of or effectiveness. For example, one report which water use for irrigation in the Ethiopian context, a states that ’10 wells were improved’ does not say Natural resource Initially supported under the ELSE/ELMT programme, the Natural Resource separate undertaking is recommended on how the anything about accessibility, availability, affordability, management Management Technical Working Group, currently housed in SC-US, is made expansion of irrigated agriculture will enhance or quality and acceptance – the five standard indicators up of members from NGOs, government (federal, regional and local), donors handicap local livelihoods. Detailed economic analysis of service provision (MoARD, 2008). and development agencies. It provides a forum for information and is required to determine whether it is more In this light, it is especially important to consider experience exchange, including, potentially, on water. Currently, sub-groups profitable as well as socially beneficial, for the state the potential for rehabilitating existing facilities, rather are being established at regional and/or zonal levels and for local people, to develop land for irrigation, to than developing yet more new ones without sufficient maintain and improve rangelands for pastoral Regions/zones Multiple theme-based coordination groups, led by regional or zonal resourcing to ensure their sustainability. The current livestock production or to explore a combination of government. lack of coherence in approach is recognised by all the two. Having said this, several authors argue that Source: Gijs Van’t Klooster14 and Fiona Flintan15 (personal communication, 2009). regardless of the profits to be had from farming, ‘the economic losses and social costs of declining Functional Non-functional considered. It can potentially undermine rather than Water development is still largely worked on as a pastoral production often outweigh it’ (Scott-Villiers, 16 promote development and sustainable livelihoods. standalone issue divorced from broader natural 2006)16. This together with documented experience Water in pastoral regions is part of the broader resource management and broader development. which shows that lowlands require a different 14 natural resource base, and decisions related to water Some actors have begun to address this disconnect. approach to water development than agricultural 12 among pastoralists are de facto decisions related to The government’s PSNP aims to understand areas where rainfall is less spatially and temporally 10 pasture. Pastoralism as a livelihood is a highly evolved customary natural resource use and the type and variable. economic, social, cultural and political response to a extent of different natural resources in specific areas, Pre-existing water developments are also an 8 landscape where natural resources are variable in including degraded landscapes, as well as existing important part of the context. Ethiopia is still littered 6 Number of boreholes space and time. Insufficient attention to how customary resource management systems. It does so with non-functional and disused water points, and 4 pastoralists use and manage natural resources within through the use of participatory natural resource conflict, settlement and environmental degradation this broader livelihood context, and lack of a mapping, which allows practitioners to get a feel for 2 coherent and streamlined approach to water local needs and concerns. The PLI uses a similar 0 16. The Reinforcement of Pastoral Civil Society in Africa project is Built pre-2005 Built post-2005 development, often results in water interventions approach, and the OGCP is working to increase underway to encourage fairer, more balanced treatment of (2005 survey) (2009 survey) which contribute to the disruption of elaborate and understanding of existing natural resources and land pastoralism as an important contributor to development and the highly developed natural resource management economy, targeting government partners and civil society up to Figure 6 Functionality of boreholes in Daro Lebu woreda, 14. FAO. 2011, and led by the Feinstein International Center (Tufts systems, unsustainable land use and heightened 15. ELSE/ELMT and Natural Resource Management Technical University) in partnership with the International Institute for Oromia region Source: in-house surveys conducted by IRC potential for conflict. Working Group. Environment and Development (IIED). in 2005 and 2009

34 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Lessons learnt and ways forward 35 representative of the different social, livelihood, development with other pastoral development wealth, age, religious and gender groups. interventions (e.g. access to markets, veterinary • Lack of clarity over what ‘participation’ entails health, rangeland rehabilitation). (how and to what extent different interests are to The third priority in this regard is a thorough be involved) means multiple approaches to understanding of context to select and place water increasing participation, with little dialogue to share points so they do not encourage settlement or experience on what does and does not work. overuse, either of water or pasture. Very little has • Increased involvement of communities in been done to date to systematically track impacts of management and maintenance has not been water development on livelihoods, but trial and error matched by increased involvement in planning, over many years has created more awareness on the making it harder to secure buy-in and increasing negative impacts of poorly planned water the risk of disrupting social and ecological patterns. interventions, especially in terms of large-capacity or • Limited capacity-building for communities and permanent water points. In Ethiopia, researchers have groups acting on their behalf (e.g. WUAs) identified negative consequences related to size and undermines attempts to involve and transfer capacity of water points since the 1980s, most ownership. Indicators focus on physical notably since the RDP of the late 1970s. These interventions, with little understanding of how to include settlement around water points; appearance measure capacities built. of competing land uses, such as agriculture in rangeland areas; other forms of privatisation, such as By prioritising communities and individuals fencing portions of the rangelands for private use expressing their own concerns, ambitions and needs, (seen by some as an attempt to buffer the rangelands water may emerge as only one development priority against conversion for crop production); among several in the rangelands. Consultation for the overconcentration of livestock around water points; PCDP found water and pasture development were range degradation; excessive and uncontrolled use of top priorities for pastoralists; for agro-pastoralists water infrastructure leading to breakage and water (who more often have secure access to water), health shortages; deforestation for charcoal production; posts and schools were more often cited as priorities reduction of available palatable perennial grass; over- (Assaye Legesse,17 personal communication). The abstraction and lowering of the water table; actors as an impediment to sustainable development negative impacts on the environment were those OGCP recognises that an integrated development salinisation and salt-water intrusion; and conflict over in the rangelands. However, some donors, impositions which increasingly and cumulatively approach which addresses other crucial needs such as the control of water points (Gomes, 2006). development organisations and government eroded the rights of individuals and communities to access to markets and health facilities, among other There is increasing recognition of these programmes (such as the PCDP) are beginning to use and manage their own resources’ (MoWR, 2002). services, is indispensable if livelihoods are to be implications by government, donors, NGOs and rehabilitate existing water points as a cost-effective Grassroots participation is clearly enshrined in protected and improved. A second priority for pastoral communities themselves. The GWI’s recently means of availing water, and also as a way to avoid Ethiopia’s Constitution, and since 1991 an increasing interventions sensitive to rangeland dynamics is developed IWRM strategy for Borana zone notes that disrupting mobility patterns and disagreement over emphasis on community participation has been therefore to consider the development needs of permanent water points constructed in the new water points. observed in policies, strategies and programmes different stakeholders, potentially coupling water rangelands are likely to affect mobility (Pankhurst, relating to water development in pastoral areas (and 2009), originally pointing to deep wells and Rehabilitate and develop water points elsewhere). However, while there has been important permanent ponds but now also including birkado. with sensitivity to rangeland dynamics and progress, more can be done to ensure local contexts Originally intended as temporary water catchments, pastoralists’ needs are understood and considered; land users are birkado now often function as year-round water With a proper understanding of context, it is then involved to guide and inform what is and is not sources thanks to continuous refilling via water necessary to design and implement water appropriate; and existing customary land management trucking, especially in Somali region (Beruk Yemane18 development interventions so the needs of strategies are built on. Persistent challenges are as and Ced Hesse,19 personal communications). Even pastoralists (and other stakeholders) are met, without follows: though much birkado construction was (and is) disturbing the complex environmental, social and instigated by pastoralists, pastoralists themselves have economic dynamics of the rangelands (Table 4). A first • Inadequate definition of ‘community’, insufficient become more aware of their negative impacts and fundamental principle is to ensure water users are regard for local economic, social and political engaged meaningfully from the early planning stages. factors and inappropriate intervention scales (e.g. 17. Senior Agricultural Economist, World Bank, Ethiopia The WSDP highlights that ‘the most important policy not commensurate with livelihood zones) 18. Oxfam GB Pastoral Programme Coordinator. and regulatory interventions in terms of their jeopardise selection of community members 19. IIED Principal Researcher, Climate Change Group.

36 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Lessons learnt and ways forward 37 also vocal about ways to mitigate them. Gomes for grazing is likely to be reduced (especially key dry more effort into the software aspect of interventions, entities retaining a set of characteristics described in (2006) notes that xeer (traditional agreements season grazing areas), pastoral access to rivers to including building local capacity to operate and historical texts. between elders of structurally distant groups on the become further obstructed, exacerbating water manage schemes. However, these are dwarfed by A final principle widely identified as good practice ethnic Somali genealogical charter) have emerged in problems, and mobility to be further undermined. much more widespread short-term emergency relief is to seek contributions of labour and/or cash for parts of Somali to limit the establishment of new Finding common ground between national, regional, projects. The short-term nature of the latter, where water developments. The government’s PCDP water sources around existing settlements as well as sub-regional and local priorities will be essential to projects are typically up to six months in duration, requires a community contribution of 15%, 5% of in wet season grazing areas. MoFA’s PCDP highlights ensure national economic growth can occur puts pressure on implementing agencies to address which is expected in cash. Cash contributions are that smaller temporary water catchments are more unimpeded but without compromising sustainable water shortages and meet targets at the expense of usually harder to secure than labour. Here again, suitable in wet season grazing areas to avoid development that responds to local needs. appropriate planning and ensuring sustainability, which traditional institutions can help – the PLI Phase I settlement and its associated problems. It also requires much more time. Proper planning, prior to found that contributions were easier to justify and emphasises the rehabilitation of existing water points, Secure sustainability through capacity- any new physical interventions, is itself likely to take obtain where such institutions had a strong role in where possible. MoWR’s WSSP recognises the building, user contributions and use of six months (Warner and Abate, 2005). A nascent organising the work. However, consideration should negative impacts associated with large capacity water customary institutions and practices trend is the introduction of a longer-term livelihoods also be given to the cost recovery policy of other points in the rangelands, recommending that points Even the most carefully planned, designed and approach to humanitarian interventions as seen under programmes in the area. For example, there remains a not exceed a size which waters a maximum of 4,500 implemented interventions will fail if adequate USAID’s PLI and ECHO’s RDPP (Section 4.5), which fundamental difference between the government’s cattle a day and be spaced about 20km apart. attention is not given to issues of sustainability. Table focus on rehabilitation and simple water PCDP and PSNP (which overlap in nine woredas). The Nevertheless, water developments promoting the 4’s third set of principles are not afterthoughts that infrastructure in areas outside settlements. Such PSNP pays cash for public works whereas the PCDP sedentarisation of pastoralists continue to be can be left until water developments have taken place. projects increasingly promote rehabilitating existing entails a mandatory 5% cash contribution from observed in Ethiopia, as we have seen. Rather, they need to be considered from the earliest water infrastructure (especially in more complex communities for all infrastructure developments. The current strategic policy direction, including stages. Unless capacity to operate, manage and schemes). Where cash for work is the common practice, it is continued prioritisation of irrigation and the maintain water points locally is prioritised actively in Developing effective structures for user difficult to secure monetary contributions (dialogue expansion of agriculture in the rangelands, is perhaps project planning, the proliferation of unsustainable management, operation and maintenance can be has begun between the PSNP and PCDP to iron out the most important driver. If government policy and and inappropriate water points is likely to continue. facilitated by increasing links to existing, customary differences in approach – Belayhun Hailu,21 personal strategy objectives remain as they are, land available Development-oriented projects have begun to put institutions. Similarly, utilising traditional water communication). Established programmes often set technologies that are familiar to users could build on the bar for the maximum communities will contribute an existing repository of know-how, as well as (Behnke et al., 2008). Diversity in community increasing the likelihood that construction materials contribution requirements is especially large among and spare parts (if applicable) will be available. The NGOs, which may perceive this issue as a way to PSNP explicitly recognises traditional institutions, establish a niche in the face of competition for donor including the Gaada system in Oromia, the Guurti and funds and community attention. clan elders in Somali and the Medaa20 in Afar, and aims to ensure representatives are consulted in the identification of beneficiaries and their knowledge on 5.3 Recommendations rangeland and water issues is used to ensure public works are compatible with extensive livestock Picking up on the principles outlined above, this production. It should be noted, however, that section presents a preliminary set of guidelines for customary institutions may not represent all water development in pastoral areas, based primarily livelihood groups in a given area (Muir, 2007), and on three existing sets of guidelines, used as an often do not represent the needs and views of example to kick-start dialogue (MoARD, 2008; women. Some form of hybrid arrangement may be Thorne, 2009; Warner and Abate, 2005). This is not more appropriate, combining traditional structures meant to be prescriptive, but rather is intended to set with others such as water user and pastoral the stage for potential further discussion towards an associations. A further issue which requires further agreed set of guidelines. Discussion among key exploration is the fact that customary institutions stakeholders in the water development sector in have evolved with time – whereas development Ethiopia can be envisioned to result in a full set of practitioners often view these institutions as fossilised common guidelines for water development in the

20. Customary institution in Afar region. 21. Senior Ofﬁcer, Knowledge Management and Participatory Learning Unit of the PCDP Program

38 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Lessons learnt and ways forward 39 pastoral context, flexible enough to allow for and vulnerable groups. Participatory natural limited. In all cases, careful attention should be and non-pastoralists (e.g. immigrants, Internally context-specific planning. Use of these guidelines resource mapping can be used to understand the given to the potential for conflict between Displaced Persons, refugees) as well as should be streamlined through existing coordination extent and quality of existing pasture and water existing users and potential new users attracted vulnerable groups and women. Committees fora on development and emergency interventions in and different land use patterns. Once generated, to an increased water supply; should also be expected to report on progress pastoral regions. maps provide a visual device around which planners • Development of new water points. This option to the wider community and to local and community representatives can discuss should be reserved for instances where the government. Planning concerns and needs regarding water, within a above options have been exhausted and the • Such committees should build on and strengthen Local needs and opportunities need to be understood need for and potential impacts of introducing existing customary resource management during the planning stage of any water intervention, new water points has been carefully evaluated, systems rather than importing new systems with paid attention to context and existing water with remedial measures identified to tackle external to the pastoral context. Customary systems (and their management structures). The negative effects. Planners should explain the systems and institutions have often developed as planning stage is critical and often requires available technological options and help tried and tested responses to the context and considerable time and effort (six to twelve months communities, through a process of dialogue and culture, and can therefore help to diffuse or for long-term interventions22) to ensure an knowledge-sharing, to select the most suitable prevent conflict over water. At the same time, intervention is appropriate, will satisfy demand and technology to satisfy local needs. This requires customary systems and institutions are often will be sustainable in the long term. Key components attention to cost, hydrological and geological poorly understood, and are constantly evolving. are as follows: context, expressed needs and capacities of the Moreover, a combination of formal management community, familiarity and simplicity of the committees and customary institutions is • Stakeholder mapping: A comprehensive technology and local availability of construction recommended, as the latter on its own may not stakeholder analysis at local level can help in materials, spare parts and technical support. The reflect the full constituency in an area and may understanding who the different potential resource placement and capacity of water points also not be representative of non-pastoral groups users are (the ‘community’ who will benefit) and should be discussed thoroughly with (Muir, 2007). also who may stand to gain or lose from water stakeholders. • Cost recovery: To enhance community interventions (e.g. upstream and downstream users commitment to maintaining the water point and along rivers). As part of this process, exploration of In addition, consideration should be given to the ensure it is sustainable beyond the lifetime of the current access patterns to water is recommended, potential for the project to address other project, a community contribution of cash and/or to identify local customary institutions and development needs such as human and livestock labour towards construction or rehabilitation of representatives and understand existing water health and access to markets, either directly (funds water points is recommended. management strategies and relationships between permitting) or in partnership with other programmes. • Training: Local community members (e.g. water groups. Engaging with community leaders in an area management committee members and local is important to avoid conflict over water points. It Implementation artisans) should be trained in construction, is also important to identify local non-pastoral Implementation can be regarded as effectively being a management, operation and maintenance to embed groups and those not represented by customary broader landscape/natural resource management continuation of the planning process, building on capacity at the local level. institutions (e.g. immigrants, Internally Displaced context. A sound assessment of demand for water participation and dialogue already established. Persons, refugees). should also be undertaken, based on human and Sustainability • Community involvement and participation: livestock population estimates (if available) as well • Management arrangements: It is essential to To ensure sustainability of schemes once built, the Participatory methods of community engagement as local authority records, and should establish clear and equitable management systems following is recommended: should be used to identify local concerns and accommodate projected change in demand. for water points at the earliest stage of needs, with room for dialogue and negotiation • Project type: Three basic forms of intervention implementation (potentially at the planning stage, • Continuing to assist communities to operate between planners and communities on the most can be considered: building on prospective users’ participation in schemes for some time after project completion if suitable type/placement/size of water points. These • Removal of existing inappropriate water sources. planning processes). needed; approaches will also enhance buy-in and commit - Water points may be inappropriate for many • Communities should be assisted to establish • Helping communities to prepare a plan outlining ment at the local level. Planners should engage reasons, including being beyond the financial or water management committees (or variations routine maintenance and repairs which should be with local groups representative of the different technical capacity of local people to use or thereof), representative of all groups with a stake accepted and followed; resource users in the area, including customary repair or being placed in contentious locations; in the development. Committees should help • Encouraging water management committees to institutions. Groups should also reflect the different • Rehabilitation of non-functional or poorly define and manage water interventions. To avoid report to the community and possibly to local wealth strata in the community and include women performing points. Increased attention to the misuse of the water point, it is imperative that government technical bureaus; potential for rehabilitation is especially water management committees be seen by the • Promoting and enhancing linkages between 22. This may be shorter if there is an existing relationship important in the case of emergency wider community as a credible entity which communities, local government and the private between the implementing organization and the community. interventions, where the project lifecycle is represents all user groups, including pastoralists sector so potential challenges related to water

40 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas Lessons learnt and ways forward 41 References

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44 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas References 45 Annex 1: National strategies and laws inﬂuencing development in pastoral areas

Policy/strategy Relevance to pastoral development Policy/strategy Relevance to pastoral development Poverty Reduction Emphasises irrigation development in the lowlands and supports the long-term Poverty Reduction Emphasises irrigation development in the lowlands and supports the long-term Strategy Paper vision of sedentary livelihoods for pastoralists Strategy Paper vision of sedentary livelihoods for pastoralists (PRSP) (2001) (PRSP) (2001) Mentions mobile service provision (e.g. health and education) to accommodate Mentions mobile service provision (e.g. health and education) to accommodate mobile pastoralism in the interim mobile pastoralism in the interim Acknowledges the importance of integrating drinking water supply with pasture, Acknowledges the importance of integrating drinking water supply with pasture, encouraging promotion and construction of ponds and other water harvesting encouraging promotion and construction of ponds and other water harvesting technologies and construction of water points close to range resources technologies and construction of water points close to range resources Recognises that pastoralists possess important traditional knowledge that should be Recognises that pastoralists possess important traditional knowledge that should be considered and brought on board to make national policy more relevant for considered and brought on board to make national policy more relevant for pastoral regions pastoral regions

Plan for Accelerated Guides all development activities from 2006 to 2010 Ethiopian Water Developed to address the lack of a comprehensive water resource management and Sustained Resources strategy and ambiguous or unattainable targets and plans Echoes the PRSP in terms of emphasis on irrigation development in the lowlands as Development to End Management Policy well as the long-term vision of sedentary livelihoods for pastoralists Recognises livestock water as an integral part of water sector and emphasises its Poverty (PASDEP) (1999) importance for lowland areas (2006) Deeper discussion of pastoralism-related issues as compared with the PRSP, e.g. recognises that mobility and livestock are central to the pastoral system and that Promotes decentralised water management, emphasising clear roles, strong vertical restricted mobility disrupts livelihoods links and capacity-building. Encourages meaningful participation through structures including WUAs Recognises that formal institutions have limited understanding of pastoral communal range management strategies, which is a challenge for pastoral livelihoods In terms of irrigation, promotes medium- to large-scale irrigation for food security at national level and small-to medium-scale projects for household-level food Rural Development Since agricultural development is earmarked as a central economic growth strategy, security; calls for co-existence of irrigation projects with indigenous peoples Policies, Strategies guides development in rural areas to achieve rapid growth in the agricultural sector, and Instruments principally through crop cultivation Federal Rural Land Supports the private holding of land, be it for individual farmers to claim agricultural (RDPS) (2001) Law (2005) land or for pastoralists to claim a portion of the rangelands In pastoral areas, short- and medium-term strategies focus on availing water for Does not recognise the rationale of traditional communal landholding livestock production, with little mention of how this should be approached. In the long term, pastoralism is seen as an unsustainable livelihood and sedentarisation is Draft Policy Calls for recognition of needs of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in all national encouraged with irrigated agriculture as a core livelihood activity Statement for the policy and planning frameworks, including in relation to climate change and local Sustainable governance Recognises the value of strengthening customary land management practices as well Development of Envisions a long-term ‘gradual and voluntary transition towards permanent as the value of local pastoral knowledge. Participation is mentioned explicitly Pastoral and Agro- settlement especially along the perennial river banks’, supported by water pastoral Areas of harvesting and multi-purpose dams for irrigation Ethiopia (2008)

Sources: MoFED (2001; 2006); MoI (2001); MoWR (1999).

46 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Areas Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas 47 Pastoral development projects with encouraging settlement and overgrazing (World Bank, Annex 2: implications for water development 2008). The PCDP: In terms of specific pastoral development programmes, the PCDP is a $60 million, The PSNP-PAP: MoARD, meanwhile, has more Major government water and pastoral 15-year, 3-phase project, launched in 2001 by MoFA, recently turned its attention to pastoral livelihoods which was developed in response to failed top-down under its PNSP, which was originally launched in 2005 development programmes interventions in pastoral areas. The PCDP is jointly as part of the Food Security Programme. The overall funded by the Ethiopian government, the World Bank emphasis is on increasing food security to reduce and the International Fund for Agricultural reliance on food aid (World Bank, 2009b). The PAP Water development programmes with Within the WSDP, sub-programmes focus Development (IFAD), and emphasises the World was integrated into the PSNP in 2007, working in implications for pastoral development respectively on water supply and sanitation and Bank’s Community-driven Development approach areas including nine woredas in Somali, six in Afar, The UAP: The flagship national programme for irrigation. The WSSDP promotes stakeholder (CDD),23 along with the use of tools such as three in Oromia and three in SNNPR, with the aim of water supply development, the UAP was launched in participation throughout water point development Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)24 (Assaye developing guidelines for scaled-up implementation. 2005, with the objective of providing access to safe and subsequent operation and maintenance. It focuses Legesse,25 personal communication) to promote The PSNP-PAP includes a number of important water to 98% of the rural population by 2012. The on hardware, relying principally on groundwater participation. Local communities are meant to be innovations with regard to working in pastoral areas, UAP envisages a major focus on hardware (deep wells, hand-dug wells and spring development) responsible for project design, implementation and including (MoARD, 2007a) construction, with 110,460 new rural water supply for Afar, Oromia, SNNPR and Somali. Use of domestic management, and receive technical training for these schemes planned between 2009 and 2012 – water supply for livestock is discouraged unless there roles. MSTs are to work closely with communities to • Timing projects according to seasonality of lowland implementation guidelines are only currently being are no surface sources available nearby, in which case assess and address capacity gaps and to act as livelihoods; drafted. Pastoral areas are not explicitly recognised, cattle troughs may be constructed at domestic water facilitators between the community and sectoral • Public works to be developed in the context of nor are the different needs of mobile and sedentary sources. Additional interventions include river-based experts at regional/woreda level (Assaye Legesse, livelihood and landscape zones rather than political communities. User participation is envisaged, but water schemes for Somali, and birkado and ponds for personal communication). However, the project demarcations such as kebeles, and with attention to selection criteria for user committees are based on livestock in SNNPR. The IDP also saw an increased completion report for Phase I (implemented 2003– settlement and mobility patterns; criteria imported from the highlands, leaving potential target, in line with the PASDEP, for development of an 2008) notes that MSTs were overstretched, and the • Involvement of traditional institutions, such as the for conflict with lowland customary institutions and additional 430,000 ha of irrigated land by 2010, to be community-driven approach was not able to meet Gada system in Oromia, to increase understanding social structures. In the past five years, Multiple Use achieved through a mix of federal large-scale schemes high expectations (World Bank, 2009a). of, for example, the potential impacts of public Water Services (MUS) principles have been promoted (roughly half the total) and regional small- to medium- Community consultation has nonetheless seen works on pastoral livelihoods; and to meet water demand for both domestic and scale schemes. A total of 83% of investment for the water emerge as a priority issue, especially for • The use of natural resource and socioeconomic productive uses (Faal et al., 2009), for example by latter category is targeted at four regions, including pastoralists, for whom it ranks equal first with mapping and analysis. constructing livestock troughs around water points Oromia and SNNPR with their significant pastoral pasture. However, while interventions are demand- designed for human supply. Multiple uses are currently populations (MoWR, 2002). driven, water point technologies are selected by the A progress report in 2008 indicates that, despite mentioned the UAP (as well as the PASDEP), though woreda water bureau, depending on water resources these bold innovations, familiar problems have arisen only briefly. The WSSP: A final important MoWR-led and funds available and the agro-ecological context. around recruiting and retaining competent staff, intervention is the WSSP, which aims to construct Social and environmental impacts are also meant to insufficient engagement with target communities and The WSDP: The ambitious UAP targets have been 5,500 community-managed schemes in rural areas, be considered, but this occurs only rarely (World weak coordination, reporting and information-sharing. incorporated into MoWR’s WSDP, a 15-year including Afar, Somali, Oromia and SNNPR (MoWR, Bank, 2009a). Phase II is currently underway (2008- Such lessons were not necessarily being heeded as programme commencing in 2002. Although ‘soft’ 2009). In 2006, two years into the programme, it was 2013) and aims to increase the emphasis on political pressure mounted to roll out the PSNP in components such as participation and local capacity- realised that special implementation guidelines were understanding social dynamics, measuring social and pastoral areas. building are mentioned in the WSDP, there is a risk required for pastoral areas (Giovannetti, 2006). These livelihoods impacts and financing small schemes such that these will be trumped by pressure to deliver on guidelines recognise different settlements according as hand-dug wells, birkado and hafir dams, to avoid the ‘hard’ outputs of new water supply schemes. to levels of pastoralist presence, the importance of the negative consequences of larger schemes such as Pastoralists are mentioned explicitly at points within mobility and risks related to sedentarisation, over- the WSDP, and provision of water for livestock in sized schemes and importing solutions from the nomadic areas is listed as one of six priorities. highlands. While these are important considerations, 23. The World Bank broadly defines CDD as an approach which and address local problems’ by working together with local gives community groups and local government control over government and other institutions (Dongier et al., 2002). However, there is little clarity on how exactly their the guidelines nonetheless appear to follow the planning and investment decisions and operates on ‘the principles 24. Distinguished by ‘the use of local graphic representations needs are to be met. Participation through the conventional wisdom that selection and placement of of local empowerment, participatory governance, demand created by the community that legitimize local knowledge and involvement of community organisations is water points should be guided by technical and cost responsiveness, administrative autonomy, greater downward promote empowerment’ (http://www.iisd.org/casl/caslguide/ encouraged, with special attention to the potential considerations, rather than by potential impact on accountability, and enhanced local capacity’. It also states that pra.htm). ‘given clear rules of the game, access to information, and 25. Senior Agricultural Economist, Rural Development, interaction of community institutions and local interactions between local people, livestock and appropriate capacity and financial support, poor men and women World Bank. government. landscape. can effectively organize in order to identify community priorities

48 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Areas Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Aareas 49 Annex 3: Water development guidelines

Common, agreed-on guidelines for water Standards in Disaster Response), which include a development in pastoral areas do not exist in section on water, sanitation and hygiene;26 Ethiopia. This frustrates moves towards streamlining • Guidelines for the development of small-scale rural practice in the water development arena. However, water supply and sanitation projects in East Africa. there are a number of existing guidelines on water, This set of guidelines was funded by USAID and participatory mapping and conflict-sensitive planning. produced by Catholic Relief Services (Warner and These may prove useful as a foundation on which to Abate, 2005); build a broadly applicable set of guidelines for water • Introductory volume and guidelines on development for productive use, which are versatile participatory rangeland management, lead by SC- enough to allow context-specific planning in pastoral US and the ELSE/ELMT Technical Working Group. rangelands. These include the following: These documents present a process of participatory rangeland management built on the • Implementation guidelines for water supply, success of participatory forest management, so sanitation and hygiene projects in pastoral areas providing a framework for community-led land use (Giovannetti, 2006). Developed by MoWR, these planning and resource management in pastoral guidelines are meant to guide the PCDP’s and areas (Flintan and Cullis, 2010). WSSP’s water interventions for domestic use, but • Guidelines on participatory resource mapping, provisions are also made for livestock watering; developed independently by the government’s • National guidelines for livestock relief interventions PSNP and also by USAID’s PLI. These can be used in pastoralist areas of Ethiopia (MoARD, 2008). to help plan water development interventions in a Developed by MoARD, this set of guidelines manner which is highly context-specific. A includes a subsection on emergency provision of published version of these guidelines is being water to livestock as well as guidelines on produced by SC-US as part of a series of guidelines participatory natural resource mapping; for practitioners focusing on aspects of • The Livestock Emergency Guidelines and participatory rangeland management; Standards. This international set of guidelines, • Guidelines for conflict-sensitive programming, developed in 2009, includes a subsection on the developed by CARE Ethiopia for pastoral areas in minimum standards for the provision of water Borana zone, Oromia region, under the GWI Save the Children USA (Thorne, 2009); programme (Demeke, 2008). This set of guidelines Ethiopia Country Office • The international humanitarian Sphere guidelines has relevance in multiple pastoral settings and can PO Box 387, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Sphere Humanitarian Charter and Minimum help to inform water development planning. Tel: +251 (0)11 372 84 55

www.savethechildren.net

Overseas Development Institute 203 Blackfriars Road, London SE1 8NJ, UK Tel: +44 (0)20 7922 0300 Email: [email protected]

26. http://www.sphereproject.org/. www.odi.org.uk

50 Water Development in Ethiopia’s Pastoral Areas