AMERICAN EDUCATION AS SEEN

IN PERIOriCAL LITERATURE

1956 - 1958

DISSERTATION

Presented in Fartial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Py

David tord Martin, R.Sc., M.A.

Ohio S tate U niversity 1959

Approved by i i

ACKNOXEDGMHfT

The author wishes to express h is in ­ debtedness to Dr. Robert E. Jewett for his encouragement and counsel in making this dissertation possible. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page LIST OF T A B L E S ...... ▼

INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Chapter I . DEFINITION AND AUDIENCE OF MASS M E D IA ...... 8

Definition of Maas M edia ...... 8 Audience of Mass Media ...... 10 R a d i o ...... 10 T e l e v i s i o n ...... 11 N ew sp a p ers...... 11 M agazines ...... 12 B o o k s...... 14 Motion Pictures ...... 16 Multi-Exposure to Media ...... 16

I I . FUNCTIONS OF MASS M E D IA ...... 18

The Entertainm ent Function ...... 18 The Commercial Function...... 21 The C ouncil F u n c t i o n ...... 24 The E ducational F u n c t i o n ...... 28 The Status-Conferring Function • ...... 31 The Inform ation F u n c t i o n ...... 33 The Enforcement of Social Norms Function .... 35 The Homogenizing F u n c t io...... n 36 Dysfunction ...... 43

I I I . THE SELECTION OF MEDIA, MEDIA SAMPLE AND TIME SPAN FOR CONTENT A N A LY SIS...... 47

National A vailability ...... 47 N ew sp a p ers...... 48 Radio and T e l e v i s i o n ...... 61 Motion Piotures ...... 52 B o o k s ...... 64 M a g a z in e s...... 64 National Influence ...... 66 Relative Influence of Magazines and Books • . 56 Relative Influence of Magazines and the Other Mass M e d i a ...... 69 Seleotion of a Magazine Sample for Analysis . . . 70 Circulation Leaders ...... 70 Information B earers ...... 76 Homan's M agazines...... 82 Status Leaders ...... 83 The Amerioan M ercury...... 88 Selection of a Time Span for A nalysis...... 89 ir TABLE OF CONTENTS (Contd.J

Chapter Page IV. THE DEFINITION OF CONTENT ANALYSIS AND THE SELECTION OF CATEGORIES...... 93

Content A nalysis ...... 93 Categories of Analysis ...... 96 P u r p o s e ...... 96 E v a lu a t io n ...... 97 Themes in Amerioan E d u c a tio n...... 99 Jeffersonian-tTacksonlan...... 101 Nativiat-Humanist ...... 108 Utilitarian-Liberal A r ts ...... 119 Individualism -G roupIsm ...... 131

V. PURPOSE OF PERIODICAL LITERATURE ON AMERICAN EDUCATION ...... 141

Clroulation Leaders ...... 142 Information Bearers...... 146 Women's M a g a z in e s...... 156 Status Leaders ...... 161 Sum m ary...... 165

V I. EVALUATION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION IN PERIODICALS . . . 168

Clroulation Leaders ...... 168 Information Bearers ...... 177 Women's M a g a z in e s...... 187 Status Leaders...... 193 Summary...... 199

V II. THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION IN PERIODICALS...... 202

Circulation Leaders ...... 203 Information Bearers ...... t e l Women's M a g a z in e s...... 266 Status Leaders ...... 271 Sum m ary...... 286

V III. CONCLUSION...... 290

PERIODICAL SAMPLE...... 300

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 346 AUTOBIOGRAPHY ...... 364 ▼ LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1* Clroulation Leaders—In Rank Order Having a Clroulation of 500,000 or M ore...... • 76

2. Status Leaders—Rank Order of Circulation of Magazines Assessed as Opinion Leaders ...... 86

5* Summary Comparison of Total Sample and Sample Classifications With Magazines over 500,000 C lro u la tio n and A ll General M a g a z in e s...... 87

4* Purpose of Articles on Anerioan Education— Circulation Leaders ...... 145

5. Purpose of Articles on American Education-- Lnfonation Bearers ...... 147

6* Purpose of Articles on American Education— Wonen'e Magazines ...... 157

7. Purpose of Articles on American Education— Status Leaders ...... 162

8. Purpose of Articles on Anerioan Education— Summary P ercentages ...... 167

9. Evaluation of Anerioan Education— Circulation Leaders ...... 169

10. Evaluation of American Education— Inform ation Bearers ...... 175

11. Evaluation of Amerioan Education— Women's Magazines ...... 169

12. Evaluation of American Education— Status Leaders and American Mercury ...... • 195

13. Evaluation of American Education—Summary ..... 198

14. Jeffersonian-Jacksonian Themes in American Education—Circulation L eaders...... 204

15. Nativist-Humanist Themes in Amerioan Education—Circulation Leaders ...... 210

16. U tilita r ia n -L ib e r a l Arts Themes in American Education--Circulation Leaders ...... 220

17. Individualism-Groupism Themes in Anerioan Education—Ciroulation L eaders...... 226 vi LIST OF TABLES (C ontd.)

Table Page

18. Jeffersonian-Jacksonian Themes in American Education—Information Bearers ...... 233

1 9 . N a tiv lst-H u n a n ist Themes in Amerioan Education--Information Bearers ...... 238

20. Utilitarian-Liberal Arts Themes in Amerioan Eduoation--lnformation Bearers ...... 247

21. Individualism-Groupism Themes in Amerioan Educ at ion— Information B ea r e rs...... 254

22. Jeffersonian-Jacksonian Themes in American E ducation—Women's M agazines ...... 258

2 3 . N ativist-H u m an ist Themes in American Education—Women's Magazines > ...... 261

24. U tilita r ia n -L ib e r a l Arts Themes in American Education—Women's Magazines ...... 264

25. Individualism-Groupism Thenes in American Education--Women's Magazines ...... 270

26. Jeffersonian-Jaoksonian Themes In American Education—Status Leaders and Amerioan lie r o u r y ...... 272

27. Nativist-Humanist Thenes in American Education—Status Leaders and American Mercury ...... 275

28. Utilitarian-Liberal Arto Thenes in American Education—Status Leaders and Amerioan M e r c u ry ...... 279

29. Individualism-Groupism Themes in Amerioan Education—Status Leaders and Amerioan M ero u ry......

30. Frequency of Appearance of Themes in Anerioan Education in Periodicals ...... 287

31. Frequenoy of Appearance of Dichotomies in Amerioan Eduoation in Periodicals ...... 286 INTRODUCTION

While teachers oannot be said to bo numerous as dramatis personae in literature, nor schools as favored locales, whsn they do appear they are often quite vivid* The soene was a plain, bare, eonotonous vault of a school­ room, and the speaker’s square forefinger eepbasised his observations by underscoring every sentence with a line on the schoolmaster 'a sleeve* The emphasis was helped by the speaker's square wall of a forehead, which had his eye brows for its base, while his eyes found coenodious coverage in two dark oaves, overshadowed by the wall* The emphasis was helped by the speaker's voice, which was inflexible, dry and dictatorial* The emphasis was helped by the speaker’s hair, which bristled on the skirts of his bald head, a plantation of fire to keep the wind from its shining surface, all o ore red with knobs like the crust of a plum pie, as if the head had scarcely warehouse-room for the hard facts stored inside* The speaker's obstinate carriage, square coat, square legs, square shoulders—nay, his very neck cloth trained to take him by the throat with an unaccommodating grasp, like a stubborn fact, as it was—all helped the emphasis* "In this life, we want nothing but facts, sir—nothing but facts l" The speaker, and the schoolmaster, and the third grown person present all backsd a little, and swept with their eyes the inclined plane of little vessels then and there arranged in order, rea

---

^Charles Dickens, Hard Times, p. 1*89.

1 2 Washington Irv in g 's schoolmaster, Ichabod Crane, in the "Legend of Sleepy Hollas," who

was ta li, but exceedingly lank, with narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves, feet that might hare served for shovels and his whole frame most loosely hung together* His head was sm all, and f l a t on top with huge ears, large green glassy eyes, and a long snip of a nose, so that it looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neok to tell which way the wind blew* To see him striding along tbs profile of a h ill on a windy day, with his clothes bagging and fluttering about him, one might have mistaken him for the genius of Famine descending upon the earth or some scarecrow eloped from a corn­ field. • . • From (the schoolhouse) the low murmur of his pupils' voices, conning over their lessons might be heard in a drowgy sumeer's day like the hum of a bee hive, interrupted not and then by the authoritative voice of the ms ter in tone of menace or cotumnd, or peradventure, *y the appalling sound of the birch as he urged some loiterer along the flowery path of knowledge* There is no question that the mesomorphic Oradgrind and the ectomorphic Crane, while differing in ptyaiognoqy, were alike endowed with qualities that aroused no feelings of compassion in the reader* Moving into the twentieth century we can detect certain changes in Jie stereotypes of the school and the teacher* Probably the typical shift in teacher stereotype and the consequent gratitude of the females in the profession is contained in the following by George Seldest Whenever aiy protest is made against the stereotype of the spinster teacher in radio and television, the name of Eve Arden Is brought up in rebuttal* Miss Arden 1s a handsome woman with a gift for saying things so that they sound bright and brittle—a sort of distaff Man Who Came to Dinner* In Our Miss Brooks she plays a schoolm istress. The following is quoted from This Week mage sine, April 3> 1955x "For eight years now the • • • show has thrived on the

Washington Irving, "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," in Short Stories, p• 271* Perhaps it is significant of teacher sensitiveness to Irving*s portrayal of the schoolmaster that in five anthologies of Amerioan literature designed for school use, this story does not appear* 3 fa c t th at Connie Brooks (Eva Arden), a hlgh-school English teacher, can't gst hsr nan. Her draanboat is an ultra-shy biology instructor. . . . Tbs roaance has bsan d sad locked for y e a rs. . . . But Connie did kiss hi* once in a dream sequence• "However, figuring th a t a re a l kiss would spice up the program, they (the producers) decided to a lia s kiss Brooks to plant an affectionate sack on Ur. Bcyington's lips. It was rlslQr business. Viewers might misinterpret it as the harbinger of eutual lore. "The solution . . . was to find a workaday, unromantic pretext. . . . He lends her five dollars . . . in gratitude she busses him. But before blooming on the a ir , th is Idas was debated, auditioned, and timed ty ad-agency account executives, liaison men, network producers and publicity vigilantes. "It came out perfects prissy, noncommittal and anti­ sep tic. ..." This is the program that is so favorable to the women teachers of the country that they actually write letters of gratitude to the producers. It does not Mke the teacher hideous—only prissy . . . noncommittal . • • antiseptic.^ The concomitant shift in the stereotype of the school can be illu stra te d by David Riesman and William Whytes The walls of the modern grade school are decorated with the paintings of the children or their montages from the class in social studies. Thus the competitive and con­ temporary problems of the children look down on them from walls whioh, like the teacher herself, are no longer imper­ sonal. This looks progressive, looks like a salute to creativeness and individuality, but again we meet paradox. While the school deemphasises grades and report cards, the displays seem almost to ask the childreni "Mirror, mirror, on the wall, who is fairest of us • • • the schools follow a method by which the student group is encouraged to take a strong hand in the planning of what they are to be taught. The children are not exactly put in

3oeorge Seldes, The Public Arts, p. 113* ^David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd, pp. 91-82. u charge, but the teacher M ai a point of asking than what it is they would Ilia to know about a particular subject, rather than uni la to rail/ giving the* what >ha thinks the/ ought to learn .5 Assuming that thaaa aalaotlona era typicai of the plcturaa of Western aduoation praaantad in the aaas wed la, wa oan contrast the two thus t Coupled with the nineteenth century stereotype of the school typified ty Dickens as the place where « Oradgrind eaintainad that T a c ts axooe era wanted in life • • • Stick to Facts, s ir l " , you have the stereotype of teaohers as stern, conpasslonless creatures. Coupled with the twentieth century stereotype of the child-centered school dominated ty the child-centered child, where facts are near ana these, you have the stereotype of teachers as perpetual adolescents—"unsaleable sen and unsarrlegeabls wosen.”^ While it oan be granted that there was change, one can hardly concede that there was significant Inprovesentj certainly both preserved the egregious feature of the schools as objects of ridicule—the teachers as dolts, the schools as vacuous* However, as one reads current periodical literature, listens to the radio, and watches television it beccses obvious that the stereotype of the teachers as dolts is undergoing aetanorphis and beoaning that of underpaid, poorly equipped drudges j eors lwportant, the characterisation of the school as vacuous is changing to the school as inept, and delineating the particulars of ths schools' ineptness has become so

^William Whyte, Organisation Man, p* U2S•

^Arthur Faff, "The Teacher as Hero," Reading in Education, ed. Arthur Foff and Jean Qranbs, p. 21. 5 universal as to partako of tbo nature of a national pastlne. Clifton Fadinan, writing In Holiday, likens this to a "Groat Dobato ranging orar tbo land ^“which 7 ■*7 proro to bo aa important aa tbo dobato that pr»- oodod tho adoption of tbo C onstitution.H aw wfallo ono oould hardly take uabrogo with Fadinan rogarding tho laportanco of tho iaauoa involved, ono oan hardly agroo to hla analogy of a dobato, ouch loss of a "Oroat Dobato." In a dobato ono eocpeota to find a "pro" and a "eon," but If tho oaaa oodla aro uood to dotormina tho Iaauoa, a cursory examination of wbat Is prlntod indloatos Tlrtual unanimity that tho

Anorioan school la not doing what It should} thoro la a t o t its bio angy of fingers pointing skyward to tho paucity and punlnoss of Anorioan satellites circling the earth. Tho fingers aro periodically lowered to point accusingly at tho Anerioan public schools. It would soon to bo true, as R. H* Shackford writing for tbs Serippe-Howard newspapers Indl­ oatos, that "In tho continuing discussion of defects in Anorioan educa­ tion, extremists get the nost attention."® That this is not soon to bo an evil ty everyone la donenstrated ty tho Colunbus Citlaon which on tbs sans page th at Shackford1 s a rtic le appears o events editorially t Herbert L. Brown, editor of Changing Tinea nagasine, says wholesale attacks ty "irresponslbles, extremists, and

^Clifton Fad loan, "The Hess in Bduoation—Who is Responsible?," Holiday, August, 19$tt, p. 21.

®R. H. Shackford, "Sons Thoughts on Education," Colisibus C itisen, Noveober 30, 1958, p. UA. loudnouths" on our public school system should bo stopped* Sorry, vs oan't agree* Our oduootiansl system Is not secro­ ss net, snd lifas other institutions benefits ty criticism** This above exchange between Sbsckford end the C ltisen's e d ito ria l writer indicates an additional facet of the picture of Amerioan educa­ tion oontained in tbs mass media} current considerations seem not only criticisms but criticism of criticisms i who oallsd whom a what? At this stage this merely serves to oosqpound the confusion, for aiyone who has given even ouraory attention to the m ss media knows that what is seen by nary as failure of the Amerioan educational system has been attributed to factors that run the gaaut from the high cost of education to the failure to support tbs schools financially; from an effort to educate too nary to a failure to give enough people an education* There is, then, as yet no clear picture of what are the signif­ icant issues as seen by the mass media j the only valid generalisation that can be mads at this point Is that the schools are now under attack, and even th is , u n til examined closely, nsy be either a mirage, or a heightening awareness of what was already taking place before Sputnik* It is proposed, therefore, In this dissertation to select a significant sample from one of the mass madia and subjeot i t to content analysis to determine (1) the general purpose of tbs content of the media} (2) the relative degree of approbation and denunciation of

Amerioan education; and ( 3 ) the prevailing themes in materials relatin g to Amerioan education*

^"Iet's Be loudmouths," Columbus Citlaen, November 30, 195b, p . UA. 7 Far this ana ly si* tbo following procedures will bo uaodi (1) a precise definition of what will bo considered mass nedia; (2) a consider- a t ion of tho oxtont of tho audionco of tho mass modi*; (3) an examination of tho function of tho maaa modi* in Amerioan oulture; (U) a selection for o on tout analysis of ono of tho maaa nodi* and a Justification for tho selection; {$) a oelection of a algnifleant sample from tho modi* ohoaen and a juatif ioatlon for tho aa^lo; (6) a choice of a time span within which tho media sample w ill bo analysed; (7) a formulation of oatogorloa of analyaia appropriate for tho problem and tho content to bo analysed) and (8) an analysis of tho content on tho basis of those categories* CHAPTER I

DEFINITION AND AUDIENCE CF NASS MEDIA

Definition of Maas Madia There ere three definitions of "ness media” extent in sociologi- cel literature; eech points to specific content which, while orerlapping, nevertheless is sufficiently focused on dieorete units to neks eech definition directive. The first encoapessea "all media of comnunication in which e mechanise of lsgmrsonal reproduction intervenes between speaker end a u d i e n c e ( I t a l i c s mine.) The focus here 1s on the impersonal quality of the communication} this definition, then, would Include ell printed materials, radio, tele­ vision, end movies, but would exclude the pulpit (Including Billy Ore hem in Madison Square Garden), the legitimate theater (Including Abie*a Irish Rose and My Fair lady), and personal address (including Senator Kefauver's handshaking his way across the United States in 19U8 ane 1952). The second definition of mass media designates them "organs of ooammlcation and amusements that reach the masses of people."2 (Italics mine.) In this definition Billy, Able, Slixa and Estes have their place, but such periodicals as The Little Review, Accent, etc.;

1 Joseph JQapper, The Effects of Mass Media, p. In tro . 3.

^Robert Havighurst and Bernice L. Neugarten, Society and Educa­ tio n , p. 150. 8 9 movies like Servo-Mechanlsas ; redio progress as "Father Deaden t Tbo Iapact of Mlaelonarles on Pacific Peoples"; te Leris Ion progress like "What Gan We Expect froa the French Fifth Republic?" are excluded. It would sees that this definition is the acre ccsunon, particu­ lar ly In the popular treataents of the subject; one discovers this through careful reading rather than as an explicit definition since this is rare!/ found, the authors evidently believing this to be the common concept of the term. A third definition, the one to be used In this study» includes the Uniting factor of the aechaniaas of impersonal reproduction of the first, and the criterion of the aass audience of the second. "Hass media" is thus defined as those "nedla of cotanunlcatlon in which a mechanise of lapersonal reproduction intervenes between the speaker and audience," and which are directed at and reach great and amorphous numbers of people.^ As in the first definition this excludes the pulpit and the legit­ imate theater; but it also excludes such asdla as specialised periodicals (trade journals, "little" sagasines, foreign language newspapers, etc.); programs of educational radio and T-V, educational notion pictures; and specialized books (textbooks, esoteric literature, etc.); for, while a

3Obviously the aost ambiguous and, therefore, least directive sec­ tion of this definition is inherent In the qualifying "great." No one in the literature has as yet proposed a minima# to the numbers; and, in view of the difficulties in establishing a suitable rationale for such a mini­ mum, the author does not propose to wdertake the task, other than to state that if the media reaches roughly fifty percent of the adult popu­ lation it will be considered "mass." As far the specific media, such as a particular newspaper, book, magasine, radio station, etc., it will be conslcfered "aass" if it is among the top ten percent of its class and its audience can be generally considered as amorphous. Where specific cases arise that require qualification, such will be done.

t 10 few of tho little aa go line a and much of tho educational broadcasts and telocaata my be directed to great numbers of people, there is plentiful evidence that they never reach them. I t also excludes such media that may­ be aimed at and reach significantly large numbers of people, but because this audience is in a particular strata it does not qualify as amorphous* This would exclude such publications as the NBA Journal which has a circulation of nearly 700,000, more than mazy aagailnes which oan be classified as mass, but which is directed to a particular occupational strata of tho population* Included, then, in this definition are the following! local newspapers that use national press services such as Associated Press, United Press, etc. ; cosaercial network radio, television; motion pictu res| general magasines; and books* I t 1s these media with which we w ill be concerned and from which one will be selected for content analysis.

The Audience of Mass Media With this definition in mind let us consider the extent to which these various media reach the masses*

Radio.—Of a ll the media radio is perhaps the most pervasive; in 1955 there were 2,935 AM and 532 FU broadcasting stations, approxi­ mately half of which bad network affiliations*^ Recent estimates place the number of radio sets in homes and autos as 136*7 millions;*’ the

^Riohsrd 2* Chapin, Mass Communication, pp. 61-02.

$Ibid., p. 88. 11 number of hours spent listening to radio par haao par day as 2.27/* Approximately 79 paroant of the adult population listens to radio one or 7 ■ore hours per day.' Voaan are radio listeners to a greater extant than man, eaiy having their radio on continually. AH educational groups are listeners but high school graduates tend to listen aora < six hours a day coopered a to the three hours a day average.

Television.—Be pause of liadtations of siae and clrcunstanoes of broadcasting and reception, television is not quite so pervasive as radio. In 19$$ there were U69 television stations, nearly all of which were affiliated with a national network.? Recent estimates show 60 ■ill!on television sets in operation.^ The number of hours per hone per day spent listening to television is 3.39.^

Newspapers.—Newspapers capture th eir share of the aass audience. There are 1,760 daily newspapers 12 with a ooobined circulation of

6Ibid., p. 96. ^Angus Campbell and Charles A. Metiner, "Books, libraries, and Other Media of Communication," Public Opinion and Propaganda, ed. Daniel Kats et al., p. 232. 8Ibld., p. 237. ?Chapin, op. cit., p. 90.

^Ibid.. p. 8h» M-Ibid., p. 96.

^Wilbur Schramm, Responsibility in Mass Cownunioatlon, p. 26. approximately U6 m illion,1^ and it 1* eat las ted that 05 to 90 paroont of

tho adult population reada ono or aoro newspapers regularly Anong groups who graduated froo graaaar aohool additional eduoa-

tion ia not a selective factor whan tho raading of one navapapar a day

la the criterion, but aignifioantly aore college trained people read

■ora than one newspaper a day* Thera la a slieable group of those who

did not coop late graaaar school who do not read a newspaper dally.

There seeas to be no sax differential in newspaper reading.1^

Magaaines.—Hagai ins a, while not as ubiquitous as radio, tele-

rlalon, and newspapers, neTertheless qualify as m s s media. There are

between five and seven thousand eagasines published In the United

States Obviously most of these cannot qualify as being ease media, yet there are eaqjr that do* A Look eaga tine surrey conducted in 1955 found that nine of the nation’s leading eaga tines reached 50*7 Billion different people *^ It ia estlaeted that 69 peroent of the adult

population reads one or ware ea^ tines regularly.1®

^paul Iasarafeld and Robert K. Horton, "Hass Ciwninloation, Popular Taste and Organised Social Action,” Mass Culture i The Popular Arts, ed. Bernard Rosenberg and David H. Hhite, p. U57.

^Klapper, op. cit., p. Intro. 6.

^Campbell and Mstsner, op. c it*, p. 236.

^Schraam, op. c it., p. 20.

^Kats, op. c it., p. 23tt. 13 Even the circulation figures for s group of aagasinee, the Curtia Saturday Evening Poet, Ladies Howe Journal, Country O o n t l t n , Holiday and Jack and Jill, ia impressive. Ellison writing in the Hew Republic takes the annel output of these Magazines, divides it ty the number of Americans who oan read and w rite, and concludes that these lite ra te s read a Curtis publication at least four tines a yearThis ia prob­ ably specious reasoning; however, the ubiquity of these publications in public waiting rooaa nay sake this acre reasonable than it seeas. Unlike the audiences of radio and television which oan Indeed be termed amorphous, naga sines tend to be a ore selective, appealing to the aiddle and upper income groups* Eighty-six percent of the fsallies in the #7500 to $8000 bracket purchased aagasineej 78 percent in the $1*000 to $5000 group were tuyere; while only 35 percent of the families with an income under $2000 purchased thea*^ Associated with the selective factor of income is that of educa­ tion* 92 percent of those who attended college read aagaslnes compared to 85*3 percent of the high school graduates and 1*8 percent of those with less than a high school education. Since the younger groups In this country tend to be better educated, there also Is a selective factor of aget 77*7 percent of the

^Jerome Ellison, "Selling Dreams in Marble Hells," Mew Republic, Oct 13, 191*7, p. 20* 2°*M»ga*ines Selective Punch," Business Week, May $, 1956, p. 11*8 .

2^Charles S. Steinberg, The Mass Communicators, p. 120. u* poop 1 b under 1*5 read saga tinea coapared to 62*1* parcant of thoaa 1*5 to

55 years of age, and 52,5 parcant of those 55 and older. The median age of magazine readers Is approximately 36 and that of nonreaders approxi­ mately Ul.22 There Is also a sex differential among magatlne readerst 73«5 percent of a ll women 15 years of age and over reed them compared with

63*6 of a l l men in the same age brack et.23

Books .—The audience of books is more difficult to assess than that of the other media, and either fits the definition as mass or not depending upon whether you consider books individually or as a class.

If you consider books in general thay oan be said to reach a mass audience. There are several hundred book publishers producing close to 13,000 separate titles each year which accountfo r over 500 m illio n copies.2^ It is estimated that 50 percent of the adult population reads one or more books per year, 25 and 25 to 30 peroent read one or more books a monthSpecific books oan barely be said to qu alify as mass media j it is the rare book which exceeds a sals of 100,000 copies j2? nevertheless the sucoess of the paper baok reprints and such ventures In

22liagasine Advertising Bureau, Magazines for Advertising, p. 25.

23Steinberg, loc. cit. 25jsats, loc. oit.

2Uschra*i, op. cit., p. 28. 2^Klapper, op. cit., p. Intro. 6.

27probably one of the rarest phenomena of a ll is Boris I*ster­ na k' s Dr. Zhivago, which w ill sell approximately 1,225,000 copies in a y e a r. This book certainly does not fit into the usual category of the Amerioan best seller compounded of sex and sensationalism. It would be Interesting to know the proportion of readers or semi-readers to buyers. 15 tha naas circulation of books aa tha Book-of-tha Month Club, which In 1953 bad U&ifOOO members and dlatributad 7*011,936 books,2® attasta to tha mass aspacta of even a pacific books* Not only are books on tha periphery of meeting tha dafinition of aass aadia baoauaa of tho relative aaallnasa or thalr audlanca, they also hardly qualify bacausa It ia quaationabla that thair audlanca ia amorphous. Book raadara ara no at likely to ba collaga aducatad, in the upper income brackats, and city dwellsra, thasa designations hardly being reprasantatira of tha population a a a whole *2^

Motion p ictu res.—Motion ploturaa, too, while suffering fron tha c cm patition of talariaion oaptura their share of tha Amerioan public. There ara over 100 snail studios, six vary large ones,^0 that produce nearly 500 "feature" notion pictures each y aar.^ 1 Thasa ara shown in approximately 18,000 theaters that attract nearly U9 million people w e e k ly .3 2

Audience surreys of movie a indicate that they appeal chiefly to tha younger strata of our population. Only 15 percent of the people attending are over U5 years of agej 30 percent are under 16; and 35 percent ara frost 18 to 30 years of age*^

2®Chapin, op* c i t *, p. 55* There is no way of ta ilin g how maqy books ara now circulated ty such clubs* With the advent of sharper cosqpetition among the various clubs these figures are now a closely guarded secret* ^Bernard Bara Ison, *Vho Reads What Books and Why?" Rosenberg and White, op* c it., p. 12l.

^Schramm, op* c it., p. 30. 32jbid. 31chapin, op* cit., p* 136. 33ibid», p. 206. Multl-axpoaure to Media Significantly there i# evidence that there ara alao few pa op la who uaa on!/ one of tha aaaa aadia to tha naglaot of tha others* For exam­ ple, Look1# atuctr of 1952 discovered that thara ara aora aagaslnaa raad In homaa that had television than in thoaa that did not*** Thla ia corroborated in tha riaa of magasine clroulation# to now high# coincident with tha arrival and ax pane loc of television.-^ Additional evidence of mult 1-expoaure la indicated by tha fact that half of thoaa who uaa tha library raad four to six or aora aagaslnaa regularly .3^ That tha phenomena of multi-exposure to tha aaaa aadia may ba found even in children of junior high school age ia dlacloaad in a atucty by Robert Sakerak who found that thoaa who watched tha aoat talarial an alao tended to do the aoat reading *^7 Thla aaaa afcutfcr alao indicated a ralationahip between the type of aadia cons wed and tha intelligence of the individual* Students with high Intelligence tended to spend a significantly greater aaount of time with tha reading madia (newspapers, book# and aagaslnaa) than thoaa with low intelligence*^

Look-Polit* Study Show# Nine Top Uagaslne# Reach 58,700,000 People," Tide, May 7, 1955* p. 65*

amaa P* Wood, Magasinaa in the United S tates, p* 295 36c# tap be U and Metsner, op* c i t *, p* 2U0.

3?Robert M* Sekarak, "Maas Comnunioation Media, Reading Compre­ hension, and In tellig en ce ," Audio-Visual Communication Review, pp. 168 - 1*75 . It is apparent, then, that it would be difficult, indeed, to d iso over ary but a minute proportion of the population which is not subjected to at least one of these me dim daily; that whatever the picture of American education purveyed ty the mass media, it has the potential of reaching a mighty audience* CHAPTER I I

THE FUNCTION OF MASS MEDIA

The descriptive m i , then, is no misnomer; I t is obvious that theee media permeate virtual!/ every facet of Anerioan culture) it is alao obvious that they share in many functions in this culture, func­ tions which were once almoet sola!/ those of the face-to-faoe comunica- tion of primaxy groups*

The Entertainment Function The entertainment function is probably the most manifest* In prelitarate and precivilised cultures, and even in our own not so remote past, entertainment was primarily participant rather than spectator oriented* Today this is no longer so; of all the functions of the aass media this is the most ubiquitous, and quite often entertain­ ment is seen superficially as the only function of the media, particu­ larly motion pictures, television and radio* Therefore it is essential to indicate the dangers of such gross oversimplification. As Max Lamer points out in America as a Civilisation* To be sure, the main function of the media is usually held to be entertainment not opinion* But this only gives added weight to our concern with th eir effect on opinion* Reaching the mind, ays, ear and imagination, their impact is all the greater because it eludes the inner censor that alerts th» Amerioan against "highbrow stu ff." Operating through the emotions it leaves the more enduring image on the mind.^

W Lerner, Amerloa as a Civilisation, p* 76$. 18 19 Quit* often the detent functions associated with the entertain ment function ere more potent in altering behavior, more intranscient in their effects* For example, of all the nedia none is so coop lately devoted to providing entertainment as the notion pictures. During World War II aore than 100 notion pictures having in then Negro roles were analysed, and In 75 of then the characterisation was disparaging and stereotyped. In only 12 cases could it be said that the Negro was treated sympathetically Certainly the people seeing these movies under the Impression they were only being entertained left the theater in many cases with a reinforced stereotype of the Negro* While magazines as a whole see their function as other than solely entertainment, the fiction they contain is usually conceived as such* Berelson and Salter in their study of the treatment of minority groups in magasine fiction found that what thay termed "the American,1* characters unidentified as to ethnic origin, tended to play the leading roles in the stories, and to them accrued "more of the World's material values*"^ Underlying the ostensible function of entertainment must be said to be the latent function of status conferral, of which we will say moire later* The identification of entertainment as the primary function of the mass media has additional effects that should be noted* As Barnouw has indicated in Mass Coamunlcation, there is inherent in the process of

W riter's ,*ar Board, How Writers Perpetuate Stereotypes, quoted in Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, p* 195*

^Bernard Berelson and Patricia Salter, "Majority and Minority Americanst An Analysis of Magazine Fiction," Public Opinion Quarterly, No. 10, 19U6, pp. 168-190. 20 being entertained a channeling of emotion toward a reenforcement of accepted ideas; we are presented with a situation with which we can agree and there is in the resultant reduction of attention necessary an Immediate emotional reward. This reward, then, serves to enforce the original acceptance of the situation.^4 Where entertainment is seen as virtually the only function of a media by consumers, and where the producers of the media are eager, in fact in many cases, must attract the masses, it is readily seen that the most widely accepted behavioral norms, the major value orientations, are then those that appear most universally in the media and that this in turn leads toward even greater acceptance. There is an additional result of the function of entertainment being geared to the accepted situation—the approach to inanity. As the editors of Fortune say t It is obviously a fact—whatever that fact nay be caused ty, whatever it may imply—that a very large part of America's radio fares (most soap operas, quiz programs, audience participation shows, gag-camsty acts, Juke music sessions, commercial announce­ ments) would affect aiy person of modest discrimination some­ where In^the zunge between complete indifference and acute illn e ss.5 Not only does the manifest function of entertainment contain latent functions, but it also affects significantly the other functions of the media. For example, in a science series on television widely heralded ty its sponsor, Bell Telephone, as "educational" the efforts to make "science" palatable to viewers nutured on puppets, cartoons, Hilton

U£rik Barnouw, Hass Communication, p. 68. c Klapper, op. clt., p. I-U. 21 Berio, and Llaverick reduced "science" to strained b an alities, succeeded in anthropomorphizing even the atoms and *^r« Sun* became a slightly sophisticated twentieth century Apollo.

The Commercial Function The commercial function of the mass media is very nearly as con­ spicuous as that of entertainment. The success of the mass media In stimulating desire far the consumption of goods and service is undeni­ able { whether it is as vital to the groirth of our technology as our advertising agencies have attempted to shoe is not at issue here; never­ theless, the case made ty Vance Packard in The Hidden Persuaders, however flamboyant and poorly documented, indicates some of the conse­ quences of this function* Already mentioned has been the reciprocal Influence of the enter- taiment and commercial functions* Perhaps it would be appropriate here, however, to give the ultimate example of the influence of the com­ mercial function on entertainment. As will be recalled, it was pointed out that the entertainment fare of the aedia was generally geared specifioally to the accepted situation, the uncontroverslalt When television came, sponsors and broadcasters could find a positive value in public indifference, for a discovery was sadat when a program was especially g ood, when drama brought up a psychological problem of intense in te re st to the audi­ ence, people at heme began to talk about the show the nonsnt the commercial began, to discuss the msssage of the play while the sponsor's message went unheard* I t was better to give then programs they were not so excited about

^Gilbert Seldes, op* c it», pp* 266- 267. 22 Thar* are, of course, sim ilar relations between the commercial function and the other functions of the media. The structure of support for the madia, particularly radio, television, newspapers and nmgazines wherety the consumers of the media only indirectly pay the cost, and the direct expense is borne ty the advertisers leads, perhaps, not to out­ right control, but certainly to weighty influence, and the motto dictated largely ty the necessity of selling a product is "the greatest appeal to the greatest number.” The result of this has been the weaken­ ing of such other functions as the informative and educational, particu­ larly when these functions may result in the production of materials that are assessed as controversial. Probably of the big media mag&ainas are less dependent, or at least not more so, on the support of advertisers, since a part or some­ times a ll of their direct coat is borne ty the consumer} yet as Peterson, w riting in Magazines in the Twentieth Century, shearst Magazines also were inclined to perpetuate the ideological status quo • • .for two reasons. On the one hand, the magazine was a business enterprise with a vested interest in the maintenance of the existing economic systems, and it could be expected to share the views of the industries which fille d its pages with advertising. On the other hand, the magazine had to earn its keep in the market place. To stay in business, a publisher needed readers, a very large number or a few with exceedingly high purchasing power. If his publication did not carry advertising, the publisher required many readers in order to keep down the unit cost of his periodical. If his publication did acoept advertising, the publisher needed as many readers as he could attract from his chosen market both to hold down the unit cost and to Justify profitable advertising zmtes. In either event, the publisher was impelled to seek a large audience} and as his audience widened, i t Increasingly determined what he could and what he could not publish. For to attract and hold his audience, the publisher was inclined to give his readers what he thought the majority wanted and agreed with. He seemed generally disposed to accept the social and cultural standards of the majority, which rarely in history have been rasponslbla far tha introduction of new idaas or for experimentation. Minority views perforce found little expression in the com­ mercial magaslne.7 Of course this does not mean that there are not contrasting views expressed in the mediaj there are, but examination of these views indi­ cates that when they appear it is in areas where difference of opinion is normative, and the alternatives themselves are socially acceptable.^ For example, during a political campaign allegiance to different candi­ dates by different voters is expected} the views of both Republicans and Democrats are usually presented rather fully ia the media. Extraaely rarely, however, do you find the views of the Socialist labor or the Communist parties appearing—commitment to these parties is not socially acceptable. It is in this area of function, too, that there is the most, in fact practically the only, significant stuty of the effectiveness of function for the reason alreaty noted that the advertisers who, of course, are paying directly most of the cost of the mass media are most anxious to know whether their messages are coming through. Even here, though, most of th eir studies are concentrated on the sise and composi­ tion ty income, sex and age, of the consumers of the various media. Advertising rates in most magazines are based on the number of subscrib­ ers j television and radio sheers appear and disappear on the basis of the

^Theodore Peterson, Magazines in the Twentieth Century, pp. 390-391.

Klapper, op. c l t ., p. IV-27. 2 k ratings which rata not ths quality of the program, but the single factor of quantity of audience.

As for any resea rch done by the media on the effect of apy of their material other than on the sales of advertised products, Gilbert Seldes in the Public Arts points out that as far as the television Industry is concerned testimony before a Congressional coadttee revealed that no part of their research attempts to determine what their o programs do to people—other than drive them to the cash register* And in the event there are readers who do not watch television or who have become commercial numb, the National Association of Educational Broad­ casters in 1952 found that in New York and Los Angeles one out of every five minutes of program time was advertising material) in New Haven one out of every four minutes*^ It oan be said that while the function of entertainment is most universal, most apparent, its Immediate effects because of its nature tends to be ephemeral) whereas the commercial function is more ptsrerful, more pervasive* Perhaps it is significant that one-fifth of the pro­ gressing of T-V la devoted to advertising—only one-fifth of an iceberg appears on the surface, too.

The Council Function Another function of the mass media 1s that of profering alterna­ tive proposals and competing suppliants for public approval,

^Oilbert Seldes, op. c it., p* 293*

l°Dallas W. S nythe, "The Content and Effects of Broadcasting," Mass Media and Education, ed* Nelson Henry, p. 199* contributing to the resolution of the important political, economic and social issues of our culture • An excellent example of the partial assumption of this function ty the mass media from the face-to-face communication of primary groups is the demise of the tom meeting system of government, a passing which has been a source of nostalgia fa r maqy p o litic a l theorists* No one would deny the efficacy of the town meeting in presenting alternative proposals for action and in guaranteeing maximum opportunity far participation in decision making ty a ll those qualified) however, in view of the growth of huge population centers, the increasing complexity of culture and the concomitant necessity for decision making at a state or national, rather than a coomunity, level) no one would hardly disagree that the town meeting as a political instrument is in the same limbo as the town c rie r, Chatauqua, vaude­ v ille and the pory express. To partially assume the functions of the town meeting has appeared a welter of devices, among them, the panels of experts on television discussing current issues (in Colusbus, Ohio, appropriately termed "The Columbus Town Meeting")) the programs by political candi­ dates on radio and television quite often designed to achieve the atmosphere of face-to-face coonuni cations Roosevelt's "Fire-side Chats") Eisenhower's introduction of his family on the eve of election) the fre­ quent appearance in periodicals in the same oar subsequent issues of articles that purport to present "both" sides of an issue) and the continuing growth and sophistication of public opinion polls. 26 Thia function as wall as aiy other illustrates that the mass media have only partial]/ assumed the functions of face-to-face comnunications. The study of the voting behavior of the cltitens of Srle County, Ohio, ty Iezarsfeld, Be re Is on and Gaudet indicated that the media have apparent]/ no direct influence on changing voting decisions) most people selected from the media material with which they were already in agreement; and where shifts in sentiment occurred there was a history of face-to-face contact.33-

In the study of the comparative influence of television on the 1952 election Campbell, Our in and *iUer came to the conclusion that, while voters tended to rate television as the most informative media, there was no clear evidence of its effect.1** Kltt and Gleicher in their study Toting behavior in Elmira, New lark, during the 19U8 election showed that personal contact by party workers was a major factor in stimulating a high level of interest in the election.33 The importance of face-to-face contact has, of course, been well known ty most professional politicians* Robert Knapp, in his precinct worker's manual written far the Independent Voters of Illinois (the forerunner of the A.D.A., which in Illinois has had a remarkable record of swinging elections) sums it up this wayx This job you're undertaking Is the most important one in American p o litics* Without Precinct Work, p o litic a l

llpsul Iasarsf eld, Bernard Be re la on, and Helen Gaudet, The Peoples' Choice, William Petersen, e d ., American Social P atterns, pp. 119-lVd* 32Angus Ca i^ibell, Gerald Gurin and Warren E. killer, "Television and the Election," Katz, Cartwright, et al* (ed.), op. cit., pp. 289^90. l^Allce S. Kitt and Daniel B. Gleicher, "Determinants of Voting Behavior," ibid., pp. UlU-blS. 27 action 1s Ilk* an automobile without a motor. Speeches, billboards, broadcasts and narwspapor ads aro a good Imita­ tion of tbs body, tbs whsals and tha windshield of an auto­ mobile* But the Precinct Work Is the ENGINE that makes political action GO* Since Jefferson's day professional politicians have known the importance of Precinct Work* I t baa been no secret It is appropriate here to suggest the reciprocal functions of meas media and personal contact, for discussing one and neglecting the other is as naive as discussing the role of men in procreation without mentioning women* A typical concept of the impact of a s s media has been that i t s affects have been some*hat equitably distributed through­ out the culture and that i t has tremendous power in the creation of public opinion* Representative of this point of view is a statement Senator John 7* Kennedy appearing in the New York Times Magazinet Today the challenge of political courage looms larger than ever before* For our everyday life is becoming so saturated with the tremendous power of mass canmnication that any unpopular or unorthodox course arouses a storm of protest**-* In recent years studies ty laaarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet Mertonand Katz and laaarsfeld*^ suggest that this is assuredly not so, that there are inequitable attendance to and affects of the mass

^Robert Knapp, An I*V.I* Manual for Precinct Work, p. 1. ^Schramm, op. c i t ., p. U9* ^laaarefeld, Berelson, and Gaudet, loc* cit* ^Robert K. Merton, "Personal Influence! A Study of Interper­ sonal Influence and of Communication Behavior in a Local Community Communication Research! 19hfcJ-19l*9, ed. Paul Ia?arsfeld and Frank N. Stanton, pp. lBQ-^1!?.

*®Ellhu Katz and Jfcul laaarefeld, Personal Influence. 26 madia; and that an individual1 a personal contacts, his primary group affiliations, ara moat of tan tha most important determinants of his opinions* Wa will explore this in more detail later in this chapter. Hare we will be content with indicating that primary groups have (1) a relay function in tha transmission of the content of mass media—people who are within a primary group and tend to expose themselves more to the content of the mass media pass i t on to others in th e ir group and (2) a reinforcement function—face-to-face contact which results in the ccanunication of content that is identical with, or similar to, that of mass media elicits a significant increase in the acceptance of that content* 20

The Educational Function Another function of the mass media is the educational function much distorted, as noted previously, tgr the entertainment function. Whereas in p re lite ra te cultures v irtu a lly no portion of the process of socialisation is institutionalised, in our culture increasing segments of the process are being incorporated in the institution of education. There has been a parallel growth in the use of mass media in education; for example, as a means of attracting a siseable audience for the afore­ mentioned Bell Telephone science series brochures were sent to schools all over the country calling attention to it. Undoubtedly the viewing of this program ty millions of school children was an outgrowth in many oases of specific assignments by science teachers. The programs were put on film and made available on a loan basis to schools (with

l^Ibid., p. h$* ^^Ibid. 29 appropriate advertising ty Bell Tala phone) and haa bean so successful that schools mat wait several months to secure copies* There is official recognition of the educational function of the ■ass aedla ty such agencies as the Federal Ccimnlcationa Coamdaslon, which in A pril, 1952, reserved 21*2 out of more than 2000 television channels in this country for noncommercial educational television stationsas far back, however, as 1929, the F.C.C.'s predecessor, the Federal Radio Committee had decreed that radio programming should consist of "entertainment consisting of music of both classical and lighter grades, religion, education and instruction, important public events, discussion of public questions, weather, market reports and news and natters of interest to all members of the family.^ Obviously no proportions of each of these in the to ta l program­ ing of every station could be set, and quite often the proportion devoted to what could be termed "education and instruction" has been miniscule* Educators have, of course, long been aware of this function of the mass media. Sons, however, have ignored the media as if they did not exist} some have attempted to "lick" them because they seeaad to be countering the efforts of the school} more perceptive educators, cognisant of the power of the entertainment function in attracting and holding the attention of students and the latent consequences of such attention for the formation of attitu d e and opinion, even occasional consequences of the imparting of fact, have attempted to "Join" the media.

• Keith lyier, "Freedom of Access of Broadcasting," Henry, op. c i t . , p* 106.

22ibid., p. 98. 30 This "joining" has assumed many forms i the operation of non­ commercial educational radio and television stations, the persuasion of commercial media to carry "educational" programs; the use of coutercla 1 programs in the classroom like the Bell Telephone "Science" series already mentioned; the masking of educational nmterials by the enter- taiment techniques of the media; the formation of parental pressure groups to correct what the educators see as faults in the media; confer­ ences sponsored Jointly ty educators and media representatives to dis­ cuss mutual problests; even educators appearing on television programs designed as entertainment; e.g., Dr. Bergen £vans as the preparer of questions and Judge on a popular panel quiz show on radio and tele­ vision. Gilbert Seldes in The Public Arts has summed up most cogently the reciprocal relations of the educators and the media people: The atmosphere in which broadcasters and educators debate is charged with recriminations, probably because both sides are aware of guilt in the past. The assumption has always been that the broadcasters ought to put on educational pro­ grams although it is abundantly clear that nine-tenths of the people engaged in the business cannot possibly create educa­ tional programs and should not be allowed to do so if they could. A sponsor has no right to use his time on the air to "educate” aryone in anything except the qualities of his product; a local station living on its share of the proceeds of network programs cannot possibly afford to produce educa- tionals. The networks can do this, but in the present state of our knowledge i t would seem best to ask the networks to support, rather than to create, true educational series, to keep up a constant cross-reference to such programs on the educational stations, to prepare the ground in which the educator will plant the seed. This is not so slight a task as it seems, and it invokes an even harder one: network pro­ grams should not belittle education and educators should not constantly present the educated intellectual as a prig and a fool, should not consistently demonstrate the superiority of 31

the oaf to the intelligent man. (There are moments when it seems that nine-tenths of T-V corner depends on the themes I am asking the broadcaster to abandon.) ^

The entertainment, commercial, council and education of func­ tions are, of course, some of the more obviousj there are others, a bit mare subtle perhaps, possibly more efficacious in assessing the true role of the mass media in our culture•

The S tatu s-C on ferrin g Function

One of these is the status-conferring function mentioned pre­ viously which legitimatizes the status of organizations, persons, public issues and social movements* For example, press agents, particularly those representing figures in the entertainment world, w ill settle for achieving their client's name in print under almost any conditions; it is, of course, desirable if the conditions present the client favorably, as allied with God, mother and countxy; but if this is impossible, if it is necessaiy to appear on the outer periphery of social norms, or even indulge In a modicum of outright sin, then this is preferred to the pur­ gatory of anonymity*

The status thus conferred by the media is not always confined to ary hierarchy of the entertainment world, but this status may be used to make a niche in other hierarchies. For example, Schramm reports the oase of a radio announcer who achieved widespread popularity—enough to nearly elect him to the governorship of the state—enough to achieve for him later a political appointment to an important national office* u

^Gilbert Seldes, op. c it., pp. 27U—275*

^Schramm, op. cit., p. 52* Just as alert to the desirability of publicity are organizations, particularly the ones dependent upon the public's largesse, ilanifestly the function of the publicity is to acquaint the public with the worthy ends their gifts w ill serve; latently the function is to establish that this is a legitimate organization which has a high rank in the hierarchy of philanthropy• For example, infantile paralysis, while assuredly a fearful disease, did not rank as high either as a killer, or a crippler of children, as rheumatic fever* If the war against disease were to be fought on the basis of mortality rates and incidence certainly rheumatic fever deserved precedence, but as the result of an excellent organiza­ tion, the endorsement of such a status figure as the President of the

United States, and the consequent coverage of the fund drives ty the mass media, the public poured out their "Miles of Dimes."

Essentially the same story can be told of the multiple sclerosis campaign whose status figure was Lou Gehrig, which has also been given extensive recognition in the mass media. It is doubtful tttat most of those who turn on their porch lights and drop their money in the out­ stretched palms of campaign workers in response to a plea ty the mass media can give even a sketchy description of the disease or remotely know its comparative role in the miseries of mankind.

One of the complaints of educators is the paucity of coverage of public school events in the mass media, particularly outside the realm of extracurricular activities & While it is certainly so that more extensive coverage of school activities other than athletics, plays,

^W illiam A. Yeager, School-Gotanunity Relations, pp. 2L5-2L6. 33

operettas, etc., would aid in improving public recognition of the

schools, the fact that there is a comparatively fu ll mention of these

tends to impart status to a ll school activities and consequently better

support of public education*

In this writer's own experience there is a rather small north­

eastern Ohio city which has had a history of winning football teams;

local mass media give its football games intense treatments the local

radio station broadcast even its "away" games when such progrartfeg was

uncommon* As far as is known the other school activities shared in no

greater publicity than in aiy other city, yet public education in all of

its phases has bean given whole hearted support in the community; no

local bond issues have been defeated, and teachers' salaries have been

consistently higher than in cities of comparable wealth and size.

The Information Function

Associated with the status-conferring function of the media seems

to be the function of purveying information on public affairs to the high status figures of our culture* We say "seem to be" here because

one of the na>st significant studies in the field of the correlative

roles of personal influence and mass media in communication, that of

Kats and Iazarsfeld, shows that high status figures are more apt to be

opinion leaders in public affairs, and that such leadership tends to

Increase as their status increases They also show that high status

2^Katz and Iazarsfeld, op* c it*, pp. 275-278- 31* figures tend to read significantly more magazines, newspapers, etc.,2^ but they do not inquire into the significance of the media for the a Q decisions these high status figures make on public affairs.

It is probably tenable, hcerever, to mice the assumption that considering the complexity of personal networks necessary for public opinion leaders to gain information on a broad spectrum of public affairs through personal contact, the mass media does have a significant function in determining their information, if not their opinions.

Credence for this position is provided by Merton in his stu

He points out that the community contains two kinds of influentialsi those he terms "locals," whose interest in public affairs is largely confined to the Immediate community; and "cosmopolitans," who have s o d s interest and influence locally but who primarily orient themselves to 29 society in general. The former are parochial, the latter ecumenical.

There are contrasting patterns in both attendance to and function of the media for these two types. Locals read fewer magazines; they share the reading of more popular magazines like Readers Digest, Life, etc., but do not read usually, as do the cosmopolitans, Time, Atlantic

Monthly, Harper's, and National Geographic.30 For the locals magazines

Ztlbid., pp. 311-312. 2®This is an excellent example of the influence of the commercial function of the media. This research was sponsored by advertisers and the media. It is significant that this question of the specific influ­ ence of the media was asked in regard to »rketlng, fashion, and movie- going decisions. Jfiats and Iazarsfeld, op. c i t ., pp. 175-186.

^Merton, op. c it., pp. 189-190.

3QEbid., p. 20$. 35 are a "dispensable luxury"} for the cosmopolitans the magazines function as "a transaission-belt far the diffusion of 'culture' from the outside world to the 'cultural leaders' of the local community Locals read more newspapers but these are the community papers, whereas cosmopolitans read either the New York Times, or Herald Tribunal 32 Locals prefer radio commentators who tend to "convert news and public issues into personalised anecdotest Oabrlel Heatter and Walter Winchelf; cosmopolitans lean to the more analytical oomnentators#33 In commentary on the comparative excellence of the media read ty cosmopolitans, Dr• Louis Nemzer, professor of political science at Ohio State University, who during World War II was associated with the State Department, has stated that the regular reader of the New York Times often had more reliable and accurate information on particular aspects of foreign a ffa irs than was carried in secret State Department reports*

The Enforcement of Social Norms Function Another function of the mass media that is not patent is that of e| the enforcement of social norms* Probably the example of this that cooes to mind most readily is that of the "muckrakers" Lincoln StdEfcn, Ida Tarbeil, Charles Russell, Upton Sinclair, et a l., writing in the periodicals «t the turn of the century. Certainly when one considers the pnut of American culture they subjected to scrutinyt city, state and national politics, business and labor conditions and the tangled, corrupt relationships of ail} and when one considers the breadth and

31ibld., p. 2QU* 32Ibld., pp. 205-206. 33Ibld., p. 206.

3^lesarsfeld and Uerton, op. c i t ., pp. U61-L6U* 36 depth of the corruption end the number of people involved, It is apparent that there was widespread private knowledge and private tolera­ tion of thle corruption. It cannot be said that this exposure of deviation from public morality put an end to corruption, for as Mr* Dooley has notedi "As a people • . . we're th' greatest crusaders that ever was—f'r a short distance. . • . But th ' tfarouble is th* crusade don't la st a f t her th ' first spring."3$ Nevertheless, when one considers the achievement of such reforms as the Australian secret ballot, civil service, the Pure Food and Drug laws, and state and federal supervision of public u tili­ ties, it can be said that this same mass media has helped shrink perceptibly the tolerance zone of maty public norma • In the field of education we can go back to the mid-nineteenth century for an example of the fulfillment of this function. Probably no single English author's work qualifies as mass media better than Charles Dickens'. Through his virtual single-handed exposure of conditions in the English schools and his espousal of the cause of universal free pub­ lic education in such books as Oliver Twist, Hard Times, and in the periodical! Household Words, which he edited, there ware widespread and permanent reform in the British schools*

The Homogenizing Function Probably tbs most important function of the mass media, however, and one which encompasses the aforementioned functions, is th at of

^^Finley Peter Dunne, Ur. Dooley at His Best, edited by Elmer Ellis, pp. 117-118. 37 supplying a degree of cohesion to our heterogenous, populous, and extremely coatplex cultures* Cultura axiata fcy vlrtua of tha language- ■aking propenaltlaa of man; for culture to ba ahared obviously there must ba communication between nan, and tha mass media are a prim aaana ty which tha farmer in tha Midwest of Swedish ancestry, tha factory worker in tha East whose parents were illite ra te peasants from Central Europe, and the Negro of the South, whose fore bearers were in America at least a century before either of the other two, can share in the cosanunication of culture* An example of the function of masa media in imparting a degree of cohesion to American culture and how this function encompasses the other functions of the media oan be shown in its relation to the enforce­ ment of social norms* There is evidence from studies of group (dynamics that individuals and groups gain support for privately-held opinions when they perceive their opinions are shared by others*36 jf the citiaens of Podunk, Vest Virginia, who know privately of the corruption of their own city government read or hear of the corruption in the city government of Philadelphia and that the citizens of that city have Instituted appro­ priate reforms, there la more likelihood of action in their own situa­ tion than if they were Ignorant of events In Philadelphia. Such has, of course, occurred in America* The revelation of corruption epitomized by Lincoln Steffen's the Shame of the Cities appearing in McClure's magazine helped sweep out of office a ll over

^Ifctz and Iazarsfeld, op. cit., pp. 77-70* 38 America graft-ridden city government* th a t had th e ir hands in the public till for generations and brought in the reformers like Tom Johnson in Cleveland, Ha sen Pengree in Detroit, Seth Lcm, president of Colx»bia University' In New York, and appropriately enough, "Golden Rule" Jones in

Toledo. Noe it is true that the mass media are the purveyors of what mny decry as "asas culture," and probably the greatest proportion of that purveyed is aa trivial as the "sack" dress, rock-and-roll and the hula hoop; the simultaneous appearance of all three in Montpelier, Vermont and Biloxi, Mississippi, Is nothing at which to marvel—unless one con­ siders the disparity, the insularity, and the provincialism that would exist in a country the slse of the United States, made up of a people of such diverse ethnic origin were there no m ss media* One must, of course, avoid the impression that the consumers of the mass media are simply "an atomistic mass of millions of readers, listeners, and movie goers prepared to receive the Message . • . (and) every Message . . * a direct and powerful stimulus to action which (will) elicit immediate response";^ and the media Itself as "a new kind of unifying force—a simple kind of nervous qrstem—reaching out to every eye and ear, in a society characterised ty an amorphous so cial organisation and a paucity of interpersonal relations *N^

3?Kats and lasersfeld, op. cit., p. 16. 3? To a certain extent, however, tha fact that mAqy do gat tha "Message" la readily observable* Tha phenomena ao aptly daacribad by

A. C* Spactoraty in The Exurbanltes, la of course, common to avan tha auparf lclal obeerver of tha Anar lean culture t Hera miles a man whose political opinions are shaped by what ha reads in tha e d ito ria l pages of Life* Thera goes a womn who sneers at such-and-such a movie because she sub­ scribes to Tha New Yorker. Tender totters an ancient whose tic is ascribable to tbaTfact that ha cannot shake fro® his mind's ear tha words, 'Don't ba half safe,' sung to tha tuna of 'The Volga Boatman.' That teen-ager insists on scuttling her naturally fresh appearance in dutiful response to some off-hand remarks in Mademoiselle. The pinched expression on this nan's face is habitual since his wife has been on the wonder d iet touted by a woman's magazine • • • on every hand the results are tangible, often depressing, and frequently comic .3° But here we must be careful not to say that because a man reads the editorial pages of Life he has certain political opinions, or because aiything is in the content of media it is thereby soaked up sponge 11 km by the consumers of the media and omde an integral part of their personality patterns* It is not as simple as that* Here is Jones whose chief educational concern seems to be the infiltration of Communists in the P.T.A., and who also is an avid reader of the National Review, which magazine evidently shares Jones' concern. I t is not, however, necessarily so th at Jones has acquired his sus­ picions of the P.T.A* as a result of the editorial policy of this magazine] more probably Jones reads the National Review because it favors a viewpoint for which Jones alrea^jr has a predilection. The fact that the local president of the P.T.A* expressed approval for and

39 A* C. Spectorsky, The Exurbanites. Quoted in Schraian, op. cit., pp. i9-56. UO

actively sponsored a UNESCO program was proof enough already for Jones,

and reading the National Review confirmed hie suspicions rather than

created them.

Of course, it is fair to inquire where Jones acquired his anti-

UNESCO opinions in the first place; it is certainly improbable that

Jones has first-hand knowledge of UNESCO's modus operand! or aims; most

probably if he did he would not hold the position that UNESCO was com­

munist controlled* Most likely his suspicions are grounded in an iso­

lationist orientation that has been extant and held by a siseable propor­

tion of Americans Since the days of the revolution. He is more apt to

have acquired this orientation from his mother, a militant member of the

D.A.R., than from the mass media, and having acquired it has since

tended only to attend to that content of the media which fits into this

orientation.

As Schrasm points outt

Mass communication never acts ty itself on an individual. Whatever effect mass communication has, it w ill have Jointly with other determining forces, of which the most important are twoi the individual's personality1 resources and his group relationships* Qjr personality I mean the stored knowledge we have available for use; the values and attitudes we have built up to govern the direction (favorable or unfavorable) of our responses to almost everything with which we have had experi­ ence; and the motivations we have at any given time for doing a certain kind of thing. . . . Together with our group rela»- tions they pretty much determine what we do with aiy mass communications.^

Now, when we say that the function of the mass media is to supply a degree of cohesion to a heterogeneous, populous, and extremely complex

culture we must recognise that where value orientations are strong and

k^Schraram, op. c it * , pp* 53-£U« Ul

buttressed ty personal contact any material in the mass media that con­

flicts with them tends to be either rejected or ignored. These major

value orientations, however, because of the heterogeneity and complexity

of our culture tend to be significantly fewer than in more homogeneous, simple cultures* Consequently there are wide areas where divergence of

opinion exists and is normative* In these areas the mass media nuy have more effect than in the closed areas* Also there are even areas where attention to the media for behaviorlal cues is normative* Far example,

in the matter of styles of dress, hair, makeup, etc*, particularly those

of women, it is undoubtedly true that the mass media have a significant—

if not a determinant—effect on what and hew quickly fashions are adopted.Southern women have, of course, dissimilar attitudes on race relations than Northern women, but there are few differences in style of clothing worn.

In another area where the mass media tend to determine taste, that of popular music, zmdio stations in New York City play the same records Just as repetitiously as those in Savannah, Georgia. It la doubtful, though, that news programs originating in both locales and designed for local consumption cover the integration of Negroes into the Little Rock, Arkansas high schools in the same manner. Nevertheless there are programs on radio and television that go out over national networks and articles in national periodicals that run counter to

Southern views on race, which for Southerners is certainly a major value orientation.

Katz and Iazarsfeld, op. c it., p. 31d. Several things can be said about the effectiveness of these

network programs* First of a ll, research done on media expressedly

designed to alter attitudes in the area of race relations indicates that

in map/ cases prejudiced people tend to see even in this material what

they want to see; and that what the producers of the content believe to

be a message to reduce prejudice is subverted ty soma prejudiced

viewers into a message enforcingprejudice.^

Where, however, there is multiple exposure to such content in a variety of the madia there does appear to be evidence of a shift in attitude; when this is supplemented with personal contact it has deep and lasting results.

One must not disparage the effects of the sim ilarities in

fashion in particular, and taste for popular music to a lesser extent which, as indicated, are very nearly completely the responsibility of

the mass media. As Allport has noted, perceptible differences are of

basic importance in distinguishing between out-group and in-group members*^ The fact that white Southerners and Northerners are dressed

in the mime style within the same social classes, listen to the same

popular hits, the same soap operas, watch the same Westerns and read the same comic strips, serves to decrease significantly the areas in which there could be differences were there no mass media in our

^Patricia Kendall, and Katherine Wolf, "The Analysis of Deviant Cases in Communications He search." Iazarsfeld and Stanton, op* cit*, pp. 152-179.

^Allport, op. cit., p* 130. U3 culture, and sate it much aaalar far tha eventual disappearancee of differences, such as racial Intolerance, that are a source of discord* One of the best summations of the working of the mass media In our culture 1s that of Schrammx If you want a metaphor for its way of working which w ill be b etter than the "atom bomb" or the "hypodermic" metaphor, say I t works like a creek. I t feeds the ground i t touches, following the lines of existing contours but preparing the way for change over a long period of time* Sometimes i t finds a spot where the ground is soft and ready, and there it cuts a new channel* Sometimes it carries floating material (an unpleasant symbol for a status figurei) which helps to change the appearance of the banks of the stream. Occa­ sionally, under most favorable conditions and in time of floods, i t washes away a place of ground and gives the channel a new look. This, like a ll other metaphors, has its Inadequacies, but it is better than aiy other one.*4^

Qy sfunction No discussion of function would be complete without one of dysfunction. One of the things that has contributed to the feeling ty many that the mass media has tremendous power is its ubiquitousnessj however, more perceptive observers do not share in this appraisal. Ernest Van don Haag, in his book The Fabric of Society says i Henries, television programs, newspapers, and magazines, link vast, heterogeneous publics and establish contact among people even if they stay put* They bring about some uni­ formity of a ttitu d e and a blending of customs and beliefs* However, most oontacts are oasual and transitozy, or in the case of mass media of comunication, general ized, vicarious, and abstract. They do not replace personal relationships to things or people, but make it harder for them to grow* No man is an island—everybody is at sea, though, and the

^Schrame, op. cit., p. J>7. W* elsctriclAlJy amplified bell tolls so deafeniogly for all that conversation degenerates into s h o u tin g . Van den Haag then sees the dysfunction in the bewildering array of alternatives that confront the consusers of the media and prevents h is making any choice* Iazarsfeld and Lierton, however, take a somewhat different view and term the dysfunction "narcotizing"narcotising because the veritable flood of communication may not, as Van den Haag believes, result in no choice, but rather results in a superficiality of choice which tfisks mass apathy. As they point out, where there is excessive attention to reading and listening, there is less and less time far action. It is true that there is intellectualization of the concerns of our culture; there is discussion of the alternatives—almost always those sanctioned ty the norms—but this vicarious exercitatlon is as far as it goes. Tha avid oonsumsr of mass media comes to mistake knowing about problems of the day for doing something about them. His social conscience remains spot­ lessly clean. He is concerned. He is informed. And he has all sorts of ideas as to what should-5e done. But after he has gotten through his dinner and after he has read his second newspaper of the day it is really time far bed.«7 I t is not necessary to make a choice between which of these analyses of dysfunction 1s more correct) the truth is probably both are rig h tt there are those who find i t impossible to choose between a l l of the "good" alternatives offered in the mass media, and there are those

^^Ernest Van den Haag, The Fabric of Society, p. 506. ^Iazarsfeld and Uerton, op. c it., p.

^7Ibid. us

who have made their choice and find that making the choice la satisfying

enough—acting on it might interfere with the satisfaction of making

other choices. After all it is necessary for the "informed" citizen to

have an opinion on every problem confronting our culture—and one never

knows when U r. G allop or Ur. Roper may ask what it is.

It should bo pointed out in conjunction with this "narcotizing"

dysfunction that not a ll of the people who have made their choices and

are then inactive are so because the intellectualization of choice is

satisfaction enough. The complexity of our culture renders it plausible

that social mechanism for action are either nonexistent, inaccessible,

or unknown to the individual* Certainly the individual could expend a

great deal of effort in creating such social mechanisms—this happens.

However, there are many raary social issues about which the individual

cares enough to make choice and would act providing there were already

social mechanisms available that he knew about, but which he would not

either create or expend the effort to discover if the media did not tell

him. G. B* Wiebe has shown that this fact accounts for the relative

success of commodity advertising as canpared to social action campaigns

in the media* The advertising provides the "last push to people's motivations and then directs them to an appropriate 'social mechanism'

(usually a retail store) for the expression of this motivation.The

unsuccessful social action campaigns, however, necessitate the

^ G . D. Wiebe, "Merchandising Commodities and C itizenship on Television," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 15, pp* 679^691, quoted in Kat,z and Iazarafeld, op. c'it., p. 29. 1*6

a u d ien ce *3 constructing their own social mechanism* in the case of a

radio documentary listeners vere to form "neighborhood councils1' to

combat Juvenile delinquency .^9

Another dysfunction of the mass media is that the public at which particular content is directed frequently is not the public which

receives it. As Katz and Iazarsfeld point out, there is evidence that

the uneducated are not the audience of educational programs; Democrats

do not attend to Republican campaign efforts; the prejudiced are not

recipients of messages of good will.^O This dysfunction is associated with two factorsi (1) there is generally voluntary attendance to mass

media; and (2) people, as indicated previously, usually attend that

content of the media with which they agree.

There is general recognition of this dyefunction; probably the most obvious applications of this knowledge occur in the television

commercials featuring the •soft" selli the commercial is either worked

into the context of the entertainment portion of the program, or there

is an obvious, and ofttimes successful, effort to make the commercial

itself entertaining.

These, then, «re the functions and dysfunctions of the mass media. It is within this framework that we w ill select one of the media for analysis to determine the picture of American education being

p re se n te d .

^9I b ld .

^Katz and Iazarsfeld, op. c it., pp. 2 1 -2 2• CHAPTER I I I

THE SELECTION CF EDI A SAMPIE AND TIME

SPAN FOR CONTENT ANALYSIS

In selecting * media for analysis two broad questions wereadoedi

(1) Which of the media best lends itself to analysis in view of the availability at a national level of content for analysis? (2) Can this media be shown to be as influential as other mass media in determining the picture of American education held by Americans?

In this chapter it w ill be shown, on the basis of the above questions, wty magazines were selected as the media to be analysed. A sample of this media w ill be chosen and then w ill be a brief exploration of this sample's relation to the total universe of the media.

National Availability

The primary focus in this study As on the picture of American education that appears in the mass media and is available to Americans in every section of the country; consequently it is necessary to select a media with same assurance that its content is available in New York as well as California—Washington as w ell as Florida.

Obviously this does not suggest that the listening, viewing, or reading habits of these different sections of the country are identical or even sim ilar; however, requiring that the media content be nullable nationwide does permit greater generalization as to the pervasiveness

U7 1(6

of any picture of American education than if this condition of national

availability were not set.

Newspapers.—Newspapers are written primarily for local audi­ ences. There are a few exceptions, the Hew York Times and HeraId-

Trlbune, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the Christian Science Monitor,

for example, but the remainder can hardly be characterized as anything

but p a r o c h ia l. L ocal crim e, sc a n d a l, p o l i t i c s and "human in te r e s t " a re

given precedence over regional, national and international news. The

point of view of the editors of local newspapers is typified by the following statement of Martin Creager, a Milwaukee newspaperman: "One human, earthy story about something being done or happening to sane one

in our own city, Is worth a dozen from the press association wires

This solicitude for local events can hardly be qualified by

saying that this type of news is headlined only when there is a lu ll in national or international affairs; indeed the reverse seems true, and when something of importance occurs in the world outside the local com­ munity there is a manifest effort to give it a twist to bring it into

local significance. As Imrner points out, during World War H front

line correspondents often attended more to securing the names and o addresses of "local" bays than battle strategy.

This is in no way intended as a criticism of newspapers—this purveying of local news is obviously one of its functions and a primary one at that. There is some evidence other than the amount and high

^Quoted in Lerner, op. o lt., p. 751.

2I b ld . 1*9

priority of local news in newspapers to partially confirm this. It w ill

be recalled that in Chapter II it was pointed out that in Uerton's study

of the pattern of influence and communication behavior in a local com­

m u n ity the "local" influent 1a I s confined their newspaper reading to

the local newspaper, and the "cosmopolitan" influentlAls read either the

New York Times or HeraId-Tribune

However, there is a trend in newspaper ownership that would sug­

gest that the emphasis on parochialism may be declining. There has been

a steady decline in the number of newspapers and a corresponding

increase in circulation, the number of newspaper chains and the number

of newspapers owned by chains. In the period 1923-1955 there was a 13

percent decrease in the number of English language dally newspapers and

a percent increase in total circulation.^ In the same period the

number of chains tripled as did the number of newspapers owned by a

chain.^ There is, of course, no direct evidence that this con&olidation

of ownership has led to less local emphasis on the news, but it seems

likely that such would be the effect, although its present effects must

be rather small for the proclivity of the newspapers for local news is

s till most obvious.

Priority, then, being given to local news, what is carried in a

newspaper from the national press association wire services is at the

mercy of local events, including the particular whims of local editors and publishers whose selection from the news is a vector of what in

their judgment their readers want and need.

^Supra, p. 31*• ^Chapin, op. cit.. p. 9. ^Ibid., p. 32. 50

Excluding the fact that a newspaper which carries only local news

(a rarity) does not come under mass media as defined here, and also that only materials sent out over the national circuit of the press associa­ tion wires meets the definition, were newspapers in general to be selected as the media for analysis it would be necessary to select an inordinately large sample of newspapers from every section of the country in order to Justify ary results as being national} furthermore, considering that most newspapers are dailies to analyze the content over a significant period of time would be assuredly an Herculean undertaking.

Suppose, though, per definition, only materials carried on national press association wires are used* This does not materially reduce this monumental task, for what is used ty the newspapers is determined locally—the offering is made but not always taken} indeed, it would be impossible to print a ll the news services provided by one press association* The Associated Press alone puts out over "1,000,000 wards in every twenty-four hours, more than ary one member newspaper r e c e iv e d , more than a iy one member newspaper c o u ld p r i n t ."6 When you consider, too, that a newspaper nay, and often does, subscribe to more than one service, it can be seen that examining what the national press associations wires carry would not be necessarily representative of what is printed in newspapers* It would s till require analysis of a vexy large sample of newspapers to determine what they print of the national press association materials*

^Oliver Gram ling, APi The Story of News, p* U8l» 51

Therefore, in view of this excessively large sample and the attendant difficulties in securing it, the content of newspapers and

national press association materials was ruled out of consideration.

Radio and television.—Radio and television present much the

same problem as newspapers in that their progressing of aqy single station is compounded of a mixture of local and network offerings plus, for their news broadcasts, the materials carried over the radio and television circuits of the national press associations which are essen­

tially capsule versions of the materials offered to the newspapers cut to fit the news format of the typical news broadcasts.

Vhat each station carries of the network offerings is, of course, geared to what station directors believe their local viewers and listeners want, and quite frequently what could be termed "educa­ tional" or "cultural" fare is rejected in favor of an old movie locally sponsored in the case of television, or a disk jockey in the case of radio. For example, NBC carried on Sunday mornings an exceptionally fins program, "The Seven Lively Arts." Uany stations did not oarry this program, WUf-C in Columbus, Ohio for one; instead, as I reoall, in the case of WLMM3 a cartoon show was offered its viewers.

Again this is not to be construed necessarily as criticism .

This example was used to point out that it is obvious that "entertain­ ment"—broadly conceived— is seen to be the primary function of radio and television, and that it takes events of considerable and, in a sense, peculiar importance to push the entertainment fare aside-^s the

Amy-McCarthy hearings of a few years ago. 52

To Achieve aqy significant national sample of radio and tele­ vision content it would be necessary, as with newspapers, to select an inordinately large number of radio or television stations in a ll sections of the country. Even if the analysis were confined to network offerings, again, as with newspapers, the large sample would s till be required, since the selection or rejection of network programs is made locally. In the case of radio it should be pointed out that there has been since the advent of television a steady shrinking of network affiliations* In 1952 only 55 percent of the AM stations were a ffili­ ated with networks compared with 85 percent in 191*6.? If radio network programs were used, for analysis, then there would be some question as to national coverage.

There is also the problem of the transciency of the media that is peculiar to these media. Of course a ll broadcasts of both tele­ vision and radio are transcribed far reference by the stations in event of litigation, but the mechanical difficulties associated with achieving access to their content and subjecting it to analysis would be extremely d i f f i c u l t .

For these reasons, then, the content of radio and television, like that of newspapers, is rejected for analysis.

Motion pictures .—Motion pictures do not present the difficulties in availability of what could be Justified as a national sample far analysis. First of a ll, because of the methods of distribution necessi­ tated by their desire to make their products available to everyone movie

?Chapin, op. cit., p. 113. 53

producers send their products cut to achieve national neighborhood

coverage* Unlike the local newspaper editors or station directors for

radio and television who have practical autonouy over the content

offered then by the national producers of media content, the local

neighborhood theater owners were in the past more or less at the mercy

of the national distributors of feature motion pictures* An anti-trust

suit recently, however, has considerably alleviated this condition, and

there has been consequently more variety offered by the neighborhood

theaters* Nevertheless there are s till multiple showings of most

movies in the larger cities, and a ll one has to do to be convinced that

motion pictures are readily available to a ll who wish to see them is to

note the number of rerun theaters in any sizeable city that are carrying

the same film . For example, in Columbus, Ohio on one day out of a

total of thirty different movies playing in neighborhood and drive-in

theaters one movie was shown in 6 different theaters; another in 5

theaters; two movies in U theaters, one movie in 3 theaters and five movies in 2 theaters; one-third of the movies, then, on one day were u given multiple showings.

Secondly, the movies are lees difficult to analyze because the

total output of the motion picture industry does not compare with the

total output of newspapers, radio and television which are daily events, and in the case of radio and television are virtually continuous* In

19$k there were U27 feature motion pictures released which is miniscule

compared with the number of books and magazines* Considering each

^The Columbus Citizen, January 2 J, p. 10. 51* picture to run on the average of two hours, and thle is extremely generous, this is only 651* hours of content* One television station carries approximately the same amount of programming in only seven w eeks.

While motion pictures do not present the magnitude of sampling difficulties of newspapers, radio and television, there are s till

Inherent extreme d ifficulties of access and mechanics of viewing*

There is no local source that permits the viewing of a representative sampling of commercial motion pictures in a reasonable amount of time.

Books *—Of a ll the media books are undoubtedly the most accessi­ ble for analysis. They are readily available in most libraries and if not on hand can be easily secured on inter-library loan* As far as the quantity of content, in 1951* there were 11,90U titles published,? which, of course, does not compare with the 1*27 feature motion pictures released in the same year but is s till in no way comparable to the vast quantity of content of the newspapers, radio and television; and when you consider the ease of access and the conditions of analyzing the content, books are a clear choice over any of the other media, including m agazines*

Books were not rejected, then, for analysis on the basis of the criterion of national availability but for other reasons which w ill be given in a subsequent section of this chapter.

Magazines.—Magazines share with books in ease of access and conditions for analysis • While not as large a selection of magazines as

^Chapin, op. cit., p. 1*0. 55 books &To carried by most librariesf again inter-library loans make most of then available.

As far as quantity, the number of magazines published Is signif­ icantly higher then the number of books. In 195 U there were 7, 6^8 different periodicals published with a total number iesues approximating

200,000, nearly ten times the number of books This Is unquestionably a large number of publications and represents a sizeable bo

In suomary it should be pointed out that there are content analyses which make use of the media of newspapers, radio, television and notion pictures. In these oases the authors undoubtedly recognized the difficulties inherent in the problem, but in most cases simply chose to be sile.it• While three-fourths of the studies using content analysis reported ty Berelson offered descriptive information on the nature of their particular sample, there was a paucity of data "on the adequacy of different sample sizes or on the conformity of the sample to the universe. Most studies simply report, for example, that the sanqpls included specific section . . . and let the matter rest there.

As oases in point Berelson attributes the appearance of the Mew

York Times in many analyses to its accessibility in libraries and the existence of a convenient index; nmgazine analyses are influenced by

1QEbid., p. t>2. ■^Bernard Berelson, Content Analysis in Cocmunications desearch, p . 175. ------56

the make-up of the Reeder1 e Ouide ] end one motion picture analysis was

recognised e» not being representative of the total but used the 12 criterion of accessibility •

Magazines were selected for this stu

that it is possible to provide date on the adequacy of sample sise and

the conformity of the sample to the universe, and the consequent gain in

the validity of the hypotheses was a definite desideratum.

National Influence

It should be pointed out that in the discussion of the first

criterion radio, television, newspapers and motion pictures were rejected as samples because of difficulties in securing and analysing a national sample; consequently in this sect1 on the primary task w ill

be to Justify the selection of magazines rather than booksj neverthe­

less there is a question of the influence of magazines as compared with that of the other media, and this w ill be dealt with, since if it could

be conclusively demonstrated that these media which were rejected were significantly more influential in determining the picture of American schools Americans have it would, perhaps, Justify expending the effort to analyze even a partial sample of the media.

Relative influence of ^gatlnea and books.—In the discussion on the audience of the mass media it was pointed out that books are on the peripnery of the definition of mass media. Certainly there is great

12Ibid., p. 176. 57 contrast between the total audience of magazines and that of booksi 69

percent of the adult population reaas one or more magazines regularJy, while 50 percent reads one or more oooks a year.^ Considering that

most megasines are at least monthly and maiqr are weekly it can be seen

that as far as quantity of media the magazine readers probably read

more magazine content than the book reauers attend to the content of

books* In fact when the statistics are examined on a monthly basis

instead of yearly the difference Is quite clearly seen. Iazarsfeld and

Kendall found that 61 percent of their sample read a magazine regularly whereas only 2b percent read at least one book during the previous month.^ Couple this with the Campbell and Metzner study which shoved

that nearly a ll book readers were also m«gazine readers,^ and it is clear that a content analysis of magazines would not only deal with materials to which book readers are probably exposed but with materials to which an extensive audience that are not book readers attend* The contrast between the two audiences is easily seen in the Iazarsfeld and

Kendall study which indicates that 66 percent of college graduates,68 percent of the high school trained adults and hi percent of those adults with only a grade school education read a magazine regularly; whereas o f the same groups only 50 p ercen t, 27 percent and 11 p ercen t, respectively, read at least one book a month

^ Supra 1' pp. 11- 12. ^*f*ul Iazarsfeld and Patricia Kendall, "The Comnunication Behavior of the Average Americant Some T ablesT he Process and Effects of Hass Communication, ed* Wilbur Schramm, pp. 69-70*

^Cam pbell and M etzner, op* c i t », p . 239. ■^Iazarsfeld and Kendall, op. c lt. 58

Thar* la another factor, too, that should be mentioned, the much

larger circulation of the popular periodicals. It is the rare book that exceeds a sale of 100,000 copies* Contrast this with the forty maga­

zines that had in 1955 a circulation of at least one million and one of which, Reader's Digest, alone had a circulation of over 10 m illio n .* ^

Obviously if there were any materials on American education in apy of these magazines it would be exposed to many more readers than if it appeared in apy of the best selling books.

In addition to this, the focus of this study i* upon the content devoted to American education in the media. As w ill be shown later, most of the popular periodicals carry such content regularly; if this study were to be confined only to those books with sales which exceeded

100,000 in order to insure the chances of exposure to a large audience, it is clear to apyone with a passing knowledge of popular book content that references to American education would be few and far between*

There is, of course, the reasonable objection that book sales do not necessarily reflect the number of readers, since the public library probably provides a tremendous source of readers; however, there is the corresponding reply that magazine subecriptions also do not necessarily reflect their number or readers. A Look magazine survey (6,262 Inter­ views) of the audience of the nine top magazines in circulation indicated that these magazines reached 58,700,000 different people; Life magazine alone was read by 27,750,000 and Look by 19,500,000.*®

*7Peterson, op. c it., p. 82.

l8Tide, op. cit., p. 65. 59

Then, too, there ia the fact that magazine content ia relatively

ephemeral compared with that of books, which for our purpose a is a

strength rather than a weakness, since it is more apt to reflect the

Immediate situation of public opinion with which we are concerned in this study*

For these reasons, then, magazines rather than books were selected as the media to be analyzed*

Relative Influence of magazines and the other mass media.—-In preface to a discussion of the influence of each of the mass media it should be made clear that at the current stage of research in the field of the effects of mass media it is virtually impossible to give any definitive answers* For example, there are a number of laboratory studies, particularly in the field of racial prejudice, that indicate that it is possible to alter the attitudes of some people saaewhat through exposure to mass mediabut field studies such as the afore­ mentioned study of Berelson, Gaudet, et al*, The Peopled Choice, have been unable to uncover any comparable effects.^ The Orson Welles broadcast of 1938 purporting to cover the invasion of Earth by Martians is one of the few examples we have of mass behavior resulting directly from mass communication! even then only one-third of the listeners reacted as if the invasion were real*^ Robert K* Merton’s study of the

^Cf* C. I. Hear land, et al*, Experiments on Mass Commmication, p . 21* 20lazarsfeld, et al*# op* cit*

^Hadly Cantrel, et al*, The Invasion from Mars, pp. 76-79* 60

responses to Koto Smith's war bond campaign over the radio indicated how

peoples' responses to her pleas were tied directly to the concern they

felt for kin who were in the armed f o r c e s , ^ indicating again the inter­

connections of personal contact and mass media.

Clearly in this section the conclusions reached must be recognized as being based on fragmentary, inconclusive research; nevertheless it is felt that there is enough to provide some validity to the hypothesis that magazines are as influential as any other of the mass media in determin­

ing the picture of American education that most people have.

If the primary function of the media can be based on the amount of content devoted to it, then clearly the primary function from the standpoint of the consumer of motion pictures, television and radio is entertainment. Studies of the National Association of Educational

Broadcasters sheer that approximately three-fourths of the programming time, exclusive of comnerclal advertising, of radio and television can be classified as entertainm entand commercial motion pictures, of course, are almost entirely conceived primarily as entertainment.

In the case of magazines separating what is entertainment and what is concerned with other functions, particularly the council, educational and information functions, is rather difficult. Vexy roughly dividing the content between fiction and nonfiction serves as some indication. Three-fourths of magazine copy, excluding advertise­ ments, is nonfiction, and the amount of fiction has been steadily declining.^ It is significant that this decline has corresponded with

^ R ob ert K. Merton, Mass P ersuasion, pp. 125-130. ^Snythe, op. c it., p. 200. 2Up9^arBon# pp. c it., p. 126. 61

the growth of television which nay indicate that magazine readers are

increasingly using magazines for other than entertainment* As far back

as l?Uli a study o f the reasons why magazine readers read magazines

indicated this order: entertainment, increase in knowledge, conversa­

tional material, escape, prectioal information, and inspiration.^

In the case of newspapers comparison of primacy of function with magazines is more difficult to assess) it is more probable that news­

papers function as entertainment less and fu lfill the counoil, education

and information functions more than magazines) it was fe lt, however, that

this was not so to the extent that it overweighed the advantages of accessibility and ease of sampling of the magazines*

As far as the general style of newspapers and magazines, there is

one important consideration as an outcome of the way in which each are written* Anyone familiar with newspaper writing (and this applies mainly to news items) knows that the lead paragraph of a newspaper story contains the essential body of the 3 to*y—who—what—where—when— why • The first thing the beginner in Jour lism learns is these five

"VI's* of Journalism* wote in the following news items the skeleton of the story in the first paragraph!

Soviet Deputy Anastas 1* Mikcyan, reporting that he found the American people ripe for a cold war settlement, Satur­ day, called Tor nast-West talks to head off a Berlin empasse May 30* What follows then is mainly the elaboration of these facts) the newspaper reader quite often, consciously or unconsciously, particularly

*5tfood, op* c i t . , p. 367*

26"Uikoyan Says I t s Time Now to Knd Cold War,** Columbus C itiz e n , January 25, 1959# p* 2A* 62

if h« ha* no especial interest in the story, reads no more. Studies

hare shorn, in fact, that readership of the average newspaper item after

the first several paragraphs declines abruptly.2?

In magazine writing, however, the first few paragraphs are

"teasers*1) they are designed to only capture the reader's interest and

then hold it through the remainder of the story. Contrast the newspaper

lead paragraph with this one from a magazine article which articulates

the interest of most lead paragraphs:

In Caracas, Venezuela, last May 13, the Vice President of the United States was spat upon end stoned by beserk mobs. This happened in a land where not long ago you would have had to look far to find a professed eneny of the United States. WHT?28

This would suggest that magazine readers may read more deeply in

the magazines than newspaper readers in the newspapers with a consequent

gain in effect for the magazine media. The predilection of newspaper

readers for the comic pages, the sports and society sections and the

advice to the lovelorn columns in approximately that order is a well

known phenomena.

There is another factor in weighing the relative influence of the

media and that is the role of "influentials," opinion leaders, in

determining public opinion, particularly in the realm of public affairs within which American education can certainly be placed. In Chapter II

2?V/ilbur Schramm, "Procedures and bffects of Mass Media," Honry, op. c i t ., p. 13U.

2®Mlchael Scully, "tfhat's Behind Our Trouble with Latin America?" Reader's Digest, August, 1 p» 61. 63 the relationship between the role of these influentlals and the mass

media was explored; and it was concluded that the mass media, particu­

larly in reference to magazines and newspapers, performed the function

of providing information to these influentlals on a broad spectrum of

public affairs.^ Confirmation of this was provided in a United States

Information study which showed that in addition to attendance to radio

and television the opinion leader "reads more books, more magazines and

more different kinds of magazines than others do* tfithin the magazines

he tends to read more 'information-oriented' items, e.g., news,

features, biographies."3°

That there may be a differentiation in function between radio and

television on the one hand and books, magazines and newspapers on the

other is suggested by the fact that influentlals and non-influentiaIs do not show ary difference in amount of exposure to radio and television but do in regard to printed matter which has, as indicated previously, a proportionately larger council, information and educational content than either radio or television.

It might be expected, too, that if television fulfilled functions

that heretofore had been those of magazines there would be a correspond­ ing decrease in magazine circulation with the advent of television; no such effect has occurred, and it is a matter of record that magazine

29 Sujmra, 33^3 k.

3<*. S. Information Service, "Prestige, Personal Influence and Opinion," The Process and Effects of Mass Communication, ed. tfilbur Schrantn, p. UO0. 61* circulation has continued to show a steady rise since the end of World

War I I . 31

With regard to the role of influentlals in public opinion, Katz and Iazarsfeld showed that in the formation of opinion in one area of public affairs there was evidence that there was vertical movement downward—opinion moving from high status opinion leaders to lower status opinion leaders—and then outward along class lines;3^ this was con­ trasted with opinion in regard to marketing and movie going which moved from opinion leaders in each class horizontally.33

When the statistics of the class distribution of magazines, radio and television are examined it is found, as pointed out previously, that there is no appreciable difference in the amount of exposure to radio and television of people in differing classes. Magazines, however, reach

66 percent of the families in the $ 7 5 0 0 to $6000 income bracket; 76 percent of the $1 * 5 0 0 to * 5 0 0 0 bracket and only 35 percent of those under th e $2000 groupFurthermore, 92 percent of the college educated; 85 percent of the high school graduates; and only t*8 percent of those with a grade school education read magazines regularly.^ In addition 90 percent of those living in hemes classified as upper class read magazines, and nearly the same percentage holds far those in upper

------n 5 7 Bogart, "Magazines Since the Rise of Television,** Joumalim Quarterly, Spring, 1956, p. 153*

3^Katz and Iazarsfeld, op. c i t ., pp. 311-312. 33Ibid., p. 330. ^"Magazine's Selective Punch," Business xeek, May 5, 1956, p. 11*8. 3^Steinberg, op. c it ., p. 120. 65

Tiiddlo class homes; 75 percent of those in middle class home a j while

l e s s than 50 percent of those in lower class homes read magazines

regularly*^

Since opinion with regard to public affairs evidently does move

from high status groups to loser status groups) and, sir.ce high status

groups are exposed significantly more to magazine content than low

status groups; and while it does not necessarily follow that magazines

are, therefore, the source of public opinion on public affairs, it

suggests that they may have a role which is at least as influential as

radio and television*

Another significant factor in magazines' somewhat selective audir-

ence 1s that of the comparative size of families which are readers and

non-readers of the large circulation periodicals* In every million

homes where m agazines are read th ere are 9 8 0 , 0 0 0 children) in every

million homes where magazines are not read there are 820,000 children.^

It has already oeen shown that in the stucfy by Merton of the Kate Smith war bond campaign that her appeals were most effective upon those

individuals who had personal contact with someone in the armed forces*^

Since the magazines audience has a larger number of children than non­

readers it is possible that materials on American education appearing in

magazines may have a proportionately greater effect because of the per­

sonal interest involved when parents have children in school*

^Magazine Advertising Bureau, op* c it*, p* 30.

^ I b i d . , p* 16.

Supra, p. 6 0 . 66

The role of the printed media and personal contact as contrasted

with that of radlof television and motion pictures In this information-

bearing function la indicated in the Campbell and Metzner study. Thoy-

asked their respondents the folltwring questioni "If someone asked you

how he could find out something about bringing up children, how would

you te ll him to go about it?" Thirty-one percent replied they would

consult a professional person; 21 percent would read a book; 20 p ercent

rely on their own experience; 15 percent would consult a family member

or friend; 1* percent would read a magazine; and 3 percent would ask the

public library .3 9

Mo one mentioned attendance to either radio, television, or

newspapers. This is to be expected, of course, because radio and tele­

vision programs are not designed for reference to the general public

after the programs have appeared with the exception of some programs,

designed expressly far a primacy of educational function, which are then

transcribed for school and service group use. With the exception of

newspaper morgues and the indexing of certain newspapers of national

significance like the New fork Times, there are no provisions far check­

ing references in newspapers either. Of course the same applies to most magazines too; probably the fact that h percent said they con­

sulted a magazine is a result of an awareness that mapy of the general women*s periodicals like ladles 1 Home Journal, Good Housekeeping, e tc ., have in every issue either a department on child care, or one or more articles on the subject. Again to be noted is the primacy of personal contact as a source of direction.

^Campbell and Metzner, op. c it., p. 2ii2. 67

There are tiro studies which suggest that radio and the printed

page have reciprocal relations. A study by Kdwin Muller^0 conducted far

two years and one by Paul Iazarsfeld involving 2,000 respondents,^

Indicated that radio tends to direct people to printed material for fur­ ther information on interests initiated ty listening to the radio. These researches were conducted in the late thirties, again before the advent of national television; and it is, of course, risky to extrapolate their finding to say that such is also probably true of television; neverthe­ less that there is parallel evidence in the relationships between motion pictures and books may strengthen such an extrapolation.^

Radio, television, and motion pictures, then, may spark the fire of interest but the printed page, particularly books and magazines may provide the fuel for action.

In addition to this the average television or radio program is a one-appearance affair—the "I Love Lucy" shew it is true nay have several reruns, particularly in the stunner, but the type of broadcast that would contain materials on American education usually has one life , and a half-hour one at that. Also the coverage of the average national network broadcasts is not as great as one would expect; the average once- a^week program reaches less than 10 percent of a l l homes

^Plidwin Muller, "Radio vs. Heading," The New Republic, February 19, 19kO.

^Paul Iazarsfeld, Radio and the Printed Page, reported in Klapper, op. c it., p. I-3R.

^Klapper, op. cit*, p. 1- 37•

k\agazine Advertising Bureau, op. cit., p. 1?. 68

Magazines, however, have many opportunities to be read. One survey indicated that current issues of one weekly magazine were kept by sixty-six of the subscribers for at Least a month after publication.^ 4

A personal survey in friends homes confirms this; the flow seems to be living room, bathroom, basement and PTA magazine drive. A ccessibility, however, does not guarantee that content is read, although studies con­ ducted by one weekly periodical indicated that readers spent an average of two hours and twenty-four minutes reading itWhat could well be one pattern of magazines reading was observed by Woodi

. . . in one short trip I have seen the same new copy of a very popular magazine discarded by its businessman pur­ chaser after a brief and obviously unsatisfactory perusal, likewise discarded by a bored sailor, then scanned for only a few minutes by the housewife who took the seat after the sailor got off the train. The magazine was finally utilized by a small child, who, staggering up the aisle of the swaying coach, espied the magazine and enthusiastically tore out most of its pages. It ate one.**°

As pointed out at the beginning of this section these conclusions as to the relative effectiveness of the various media are indeed tenta­ tive. Nothing much lias been said either alxmt the mare subtle effects of the various media; there is evidence, of course, that motion pictures, radio and television, because of the greater sense of presence—of personal contact—they possess are in many respects ouch more powerful in persuasion than printed media.

Perhaps the following two items may convey the relative impact of the media• Wood in his history of magazines in the United States to

*Avood, op. cit., p. 2?7. UgIbid. U6 jb id „# p.3 7 ^ 6 9

point up the power of the popular periodica la to stir readers to action

tells the following anecdotei

In 193U, The Saturday Evening Post published "School- house in the Foothills*" These irticIss ty Alvin F. Harlow told the story of a young teacher’s struggles in her sch o o l a t "Sha<$r Cove" in the Tennessee m ountains. Though no solicitation was made, gifts of money, clothes, books, and other equipment poured into the Post from every part of the country for transmission to the teacher* To handle enormous correspondence which resulted from the articles, the magasine had to emplcy an assistant for the article writer and a secretary for the schoolteacher. The "Shady Cove" sch ool received everything i t needed, and so much more that arrangements were made to direct the con­ tinuing flow of gifts to schools in other mountain villages .^7

Nos, this is, of course, impressive} but compare this with what

television can dot

TV Guide noted that the comedian Orson Bean began a broadcast with this offer t

"Just write in, folks, and we’ll send you $5,000 worth of secondhand sneakers, six miles of dental floss, an a ll­ expense vacation in Youngstown, Ohio, and a screen equipped with 200 flies."

TV Guide also reported that people wrote in quite seriously for each of the gifts.h°

If magazines can persuade some people to do the significant, television oan do more—it can persuade people to do the ridiculous.

Perhaps, though, this expresses why magazines were chosen for analysis rather than either radio or television. Much more of the con­ tent of magazines is signifioantj much more of the content of radio and television is ridiculous, particularly the greatest proportion of what purports to be entertainment, which paired with commercial advertising,

^^ifood, op. c it., p. 299 k^Seldes, pp. c it., p. 97. 70

In Its cum ini mi tab Is way even more ridiculous, appropriates 80 percent

of the total broadcasting time* The loss of effect of magazine content

may be more than compensated for ty its significance*

The Selection of a Magazine Sample for Analysis

In selecting a sample from the general circulation nagazlnes for

content analysis consideration was given to the followingt

(1) "Circulation Leaders"—periodicals that represent the mass

aspects of magazine circulation.

(2) "Information Bearers"—-periodicals whose admitted primary

function is that of purveying either information and opinion across a

broad spectrum of national and international affairs, or information and

opinion directed specifically to the topic of analysis.

(3) "Women1 s Magazines"—periodicals which are exactly what the

title suggests.

(L) "Status Leaders"—so-called "highbrow" magazines—periodicals

which are widely assessed to oater to the intellectual and consequeifly

to have a significant role in opinion formation.

Circulation leaders

In preface to any discussion of circulation it is certainly

necessary to say a few things about the reliability of magazine circula­

tion figures* Friar to 191h circulation figures of most nagazines were

a w ell kept secret and either never mentioned or grossly padded. The

advertisers, though, who by that time were contributing substantially to

the financing of magazines, began to den*nd reliable evidence that their advertisements were reaching the audience the magazines publishers 71

claimed. As early aa 1899 the Association of American Advertisers

attempted verification of magazine circulation figures; but because of

a number of factorsi the resistance of publishers, poor bookkeeping and

accounting practices of publishers, and a shortage of funds, their first

attempt was abortive.^

In 191ii, however, the increased growth of magazine advertising

made it possible to create an organization of permanence, the Audit

Bureau of Circulation, with fifty-four manber magazines; since then it

has continued to grow until by 19Sh it had 267 magazines. In addition

to circulation quantity it now also furnishes some infor nation as to CO circulation quality.

It cannot be said, though, that a ll circulation figures have a

reliability that cannot be questioned. In 195U there were 7,6U& p erio d i­

cals, and of these only 267 were members of th e A udit Bureau of C ircu la­

tio n .^ These members, however, accounted far approximately one-third

of the total circulation of a ll magazines. The circulation ofthe remainder of the periodicals may be open to some question, since in maiy

cases their circulation figures are not open to verification by an out­ side agency as are the A.B.C. magazines; consequently a ll of the maga­

zines used in this stuty, with the exception of the American Mercury, are A .B.C. members.

k^eterson, op. cit., pp. 26-27.

S? Ib id .

^Chapin, op. cit., p. 62. 72

The circulation figuree of A.B.C. magazines may be reliable, but

because of questionable practices In obtaining subscriptions, the sub-

sc r ib e r s m y not be readers, or at least not particularly faithful

rea d ers.

The advertising rates that magazines can denmnd are based, for

the most part, on their circulation. Of the revenue in 1952 of all

magazines 537 million dollars was from circulation sales and 613 m illio n

dollars from advertising;^ often a magazine can practically give away

some subscriptions and still profit because of the consequent increase

in advertising rates. It seems reasonable that maiy of these recipients

of cheap subscriptions and those who have been pressured into taking a

subscription are not as eager readers as those who have subscribed

because they believed they really wanted the magazine. One example

reported by Tide magazine, a trade publication of the advertising

industry, w ill suffice to show the questionable practices used to boost circulation.

last fortnight we reported how a magazine field seller offered one adman three-year subscriptions to Cue, Good Housekeeping, Look and Satevepost for a total of a week— "Just the cost of the postage" (Tide,May 7 ) . This fortnight a young lacfcr dropped into Tide’s office (via the back door), thrust a small card into our hand and told us to check the two magazines we most often buy at the newsstand. Then we were to get a 36-month subscription to them free. We debated our alternatives, finally checked a couple of names and asked wty- the publishers were being so nice to us. "Very sim p le," the young la

^ I b i d . , p. 66. 73

"Oh,” we replied. " ill you have to do," the young lady continued, "is biy a eubecription to Look and far three years you get it, pins ladles1 Hone Journal and the two magazines you checked, for free* You just pay 20^ a week for Look, that's the regular price on the newsstand." Actually, Look's newsstand price is 1St* Three-year sub­ scription price for Look $tij for ladies' Home Journal ^d.50. "But can't we just get the two magazines we checkedfree, like you explained originally?" "Even better," she explained, "you also get ladies' Home Journal free just for subscribing to Look." Almost overwhelmed, we asked again w)y the magazine publishers were being so good to us. "You see," she said confidingly, with a glance behind (possibly to see that no Look—or Keystone Reader's Service— executivoo were present), "Look needs dOO new subscribers so that it can raise its advertising rates. It's the adver­ tisers that are paying for this,^ou know." "Yes," we said, we did know.*^

One must, in view of this, stress that magazine subscribers are

not necessarily readers. To say that a magazine has a circulation of

two million is to say only that two million copies have been distributed

and bought* It is only assumption that most people read at least some

of the magazine—what, and how much is virtually unknown. Not that

publishers do not under taka surveys to determine this kind of informa­

tion. The Curtis Publishing Company, for example, nm in tains a research

department that studies each issue of a ll of its magazines by sampling

readers to determine content preferencesj but this information, for

quite obvious reasons, is not a matter of public record but a closely

guarded secret*

It is, perhaps, significant that a brochure, Magazines for

Advertising, published in 1903 ty the Magazine Advertising Bureau, an

organization sponsored by twenty publishers of over forty-five

53tr,vhy You Shouldn't Confuse Subscribers with Readers " Tide, May 2 1 , 1 955, p* 6 $ . Ih

magazines carrying 90 percent of the national magazine advertising, says

absolutely nothing about the relationship of subscribers to readers. One

would expect that If they found that an appreciable percentage of

readers read their member magazines from covor to cover, they would be

the first to announce it; instead they are conspicuously silent.

However, until contradictory data are forthcoming it is neces­

sary to operate under the assumption that the magazines with the most circulation have proportionately the largest number of readers; conse­ quently for this stud/ a sample of magazines classified as Circulation

Leaders were selected from A.3.0. magazines having a circulation of two million or more in 1957* The sample consisted of Reader's Digest, Life, la d ie s ' Home Journal, Saturday Evening P ost, Look, M cC all's, Good House­ keeping, Coronet, American Legion, Redbook, and Time.

All magazines of general circulation having a circulation of two million were included in the sample provided* ( 1) they had on cursory inspection of six months Issues, January to June, 1953, at least two articles on American education; and (2) they were available in accessible lib r a r ie s .

The magazines so selected are shown underlined in Table 1 in their relative position among magazines having a circulation of500,000 or over.

It should be noted that the four magazines of highest circula­ tion* Reader's Digest, Life, ladies' Home Journal, and Saturday Evening

Post, are included in this sample •

Farm Journal, American Home, Household, True and National Geo­ graphic were omitted because they contained less than two articles on American education during the period January to June, 1958. TABLE 1 75

"CIRCULATION LEADERS"—IN RANK ORDER HAVING A CIRCULATION OF 500,000 OR MORE*

Reader*3 D ig est ...... 11,024,410 L * £ ft...... 5 ,7 1 4 ,3 1 0 L adlea1 Hone Journal ...... 5,171,823 Saturday Evening Foat ...... 4 ,8 6 1 ,6 3 8 Mo C a ll's ...... 4,768,595 Better Homes & Gardens ...... 4 ,2 8 7 ,9 0 0 L o o k...... 4 ,1 8 9 ,0 0 4 Family Circle ...... 3,827,723 Farm Journal 3,623,554 Good Housekeeping ...... 3,602,533 Confidential ...... 3,4 42,536 Woman's Day ...... 3,188,407 American Home 3,102,406 Coronet ... 2,853,768 American Legion ...... 2 ,8 0 2 ,5 0 7 Household ...... 2,578 ,803 True Story ...... 2,575,725 Redbook ...... 2 ,2 8 8 ,1 7 0 National Graphic ...... 2,1 9 3 ,9 2 8 T r u e ...... 2,1 1 6 ,9 6 9 T im e ...... 2,0 3 6 ,9 9 7 P a ren ts1 ...... 1,6 7 6 ,7 5 9 Argosy ...... 1,3 8 4 ,7 3 0 Boy *s L ife ...... 1,38 1,10 8 Popular Mechanics ...... 1,362,456 True Confessions ...... 1,3 39,937 Photoplay ...... 1,326,127 Western Family ...... 1,269,349 Modern Screen ...... 1,211,813 Popular Science ...... 1,2 0 6 ,9 2 8 Elks >fegazine ...... 1 ,17 6,0 14 Newsweek ...... 1 ,0 6 3 ,2 8 1 Scouting Magazine ...... 1,036,785 Mechanics Illustrated ...... 1,0 2 4 ,4 0 0 Outdoor Life «...... 1,0 2 1 ,1 4 4 Modern Romance ...... 1,0 1 6 ,0 7 9 Seventeen ...... 983,651 F ie ld & Stream ...... 941,904 Holiday ...... 877,949 G r i t ...... 862,424 76 TABLE 1 (C ontd.)

Cosmopolitan ...... 825,021 U.S. News & Vbrld Report...... 820.998 Playboard ...... 815,400 Esquire ...... * 778,190 Nation*s Business ...... 776,287 C h a rm ...... 653,488 True Romance ...... 651,811 Uncensored ...... 650,000 S ecrets ...... 630,121 L iving for Young Homemakers ..... 610,521 Glamour ...... 600,846 Science 6 Mechanics ...... 571,120 American Girl ...... 564,262 J a t ...... 559,737 Mademoiselle ...... 533,563 S e e ...... 501,376

New Yorker ...... 415,423 A tla n tic ...... 213 ,3 1 0 77

Family Circle, Confidential, Woman13 Day and True Story were excluded because Family Circle and Woman’s Day are primarily distributed through super markets and, as a consequence, are not available In

libraries; True Story and Confidential also are not accessible in libraries, no doubt because they fail to meet the approval of librarians as "cultured” fare; In aiy event, it is extremely doubtful if they con­ tain material lending itself to the treatment of this stucty; certainly they represent, though, a measure of the accomplishment of American ed ucation.

The total circulation, Uii,600,000, of the Circulation Leaders sample represents 57 percent of the total circulation of a ll magazines of two million or over circulation, 1*2 percent of the total circulation of a ll magazines of 500,000 or over circulation, and 2k percent of the circulation of a ll magazines of general circulation.

The ten magazines represent also Ub percent of the number of magazines having a circulation of two mill!cm or over, 16 percent of the total number of magazines having a circulation of 500,000 or over and 3 percent of the total number of magazines of general circulation. This classification accounts for 92 percent of the total circulation of the entire sample of magazines, and 69 percent of the total number of magazines in the sample.

The appropriateness of the classification Circulation Leaders is indicated ty the fact that representing only 2^ percent of a ll magazines of general circulation, they account for 59 percent of the total circulation. 78

Information B arrs

Thar® are three magazinesi Time, Newsweek and U.S. News and

World Report, whose avowed primary function Is the dissemination of

information on a broad spectrum of national and International events to

the general public. Time,a prospectus prior to its first publication in

1923 probably expresses as w ell as arything what these magazines attempt

to do. As Peterson shows in Magazines in the Twentieth Century, this

prospectus had three main ideas 1

(1) There would be a complete organization of news. "Each

article would be 'found in its logical place in the magazine, according

to a fixed method of arrangement which constitutes a complete organiza­

tion of all n e w s ' ( Time’s departments today usually consist of

"National Affairs," "Foreign News," "Hemisphere," "Press," "Religion,"

"Education," "Medicine," etc* Newsweek follows generally the sane coro- partznentalization, whereas U. S. News and florid Report departs to a greater extent from this, having a tendency toward making each issue more "topic-centered#"—devoting a great deal of space to one topic—

"Housing," "National Defense," etc.)

(2) Emphasis would be on the meaning of the news. 11 lb would deal 'briefly with every happening of importance' as news 'rather than as conment.'" Both sides of any controversy would be given with the reservation that the magazine would 'clearly indicate which side it believed to have the stronger position.1 It would not run editorials, would not publish articles to prove any special case."^ (Time, true to this statement, never labels ai^thing "Editorial"; but just as

^Peterson, op. cit., p. 298 . ^Ibid., p. 299. truly subtly, and often grossly, defines its position in the boty of the

"n^s," particular}y in the realm of national politics* As Peterson observes, "the most distinctive characteristic of Time's writing was its overall tone of omniscience which hinted that one person had studied a ll of the events of the week and was passing along the real story with its true significance."^ Newsweek and U. S* News and World Report depart from this policy only to the extent that they include signed columns of editorial opinion in addition to the hidden editorializing in the news*

Newsweek, and especially U, S* News and World Report devote space to predictions of future events* Their editorial predilections often color such forecasts to the extent that their pontifications could be aptly titled instead of "Periscope" in Newsweek, and "Tomorrow" and

'Washington Whispers" in U. S» News and World Report simply 'Wishful

Thinking." It should be noted, too, that whereas Time and Newsweek have their own reporters and staff gathering news, U* 5* News and World

Report relies considerably on the Associated Press, United Press and

Chicago Daily News Foreign Service for its news.)

0 ) There is a conscious effort to personalize the news.

"Influential men . • *'are something more than stage figures with a name. It is important to know what they drink* It is important to know to what gods they pray and what kinds of fights they love.'

(Time is the prime exponent of this personalization, and, while toned down from the more colorful iconoclastic days of its adolescence, s till makes use of such colorful descriptions as "weed-whiskered" and "bald-domed” in referring to the pompous powerful* Newsweek uses the

hunmn interest techniques much less, and U. S. News and World Report

h ard ly a t a ll.)

Wolselay, writing in The Magazine World, sunmarizes, with the above qualifications in mind, as well as anyone, the pattern of the

news magasinest

They departmentsli*e news, print short condensations, con­ centrate on news rather than opinion in sumnarizing, maintain no direct editorial policy, develop highly original styles of writing, winnow out duplications, repetition, and unnecessary details, take time to provide historical background, use pic­ tures, draw special charts to make complex material clear, play up letters to the editor, delve into news areas neglected ty newspapers (such as the fine arts, science, and medicine), and develop sources throughout the world untouched even by the wire services .59

It should be noted that the news magazines take seriously the function of providing information to high status figures in American culture. Time, for example, was a sponsor of Robert K. Merton's

"Patterns of Influence" mentioned earlier,^ and a ll three have continu­ ing research programs investigating the dimensions of their readers.

Tims, because of its circulation in 1957 of over two million, was also included in the Circulation Leaders. Newsweek in 1957 had a circulation of 1,063,231, and U. S. News and World Report, 820,990.

With the demise of Town Journal, originally Pathfinder, in 1956, these three news magazines constitute a universe rather than a sample. There are, of course, other magazines which have an Important news function—

^Roland E. Wolseley, The Magazine World, p. h$*

^Supra, p. 27. ^Wolselay, loc. cit 81

Life and Look, for example, but no other devoted exclusively to the dle-

semination of a broad pattern of news.

The fourth member of this sample, Parents, is included here

because its information-bearing function, while extremely narrow com­

pared with the three news magazines, is specifically related to the

subject of the content analysis—American education* As George Hecht,

its founder, stated in its first issue, October, 1926, '’There are maga­

zines devoted exclusively to the raising of cattle, hogs, dogs, flowers,

and what not, but until now none on the most important work of the world—the raising of children.

Since then there have been abortive attempts to begin competi­

tors, but none have succeeded. Other magazines, Ladies Home Journal,

McCall1s , Good Housekeeping, etc., of course, devote some space to child-rearing, but compared with the other content in these magazines,

fiction, biography, hamemaking, fashion, etc., it is small. There w ill

be places in this analysis where the content of women's magazines w ill

be analyzed as a category, however, and Parent1 s magazine also w ill be placed therein.

The circulation of Parent1 s in 1957 mg 1,676,759, twenty-second

in rank order* It has a circulation pattern different from most maga­

zines designed for adults, since its readership changes as children reach maturity; grandparents evidently either are no longer interested in the rearing of children (personal observation emphatically negates this typoth*8^ ) j or are convinced that they are experts in their own

62 Peterson, op. cit., pp. 3U6-3U7. 82

right; and no magazine can convince them, for example, that babies

should be fed on the babies' schedule (Parent's magazine's position,

1958) instead of a regular four-hour schedule determined ty the parents

(Parent's magazine's position, 1936).

In 1951 publisher George Ilecht estimated that Parent * a magazine

had reached the parents of 25,000,000 children, which may indicate some

of its significance for this sample*^

The four Information Bearers account for 3 percent of the total

circulation of a ll general magazines and 1 percent of the total number

of magazines* They represent 11 percent of the total circulation of the

entire sample of magazines and 25 percent of the total number of maga­

zines in the sample*

Women's Magazines

There is no question that women read more magazines than men;

73*5 percent of a ll the women age 15 years or over read a magazine com­ pared with 63*6 percent of a ll men 15 years of age or over*^4 Four of the top ten magazines, Ladles' Home Journal, McCall's, Family Circle and

Good Housekeeping, are written almost exclusively for women, and of two of the top four magazines for which data are available, Life and Saturday

Evening Post, L9 percent of Life's readers and U5 percent of the Poet's readers are women.^

^Ibld., p. 3U7.

^Steinberg, op. c i t ., p. 1 2 0 . 65. .iagazine Audience Group, Continuing Stufly of Magazine Audiences i Report N o. 9 , p* 17* 83

Since, traditionally, women In America hart been concerned more

directly than men with the education of children (attend any P.T.A.

meeting for proof), it waa felt that the analysis should contain a repre­

sentative sample of women's magazines.

There are, of course, three rather distinct types of magazines

whose readers are almost entirely womeni (1) The general women's maga­

zines represented ty Ladies' Home Journal, McCalls, WPawn's Day, etc.,

which cover broadly the spectrum of women's role, home making, child

care, beauty, etc. (2) The beauty and fashion magazines such as Charm,

Glamour, Vogue, Mademoiselle, etc. (3) "Escape" magazines Iperhaps

better "the misery loves company" group) like True Story, True Confes­

sions, etc. Of these three groups only the first contains any signifi­

cant amount of content on American education.

For this sample Ladies' Home Journal, McCall's, Good Housekeep­

ing, and Parent's, are included; the reasons for the inclusion of

Parent's in the Information Bearers oategory also have already- been

g iv en .

Unfortunately, beoause copies were not available, neither Woman's

Day, Family Circle, nor Western Family were included. As pointed out

previously, these *re distributed in supermarkets and consequently do

not find their way into libraries.

Status Leaders

Justification could be made for omitting Harper's and the Atlan­ tic Monthly from the sample* Gn the basis of circulation they can hardly be classified as mass; the Atlantic Monthly has a circulation of 6U

213,310; Harper's, 160,795* Together they do not equal 1*00,000; in fact, combining the circulation of a ll the leaders of the so-called "class" magazines, Harpers, the Atlantic Monthly, the New Yorker, the Nation, the Reporter, the Saturday Review, the New Republic, the total of

1,160,000 is less than the circulation of True Confessions.

Harper1s and the Atlantic Aonthly are included, however, because

(1) thqy *re one of the distensions of the entire media that carry con­ tent on American education; and (2) these magazines have influence out of a ll proportion to their circulation*

Peterson in his Magazines in the Twentieth Century illustrates the poser disporpartionate to their circulation that these magazines have ty an anecdote told by Prank P. -yalsh. Walsh had published in the

Nation (circulation then 27,000) an article he had written about the railroads* Immediately after publication senators, lobbyists, and other public figures deluged tttlsh with telephone calls* About the same time a series of articles written ty Walsh on this same subject appeared in the

Hearat newspapers (circulation ten m illion). "But never (Walsh) recalled, had he ever met a person who mentioned his articles syndicated by H e a r st." ^

One indication of the class of readers that the Status Leaders attract was provided by a Harper's magazine research in 191*9. It indicated that 65 percent of its readers had incomes over $5,000; 21* percent over $10,000 and 3*b percent under &2,000*^ Internal Revenue

^Peterson, op* c it*, p. 361*•

^Avolseley, op* cit., pp. 57-58. sources for that year showed that 22 percent of a ll Incomes were over

5 5 ,0 0 0 ; 3 percent were over 5 1 0 , 0 0 0 and 29 percent under $2,000.

Thirty-seven percent of Harper’s readers were "employed profes­ sionals or semi-professionals"} 19 percent were managers or executives}

U percent self-employed, 10 percent white-collar workers, and k p ercen t skilled or unskilled laborers.

Since the war there has been a phenomenal rise in the circula­ tion of these magazines; their circulation has doubled, while that of the so-called "middle-brow" magazines such as life , Saturday Evening

Post, etc. has increased by about half. The loss in circulation has occurred among the pulps which have lost a fourth, while the comic books have maintained a somewhat static circulation.^

In selecting a sample from the class magazines, the New Yorker, although having more circulation than that of the Atlantic and Harper’s combined (Table 2), was omitted because it is a weekly; and the effort to survey the quantity of total content contained in such a large sample was not felt to be conmensurate with the quantity of content on

American education that would be found, since the author, being a regular reader of the magazine, was familiar enough with its contents to know that very little material related directly to the subject of analysis appeared therein.

The Status Leaders account for 0.02 percent of the total circu­ lation of a ll general magazines and 0.5 percent of the total number of

^ I b id .

69 Bogart, op. c i t . , p. 157. 86

TABLE 2

"STATUS LEADERS"— RANK ORDER OF CIRCULATION OF MAGAZINES

ASSESSED AS OPINION LEADERS

New Yorker ...... 4 1 5 ,4 2 3

Atlantic Monthly...... 2 1 3 ,3 1 0

H arper1a ...... 1 8 0 ,7 9 5

Saturday Review of Literature .... 165 ,0 4 9

The Reporter ...... 116 ,7 2 5

The Nation ...... 2 8 ,0 5 7

American M ercury ...... *

•W ill not release circulation data. TABLE 3

SUJtttKY COMPARISON OF TOTAL SAMPLE AND SAMPLE CLASSIFICATIONS

WITH MAGAZINES OVER 500,000 CIRCULATION

AND ALL GQrmL MAGAZINES

Percent Percent Percent Percent o f Circula­ of Total o f T otal Number o f T otal T otal No. tion per Circulation Circulation o f o f a l l o f Sample Issue in of all of a ll Sample Magazines Magazines Magazines M illio n s Magazines Magazines

"Circulation Leaders* 10 2 .4 6 3 .0 U .6 24.0 9 2 .0

"Information Bearers" 4 1 .0 25.0 5.5 8 .4 8 .8

"Vbmenf s Magazines* 3 0 .7 19.0 10.4 5 .6 11.3 "Status Leaders” 2 0 .5 12.5 0 .4 0 .2 0 .8

A ll Sample Magazines 16* 3.7 100.0 48.6 2 6 .0 100.0 Magazines with Circula­ tions over 500,000 56 13.5 — 113.0 6 1 .1

All General Magazines 413 100.0 — 185.2 100.0 — ■I—

♦This total is smaller than the total of the magazines in the four classifications, because some magazines are included in two different classifications*

3 66 magazines* They represent 0*6 percent of the total circulation of the entire sas^le of magazines and 1 2 ,$ percent of the total number of magazines in the sample (Table 2)*

The American ^grcury

There is one more magazine, The American Mercury, appearing in this saa^ls that belongs in none of the above three classifications*

If this survey were to cover the period of the late twenties and early thirties, especially, or even in the early forties, it would easily

Justify classification with the Status leaders. Founded by those taro iconoclasts, Henry L* Mencken and George Jean Nathan in 192U, it was indeed a force among intellectuals; Nathan first and then Mencken dropped the magazine In the m id-thirties, and most of its elan left with them* There was a brief resurgence of vitality when Laurence

Splvak bought it in 1939* He kept it until 1950 and then sold it to

Clendenin Hyan whose editor, W. M. Huie, turned it into an Intellectual

Confidential magazine, combined with the format of Reader's Digest. In

1952 it was sold again, and as Peterson says, "it resembled the

Amerloan Mercury of Mencken neither in cover, in size, in caliber of authors, in quality* in style, nor in content, and it might Just as w ell have borne same other title

70 P eterson , op* c i t . , p* 381 * 89

Since then It has become a definite organ or reaction; and, as such, In a sense, speaks to and for that element in the public of maga­ zines. Consequently it was selected to sample this dimention of r e a c tio n .

There are no circulation figures available for The American

Mercury for 1957# the publishers not caring to divulge them. The most 71 circulation it ever had was 8^,000 in 19h5» It seems reasonable that the circulation today is considerably under this figure.

S e le c tio n o f a Time Span fo r A n aly sis

Caviling American education has been a favorite indoor sport for as many years as the public schools have been in existence. Many a political campaign has been launched by an attack on the local schools, and a position on the school board is often seen by politicos as the first rung on the hierarchy of public office. Cubberly writing in

Public Education in the United States saysi "Excepting the battle for the abolition of slavery, perhaps no question has ever been before the

American people far settlement which causes so much feeling or aroused such bit tor antagonians

Differing views on the aims of education and consequent variety of assessment of the efficacy of the schools h*s always resulted in dissident elements; this is neither a phenomena restricted in time nor to America. A ritstotle, writing in 305 B.C. of the state of Greek

71Ibid., p. 380.

7^Elwood P. Cubberly, Public Education in the United States, p. 16U. 9 0

education in his P olitics, provides what could be a remarkably cogent

su m m ary of the diathesis of criticism of contemporary Amerioan educa­

tio n :

At present there are differences of opinion as to the proper tasks to be setj for all people do not agree as to the things they the young ought to learn, either with a view to the best life, nor is it clear whether their studies should be regulated more with regard to intellect or with regard to character* And confusing questions arise out of the educa­ tion that actually prevails, and it is not at all clear whether the pupils should practice pursuits that are prac­ tically useful, or morally edifying, or higher accomplish­ ments—for a ll these views have won the support of some judges; and nothing is agreed as regards the exercise conducive to virtue, for, to start with, a ll men do not honor the same virtue, so that they naturally hold different opinions in regard to training in virtue**3

The investigation of the conflict and realization of value in

education as portrayed in the literature during any period and in ary

Western culture during the past 2,500 years, then, would probably be

interesting and fruitful* This study, however, since magazines are

the chosen sample of media for analysis, is restricted to the period from 1900, the approximate time when magazines could be considered mass,

to the present*

In the Introduction interest was expressed in the contemporary portrayal of American education, so consequently the first time span for analysis extends from November, 1958, to November, 1957.

This period can be character is ted as " Poet-Sputnik," since it was in October, 1957 that the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I ; and t h is event, probably more than ary other single event in American history,

^A ristotle, Politics, Book VIII, Three Thousand Years of Edur- cational Wisdom, ed. Robert Ulich, pp. 6&-&Y. 91 was more damaging to American pride because prior to its launching, if we had no claims to spiritual or cultural world leadership, we could at least assert our technology had no peers. Particularly difficult was it to admit that the Soviet Union whose population was widely assessed to consist mainly of sem i-literate peasants, and who, because of its oppressively restrictive political system, did not, obviously as most people thought, create the conditions for creative freedom, would be the one to relegate America to "second,” a position particularly galling in our competitive society*

While Americans do not support their educational system in ary way commensurate with their ability, if there is anything Americans have faith in it is "Education." ”... Education is a magic panacea, the 7) prime agency of progress.Sputnik, then, to mary Americans, was the symbol of the failure of the "magic,” and immediately after it was launched the exorcisms of the "devils" responsible for the "magic's" failure was begun. To delineate the dimensions and the directions of these rites the time span November, 1?$7 to November, 1?53 was selected.

For a comparative time span ary period from November, 19$7, extending backward to lyOO could be selected. Since a contemporary picture of American education was the primary focus, the year prior to

Sputnik, October, 1?56 to October, 1 957 was selected. This also has the important advantage of assessing the tenor of opinion imaediatsly prior to Sputnik, and ary differences from one time span to the other

?l Robyn Williams, American Society, p. 271*. 71

in the portrayal of American education that appear are consequently more

likely to be related to this evant.

In addition there is a slight advantage gained in media sample

continuity. Prior to 1957 there were three magazines! flonan's Home

Zompanion, Colliers, and Pathfinder, or Town Journal as it was called

for a year; which wero among the leaders in circulation, ranking

fourth, eighth and eleventh, resDectively , in 1955 and accounting for a

circulation of nearly ten million. In 195& and 1957 these magazines were discontinued; if a time spar, prior to 1957 were selected when

these magazines were all s till in circulation, to have emitted them would have distorted the sample; to have included thorn would have

reduced the number of places where intramedia comparisons of content from one time span to another could be made, since they represented in one year 116 issues, nearly 30 percent of a ll jssues in the present sample for one year, and since there is a lim it to the amount of analysis one can do* CHAPTER IV

THE DEFINITION CF CONTENT ANALTSIS AND THE

SELECTION CF CATEGORIES

Content Analysis

Broadly conceived the analysis of content is inherent in every process wherety man communicates with man; everyone who is the recipi­ ent of a message, be it oral, gestured, or written; whether it is delivered personally or transmitted by ary device, and if the recipient tries to determine what is being transmitted, what the message says, he is involved in content analysis. However, Just as the scientific method differs from the trial-and-error method of problem solving in that the ingredients of comparative systematization and objectivity are added, so does content analysis at the level of ordinary communication differ from that used in this dissertation. Content analysis is herein defined as Ha research technique of the objective t systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.11^

There is, of course, no determinate line of demarcation between content analysis defined thus and content analysis in ordinary communi­ cation. The three qualifiers that separate the two, objective, system­ atic and quantitative, can be regarded as poles of three continuums with subjective, unsystematic, and lack of quantitive ness, respectively, at

"^Berelson, op. cit., p. 18.

93 &

the other poles. Every analysis of content, then, can be placed com­

paratively along these three continuums.

For example, historians ever since the time of Herodotus and

Thucydides have used content analysts with varying degrees of approach

to the poles of objectivity, systematization and quantification.

Regarding objectivity historians have traditionally relied on what

Darzun characterizes as the "single, competent w i t n e s s ."2 jn comparison

content analysis operating within the sociological frame of reference

usually have employed the technique of multiple "conpetent" witnesses and employed statistical tests of reliability.^

As far as ^stomatization is concerned, account must be taken of the traditional frames of reference of history and sociology.

History has long had an affinity for the literary tradition} and the

European historians, in particular, have made their writings often the vehicles of intellectual positions.^ In this respect the systematiza­ tion of the historian can be regarded as a priori. On the other hand, the sociologists have had a close affinity to the physical sciences, and, although this has often resulted in an imitation bordering on parocfcr, it has given a systematization that can be characterized as a posteriori.

Concerning quantification there is also divergence on their position on this continuum} sociologists, again based on their desire

o Jacques Barzun, The Modern Researcher, p. 117*

^David W. Shephard, "Henry J. Taylor's Radio Talkst A Content Analysis," Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 33* Winter, 1956, p. 16.

^h*arzun, op. c it., p. 183. 95

far closer association with the physical sciences, have a predilection

far "counting"; in contrast is the tendency of the historian, rooted in

a concern for the unique rather than the general, to generalize from a

paucity of facts*

There 1s another aspect of this definition, "manifest content,"

that needs elaboration* Again reference must be made to a continuum

with manifest one pole, and latent the other* The degree of manlfest-

ness or latency is measured by the size of the community of agreement—

the more agreement, the more manifest the content; the less agreement,

the more latent the content*

In addition to the placement of manifestness or latency along a

continuum, there must be recognition of varying levels of the community

of agreement* For example, in analyzing the content of a dream if the

community analyzing this content is undifferentiated with respect to

competency in interpreting dreams as measured by training in such

analysis one would expect wide divergence; if, on the other hand, the

community analyzing the dream consists of psychoanalysts one would

expect a significant increase in agreement*^

In the analysis of content as a research tenchique every effort,

then, must be made to use whatever means available to locate the analysis as near as possible to the "objective, systematic, and quantitative" ends of these continuums* Regarding location on the

latency aanifestness continuum recognition must be given to the point that Merton makes that researchers must often make a choice between

^Cf • Erich From, The Forgotten language. 96

reliability and theoretic relevance, since It has been demonstrated

uniformly that an Increase in the complexity of categories (latency)

results In a decrease In reliability.^

Categories of Analysis

To take into account ii or ton’a observation on the relations

between relevance and reliability it follows that, If possible, analysis

should be m ulti-level, I.e., Include categories that can be located at'

different points along the latency-manlfestness continuumj accordingly,

such an attempt w ill be nmde.

Purpose.—The first dimension of content to be analyzed in maga­

zine articles relating to American education is the overall purpose of

the article as measured in two categoriest informative or persuasive.

Informative. An article is categorized as informative if the analyst Judges that its purpose is solely to provide infornmtion rela­

tive to contemporary events in Amerioan education. The article should

contain no attempts to sell a point of view» there are no recownenda-

tions that something should be done, or that something should not be

done. For example, in reporting events in one or more schools there

should be no overt suggestion that these are things which any other school should do.

Attention should be directed to subtlety. The analyst is required to determine after reading the complete article whether or not the general tone is such that the article is asking for something to be

Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Structure, p. 1*1*9. 97

dona or a point of view adopted In a subtle manner; If such la the caaa

the article does not belong in this category.

Persuasive• An article is categorised as persuasive If it calls

far the adoption of a particular point of view or for certain kinds of action even though the article may contain much or mostly informative m a t e r ia l.

It should oe apparent that where the cpecifleations call for recognition of subtlety the categories of informative and persuasive make an abrupt shift to the latency pole on the latency-manlfestness continuum. Obviously, where no reference need be made to direct state­ ments of persuasion in order to categorize an article's purpose as persuasive, there is a risk that what may be measured are the biases of the analyst rather than those of the writer of the article, however, to avoid decision on the basis of the emotive response of the anaiyst there must be some internal evidence of persuasion, however indirect.

This procedure was followed because cursory inspection of the material indicated that mary of the articles in a ll of the magazines except the Information Bearers (Time, Newsweex, U.S. News and W orld

Report and Parent's)quite clearly fe ll into the two categories without reference to subtlety, but that enough of the articles in the Informa­ tion Bearers seemed to require for relevant analysis this qualifying recognition of subtlety to Justify its use.

E v a lu a tio n

The second dimension of content to be analyzed in magazine articles relating to education is the overall evaluation placed upon 96

American education la each article. In relation to its loo*tion on the

latency—nan if as tneas continuum it is probably the closest to the mani­

fest pole than any of the subsequent broad categories.

Since casual inspection of magazine articles relating to educa­

tion indicate that most evaluations of American education represent

neither unqualified approval or disapproval, the evaluation categories

should provide for differing intensities of evaluation, therefore the

following categories of evaluation were usedt

Straight Positive: An y article which gives unqualified approval

to current practices in American education.

Qualified Positive t Any article which mostly approves of cur­ rent practices in American education; there are a few things, however,

of which it is critical.

Doubtfuli Aqy article which both approves of and is critical of current practices in education; the balance is such that it is impossi­ ble to decide which predominates •

Neutral: Any article which only reports current practices in

American education; it is Impossible to tell whether approval or dis­

approval is shown.

Qualified Negative: A ny article which mostly disapproves of current practices in American education; there are a few things, however, of which it approves.

Straight Negative: A ny article which gives unqualified dis­ approval to current practices In American education.

Given this differentiation of intensity it can readily be seen that the analyst must s till exercise considerable judgment. For 99 example, it is difficult to determine exactly the point where an article becomes qualified positive as distinct from doubtful* Statistically it is such when the number of positive statements are equal to the number of negative statements} this, however, gives equal weight to a ll statements of evaluation which obviously does not occur# Even if this objection, though, could be met, to subject this category to a counting technique would be time consuming; and, since, as in most research judgment must be given between exactitude of results and econosy of effort, it was considered that sufficient reliability would be ^ined ty relying on the judgment of the analysts with regard to the differentiation between categories# Where the results of the analysis in terms of this oategazy are presented the reliability achieved, of course, w ill be reported*

Themes in American Education

The recognition of the polarisation of value orientations in

American culture has been a key that has opened more locks to understand­ ing that culture than attempts to find its meaning in some centrality; for American civilization began in diversity (the conflict of Spanish,

Biglish and French colonialism and the indigenous Indian culture); was matured in diversity (the multi-cultured immigration)} and exists today in diversity*

The contemporary representation of diversity is probably as w ell portrayed as any other means ty the coexistence of those who panegyrize it and those who anathematize it; those who see it affirmatively as 7 Ffcul Tillich in religion as the key to the Protestant Principle; those

7If* Paul T illich, The Protestant Era* 100 who see it negatively as Sebastian de Grazia in social institutions as

the genesis of anomie.^

The position taken here is not to say that polarization is either

bad or good, but that it exists and nay, indeed, be a fundamental condi­

tion of existence, for as Patrick Geddes points out, "Every fora of life

is marked not merely by adjustment to the environment but by insurgenee against the environmentt it is both creature and creator, both the

victim of fate and the master of destiny; it lives no less by domination o than by acceptance.*'

Close examination of the history of American education reveals such polarization; the development of American education is better told and better understood within the matrix of the conflict of competing political, social, economic and religious ideologies than as a dreary chronicle of the epigenesis of an institution artifically insulated against the imbroglios of a pluralistic culture.

In the development of thematic categories to analyze the content of magazine articles relating to American education, then, polarized categories were devised that were assumed would do two things: (1) catch up, as it were, the relation of intracultural complexity and con­ flict to American education; and (2) cluster the many specifics of schism in American education together in a design that represents their interrelatedness.

^Cf • Sebastian De Grazia, The P olitical Community. ^Quoted in lewis 4*umford, Techniques and C ivilization, p. 319. 101

Jeffersonlan-Jacksonlan Themes

It is appropriate that the first dichotomized category,

Jeffersonian-Jacksonian, has perhaps more specificity to American p oliti­

cal institutions than to American education, for it is Illustrative of

the position taken that the recognition of polarization in American

culture creates as much or more understanding than the discovery of

generality. For example, characterizing American political institution as "democratic" is to remain at a level of abstraction where it is d iffi-

cu lt to find meaning; as Carl Decker put It, rather extremely, it is a term without a "referent—there is no precise or palpable thing or

object which we a ll think of when the word is pronounced."^

Rather than abrogate the term as Becker does, however, it is better to admit it as do many writers as a broad, complex and derivative category in American life.H Contributing to it6 complexity are the two internal themes of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democracy.

To detail the ramifications of these themes for political insti­ tutions is outside the periphery of this work; what w ill be done is indicate their basic tenets and then develop from them the indicators that w ill permit categorization of either in the subsequent content a n a ly s is •

P olitically the divergence between Jeffersonianias and Jackson- ianism is in relation to their conception of democracy. Jefferson saw democracy as a doctrine antithetical to the state as a power structure

Becker, Modern Democracy, p. U.

U I b i d . 102

with a built-in tendency to impose ever lnoreasing tyranny upon the

individual. Far example, in a letter to Noah Webster In 1790, he said

t h i s i

the purposes of society do not require a surrender of a ll our rights to our ordinary governors; that there are certain portions of right not necessary to enable them to carry on an effective government, and which experience has nevertheless proved they w ill be constantly encroaching on.12

Jackson, and this typifies the core of agreement in the two

themes, shared Jefferson’s belief that democracy was a protection

against tyranny, but whereas the emphasis of Jefferson was on the main­

tenance of the weakness of the state, Jackson chose to stress the

strength of the people.^

It is from this stress on the people—"common man"—that the

divergence of theme aopears that becomes important to the development of

categories of analysis for American education.

Again there is centrality in Jeffersonian and Jacksonian democ­

racy s' regard for equality, particularly with respect to opportunity;

both looked upon the existence of barriers such as financial, religious,

or social class to the fu ll realization of man’s potential as basically wrong* They differ, however, in their view of mam Jefferson in seeing

the existence and importance of an "aristocracy of talent;^ Jackson,

certainly not unaware of differences in natural endowment, but seeing it

^Quoted in Adrienne ^och, The Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson, p . l h l .

^Harold C. §yrett, Andrew Jackson, p. 19.

^*Karl Lahmann, Thomas Jeffersont American Hunanist, p. 110. 103

of little importance and whose views can be summed up in the American credo, "Aqy bey can become President,"^-* or as Walt Whitman, one of the poets of the Jacksonian ideal, puts iti

In a ll people I see nyself, none mare and not one a barley corn l e s s And the good or bad I say of nyself I say of them*

It is from this differencei the Jeffersonian concept of a

"natural aristocracy of talent1* as opposed to the allegiance to the

'’commonality'* of man of Jacksonianism that is obtained the indicators for the Jeffersonian-Jacksonian categories as themes in American educa­ t i o n . ^

Indicatorsi Jeffersonian-Jacksonian

Both are "democratic" in the sense that each subscribes to equality of opportunityj both wish to do away with financial, racial, religious, or social status as barriers to education.

^When speaking of Jackson's view it is necessary to make the point that much of what is termed "Jacksonian" is not the direct expression of Jackson’s philosophy as in the case of Jefferson, but rather the expression of a whole group of intellectuals such as Robert Dale Oiren, James Fenimore Cooper, Walt Whitman and others, who as active members of Jackson's Democratic party were the real spokesman of that philosophy. Cf. Arthur Schleslnger, Jr., The Age of Jackson, p p . 369-390.

^ W alt Whitman, "Song o f t y s e l f ," in The S e le c te d ^oema of Walt Whitman, p . 52.

Cther writers have noted these two themes. Cf. Williams, op. c i t . , pp. 2B2-203, and W illis Rutty, "Historical Perspectives and the Contemporary Scene," Harvard Educational Review, 23 (Summer, 1953), pp. 2QU-210, quoted In Blaine" War'cer and Edwin K. Carr, Education and the Social Order, pp. 231-232, 1QL Jeffersonian themes stress differences in native ability and

the necessity of providing for these differences in the educational

system. While there is insistence upon a common elementary schooling for everyone, beginning at the secondary school but with most emphasis at the

college level, the student of superior native intelligence would be

offered an education commensurate with his a b ility while the other would

either terminate formal schooling or be given vocational training.

Jacksonian themes stress the commonality of educational experi­

ences and the necessity of making education at a ll levels, including the

university, open to everyone as far as the individual desires.

Jeffersonian themes favor the homogenous grouping of students.

Jacksonian themes favor the heterogenous grouping of students.

Jeffersonian themes favor not passing those students who fa il to

measure up to predetermined educational standards from one grade to the

next.

Jacksonian themes favor passing a ll students from one grade to

the next.

Jeffersonian themes favor permitting students of low acade;njc a b ility to drop formal schooling.

Jacksonian themes favor graduating all students from high school.

Jeffersonian themes favor higher entrance requirements for college

entrance.

Jacksonian themes favor admitting a ll high school graduates into

co lleg e.

Jeffersonian themes emphasize special education.

Jacksonian themes emphasize general education. 105

It should be noted that like so many other value orientations it

Is possible to adhere to both positions at the same time* The polarisa­

tion of value in America Is not only found in the culture, but, to some T R extent, within individuals as w ell.

Often, too, there is a conscious effort to serve both themes

within an institution. As an example there is the development within

the secondary school of the so-called "care1' curriculum that every

student in the school must take (Jacksonian) side by side with the

opportunity to specialize in either an academic or vocational curricula

(Jeffersonian). However, to the extent that the core concept is

envisaged favorably as possessing the potential of ingurgitating ever

increasing amounts of the curriculum, the dominant theme is Jacksonian;

to the extent that the core concept is assessed unfavorably as a can­

cerous growth in the school, the dominant theme is Jeffersonian.

As a guide to the types of statements that can appropriately

guide the analyst to a decision that an article can be judged to fa ll

within either of these two categories, the following representative

statements taken from the literature are provided.

Jeffersoniani "Our school system seems to presuppose that, far

education to be democratic, every man's child must be treated as the

equal of every other's both in kind of brains and in educatibility. The

effect of this is to herd an ever increasing number of unfit persons 19 into colleges of liberal arts."

■^Williams, op. c it., pp. 306-388.

^3ernard Iddings B ell, "Our Schools— their Four Grievous Faults," Readers»s Digest, Januaiy, 1951, p. 12h. 106

Jacksonian* "General education is intended for everyone—not merely far the select few who become scholars or who enter the profes­

sions* No longer w ill preparation for college entrance dominate the

curriculum of the high school which is committed to the objectives of

general education. The program of such a school w ill be planned to meet 20 the varied needs of a ll young people of the comr.unity which it serves

Jeffersoniani "Old-fashioned" schools follow the same system we

find in colleges and in lifei Those who are Incapable or unprepared*

fa il. Not so with the modern public school* the only institution this

side of heaven that rewards intentions as generously as it does accomp­

lishment*"^

Jacksoniant "Another difference between the idea that subject matter is more important than children and today’s view that education serves the individual is that we no longer "fail" children if we can help it. . * . Today the school is organized so as to keep all the children learning for as long a time as possible and to avoid the stigma

of failure* After all* if the child falls to learn in schools* it is

often the fault of the school and of the parents* because children* 22 particularly young ones* do not decide not to learn."

Jeffersoniani "The la?y, the incompetent* the procrastinating student soon learns that he w ill get ty without working* the able and

2^3. Iamar Johnson, General Education in the American High School* p* III. 21 Ann L. Crockett, "Lollipops vs* Learning," The Saturday Evening Post* March 16, 191*0, p . 106.

22oeorge Willard Frasier, An Introduction to the Stucjy of Educa­ tion* p. 311* 107

industrious student learns with disgust that the rewards of his industry

and achievements are the same as those of dullards* A corollary of this

fatuous principle is the teaching of certain moonstruck pundits that

absolute grading scales should be abolished and that each student should

be graded according to his individual capacities and the relation of his

learning to his activities* Thus* if a student has achieved a distin­

guished level of feeblemindedness, he should receive an A for his work,

for he has done a ll that he could."-*

Jacksoniani "What we need is not a lowering or a weakening of

standards, but a new set of standards to uphold* These new standards would not be oriented to subject matter at a ll, but rather to human

growth* We would ask ourselves not How much mathematics or history does

he know? but How much has he grown as an experiencing, functioning

individual? Hew w ell can he meet and adjust to other human beings?"2*4

Jeffersoniani "In the required subjects and those elected by students with a wide range of ability, the students should be grouped according to ability, subject by subject* For example, in Biglish,

American history, ninth-grade algebra, biology, and physical science, there should be at least three types of classes—one for the more able

in the subject, another for the large group whose ability is about average, and another for the very sim readers who should be handled ty special teachers*"^5

b i 1 Harry J. Fuller, "The Emperor's New Clothes or Prlus De men tat," Scientific Monthly, January, 1951, pp« 3^-37*

^Barl C. Kelley and Marie I* Rasey, Education and the Nature of Man, p . 136* 2< ^jamas B. Conant, The American High School Today, p. U9. 100

Jacksonian> ", . • it is doubtful that ^ability grouping 1® *

good type of education* In the first place it is not democratic* It

deprives children of the opportunity to learn to work and live with a ll

kinds of people,"2^

Jeffersoniant "Every refusal to inaugurate the commercialized football system; every determined defense of present educational require­ ments against further watering-down through the survqy course, the gen- eral education curriculum, and the elective system; every effort to eliminate the obviously unfit—a ll these are steps in the right direc­ t i o n . " 27

Jacksonian! " . . • colleges are necessarily and rightfully to broaden their constructional program in order that it may become vital for the less endowed, for those well endowed with other than conceptu­ alizing aptitudes, and for many who mature late mentally."28

Na t iv is t-Huma ni s t

While the distinction between Jeffersonian and Jacksonian themes quite frequently involve rather subtle nuances of difference because of their common derivation, the same cannot be said for the Hunanist-

Nativist themes which more often than not stand out in vivid contrast; the polarization of these two categories can only be characterized as s t a r k .

2^Frasier, op* c it., p* 369. 27 A rnold ft. Green, "Young America Takes Over the College," Comnentary, June, 19 U9f p. 53U,

nO or

Natlvlsm.—Natlviam can be described broadly as an unequivocal ethnocontrisnj—a rigid belief in the worth of one's own value systems over those of others. The concomitants 0 1 this basic orientation are an overweening patriotism—a conviction that one's country can do no wrong and an ardor for the preservation intact of what is conceived as the national heritage rooted firmly in a past that seems somehow more glorious, more uncontaminated than the present which is filled with manifestations of "unAmericanism," i.e ., anything critical of what the nativist holds as cherished symbolst the Constitution as originally conceived} the "free enterprise" system; the legends of patriotic events and heroes, etc* There is suspicion and distrust of other countries and peoples that seems to deepen as a function of their visible differences from "Americans"! language, physiognomy, customs, dress, political systems, etc.

There are also strong overtones of the Protestant i£thic in

Mativismi emphasis upon the virtues of hard work, discipline, and com­ petition. Prevalent, too, i s a bias toward institutional Protestantism of the fundamentalist variety, particularly as opposed to Homan

Catholicism.

Contrasted with the devotion to the idealized "countiyn there is a suspicion of the "federal" government—those politicians in Wash­ ington. Since Nativism is rooted in ethnocentrism, the local community of the nativist claims a goodly portion of his loyalty as does his state and region; and viewed with alarm is aqy encroachment on what the 110 nativist regards as the prerogatives of that tom , state, or region, by the "government in Washington" which is somehow separate from the indefectibis government of the Constitution.

Nativism has been embedded in the American value complex ever since the first settlers achieved a sense of community and became alienated from their native land, indeed the first evidences of chauvinism were common in pre-revolutionary tim es.^ The fu ll flowering of Nativism when the nativists were a potent force in national politics, occurred, however, in the first half of the nineteenth century. The movement began in the northeast in response to the heavy influx of immigrants, particularly the Irish, in the 1820's and 1830's, and New

York and Philadelphia formed Native American parties to bar naturalized citizens from holding municipal offices. In 181*5 the first national

Native American party was organized which was, however, converted into a secret society with the appropriate title of the Supreme Order of the

Star Spangled Banner.

This secret society became the nucleus of the American party, better known as the "Know Nothing" party, the title being derived from the secretiveness of the original group. Capitalizing on the impact of ever increasing hordes of immigrants descending on the pastern seaboard, winning adherents, too, in the North of politicians who wished to purge the issue of slavery from politics by focusing on a new problem, and

29 Cf. Merle Curti, The Roots of American ic y a lty , Ch. I, pp. U-29.

3°Homr Carey Hockett, Political and S ocial Growth of the Ameri­ can Peoplei 11*92-1865, pp. 673-671*. Ill

even capturing the vote of Southerners who saw the population growth of

the north as a significant threat* the Know Nothings had a spectacular

success with no public campaign in its first national outing in the

elections of 185U* They swept the state of Massachusetts and made an

impressive showing in New York and Pennsylvania.^

1B$6 the party had grown sufficiently to attract to Its

candidacy for President* Millard Fillmore* an ex-Whig, former vice-

president under Zachary Taylor and then President when Taylor died*

However* the growth of the Republican party and the overwhelming issues

of sectionalism as contrasted with the limited issue of immigration were enough to k ill the party* In the election of 1856 Fillmore received

only eight electoral votes, those of Maryland, and the Know-Nothing

party disappeared.

Know-Nothing values* however, were, and s till are, factors in

American politics* and the Issues which this party championed found expression in the successive imnigration laws that were passed culmin­ ating in the Immigration Act of 1921* which severely lim ited inmigration and fixed future entry into this country on a quota system based on proportions of national origin prior to 1910* Preference was given, of course* to immigrants from northwestern Europe who, although foreigners* were not quite as foreign as those people from southern and eastern Europe or A siatics.

In the twentieth century Nativism found expression in the activi­ ties of the Klu Klux Klan which at its peak in the mid-1920's had a

^ Ib ld ., p. 690. 112 membership of over four m illion and terrorized actively "to make America 32 safe for white, Protestant, native-born Americans." The mantle of the

Know-Nothings was also assumed ty the American Legion, the Daughters of

the American Revolution, the Sons of the American Revolution and a

numerous assortment of lesser known groups like the National Civic

Federation and the National Security League. The contemporary manifesta­

tion of Nativism has, of course, been the activities of the late Senator

McCarthy and his followers*

Humanisp.—Where the Nativist adheres to a rigid ethnocentrism,

the Humanist is oriented to a belief in the basic equality of mankind in general, and instead of a value system of absolutes there is a rather vague, amorphous system of relative value* The Humanist sees nothing particularly sacred in national events and national heroes and is more concerned with the amelioration of present conditions than the preserva­ tion of and genuflection toward a "glorious past." If there is idealiza­ tion of arything, it is of the future where the millenium of "peace, prosperity and perfect democracy" w ill evolve*

When the Nativist sees the constitution as a symbol, the halo is about the seven original articles} when the Humanist sees the consti­ tution as a symbol the halo shifts to the first ten amendments, the

"Bill of Rights."

In contrast to the Nativist suspicion and distrust of "foreign­ ers," the Humanist supports and promulgates programs for international cooperation and understanding*

^Foster Rhea Dulles, Twentieth Century America, p* 2tJ2. 113

The protestent Ism of the Nativist and that of the Humanist are,

too, of an entirely different genre—the former rooted in a rigid funda- 33 aentalism , the latter a religious liberalism preaching a Social Gospel*

Where the Nativist views with alarm anything he construes as

federal encroachment upon local or state prerogatives, the Humanist

actively supports efforts of the federal government in any direction he

sees as equalisation of condition or opportunity for a ll Americans.

The g e n e s is o f American Hunmnism was in th e e ig h te e n th cen tu ry

philosophy of the Enlightenment whose basic tenets were the natural and

inalienable rights of man and the perfectabllity of man realised through

the instrument of or equalitarlan democracy; the first document of

American humanism was the Declaration of Independence.

If one can point to a political party representing the Nativist orientation in national life , the Knew Nothings, so can one do the same for the Humanists—the Progressive fturty of Theodore Roosevelt. Like the Know Nothings, it had an inciplency in localism, the reform parties in the big cities that under the Impact of the revelation of corruption in city government, the brutalizing conditions In the slums swept out the intrenched political machines; it also had a heritage of the multitude of labor parties that proliferated in the industrial north.

Like the Know Nothings, too, the Progressive party capitalized on a split in a major party, In this case the Republicans, to obtain national recognition. Like the Know Nothings, also, it slipped after one

^ L e r n e r , op. c i t ., pp. 708-709. HU national election Into linbo, although Its issues, Its programs, found continuing expression within the framework of the major parties; but unlike the Know nothings it had contemporary resurgence in the "New

Deal" wing of the Democratic party of the 1930's whose program was the quintescence of Humanism.^4

If the Nativists can show the translation of a portion of their values into legislation, the restrictive immigration laws, the Humanists can present an imposing list of laws that typify the Humanist orienta­ tio n i minimum wage and hour la w s, c h ild la b o r la w s, s o c i a l s e c u r it y , participation in the United Nations, and corrosion of the racial segre­ g a tio n laws t o name a fe w .

Based, then, on the value orientations of Nativist and Humanist themes in American culture the following indicators are provided to identify those themes in magazine content relating to American education.

I n d ic a t o r si Nativist—Humanist.—Nativist themes tend to regard democracy as equated with the present American political and economic systems, and stress the necessity of inculcating values that can be coarxonly labeled as "patriotic."

Humanist themes tend to regard democracy as an idealized process, and stress the necessity of achieving democratic values by "democratic living" in the classroom.

Nativist themes stress either the status quo, or Idealize the

"good old days" as exemplified by the " little red schoolhouse" and

UcGuffy readers; change is often decried.

3^In a sense the nativists in the era of :icCart>yisro had a rebirth politically within the Republican party, but they in no way had the scope and depth of the humanism elements in the Democratic party. 115

Hunanlat themes stress exoerimentalism, * * the accentance of or necessity for change; and tend to idealize the future*

!,Tativist themes stress the '’old fashioned" virtues of hard work

and rigid discipline.

Humanist themes stress interest as motivation for work and a

permissive attitude toward discipline.

Nativist themes stress the competitive aspects of the school pro­

gram.

Humanist themes stress the cooperatlvo aspects of the school

program.

Nativist themes tend to regard "truth'1 as absolute and in the

Judoo-Christian tradition.

Humanist themes tend to regard "truth1* as relative and havo no

particular religious orientation.

Nativist themes tend to regard internationalism in general and

such organizations as UNESCO in particular as suspect and a threat to

national sovereignty.

Humanist themes tend to look upon international cooperation with

favor and give specific support to such organizations as IN3SS30.

Nativist themes tend either to omit references to the role of

education in building tolerant attitudes toward differing races and

religions or if they do, thqy tend to be racist, i.e., favor racial discrimination.

Humanist themes tend to stress the rola of education in building

tolerant attitudes trwrard differing races and religions. 116

Nativiat themes tend to regard federal aid to education as an

evil, a surrender of local control of education, even a movement toward

state socialism.

Humanist themes tend either to be neutral toward federal aid to

education, or more often to regard it as good, contributing to equaliza­

tion of educational opportunity.

Hativist themes tend to regard the tr^atjsent of controversial

issues outside the school's province*

Humanist themes tend to regard the treatment of controversial issues as laving a vital place in education.

As a guide to the types of statements that can appropriately lead the analyst to a decision that an article He Judged to fall within either of these two categories, the following representative statements taken from the literature are provided.

Nativismi "A first means to more and more Americanism in our schools is the cultivation of an attitude which ranks America, its history, its traditions and its accomplishments, its institutions and its ideals, the men and women who have made its greatness possible, as something worthy of deep respect; an attitude that recognizes the superlative worth of American privileges and advantages, and that cherishes a love for things American

Hunanismi "The courses in American history now required ty nearly all schools do not go deep enough to meet our needs. As at

^John Dixon, "rfhat's .Vrong with U. S. History7" American Legion l.lagazine, May l^uV, p. UO. 117 prosent taught, thoy are designed to prove that Americans are a unique and incommensurable peon-le and superior to all others. This is the sin of pride through which the angels and the Uazin fell."^*

j'ativl5::,t "Until the reign of the New Educationists, the lioeral arts, certain classics and other studies requiring arduous concentration or 'drill' were an essential part of courses of instruction. In meeting the challenge, a student developed mental stimulus and scholarly dis­ cipline. These were the abrasives which 'sharpened' the brain and pre­ pared it for its intellectual mission.

Humanistt "Every person should be taught to be critical of his social-cultural heritage in terras of ideaa, concepts, attitudes, material things, and institutions. In the past too mary of us have ^>een encum­ bered with outmoded intellectual baggage* Ours is an age of science.

Increasingly research, discovery and invention will transform our already rapidly changing world."^®

Natlvlsni "During the past century, material and scientific progress has been v a s t, but in a l l his wisdom man has y et to discover htwr to govern himself without hod. The Hew Education has excluded God from the classroom and has given us a secularism based solely on materialistic values. "39

^Christian Gauss, "The Alms of Education," ladies Home Journal, January, 1918, p. 155*

3?Augustin Fiudd, Bending the Twig, p. 179.

Harry James Garmon, "S etting Our Sights fo r Tomorrow," Saturday hcvlew of Literature, Sept. 1?, 19hS» P* 3^-17.

•"itudd, op. cit., p . 1^5. 110 Humanismt "The more thoroughly anthropologists investigate the

societies of men, so varied and often contradictory in their practices

and t h e i r Id e a ls , the more ev id en t does i t become th a t nan and not h is

gods is the author of his codes and his standards; that man creates liis

religion and his sanctions out of his aspirations and his responses to

the conditions under which he lives; that creeds are less the source of

morality than is moral experience both the matrix and the. ultimate

testing ground of what is durable and valuable in creeds .*^0

Nativism: "A group of educators—not numerous but influential—

has set out to introduce into the social-science courses of our high

schools a seductive form of propaganda for collectivism—chiefly of that

type which we call socialism.

This propaganda takes the form of teaching openly if possible. . .

cautiously if necessary . . • that our American system of private enter­

prise is a failure . . . that our republic of limited powers is a mis­ take ." k 1

liuiranlsmi "Econooic-politics helps again with the aid of history, ty showing how profit-making interests often take precedence

over public interests, how organized medicine has blocked national health services, and how thousands of patents gather dust on the shelves of corporations because their release would lower the price or reduce the sale of this or that comnodity. From this problem students . . .

T. Thayer, The A ttack Upon the American Secular School, p • 206 •

^Jolon T. Flynn, "Who Orns Your Child's Hind?" header's Digest, O ct., 1951* P* • 119 seek to reach consensus on the question of what changes in controls of inventions and research are necessary if the people are to secure the full partnership of science in their god-seeking and goaL-findlng

Utilitarian-Liberal Arts

U tilita r ia n .— If one had to adjudge the dominance of one theme in American culture, it would probably ba the utilitarian with its emphasis on practicality ("What can you do with it?”); concern for tech­ nique rather than theory ("What do those long-haired professors know about i t , anyway?'1); expediency ('W ill it, work?”); fixation on the present f'History is bunk!" "Oh, there's plenty of coal ^oil, forests, iron ore, etc_»7 left.”); stress on action, even for its own sake ("Well, don't just stand there, do something!” ”The Devil finds work for idle hands.”); material comfort ("Livo i t up!”); rationality ("Vfell, i t works, doesn't it?); and means rather than ends ("It ain't whatcha do, it's the way whatcha do it.”).

Williams in discussing the major value orientations ir. America lists the following* "achievement and success, activity and work, moral orientation, humanitarian mores, efficiency and practicality, progress, material comfort, equality, freedom, external conformity, science and secu lar rationality."^ Of these fifteen the six underlined can be said to be interrelated and groupable under the general theme of

^Theodore Brameld, Towards a tec ons true tod Philosophy of Educa­ tio n , p. 2 3 1 .

^W illiams, op. c it., pp. 383-392. 120

Utilitarianism, or if you wish, pragmatism.^ Of the other nine in maqy

of them can ho found elements of Utilitarianism; far exAmple, moral

orientation* "In Iaske's words* 'whAt begins as a theocratic principal

ends by becoming a tradition that it is not very easy to distinguish

from Utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism in America began in the necessities of frontier

life where practicality, concern for the present, action, etc., were the

contingencies upon which survival depended. Sveiy schoolboy can

chronicle the difficulties of the Jamestown colory settled largely by

cavaliers in 1607, and, even though the attribution of near failure to

the "gentility" and hence impracticability of their training and rearing as "gentlemen* may not be ju st,^ the ability to quote poetry, to dance,

to read Latin and Greek, to fence when raw survival was at stake; and, irrespective of the spiritual solace these skills may have provided, these aspects of gentilhomnerle were not particularly assets.

For the common colonist in America who rarely possessed these skills or knowledge in the first place, Utilitarianian was a natural adjunct to his Puritanism, itself practical, "down to earth" and deplete

^Pragmatism as used here, while related to the philosophical term is in no way equated with it; not, of course, is utilitarian to be regarded as identical with the utilitarianism of Dentham and Mills. For this paper these terms are to be construed as applicable to clusters of societal phenomena and not as descriptive of philosophic systems*

Harold Iaski, The American Democracy, p. ?7, quoted in Williams, op* c it., p. 398.

U6 Oliver P«riy Chitwood, A History of Colonial America, PF• 71-72. 121 of mysticism, sin was real as was the hell to which those who were not

"chosen" were damned.

The frontier conditions which fostered and encouraged this

Utilitarianism existed, as Frederick Jackson Turner duly noted, until the l8j?0's and i 1 the three-hundred and fifty years it prevailed it branded inexorably and indelibly the American character*

Elements of Utilitarianism can be traced in very nearly every aspect of American culture. For example, as ierner points out, the excellence of American science lies esnecially in the fields of chemistry and physics, the physical sciences, the "sciences of energy and power," rather than the life sciences* biology, botary and zoology .^7 What progress has been made in the latter have been more related to the breeding of better milch cows and hybrid corns than discoveries in basic theory; the difficulty of getting research grants for basic research as contrasted with monies for "practical" problems is well known.

In politics Utilitarianism manifests itself in the virtual absence in either major party of either a solid foundation of political theory or significant appeal to a particular class as contrasted with

2uropean parties of the Left and Right. Attempts have been made in

America to affix such labels but they have never taken; and parties that have had such an orientation, the Populists, Socialists, Communists, laborite3, etc., have been notoriously unsuccessful, '.'('hat does exist, though, is a wealth of "Know-how" on winning elections and the conflict between political parties is largely for the sheer possession of office

I * 7 a‘Lerner, op. cit., p. 213. 122 rather than for the opportunity to implement ideas. Evidence of the

Utilitarian regard that the electorate have far their officialdom is the voter’s disposition to turn the office holders out in response to economic crisis.

In law the elements o f Utilitarianism are present, too. Oliver

Wendell Holmes, Jr., in his book Common law, states, The life of the law has not been in logic* It has in experience;” and refers to the "felt needs of the times *"U8 The parallel between this point of view and certain pedagogical utterances written from the same orienta­ tion are obvious*

In education the U tilitarian theme is pervasive and the American

"faith” in education is more concerned with education as a means than an end. The proliferation of courses in the American Jchool has almost always been to serve Utilitarianism and has been at the expense of the classical curriculum in the liberal arts tradition At the university level the generosity of state legislatures, particularly those dominated by rural eleinents, has been duly noted in the size of appropriations for

Colleges of Agriculture as has been their parsimony for the liberal arts colleges* It is appropriate to note the ubiquitousness of Utilitarian­ ism evident in the current "crisis" in education: there seems to be in some liberal arts quarters efforts to affect a return to the classical tradition for the reason, Utilitarian, of course, that we can thereby

^Quoted in Lerner, op. c it*, p. 127 .

^%illian.s, op. cit., p. 291. 123 atomize the Russians more efficiently and thoroughly than they can do fo r us.

Liberal Arts.—Picking up the threads of the Liberal Arts theme in

American culture, however, is not as easy a task. The extent to which the utilitarian value system has captured the American ethos is typified try indicating the polar words for some of the terms descriptive of util-

itarianismt practical-impractical, ac+,ion-passivity, efficiency- inefficiency, rational-irrational, material comf ort-asceticism, expediency-inexpediency, science-nysticisn, secular-religious. To say that these polars are descriptive of the Liberal Arts theme is obviously inaccurate, but one must note that often some of them are used or implied ty unsophisticates in reference to elements of the liberal arts tradi­ tion* "What do you want to bother with taking Iatin? You can't use it— it's impractical." "What do you want, to set around and read a book for?"

In a sense, however, this quality of impracticality, of irra­ tionality, of passivity that the unsophisticated utilitarian attributes to elements of the Liberal Arts provides clues to their essence; for they are bench marks on paths beyond practicality, on heights in the hierarcty of values above efficiency, on depths of existence subjacent to sheer, overt activity.

The label which categorizes these qualities is, of course, transcendentalism and its recognition is the key to tracing the Liberal

Arts tradition in American culture.

Transcendentalism in America had no incipiency in the frontier as did Utilitarianism; its genesis was a nineteenth century phenomena 12U

in a N^r England a century removed from the frontier, and its parents were intellectuals who, although they worshipped at the ’’divine fires”

in the nature of common man, transcended, as it were, the understanding

of common man; and while Qneroon might claim for humanityt

I am the owner of the sphere, Ctf the seven starts and the solar year, Of Caesar's hand, and Plato's brain, . Of Lord Christ's heart, and Shakespeare's strain the pioneer asked only his own hundred acres, his growing rain and warm­

ing sun, his own calloused hands; of Plato's brain and Shakespeare's strain he knew not; of Christ's heart he thought not.

It is this iinperspicuity of the masses for the insights of the

intellectual, and the concomnitant sense of alienation of the intellec- ual, particularly the transcendentalist, from the society of the masses that has been a recurrent or even persistent theme in Xner^can life#

Just as the early transcendents lists found a metaphysical system in the

German idealists, Kant and Fichte, for what had been for the Americans a faith rather than a philosophy,^ so havesuccessive generations of

American intellectuals found successive enamorations with content anterior to their native culture#

Our literary and cultural history is full of the records of ranances with other cultures, or sometimes with other classes# Haunted as we all are ty unquiet dreams of peace and wholeness we are eager and q: ick to find them embodied in another people# Other peoples may have for us the same

?°KAlph Waldo Emerson, "The Informing S p ir it."

^'/ernon L. Farrington, ilain Currents in American Thought, Vol. I I , pp. 373-375. beautiful integrity that from childhood on, we are taught to find In some period of our national or ethnic pasts• Truth, we f e e l , must somewhere be embodied in man. Ever since the nineteenth century, we have been fixing on one kind of per­ son or another, on one group of people or another, to satisfy our yearning—the peasant and the child have served our pur­ pose; so has woman; so has the worker; ^""we have_/ made use of the English, the French rural clasaee, and N egroes.^2

Abstracted from the above, then, two overarching characteristica

of the Liberal Arts theme in American culture can be delineatedt (1) it

is an "intellectual'1 movement concerned more with the abstract rather

than the concrete; and (2) sources of inspiration are derived from the

"classical" tradition of Old World culture, and there is a tendency

toward the minimization of traits peculiarly American.

Of these two characteristics the first more nearly incorporates

the totality of the essence of the Liberal Arts theme to the extent that

"thinking" is seen virtually as an end in itself, rather than as a means

to the manipulation of the environment as in the Utilitarian theme#

It should be pointed out that the Liberal Arts theme shares with

the Jeffersonian theme the belief in an intellectual elite, the dis­

tinction being that mapy Jeffersonians are strict Utilitarians i the man

who believes that reading Plato is a waste of time finds no inconsistency

and there is none, in believing that some men are dolts and some are

geniuses, and that they both should not have the same education.

In the determination of Utilitarian-Liberal Arts themes in writings on American education the following indicators are usefuli

The Utilitarian theme tends to meas’ire the value of education in

terms of its apparent and immediate usefulness.

■^Lionel Trilling, "The Situation of the American Intellectual at the Present Time," A Gathering of Fugitives, pp. 61-62. 126

The Liberal Arts theme tend* to see education as "learning: for learnings sake."

The Utilitarian thene tends to aee education as involvement in experiencing* In its naive form virtually ary and all experience is seen as "gcod"; its sophisticated form seer value in the abstracting process from experience*

The Liberal Arts theme tends to see education as training in learning to "think." It, too, has a naive form emhodded in faculty psychology that sees such training as exercise in thinking; its sophisticated form conceives such training as disciplining people to think .

The Utilitarian theme tends to favor a curriculum heavily weighted toward vocational training; it stresses the worth of such courses as typing, shorthand, shop, home economics, etc. There is very little concern with the "Great 3ooks," or the "Great thinkers of the past

The Liberal Arts theme tends to favor a curriculum heavily weighted toward academic training; it stresses the value of such courses as history, literature, foreign language, etc. There may be a major value attached to the "Great Books," and "Great thinkers of the p a st."

The Utilitarian theme tends to stress efficiency of operation of the school; the attitude of the "hard headed, practical" businessmen toward education is a major characteristic.

The Liberal Arts theme is rarely concerned with efficiency; practicality is not at issue. 1 2 7

The Utilitarian therae tends to concentrate on short range adjustment to immediate situations*

The Liberal Arts theme tends to concern itself with more abstract and long-range problems•

As a guide to the types of statements that can appropriately lead the analyst to a decision that an article can be Judged to fall within either of these two categories, the follcr.rinp representative statements taken from the literature are provided.

U tilitarian> " . . • it is important to provide beys and girls with experience in the world of work so that they w ill have a broad backgro’md for making choices. The school must consider its responsi­ bility to offer a richness of exploratory and prevocational courses in order that adolescents can make choices from a wider field of kncwledpe.

Education also has an obligation to help young people lcarr. salable skills. For others it means particijation in cooperative part-time

Jo b s."’’3

Liberal Artst . . it is the oldest fallacy about schooling to suppose that it can train a man for ’’practical" life. Inevitably, while the plan of stucty- is being taught ’’practical life" has moved on.

"They did it this way three months ago, ncwr they do it this way." No employer who knows anything about men w ill value a beginner because he knows the ropes of a particular changeable routine. It would be as sensible to require that newcomers know the floor plan of the factory ahead of time."5k

^bobert 5. Gilchrist, .Yilbur ;!• Dutton, and Killian L. ./rinJcle, Secondary Education for American Dep.ocracy, p. ?8. Jacques Barzun, Teacher in America, p. 96. 12 H

Utilitarian; "Science has rlphtly f>cen called, as we have noted, the most powerful force movi.u; i:j the modern world. As a method of inquiry it is man’s most r elia b le source of knowledge about both h is environment and himself. Experimental in temper and scornful alike of both sacred tradition and term oral authority, it has moved trium­ phant ly durinp the past four and a half centuries from conquest to con­ quest. It has penetrated to soma decree, though by no means equally, all departments of lifj sr.o evjrthrovm countless ideas and customs hallowed hy tine.55

Liberal Arts t "To lis te n to the utili.tariar.s you would think that human ’■’rogress V^j^n with the der.'elopnient of the s c ie n tific method about thro> hundred years ajo, and that the outstandtnr achievements of man have bean the invention of radio, the harnessing of electricity, and the development of modern m edicine. A- a matter of fact, the jreatert invention of the in can race ' s lanjua^c (and thouyht: thinkinp is Just ha Lklnp + o ye-U'neii’, r.ot out loud. You think with words, and you cannot third: without w ord3.)."^

Utilitarian; "Dorothy's teacher knave that later on in li^o it w ill be irvortart for Dorothy to bo able to work the porcentajo problems involved in fijurir.j out income taxe3, ir.F’irance policies, and other financial arrangements. She also knew? that some members jf Dorothy's

.,rn\r w ill jo ijit c advancod 'Tathematics, which demands that they uncter- stand thorourhly the rules of arithmetic. vot these ten-year-olds are

« n r : if; orje 3. lounte, Jbncation and American D iv ill? a tio n , p. 1?9<

-^"Latter to a 17-Year Old Son," Harper’s , August, 19U5, quoted in Fred W. Lorch e t a l., Editors of Time and Truth, p. 159* 12 9 not the least bit interested in incone taxes, insurance, or hip,her maths;» tic s . They did, however, become interested in operating a store

in the classroom.”^'

Liberal Artsj ". . . ’Ye have a tendency to base the curriculum

on "useful” information, Ideas, which are, of course, the instruments cf knowledge, do not seem particularly productive at first jinnee* if you cun teach a her' how to become a second-rate bookkeeper, you have done sor.ethir.p that is gratifying to him and satisfactory to you. To discuss with him the na^ire of justice, or the theory of the state, or the prob­ lem of tr-uth, or the existence of God does net seer, to have a very S6 direct bearing on his economic future•"

Utilitarian > "... liko organized society itself, the demo­ cratic school must speedily become genuinely life-centered in its basic orientation, outlook., purposes, curriculum, and methods* cor today as never before in all human history, the essential study of mankind is man—his individual perplexities, his grocr procedures, his social problems* How at la st we must take ourselves and our students out of the crumbling ivory tower into the living community, there to stucfcT man and his problems in ways that are r e a lis t ic , functional, v itall" 59

Liberal Arts: "Our erroneous notion of progress lias thrown the classics and the liberal arts jut of the curriculjm, overemphasized the

^Iawrence A- Crarnin and x r le L. Borrowman, Public Schools in Our Democracy, p* 113•

-^Hobert M. Hutchins, Education for E'reedom, pp. S3-5U*

^Edward G. Olsen, et al*, School and iom-iunity, p. 29. 130

empirical sciences, and made education the servant of apy contemporary

movements in so ciety , no m atter how s u p e rfic ia l. In recent years th is

attitude las been accentuated try the world-wide depression and the high­

ly advertised political, social, and economic changes resulting from

it* IVe have been very much upset try a ll these things. .Ye have felt

that it was our duty to educate the young so that they would be pre­

pared for further political, social, and economic changes."^

U tilitariant nIf parents speak of music, dance, dramatics, or

organized recreation as impractical and an undesirable frill, a toacher

can rightly mention that maty people consider it necessary for children

* * to have the enjoyments and appreciations that make for rich living*

'f’hese things offer outlets for a child’s expression of his cem thinking

and feeling* Organized recreation is something mary parents feel is

very practical, since it provides wholesome activity for leisure hours

that might be less wisely spent. It is largely because so ma.’y parents

have felt this way that planned recreation has become an accepted part

of the school curriculum in so many places

Liberal Arts: "I deplore the multiplication of trivial courses

in cosaatology, fishing, and tap dancing, which swell the catalogues of

groat American universities and which have no purpose except to help the

student wile away four years without using his mind* Think of the most

futile, childish, irrelevant subject you can—think of parlor games,

^Robert M. Hutchins, The Higher Learning In America, p* 65*

^^Grace Iangdon and Irving H* Stout, Helping Parents Understand Their Child's School, pp. 13-19. 131

think of self beautification, think of arything you like—I w ill under­

take to find it for you among the courses offered try American institu­

tions of higher learning."^

Indivldualism-Groupism

Individualism«—American Individualism is rooted In the concepts that had birth in the incipient clamor that arose during the Renaissance for freedom from the controls of church and state, found invigoration in

the Reformation, and matured into doctrine during the eighteenth cen­ tury; religiously in the Protestant Ethic upon whose foundation of individual responsibility to God alone was erected a structure of compe­ tition, hard work and discipline; secularly in the principle of Natural

Rights with its emphasis on the ossential rationality of man and the concaomitant rights to opinion, economic enterprise and self government*

Imprinted on this European heritage of Individualism were the conditions of the American frontier which tended, as Frederick Jackson

Turner has noted and, perhaps, exaggerated, to exalt the qualities of individualism and personal iworth. If the iridividua 1 f crund the pressures of canrrunity and the group too onerous to bear, there was alxrays virgin territory free from the contamination of neighborly chimney smoke on the horizon, and while one hesitates to impugn causation, the present and past mobility of Americans as compared to other cultures is duly noted#

In virtually every phase of the American culture one can find the influences of individualism; for example, it has even found

62 Robert M. Hutchins, "Adjustment to the Environment,** in Foff and Grambs, op* c i t «, p* 1 1 9 . 132 expression in the proliferation of religious groups. According to the

Year Book of American Churches in 1/55, th ere were 25b d if f e r e n t r e l i ­ gious bodies in the United States and, as Williams points out, most of them are quite smallt 91 p ercen t o f the church members are in denanina- tions with 5^,000 members or morej 3 percent are in the remainder representing over 200 of the total of 25U«^

In American government the direct heritage of the individualism expressed in the doctrine of Natural .lights is, of course, embodied in the Bill of nights, the first ten amendments to our Constitution. In addition one can point to the general body of American law which is according to Lerner, "cluttered and individualistic, a 'wilderness of single instances'j in the main, uncodified,

Individualism in the American economic system was expressed in the capitalism of Adam anith whose theoiy was an exquisite refinement of individualism. Staith conceived capitalism in the rationality of economic man interacting as an amorphous plurality of "individuals, each seeking to sell as dearly and biy as cheaply as possible" and each an ir.dependent unit whose producing, selling, and biying consequently was so small as to have of itself no great effect upon the im rket.^

Although Snith described a system that never was, and even though the

American economic system has increasingly moved away from such an ideal, the embodiment of that ideal is the lip service paid and the pleas made

^Williams, op. cit., p. 321.

^ L e r n e r , op. c i t . , p . U32.

^Williams, op. c it., p. 13d. 133

for "free enterprise,'* most often try the corporations who laid it to

r e s t .

Within so basic a structure as the family and kinship system

there are evidences of individualism, particularly in the American

emphasis upon the independence of the conjugal unit in contradistinc­

tion to other cultures where larger kinship units take precedence.

Individualism manifests itself, too, in the freedom of choice with

regard to a mate; and, as Williams points out, the "free competition'* in

the institution of marriage parallels the "free competition'1 aspects of

the econony.^

In education the influence of individualism is more difficult to

trace. The sources of individualism, particularly in our early history, were, in diesman's terms, "inner-directed," derived from the "psycho­

logical gyroscope" provided ty early training; certainly an education effective enough to result in such "inner-direction" was not of a char­ acter to permit individualism in the young. There are, however, a few aspects of education related to individualism. Two that cane to rin d are the individual competition for grades and the system of free e l e c t i v e s .

Group Ism.—tSan, of course, is a social animal, and that which distinguishes him from the animals, his language, is a social phenanena; the rawest of individuals, though he forgo the immediate communion of his fellows, cannot slough off his heritage of socialization; even the

66 Williams, op. cit., p. U?. 13U stylite "talked" to Cod. Consequently, when consldoring "groupism" it

should be understood that what is being discussed is a very small part

of socialization.

Group ism, as understood here, is the representation of what

Rieoaan terms "other-directed" behavior: the determination of one’s

behavior by what one’s contemporaries are doing keyed to an exceptional

sensitivity to the actions and wishes of others.

The inception of groupism, of course, is not a twentieth, or even

a nineteenth century phenomena. DeTocqueville noted it, to him already

fullblown in the 1330's, but recognition must be given to the fact that

in a ll societies one's contemporaries are important in the generation of

one’s self—certainly Cooley's concept of the "looking-glass" self is

not applicable to only Western society and conformity 1830 may not be

conformity 1?56; however, one must concur with Riesman that the mani­

festations of contemporary groupism are not confined to an external con­

formity but apply to a much deeper, inner conformity and therein lies

the d i s t i n c t i o n .00

Ind icators-Indjviduali stic-Groupism

One is tempted in categorizing these two themes to follow David

Riesman's topology and designate them "inner-directed" and "other-

directed." If this analysis of periodical literature were to extend

backward significantly farther, say, to periodical literature in the

late nineteenth century, or if it included writings on education extending from the colon ial era it would, perhaps, be well to use

^Riesman, op. c i t ., pp. 37-38* ^ Ibid., pp. 39-U0» 135

Riesman's terms with the addition of his third category, the

"autonomous," Since the concern here, h<*rever, is with contemporary literature, and there seems to be, in this literature at least, symptoms of a counterrevolt against groupism, theo r g a n ic a n d since it is difficult, to disassociate the elements of inner-direct ion and autonomy, it was felt it would contribute to ease of analysis to include both under the designation "individualism,"

Indood this does not depart particularly from Riesman for he has himself noted the kinship of autonocy with inner direction and con­ jectured that it is easier to move from inner-direction to autonomy than from other-direct ion he bas also remarked that in describing the two themes, inner-direction and other-direction, he cannct escaoe making inner-direction seem the more attractive.^1

Essentially, if individualism is to represent both inner- direction and autonoqy, the determinant of individualism being, then, in the pursuit of individual interests rather than collective interests and it matters not whether this pursuit of individuality is set in motion and maintained by what Riesman terns a "psychologic gyroscope," the result of early training, or is generated by a conscious rationality of behavior by an individual who has reflectively arrived at a personal set of values.

^k few of the examples besides Riesman's The Lonely Crowd arc William Whyte, Organization yan, and Thctnas G riffith, The Waist-High C u ltu r e . 7^avid Riesman, op. c it ., p . 288. ^Lionel T rilling, "Two Notes on David Riesman," op. c it., p. 90. 136

For this analysis there is no distinction to be made between the

writers who insist upon an individuality of the psychological gyroscope,

or those who wish a reflective, rational individuality} actually the

best indicators of individua lien w ill te those which see groupism,

conformity in the school as something to be decried. Accordingly the

following indicators were provided to help determine these two themes in

the periodical literature on American education.

The individualistic theme tends to value the individual over the

group.

The groupism theme tends to value the group over the individual.

The individualistic theme tends to be concerned with the intel­

lectual development of the individual pupil; there is little concern

with the group.

The groupism theme tends to be concerned with the social d3velop-

ment of the individual pupil; there is great concern with the group

aspects of education.

The individualistic theme tends to be concerned with the develop­

ment of personal standards; or in Riesman's terms, inner-direction.

The groupism theme tends to be concerned with the development of

group standards or, in Riesman's terms, other-direction.

The individualistic theme tends to stress the necessity for

individual solutions of problems.

The groupism theme tends to stress the necessity of group solu­ tions or consensus in the solutions of problems.

The individualistic theme tends to advocate that the individual

pursue self interests. 137

The groupism theme tends to advocate that the individual pursue

group interests.

The individualistic theme tends to decry conformity, react, against

groupism trends, even though it may have no positive orogram to present

in its own behalf.

As a guide to the types of statement that can appropriately load

the analyst to a decision that an article can be judged to fa ll within

either of these two categories, the following representative statements

taken from the literature are provided.

In d lv id u a 11 sm: ’’A nother p o in t we would make i s th a t th e s c h o o ls ,

in pursuing sociological aims have lost sight of the individual, and the

individual, fully and freely developed, is the only sound basis for our

kind of democracy."

"Our c h ild re n should be encouraged, p a rtic u la rly at, the teen-age

level when the impulse; to be like everyone else is dominant., to make

independent decisions based upon the dictates of conscience, not deci­

sions influenced ty the pressure of group o p i n i o n

Croupisr.i A good group member has several outstanding character­

istics—first he is a cooperating individual, freely contributing his

idoas for group consideration and genuinely evaluating the ideac of

others. de treats all suggestions put forth as worthy of attention. He does not monopolise the conversation, He tries to make his snecial

10 , r s . J . 7 . Wood, "How d e l l Are Our Schools Doing the Job'," Vital Speeches, 18, ,'tarch 1, pp. 303-311, Hercer and Carr, op. c i t . , p . 5^3* 133

experience count for as much as possible* Ho gives supporting data when

he can. He thinks in terms of group purposes and rlans, placing the

collective welfare above his personal gains and satisfactions . . . He

trusts group thinking and action, realizing that each individual is

superior to the rest in some respects, and that the thinking of the

collective bcxfy is usually clearer and more productive than that yoking

single member."73

Indlviduallsrrn "Personal autonomy, independence of the individ­

ual, is an especially outstanding feature of the American way of life.

American parents, accordingly, are in a particularly favorable position

to transmit the sense of autonomy to their children. They themselves resent being bosred, be Leg rushed aro.nd; they na Lota in th a t everybody has the right to express his orir.ion and to te In control of his affairs .7^

Groupism: "Hence peer-group a c tiv itie s a+ each 3’'cc*-;r.,5ive matur­ ity level are important soirees of learning for eveTy child and youth.

Through these activities each individual is disciplined cry group processes to subordinate personal desires to the succors of the group, to accept group customs and codes, needs and roles, to achieve porsonal success and status through successful group activities, to respect the rights of others, and to promote the purposes of the group as a whole

7^!

7^idcentury Vfhite House Conferenco on Children and Youth, "The Course of Healthy, Personality Development," Hoff and Grambs, pp. c it., p. 137. ^Daniel A. Prescott, The Child in the educative Process, p. C7P . 139

Individualismt "There is another way in which education reflects the spirit of the times* We are living in a time when a liberalism based on the widest nossible free exercise of individual energy is increasingly out of favor* Eaiy educators subscribe to the theory that this kind of traditional American liberalism is antisocial*^

Groupismi "In the new elementary school, social living continues throughout the entire school day. It is not in one school period alone, but through continuous experiences that children learn the wisdom of good human relations* Throughout the school day, the child learnsId help with the formulation of group plans and he grows in ability to follow them*77

individualismi "The 'nerve of failure' is the courage to face aloneness and the possibility of defeat in one's personal life or one's work without being morally destroyed. It is, in a larger sense, simply the nerve to be oneself when that self is not approved of ty the dominant ethic of a society. • . • ’.Vhoever accepts the prevailing

3ocial standards of our times is not alone, not morally Isolated; even if he is a 'failure' he remains related, if only in fantasy, to the dominant theme*"7®

Group ism x "I suggest, then, that some of our schools be trans­ formed into institutes or schools for the stucty of the science and art

7 % o r tia e r Smith, "The F a ilu r e of American Education," The Freeman, December 3# 1951, p* 13d*

77Huty H. Warner, The Child and His Elementary School World, pp. 127-128. 7®David Riesman, Individualism Reconsidered, p. U8* XJUO of human relations* I mean that children be taught the theory and practice of human relations from their earliest years, and far this pur­ p o se , among oth er t h in g s , I would make th e nursery sc h o o l part of the public educational system of the land* The three R's must be secondary to t h is p rim ary matrix of human relations.

79 ' Ashley Montague, Education and Human Relations, p. 9? CHAPTER V

PURPOSE OF PERIODICAL LITERATURE ON AMERICAN EDUCATION

During the period November, 1956 to and including October, 1956,

620 articles on American education were f<*ind in the periodicals

Included in this stucjy. The Circulation Leaders (Reader's Digest, Life.

ladles' Home Journal, Saturday i^vening Post, Look, McCall's, Good House­

keeping, Coronet, American Logion, Redbook, Time) carriedU22 a r t i c l e s ,

51 percent of the total) the Information Bearers (Time, Newsweek, IT. S.

Rawa and World Report, Paronts1) carried 536 articles, 66 percent of the

total; the Aomen's magazines (ladles' Home Journal, McCall's. Good

Housekeeping, Parents') contained fifty-nine articles, 7 percent of the

total; the Status Leaders (Atlantic, Harpers) included twenty-seven, 3 percent of the total; and the American Mercury had twenty-eight articles, also 3 percent*

During the year immediately prior to the launching of the Russian

Sputnik, November, 1956, to October, 1957, 356 articles appeared, but the year immediately after Sputnik L6L articles were printed, an increase of

3 0 percent, and certainly indicated that African education had taken on added importance, at least in the minds of the editors of periodicals*

This overall picture, of course, includes within it the content of the so-called "news" magazines, Time, Newsweek, and U* S* News and

A or Id Report, which generally (Time and Newsweek in particular) compart­ mentalize their education articles and consequently devote from year to

X U l 1U2 year approximately the same amount of space, although the number of items within this space may vary. If the articles appearing in these news magazines are removed from the sample, the overall increase in the total number of articles becomes even more impressive* During the pre-Sputnik year 130 articles appeared, and in the post-Sputnik year, 195 articles, an increase of 50 percent*

Wore important than the sheer increase in numbers, however, is the purpose of these artlclest were they designed to be informative, to provide information about American education, or were they per­ suasive, written to sell subtly or overtly, a point of view, or to prod the American people into action?

In the pre-Sputnik year, 218 articles (61 percent) of the articles that appeared were Judged to be informative and 130 articles

(39 percent) were persuasive* In the post-Sputnik year the manber of informative articles had increased to 255# but the percentage had fallen to 55, while the proportion of persuasive articles had climbed to 209, or U5 percent.

The shift from informative to persuasive during these two years becomes more meaningful, however, when the magazines are examined ty categories •

Circulation Leaders

In the pre-Sputnik year, 113 articles (61 percent) of the articles appearing in the Circulation leaders were judged to be informa­ tive and 71 articles (39 percent) were persuasive. In the post-Sputnik year the number of informative articles remained nearly the same with XU3

115 articles, but the percentage had fallen to hOj the number of per­

suasive articles had risen to 123, and the percentage to 52* Obviously

the editors of these periodicals had joined the "millions of Americans

who had taken education for granted a ll their lives and ^"had_7 now

turned a sadder and dissatisfied eye upon the schools and the children who inhabit them,"^ and there was general agreement that it was Sputnik

that had provided the impetus. "It seemed for a while that all the

critics of United States public education, so vociferous since the war,

had just about shot their bolt. Then came Sputnik. "Though

scarcely visible to the human eye, the two Sputniks have bathed our

high school curriculum in a floxi of light and magnified the voices of

its critics into a national chorus."-* "The American public has been fighting an eloquent verbal battle for better educationin th e p o s t-

Sputnik era."^ "iflfhat opened our eyes? A flying box containing a (tying d o g . Me are going to reform American education not because we are eager to produce finer citizens but because we are scared stiff.

■^Paul O'Neil, "U. S. Change of Mind," Life, March 1950» p. 91.

2"\Hfhat Price Life Adjustment?" Time, Dec. 2, 1957, p* 53.

•*A. Whitney Griswold, "High School to Collegei Time to Repair the Bridge," ladies' Home Journal, May, 1950 > p. 50.

^Martin L. Gross, "Bargain Basement Education Is No Bargain," Coronet, October, 1950* p* U*.

^Clifton PaaiaA n, "The Mess in Education—Who Is Responsible?" Reader's Digest, October, 1950, p* 51* liiii

Conceding that Sputnik had made a difference, the editors of the

Circulation Leaders retained the same number of informative articles and

increased the quantity of persuasive articles by 73 percent, obviously

believing that something had to be done about American education*

"Amerleans are giving lip-service to education's importance . . . to meet this big challenge . . . America must place education at the top of

their value scale . ntie should not need the threat of R u ssia to be convinced that it is time to close the carnival and go to work."?

And go to work the Circulation Leaders evidently did if th e number of persuasive articles appearing in these pages is any indica­ tion. It is interesting to note, too, that the increase (Table h) in the quantity of persuasive articles was not only confined to a few of the magazines, but was nearly unanimous. Coronet was the only one of the Circulation Loaders whose number of persuasive articles declined.

Reader's Digest, Life, Saturday Evening Post and Redbook especially increased their persuasive content from 25 articles pre-Sputnik to 58 articles post-Sputnikj and the tenor of these articles can be summed up t y Arthur Best o r 1 s statem en t in Good Housekeeping * "You'd b e tte r g et busy and do southing

^"Sone Proposed Solutions and a Look Forecast," Look, October 11, 1958, p. Ul.

?Sloan tfilson, "It's Ti^ie to Close Our Carnival," reader's Digest, Jure, 1958, pp. 31-35*

8 Arthur Bestor, "School C risis, U.S.A.* The Soft Curriculum," Good H ousekeeping, LAay, ly58» p* 118. H5

TABLE k

PURPOSE OF ARTICLES ON AMERICAN EDUCATION CIRCULATION LEADERS (Number of A rticles)

Informative Persuasive Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

Reader's Digest 6 k k 11 Life 22 2k 2 17 Ladles' Hone Journal k 1 7 9 Saturday Evening Post 9 S 16 21 Look 3 5 2 6 Ms Call's 2 0 1 2 Good Housekeeping 2 1 2 6 Coronet k 3 3 1 American Legion 1 0 1 3 Redbook 0 1 3 9 Time 60 68 30 37

TOTAL i 113 115 71 123 11*6

Information Bearers

To the extent that the Information Bearers contain proportion­

ately more articles or American education that can he Judged as

informative rathor than persuasive, to that extent they can properly be

regarded as information bearers. In the two-year period sample, 69

percent of the articles were categorized as informative and 3 1 percen t

persuasive (Table $). This is in contrast to the 36 percent of the articles in the rest of the magazines which were Judged informative and

the 61 percent categorized as persuasive, giving some validity to the

claim of the Information Bearers of having primarily an informative function, at least as far a 6 articles on American education are con­

cern ed .

In the pre-Sputnik year, 69 percent of the articles were judged

to be informative, 31 percent persuasive. In the post-Sputnik year the

identical percentages were found, indicating a remarkable consistency in the proportion of informative to persuasive articles.

Like the Circulation Leaders the Information Bearers saw in

Sputnik and Russian technology the failure of American education to keep the pace* "the off-and-on beep-beep from Russia's spinning Sputnik had brought on a rising sound of urgent warnings and urgent questions among

Americans alarmed by the state of scientific education, tfhy had U. S. education been defective in turning out scientists? How could the country get more of them fast?"^ "Most Americans were in no mood for applauding the nation's schools and colleges. Stunned into sudden—-and at times

^"Building Brainpower," Newsweek, November U> 1957, p. 96. 147

TABLE 5

PURPOSE OF ARTICLES ON AMERICAN EDUCATION INFORMATION BEARERS (Number of A rticles)

Informative Persuasive Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

Time 60 68 30 37 Newsweek 77 104 20 17 U.S. News St VJbrld Report 23 16 16 28 Parents* 5 18 7 12

TOTAL: 165 206 73 94 1U8

hysterical—awe of Soviet science, they could scarcely find words hard

enough to say about themselves or their campuses."^® These magazines

then quoted what was being saidi Dr. Edward Teller, physicist! "In

the coming years the Russians w ill forge ahead oftie in science, and in

the field that science generates, namely, technology. If that should

come to pass, I think there can be no doubt who w ill determine the

future of this world* We have suffered a very serious defeat in a field where at loast some of the most Important engagements are carried out in

the cI*aaroon."H Dr. Eric C. Walker, President of Pennsylvania Univer­

sity* "Russia is out-producing the United States by better than three

to two ^*in scientists^. . . . We are inexorably headed downhill to 12 the status of a second rate power."

parents' magazine as well as any sums up the thinking of the

Information Bearers on Sputnik* "Some day history w ill record that education in the United States was either saved or destroyed by Sputnik,

the Soviet Union's earth satellite. Which it w ill be—salvation or destruction—it is still too soon to predict. But it is safe to say that the Impact of Sputnik on the American school and university—for better or for worse—w ill be tremendous."^

^"Change the Thinking," Time, November 25, 1957, p* 99. ^Edward Teller, "We Have Suffered a Very Serious Defeat," U. S. News and World Report, November 15, 1957 $ P» 65* ^^iho Needs Help Host—Students or Colleges?" U.S. News and World Report, January 2J4, 1958, p. 16.

^Fred U. Hechinger, "Has Sputnik Taught Us a lesson?" Parents', February, 1958, p. 35* 11*9

In considering the purpose of articles on American education

appearing in the Information Bearers it probably is wise to look rather

carefully at each of these magazines separately as well as a group,

since, although there are no confirming data available, one would not

expect the individual reader to subscribe to more than one of these

magazines, the feeling being that one enc£psuLization of the news is

sufficient. Disregarding this, however, three of the Information

3earers, Time, Newsweek and U. S. Hews and World Report, carry such a

large number of separate articles that individual analysis of each

magazine carries some significance*

Newsweek is unquestionably the leader as far as the number of

separate articles, containing in the two years of the sample 2 1 6 a r t i ­

c l e s , 2 7 percent of the entire sample and U1 percent of the articles in

the Information Bearer category. Time carried 195 articles, 2U percent

of the entire samnle and 36 percent of the articles in the Infonnation

Bearer category. Both TJ. S. News and World Report and Parents' con­

tained an insignificant percentage of the total number, and1 5 and 6

percent respectively of the articles in the Infonnation Bearer category.

As far as U. S. News and World Report is concerned, it should be

pointed out that the number of articles on education in that magazine in

no way compares with the quantity of material on education carried ty

Newsweek and Time. Where Time and Newsweek compartmentalize their edu­

cation news and may include as high as five short articles in one or two

pages and rarely three, U.S. News and World He port w ill run long articles, many running to ten pages. As far as the proportion of i$ o

informative to persuasive articles, both as a total and before and after

Sputnik, 93 percent of a ll articles carried fcy Nervrrweek were judged to

be informative, and only 17 percent were categorized as persuasive.

Pre-Sputnik percentages werei informative—79 percent; persuasive—21

percent* Post-Sputnik percentages were! informative— 8 6 p e r c e n t;

persuasive— 1U percent* Quite clearly Newsweek was in contrast to the

overall trend of the other magazines which, as pointed out earlier, was

to include a significantly greater proportion of persuasive articles on

American education in the post-Sputnik year*

Time overall contained 66 percent informative articles and 3U

percent persuasive. Pre-Sputnik percentages weret informative — 67

percent; persuasive— 33 percent* Time, lik e Newsweek, did not parallel

the trend of the other magazine to increase after Sputnik the proportion

of persuasive articles; oost-Sputnik percentages were» informative—

65 percent; persuasive—35 percent*

U* S. News and iVorld iieport totalled U7 percent informative articles and 53 percent persuasive* Pre-Sputnik percentages werei

informative—59 percent; persuasive—Ul percent* Post-Sputnik percent­ ages were* informative 36 percent; persuasive— 6 U percent. It is

obvious that Sputnik made a significant difference as far as U.S. Hews and World Report was concerned, and it decidedly paralleled the Circula­ tion Leaders in the trend toward a greater proportion of persuasive a r t ic le s *

Parents' magazine shtws much the rame pattern as Newsweek and

Time in the proportion of informative to persuasive articles. Overall,

Parents' contained 55 percent informative and US persuasive articles. 151

Pre-Sputnik percentages were* informative— k2 percent) persuasive—58

percent* Post-Sputnik percentages were! informative—40 percent;

persuasive—i*0 percent*

In evaluating articles carried by the Infonnation Bearers,

particularly Tiam, Newsweek* and U. S* News and World Report, it is neces­ sary to take into account the peculiar make-up of these magaxines*

First of a ll, where the ordinary periodical w ill cany signed articles that are quite clearly the special pleading of the writer (and, therefore, easily judged as persuasive), Time does none of this, Newsweek carries very little except in the form of columnists such as Haymond Lioley, or

King Iardner, Jr.; U.S. News and World Report publishes more than either of the other two, although the majority of its articles are anonymous.

This does not mean, however, that these magazines do not carry articles that are persuasive, but rather that they have their own rather special techniques far getting across a point of view* The most prevalent form In which their persuasive content appears is in state­ ments of people who are expressing opinions with which it is obvious the magazine is in complete agreement. For example, they w ill run an article which either consists completely of quotes, or quotes and a sumnary of the remainder of what was said* Or, to make certain that the reader gets the message of magazine approval, they w ill preface their quotes with statements of affirmation like the following from

Time: "Last week a more reasonable Judgment came from A ssista n t

Superintendent Carl F. Hanseni 'Integration has been nothing less than 152

a "miracle of adjustment."' Anyone who ia a Tlue reader, of course,

knows that it is quite sympathetic to integration.

Compare this with the following from Newsweeki "A warning

against present tendencies in American graduate study came last week

free an Imposing sourcei Jacques Barzun,h9, ^he age of the people who

appear in Time and Newsweek is evidently of great import—at least it

usually appears/ Dean of Graduate Faculties at Columbia University. In

his first report Barzun notes that the Ph.D. dissertation 'has lost its

original meaning and has become . . . the turning out of a manuscript

of a certain length in a certain form— the fulfillment of a ritual

rather than the production of fresh thought.'"^

Often the magazines w ill quote, though, people who take positions

that are in opposition to the magazine's. This creates little diffi­

culty for the analyst, however, far usually these quotes are prefaced

lik e the fo llo w in g ! "Over the y e a r s, the U. S . has heard some p retty wild ideas from educational reformers, but not many have gone so far as the school architecture firm of Caudill, Rowlett, Scott and Associates of Bryan, Texas.

Clues to the character of the Information Bearer's sympathies can be inferred, too, from the emotive language they use to clothe what purports to be news. This is especially true of Tims as witness the following! "The school board of Houston takes no interest in foreigners

^"Miracle of the Potomac," Time, February 11, 1957, p. ii3• 15 "Graduate School Waste," Newsweek, January 7, 1957, p. 1*6.

^"lynandcs and A ll That," Time, February 11, 1957, p* U3. 153

and their ways, and holds pretty much that the navel of the universe is

In Texas, very likely in Houston itself." ^ "The progressive education­

ists have taken sons harsh criticism in recent months, but not a ll of

them are listening in the storm cellars* A few are talking back— X3 indignantly and in the same old rich deep-purpled eduoaticnese." "In

deepest Bronx stands a six-story accretion of bile-colored brick, too

ugly to be a mental hospital or a tannery. It is the Bronx High School 1 9 of Science, and it is a nationally famed rookery for genius." ^

Newsweek, of course, is quite gray compared to Time, particularly

its education section. What color it possesses it quite often prefers to

clothe in quotation marks and label "What They Think." For example t

"A.Whitney Griswold, president of Yale Universityi 'Could Hamlat have

been written by a committee, or the Mona Lisa painted by a club? Could

the New Testament have bean composed by a conference report? Creative

ideas do not spring from groups. Thqy spring from individuals.'"^

"There has been a lot of talk about ^colar7 desegregation, but there

still must be segregation on the basis of Inherited intellectual capaci­ ties. . . . Parents and the public w ill be opposed, .iany don’t wish to have junior's precious ego exposed to the realities of life. They w ill pack his ego and their own incidentally in cotton and never face the fact that he is not an Einstein, because he is a darling.

17"Old M asters in Houston," Time, August 5, 1957, p. k2* l fl"Baok Talk," Time, April 21, 1958, p . 73. ^"Training for Brains," Time, Hay 5# 1958, p. 39. 20 "What They Think," Newsweek, June 2k, 1957, p. 100. 21"What They Think," Newsweek, December 16, 1957, p* 107* l$ k

U. S . Hats and World Report, too, inserts ita color, its per­ suasiveness, in much the sane guise as Time and Newsweek, usually as quotes from prominent people* It also relies heavily on an interview technique—a transcription of questions and answers featuring critics of

American education like Admiral Rickover and Arthur Bestor.

It Is quite possible that an essential requisite for being selected as a quotable source ty U. S. News and World jjeport is to show palpable evidence of being a thorough and retentive reader of that maga­ zine* For example, in December, 1951, the following appeared in an

’unsigned article* "You can send your bqy to college to stutfy fly cast­ ing. . . . The crowning achievement may be a Ph.D. thesis on a 'Stuffy 22 of School Postures and Desk Dimensions."* Then In LAy, 1958, a quote from Dr. Samuel P. Gould informs us* "'education courses degenerate into such travesties on education as techniques of flycasting or d o cto ra l d is s e r tio n s ^ s ic 7 on a 'Stu

Parents' magazine in format, of course, has little in comr.on with the news magazines, and the great bulk of a ll of its articles are signed, or, in the case of editorials, are clearly marked as such. Its articles presented little difficulty in determining whether they were

^"A Size Up of What's Wrong with American Schools," U. S. News and World Report, December 6, 1957, p» 91*

23"The Debate Over Quality of U* S* Schools," U* S. News and World Report, .‘Ay 16, 1958, p* 102* 155

informative or persuasive* There was not much doubt, far example, that

an article about the selection of a private school, nIf You Want Your

Child to Go to a Private School,"^ which tried, almost painfully, to

neither knock the public nor praise the private schools; or that an

article attempting to explain to a parent what various Intelligence

and achievement tests meant, "Testsend What They Tell You,"^5 were both

informative* On the other hand, no one could mistake the persuasiveness

of an article that said* "rapidly replacing the present international arms race is an international brains race which the United States is in

danger of losing unless we act decisively and promptly,"^ or an article

that had this to say about the typical first-grade readeri "I suspect that the people who wrote the workbook in which Dick and Alice are so prominently featured have taken post-graduate courses in commercial jingle writing for radio and television* iach word is bo la bored to the

point where if I hear, 'Run, Alice, run, run* once more I shall scream,

I shall scream, scream, screaml"^

In sunmary it can fairly be said that comparatively the Informa­ tion Bearers do justify this categorization; they do fu lfill an informa­ tional function in that proportionately they contain more articles that

^kjames Uoffatt, "If You Want Your Child to Go to a Private School," Parents', May, 1957, pp* 1+2-U3; 121-123.

^^Quentin C. Stodula, "Tests and What They Toll You," Parents', October, 1953, pp* 66; 1QU-106*

2 6 George J . H echt, "The Coming In te r n a tio n a l B iein sR ace," ^ rents', November, 1957, p* 35*

^Jeanne B* Sergeant, "See Here Dick and Alice," Parents', September, 1957, p* i*6. 156

can be judged as Informative than the other magazines in the sample;

nevertheless the fact that nearly one-third of their articles are per­

suasive; and that, especially in the case of Time and Newsweek, the

persuasive elements appear either in their "purple prose" or in the

guise of reoorting what prominent people say, the articles tend, there­

fore, to read incognito, and the impact of their persuasiveness must

not be underestimated.

Women's Magazines

The Women's Magazines in the two-year period of th e saaqple

contained 79 articles on American education, representing only 7 percent

of the total; 1*2 percent of them were Judged informative and 5# percent

persuasive. Pre-Sputnik percentages were* inf ormative—1*3 percent,

persuasive—57 percent. Post-Sputnik percentages were* informative—

1*1 percent; persuasive —$9 percent (Table 6 ). Sputnik can certainly

not be said to have had much effect on the proportion of informative

to persuasive articles on these magazines as a group. The gain in the

total number of articles is more Impressive ifrom 30 to U? articles),

but when it is noted that 18 of these articles represent the gpin in one magazine, Parents,1 this total is no longer particularly significant*

However, by extracting the articles from ftirents* from the sample

rather different results are obtained in the proportion of informative

to persuasive articles between the two years. Pre-Sputnik percentages

become* informative—1*1* percent; persuasive—56 percent. Post-Sputnik percentages are* inf ormative—12 percent; persuasive—98 percent. 157

TABLE 6

PURPOSE OF ARTICLES ON AMERICAN EDUCATION

WOMEMS MAGAZINES

(Number o f A r tic le s )

Informative P ersu asive P re- P o st- P re- P o st- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

Ladles* Home Journal U 1 7 9

McCall*s 2 0 1 2

Gobd Housekeeping 2 1 2 6

Parents* 5 18 7 12

TOTAL: 13 20 17 29 1 5 8

Obviously this represents s rather large and significant shift in

the proportions of informative to persuasive articles between the two

years, again justifying the prior inclusion of ffe rents1 in the Informa­

tion 3earers•

Of the four magazines in this group, Barents1 had the most

articles, U2j Ladles* Home Journal had 21 j Good Housekeeping, 11} and

McQall*s was a poor last with only 5 a r t i c l e s .

ladies' Home Journal and Good Housekeeping were the two magazines

in this group which indicated the most reaction in the two years. In

the pre-Sputnik year they contained sixteen articles, six of them were

informative and ten persuasive} in the post-Sputnik year they carried seventeen articles, a gain on only one, but of those seventeen only two were informative and fifteen were persuasive, tfhereas in the pre-

Sputnik year informative articles ranged from the story of a campus romance through the domestic life of a teacher and his family, took the readers to France for the junior year of college, explained the Junior college movement, and described life in a private scool; in the post-

Sputnik year informative articles consisted of a brief story on getting a college education ty correspondence, and a rather maudlin article describing the efforts of one school to get students "on the fringes1* to join in school dances.

Post-Sputnik persuasive articles were not only more numerous in quantity, but the quality of their persuasiveness was greater. For example, in an article in February, 1957 f "Mother Takes Over the Class," in the ladies' Home Journal, the suggestion that other communities adopt the plan of Plalnadge, Long Island, in training people in the conn unity who had collage degrees to be substitute teachers In their spare time was

not at once obvious*^® This article stood In sharp contrast to one

appearing in ;.Tay, 1958* in the same magazine, "High School to Collegei

Time to Repair the Bridge," which sounded the call to arras in the first

few paragraphs* "the sudden revelation of Russia's scientific advance

has at last shocked us out of our educational illusions" * and then corw

tinued, "our failure to support our schools • . • is fundamentally a

failure to see their purpose in our civilization"; concluding* "The

Russians have shocked us into an awareness of our educational ills* 3 ut shock treatment alone w ill not cure these* The real cure lies in dis­ covering the place of education in American society that the founders of that society intended for it."2 ?

Similarly the June, 1957* issue of Good Housekeeping contained an a r t i c l e , Has th e P lea su re Gone Gut of S en ior Year in High

School?" which, although the persuasiveness was obvious, had a rather plaintive whininess about it* "Maybe it Just seems that way—I'm not

Dretending I've made surveys or conducted large investigations—but the girls in high school that I've talked with a ll seem to be on edge,

Jumpy, weepy-nervous, sometimes in a state of intense suspense, just waiting, waiting, waiting for word that they have been accepted ty some

Margaret Kickey, "Mother Takes Over the Class," lad ies' Horae Journal, February, 1957* pp* l*l-l*2j 1%.

29 A* ’.Vhitnay Griswold, "High School to College* Time to Repair the Bridge," ladies' Home Journal, May, 1959* pp» 50-51; 11*1*; 11*6-11*7• 160

college to which they have applied for admission. . . . Would it be

possible for the college boards to be held earlier than March?"^

Exactly one year later, June, 1958* in the same magazine in an

article "Diplomas the ^asy Way," there were no traces of uamby-pambiness;

the persuasive qualities were emphatic, forthright) "Democracy exists

because we have standards—clear, w ritten, definite standards-*^from the

3 ill of Rights down the line. We would go under, as a democracy, if w©

ceased taking these standards seriously• Me w ill go under, as a democ­ racy, unless we take educational standards seriously. And we are not

■il doing that at present."*'

As for McCall's, it evidently does not regard education as a particularly important source of article topics; in the two-year period

it contained only five articles on education, and two of these were announcements of its annual "Teacher of the Year" Award. In ? cCall*s there were no references to the impact of Sputnik on American education, no comparisons of Russian and American school systems, no references to

"hard" or "soft" curriculums. The only current controversy in American education into which it entered was the segregation issue. In an a r t i c l e , "The S tory Nobotfy T e lls You," i t p ic tu r e d th e so u th ern se g r e ­ gationists as a minority and predicted) "It is even possible . . . that

^Idna Horne Harrington, "Wly Has the Pleasure Gone Out of Senior Year in High School?" Good Housekeeping, p. 67.

^Arthur Bestor, "School Crisis, U.S.A.) Diplomas the Ga^jr Way," Good Housekeeping, June, 1958, p. 1 I4 . 161

fifty years from now the South w ill have moved further toward equality

for the Negro than the North.

S tatus Leaders

The Status leaders in the two-year period of the sample con­

tained twenty-eight articles on American education, representing a bare

3 percent of the total {Table 7)* 7 percent of the articles were judged

informative and 93 percent persuasive. In the year preceding Sputnik,

none of the articles out of a total of ten were judged informative. In

the year after Sputnik out of a total of eighteen articles two were

categorized informative, and sixteen were persuasive* The importance of

education for the Status Leaders in the latter year is manifested not in

the shift from informative to persuasive, but in the near doubling of the

number of articles. However, a ll of the increase in numbers, it should

be noted, occurred in one magazine, the Atlantic, which in the post-

Sputnik year tripled the number of articles on education over the pre­ ceding year from four to twelve. It cannot be said, either, that

H arper1 a paid any special attention to Sputnik, for its articles failed to mention its impact on education, nor was Russian education mentioned.

Not so with the Atlantic i "The dramatic ways in which Russia has laid claim to world supremacy may well prove to be the spur to our own greatest period of intellectual advances.'*33

^^.•(iiiiam Peter 3 , "The S to ry Nobocfy T e lls you ," M cC a ll's, Septem­ b e r , 1 9 0 8 , p . 128.

33 Alvin C. Evrich, "Russia's New Schooling," The Atlantic Monthly, April, 1908, p. 58. 162

TABLE 7

PURPOSE OF ARTICLES ON AMERICAN EDUCATION

STATUS LEADERS

(Number o f A r t ic le s )

Informative Persuasive

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

A tla n tic 0 1 4 11

H arper1s 0 1 6 5

TOTAL: 0 2 1 0 16 163 In considering the differentiation of quality of persuasiveness

which was so noticeable in the Women's Magazines between pro- and post-

Sputnik articles, n o such differences were found in Status Loader

articles. When the Status Leaders took a stand, whether negative or

positive, for whatever issue, there was no timidity or concealmenti "It

has long been known that America choosos it s school heads from among the

dunces of the universities.*2h "Child-centered psycholofy burgeoned in

our town at th is tim e. • . • Every year for six years we grew stuoider

and lazier and fresher and more obnoxious ."35 "Colleges of education,

with rare oxceptions, attract the poorest students. . • the low level of

ability required to get a degree in education is a standing joke in

colleges and universities. "26 'Whatever its precise standing in

academic achievement., it is certain that in education, as in other

fields of human endeavor, California lives up to its reputation for devo­

tion to the cult of the c o c k e y e d . "27

There is quite possibly a relationship between this kind of

writing, the designation of these magazines as Status Leaders, and their

low circulation; concomitantly there is a relationship between the

generally inoccuous writing of the Circulation Leaders, particularly

2UnThe Certification ltacket* Florida and Elsewhere," The Atlantic Monthly, July, 1958, p. 39*

^Teresa Foley, "A Lesson in Discipline," harper's, January, 1957, p. hi. ------36jydia Stout, "What Strangles American Teaching," The A tlantic Monthly, April, 1958, p. 6?.

2Mortimer Smith, "How to Teach the California Child," The Atlantic Monthly, September, 1959, p. 33* 16U

pre-Sputnik bo fore they were certain that criticiam of education was a

"safe11 topicj their widespread popularity; and consequent largo circula­

tio n .

The American .Mercury I f consistency is a v irtu e, the American Mercury i s , indeed,

virtuous; if one is of a liberal bent, hcwrever, one is more apt to road

into the American iercury' s consistency Snerson's dictum that consist­

ency is the bugbear of petty minds. In the two years of the sample, the

American Vercuiy carried twenty-eight a r tic le s on American education, the

identical number of those contained in the Status Lsaders and represent­

ing the same meager 3 percent of the total number of articles. Ir. the year preceding Sputnik none of the articles were judged to be informa­ tive; in the year following an unaltered vacuum of informative articles was noted; nor does any difference appear as far as the number of articles are concerned; there were fourteen in the former and fourteen in the latter year.

Like the Status Leaders, the American lercury indulges in nc coy concealment of its position with regard to education; the analyst need not h esitate nor depend upon any latent ix*terpretatiun to arrive at a decision that a given article is oersuasive—the persuaeivarisss is be^t described a3 blatant* "A new and supercilious dictatorship has imposed it s e lf upon the American people* Its pervasive influence is boinp f o lt mount ingly in every area of cur national life. It is the iictatorshir of the snob college graduate,t38 "There are mary things wrong with our

3 Harold Lord Varney, T,Jur iulle^u Graduate InobocracyAm eri­ can .orcury, January', 1?57, P* Vd. 165

sch ools. 'A it one of the first things parents can do for the sake of their children is to join the growing campaign to threw out the

"African public education began in the little red echoolhouee. I f *he

country school is to be eLc.Mshed, we ought to know the reason why ...

With the passing of the small school, quite possibly something may be

passing out of African life, that somethingmay be worth saving.

"Don’t you see what's happening? Through UIS5G0—American school chil­

dren— not itusrian—are beinr influencod avup from their national allegia nce."1^

The American ..lerunry, cf courru, f band.; alnr.e in a catt-^oipr of

its cv-. as a saiu^linr of the view'; of African reaction or the "right ”

depending upon one's personal views, xn a sense, if its uniqueness with regard to proportions between informative and persuasive articles on education is a criterion, its "alineness" is appropriate, for it was the only magazine in the sample to contain no articles that were categorized ac inform ative. u'.-rrary

u’u.muarizing the pir^use of articles on American education appear­ ing in this samrle one must conclude that overall the magazine reading public is provided with a great quantity of Informative articles, but

^ n ------Ghirley dens on, "1.^. Tosts r an Tothing," Amerlean Toreturn', June, 1957, p. ^1* r ’ '

k^Jvussoll Kish, "hural gchools," American iercm y, .arch, l?5ti, p. 67. ------

^■W’l parvcy, "UTESGOt Co.xuviis.m's Trap for 0ur Tenth," American .ierenry, July, 1958, r» 8?. 16^

♦hat considering the proportion of articles t,vat oar* be categorized as

persuasive there Ip a ureat d o ll of effort to reo to it that the inform­ ation servos some definite rurpoca, which specific purrose or purposes to be examined in subsequent charters.

Icrtainly the quantity of rfornativo article: percent) give: credence to the position taken earlier that one of the functions of the najasine and the ;oass media in general ij to provide ir.forratinn.

In noting the differences that appeared between the year prior to

Grutnik and the year following in the number of articles, 3^6 to ii6U

xTable 3 ); and the proportions of mfomatr’o to persuasive articles, a

6 percent. gain for the pernjasivt from }>'} to US percent of the whole sample, one could advance the hypothesis that culture crises are marked by increases ir. +he mass media of content apropos the crises, which is, of course, obvious, and that there is a concomitant rise in the propor­ tion of persuasive to informative content* This latter, then, suggests an increase In the importance of the council function of the mas3 media—

"that of proferring alternative croposals and competing suppliants for public approval contributing to the resolution of the important political, economic, and social issues of our culture."-*-) 0 The extent to which

"alternative proposals and competing suppliants" are presented in the magazines of the sample w ill be examined, too, in subsequent chapters.

^Supra, p. 21i. 167

TABLE 8

PURPOSE OF ARTICLES ON AMERICAN EDUCATION

Summary Percentages

Percentages Percentages Informative Persuasive Pre- E'ost- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

Circulation Leaders 61 AC 39 52

Infonnation Bearers 69 69 31 31

T/Jbmen*s Magazines L,3 A 1 57 59

Status Leaders 0 11 100 89

American Mercury 0 0 100 100

TOTALS: 61 55 39 A5 CHAPTER VI

THE EVALUATION CF AMERICAN EDUCATION

The second dimension of content that was analyzed was the

evaluation of American education that was contained In articles on

American education that appeared in the magazines of this sample. The

reader is referred to page 9 8 for a complete definition of the cate­

gories that were usedi straight positive, qualified positive, doubtful,

neutral, qualified negative and straight negative.

Circulation leaders

The overall evaluation of American education appearing in the

content of articles in the Circulation Leader group of magazines during

the two years of the sample was surprisingly balanced (Table 13 )•

Twenty-one percent of the U21 articles were straight positive, lli per­ cent were qualified positive, U percent were doubtful, 2 2 percent were neutral and 11 percent were straight positive. Grouping the two posi­ tive categories, the doubtful and neutral, and the two negatives, shows percentages of 3 $, 26, and 3 9 , respectively, and the balance becomes even more obvious.

One could conclude from this data that the readers of these magazines were presented during this period with a remarkably equit­ able spectrum of evaluation of A frican education, liars important, however, than this static picture of evaluation during these two years

168 TABLE 9

EVALUATION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION— CIRCULATION LEADERS (Number o f A r tic le s )

Straight Qualified Qualified Straight Positive Positive Doubtful Neutral Negative Negative Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Pre- Post- 3put- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik

Reader*s Digest 1 1 1 3 0 0 2 3 2 1 1 ± Life 2 2 i 3 1 1 18 22 I x2 1 1 Ladies* Home Journal 5 3 2 1 I 0 1 0 2 5 0 1 Saturday Evening Post 2 3 6 6 1 0 6 -e;—* 10 11 0 1 Look 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 X 2 7 0 0 McCall*s 2 1 0 1 0 c 0 C X 0 0 0 Oood Housekeeping 3 0 0 C c 0 0 X 0 1 X 2 Coronet 2 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 ±■y 0 0 American Legion 0 0 c c 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 Redbook 0 3 I 1 0 0 0 I 2 5 0 0 Time 22 19 15 18 9 1 17 17 H 27 13 20

TOTAL: 16 13 27 33 13 5 u 17 38 80 16 29

o vO 170

were the trends that appeared when the pro-Sputnik and poet-Sputnik years

were contrasted.

In the pre-Sputnik year, 18U articles on American education were

published, and of these 2 5 percent were straight positive, 15 percent

were qualified positive, 7 percent doubtful, 2 b percent neutral, 2 1

percent qualified negative and 8 percent straight negative (Table 13).

Grouping these into positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative, the

percentages are b0 , 3 1 , and 29, respectively.

During the post-Sputnik year 237 articles appeared and of these

18 percent were straight positive, lb percent qualified positive, 2

percent doubtful, 2 0 peroent neutral, 3 b percent qualified negative, and

12 percent straight negative. Grouping these into positive, neutral

and doubtful, and negative, the percentages are 3 2 , 2 2 and b 6 ,

respectively •

It is obvious that there was a definite shift to a negative

evaluation of American education in the post-Sputnik year. The largest drop occurred in the percentage of articles that gave unqualified approval to American education, from 25 to 16 percent, indicating that more frequently, even when the writer saw things as generally "good" in

Amerioan education, there was recognition of areas where improvement was needed.

Paralleling the decrease in the percentage of articles judged as straight positive was an increase from 8 to 1 2 percent in the percent­ ages of articles categorised as straight negative j where the author gave no indication that he had anything but unqualified disapproval for cur­ rent practices in American education. Typical of this type of article 171

is the followingi "Physicist Phillips /of the University of Baffalo7i

. • .'we have permitted wooly-brained educationists to impose their

peculiarly distorted concept of the meaning of education on our whole primary and secondary school system.

The la r g e s t in c r e a s e , how ever, (2 1 to 2k percent) occurred in the

percentage of articles that were Judged as qualified negative, where the author did not offer a blanket indictment of the American educational system but reserved same approval for some schools* This type of article usually said something like this* "We believe that most of this nation's public schools now offer American children an education that is anticultural, anti-intellectual, narrowly utilitarian at best and utterly vapid at worst*"2 Granted that the negation in the quote is rather overwhelming, nevertheless the author did not include a ll of

American schools in the indictment*

Often the articles offered Just a sweeping negative evaluation and then later conceded same positive aspectsi "The debris left by years of the progressive educationists • • • is a legacy of distended play fa cilities, substandard curricula and principals whose intellectual confusion can no longer be disguised by the compulsory smiles on their facesThen several paragraphs later we find this modest positive concession! "The worthwhile innovations in method brought by Dewey's educationists should be kept*"3

lrtThe Failures," Time, January 2 0 , 1 9 5 8 , p . 7k* ^ John Keats * "Are Public Schools Doing Their Job—No I" Saturday Evening Poet, September 2 1 , 1957 , p* 117*

3 "The Deeper Problem in Education," Life, iiarch j l , 1958, p* 32. 172

In considering tha overall evaluation of American education appear­ ing in the Circulation Leaders attention should be directed to a phenomena that does not appear in either analysis of individual articles or a numerical summary, and that is that many of the articles evaluated as positive were of specific situations* whereas the subject of many of the negative articles were of American education in general. For example, this may be said of teacherst "Teachers hold in their hands the malleable minds of the nation's children. But despite the immense importance of what they do—or should do—they are wretchedly overworked, underpaid and disregarded. And a discouraging number of them are incom­ petents This certainly fits into the delineation of the contemporary teacher set forth in the Introduction! "it becomes obvious that tha stereotype of the teacher , , , is becoming that of underpaid, poorly equipped drudges*"'* At the same time that this evaluation of teachers appears, which is at best qualified negative, two types of articles appear that can only be categorised as positive* The first type is that written ty teachers lauding the profession! "we like teaching ^Gecause^ it is not a high-pressure job* There are no towering sales quotas to meet, no overnight failures In our profession* tfe deal with human beings,"^ "'ghat's good about teaching? , * , Time, time, ana more time* • • • Teaching is never monotonous. . , • New proolems, new

**Ibld»

5Supra, p ,

^Jeanne Storrs, "tfe're to Be Teachers," Saturday Evening Poet, November 1 7 , 1 9 5 6 . 173

interests constantly arise • . . opportunity to enjcy and participate in young people's activities . . • love and respect / o f children^."?

Then there is the second type where the magazine w ill publish an article in unqualified praise of the teaching of one specific teacheri

"William J. Dean’s unique hot breakfast approach to education has virtu­ ally eliminated tardiness, absences and suspensions among the school's

275 male students, including forty veterans. It has made a respectable place out of one which used to take mostly students who couldn't get Q along in other high schools. 11 "£nid larsen . . . chose a boy who was flunking geometry to set the boundary lines, for example, and he soon began to understand the reasoning behind triangulation. She chose a

'non-reading' student to install the new weather station . • • ^as a result he learned to read^.Included in the genre are articles like,

"Doc Harrington's Dawn fttrol of Young S cientists,"^ and "Dick ESnery

Teaches Them from Hand to Head. " ^ 1

Similarly the magazines w ill publish articles in unqualified praise of the activities of one school or one school system: "Kids make

^Thomas P. Ram irez, " I'll Take Teaching," American Legion, Janu­ a r y , 1958, p. 1*3.

®Mark Feinberg, "The Principal Is a Short Order Cook," Coronet, February, 1957, p. 61*.

^Fiwncia V. Kuomell, "The Teacher Who Won't Answer Questions," Reader's Digest, April, 1957, p. 232.

^Albert ilaisel, "Doc Harrington's Dawn Patrol of Young Scien­ tists," Reader's Digest, November, 1956, pp. 11*2-11*6.

^Francis v. Runnel, "Dick £mery Teaches Them from Hand to Head," Reader's Digest, August, 1957, pp. 11*8-1*>2. 17U

wonderful c It Isons If you show then the way. Proof Is a 35-year-old

experiment at California's Hollywood High School, where an imaginative

investment in trust has paid off handsomely for the students, the school 12 and the community." "Joplin's success is a reading program that abol-

ishes marks and frankly recognizes that some students are brighter than

o th ers a t reading."^ "According to many educators it is a waste of

time to burden young children's minds with anything as solid asa

foreign language. But this fall for the second straight year, fourth and fifth graders at Salt lake City's Bonneville Elementary School are

giving up extracurricular hours to study, *11 things, Russian. " ^ 1

The effect, then, of the publishing of positive articles pointing

to specific teachers, schools and school systems, is to qualify even the

straight negative articles on American education.

In considering the shift in the evaluation in the individual magazines of American education from the pre-Sputnik to the poet-Sputnik year (Table 8 ), eveiy magazine except three, McCall’s, Coronet, and

American Legion, which together carried only tsenty articles, 5 percent

of the total, increased the number of post-Sputnik articles Judged to give a negative evaluation. Five magazines, Header's Digest, Saturday

Evening Post, Life, Redbook and American Legion, together containing 161

12 Ruth Hormer, "Three R's and S for Service," Reader's Digest, January, 1957, p* 160. ■^Roul Tunley, "Johnny Gan Read in Joplin," Saturday Evening Post, October 2 6 , 1957, p* 27.

^"Salt lake City Adds Russian to 3Rs," Life, October 6 , 1958, pp. 1 1 3 -1 1 6 . TABLE 10

EVALUATION 0? AMERICAN EDUCATION— INFORMATION BEARERS

(Number of Articles)

S tr a ig h t Q u a lifie d Q u a lifie d S tr a ig h t P o s itiv e Positive Doubtful N e u tra l N egative N egative Pre- Post- Pre- P o st- P re- P o st- Pre- Post- Fre- P o st- P re - P o s t- Sput- Sput­ S put- S put­ Sput­ Sput- Sput- Sput­ S p u t- Sput- Sput- Sput­ n ik nik nik n ik n ik n ik n ik n ik n ik n ik n ik nik

Time 22 19 15 18 9 4 17 17 14 27 13 20 U> Newsweek 6 10 4 3 3 2 u 83 18 16 *, 7

U.S. News h Vforld Report 1 2 5 7 1 5 12 2 17 22 3 6

P a re n ts 1 2 6 0 1 1 7 3 10 5 10 1 0

TOTAL: 31 37 24 29 14 u 96 112 54 75 19 33 1 ? 6

A rticles, 38 percent of the total, Increased post-Sputnik the ntuber of

articles giving a positive evaluation of American education, lest this

give a false impression of the trends in these five magazines, however,

it should be pointed out that while the total of their positive arti­

cles was increased ty ten post-Sputnik, the number of their negative

articles was increased ty twenty-two. This increase in the number of articles at both ends of the evaluation continuum does, however, show

that, while trends in opinion may be detected in the mass media, they are not a ll one-sided.

To indicate the extent to which Sputnik had an effect upon the evaluation of American education in the Circulation leaders it is possible to compare the evaluation of articles three months immediately prior to Sputnik (August, September and October, 1957), to the three months immediately after Sputnik (November, December, 1957 and January,

1953), and then conquers them both to the last three months of the sample (August, September and October, 1953).

In the three months immediately prior to Sputnik articles judged as positive accounted for 3U percent of the total} neutral and doubtful articles were 36 percent, and negative 30 percent. In the three months

Immediately after Sputnik the proportion of positive articles had decreased 21 percent to 13 percent; the neutral and doubtful articles were U1 percent, and the negative articles had increased 16 percent to

1*6 percent.

Quite clearly Sputnik resulted in a definite shift to a negative evaluation of American education ty the Circulation leaders. 177

How permanent did thia negative sentiment become? In the period

August, September and October, 1958, the percentage of positive articles was 36 percent, an increase of 23 percent over the period immediately after Sputnik. The negative evaluation, while not indicating as large a shift, decreased 5 percent to hi percent} and, surprisingly, the neutral and doubtful category had shrunk to 2 3 p e r c e n t.

A hypothesis to explain this shift in the last period when the positive evaluation increased appreciably, the negative decreased slightly, and the neutral and doubtful decreased appreciably could be that the magazines were providing mare space to the educators and their defenders to talk back (according to Time "in the same old rich deep- purpled educationese1* ) and that this interplay between negative and positive provides more interest than either the neutral article that takes no position, or the doubtful that is internally balanced between positive and negative.

Information Bearers

The overall evaluation of American education appearing in the content of articles in the Information Bearers group of magazines during the two-year period of the sample was decidedly negative. Thirteen per­ cent of the 538 articles were straight positive, 10 percent were quali­ fied positive, 5 percent were doubtful, 3 8 percent were neutral, 2ii percent were qualified negative, and 10 percent were straight negative.

Grouping the two positive categories, the doubtful and the neutral, and the two negatives, shows percentages of 22, Ui and3kt respectively, indicating additionally the preponderance of negative evaluation. 178

In tha pre-Sputnik year, 2 3 6 articles on Amerioan education were published and of these 13 percent were straight positive, 10 percent were qualified positive, 6 percent doubtful, UO rercent neutral, 23 percent qualified negative, and 8 percent straight negative (Table 13) .

Grouping these into positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative, the percentages are 23, U6 and 31* respectively.

In the post-Sputnik year 300 articles appeared and of these 12 percent were straight positive, 10 percent were qualified positive, 5 percent were doubtful, 37 percent neutral, 2 5 percent qualified nega­ tive, and 11 percent straight negative. Grouping these into positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative, the percentages are 22, U2 and 36, respectively •

It cannot be said that the Information Bearers indioated any particularly strong shift to a more negative evaluation after Sputnik than they had before; certainly there is no comparison between their increased negation of American education and that of the Circulation

L ead ers.

In line with the designation of these magazines as Information

Bearers it should be noted that both overall and in both years the cate­ gory with the largest proportion of articles is the neutral; however, percentages of approximately LO percent neutral articles hardly justi­ fies the labeling of the content of these magazines as objective; never­ theless, compared with the other magazines of the sample one must concede their approach to neutrality.

In the expression of their negative evaluation of American edu­ cation the Information Bearers, especially the news magazines, quite 179 often, *s pointed out previous ly, make use of quotes from prominent people* If the person's title Is prestige weighted enough this Is regarded as sufficient Identification for pontifical authority and no approbative adjectives are necessaryt "Republican Senator Halph

Flandersi . Our education system is a shambles. 1 have, for

Instance, four grandchildren In high school. . . . Three of them are writing rather good theses and essays but are not corrected in spelling.

They communicate; that's all that is necessary. The hell with spel­ ling/"^ "Novelist William FauLtnert . Schools are becoming more and more just baby sitting organisations to keep the kids out of their parents' hair.'"^ "Dean William C. Warren of Columbia University

School of Law* 'the Inability of college graduates who come to us to read and write is a malady of epidemic proportion.'

Sometimes, however, the news magazines, perhaps feeling the title is not prepossessing enough, introduce their speakers with approving little noises i "An unusually oandid humanist, Prof. William A* Da a hey of St. John's College in Annapolis, Md., called attention last week to whAt he considered the real crisis in American education. . . . "We have permitted our curricula to bee one swamped with subjects that have nothing whatsoever to do with education. . . . Clear out the Junk from our curricula.'"^ "Joel Hildebrand, a highly respected chemist, is one

l£"7he Hell with Spelling," Time, December 2h, 1956, p. U7»

^"Coddling and a Critic," Newsweek, March 17, 1956, p. 90.

17nxhe Ualady," Time, January 21, 1957, p. 50.

^"Calling the Junkman," Newsweek, October 28, 1958, p. 112. 160

of tha tartest critics of the life-adjustment and how-to-get-along kind

of education being dished up ty some of the nation's schools and teach­

ers' colleges . . . says Joel Hildebrand, ' . . . The flabty condition

of education . . . is going to put us behind the Russians in more areas

than the m ilitary. '

At least on one occasion two magazines, Time and Newsweek,

became a duet over the merits of their spokesman* "In the long battle

over Just what sort of education the public schools should provide, few

voices are more reasonable than that of Professor Paul Woodring of

Western Washington College of E ducation."Perhaps the wisest head

and clearest voice in school planning today belongs to a shy, bespec­

tacled man named Paul

The phenomena o f damming American ed u ca tio n in g e n e r a l but th en

praising specific schools or school systems, as noted previously in the

discussion of the Circulation Leaders, is also present in the Informa­

tion Bearers. A lead sentence from a Newsweek article sums this up quite well* "Few high schools catch the Imagination of science students.

The elite Bronx High School of Science (N.Y.) succeeds."^ U. S. News and World Report also has this: "So in a few towns and cities, you find the broad outline of a new emphasis on basic education—* trend that is

l?"The Drivel Poured Out," Time, April 8, 1957, p. U9«

^Q'Time for a Synthesis," Time, September 2, 1957, p. 50.

2*"Sense and Our Schools," Newsweek, September 30, 1957, p- 112.

< ^ " 9 9 percent to College," Newsweek, November U, 1957, p» 96. ldl

hesitant and superficial in some places, yet profound in its imprint on

the United States in years to come."^ Then Time* "As classes reopened

this week in a nation demanding more from its educational system than

ever before, the conventional grade system (imported from Germary about

a century ago) was giving way here and there to a system designed to

let grade-school children move ahead as fast as they can.*21*

As for the specifics, Time, for example, praises the Melbourne

High School, Florida program* "Says Principal Brown proudly, 'tfe don't

know how the Russians are doing with their emphasis on compulsory

science education. But I 'll bet our volunteer students could top any­

thing at their level in the Soviet Union.'U.S. News and A orld

Report lauds the T-V experiment at Hagerstown, Maryland* "An experiment

is underway in the schools of this community that is expected to have an

effect upon teaching in many schools in the land in years to come"j26 and Newsweek, which never misses the important events in the nation's

private schools* "Next fa ll a new item w ill appear in the curriculum f i t Deerfield Acadeny "one of the leading bqys prep schools"/* Cook­

ing—so that a ll Deerfield men can cook their own breakfasts, thus earning the eternal gratitude of their wives

^"Change in the Schools— Back to the Three R's?" U. S. News and tforld Report, March 15, 1957, p. 126.

21*tiThe Grade-Less School," Time, September 15, 1958, p. 76.

2^"Give Them Their Heads," Time, March 11, 1957, p. UO.

26ht,v.'s Test in Class Room* Here's tthat It Shows," U.S. News and a or Id Report, February 1, 1957, p. 52.

27»«aH onderful Time," Newsweek, June 3, 1957, p. 97. 182

To indicate the extent to which Sputnik had an effect upon the

evaluation on the Information bearers it is possible, as was done with

the Circulation Leaders, to compare the evaluation of articles three

months immediately prior to Sputnik ^August, September, and October,

1957); with the three months immediately after Sputnik (November and

December, 1957, and January, 195Q ) i *nd then compare these two periods

to the last three months of the sample vAugust, September, and October,

1958).

In the three months immediately prior to Sputnik, articles judged

as positive accounted for 25 percent of the total; neutral and doubtful

articles, 50 percent and negative, 25 percent# In the three months

immediately after Sputnik the reaction is even greater than that of the

Circulation Leaders. The proportion of positive articles had fallen to

12 percent; the doubtful and neutral to 35 percent, and the negative had

more than doubled to 53 percent. In those three months the Information

Bearers hardly justified the title, since they carried no greater pro­

portion of neutral articles than the magazines which make no such pre­

tense# They were also much more critical of American education during

that period than the Circulation Leaders.

tfcr the period of the last three months of the sample they had regained their equanimity and carried 30 percent positive articles, U6

percent neutral and doubtful, and 2h percent negative articles# This represents actually a gain of 5 percent in the positive over the three months immediately prior to Sputnik; the negative proportion was back to approximately the same percentage; and the loss in percentage occurred in the neutral and doubtful, from 50 percent prior to Sputnik 133 to 1*6 percent* This parallels to some extent what occurred In the

Circulation Leaders.

Tliae, in August, 1958, duly noted that the uproar had subsided significantly in connenting upon the Federal Aid to education bills that had been introduced: "The cry far new emphasis an education that fo l­ lowed the launching of the first Soviet Sputnik last year has been reduced to a whisper on Capital H ill • . . Because the Sputnik-inspired sense of urgency nas waned, the fair weather for the school bills has now tu rn ed in t o dead calm."**® In U. S. News and World Report, one could catch the sense of a completion of a "mission": "In the past few years, throughout the U .S ., there has been considerable criticism that schools are too soft, that they spend too much time on frills and not enough on basic education. Now signs are that . . • moves are being made to meet these criticisms* In many communities of this country, schools are getting to u g h e r .Newsweek carried the same refrain: "As the country's 26 m illion elementary-school children prepared to start returning to class next week, the backward ones in some cities had fair warning: If Johnny couldn't read he mustn't expect (a) to pass or (b) to get shifted to a course in deep breathing."30

Since three of the magazines in the Information Bearer category,

Time, Newsweek, and U. S. News and World Report, carry a large enough number of articles that a statistical sumuary of each one separately carried some significance, let us examine and compare them individually.

2d it Dead "calm for Federal Aid," Time, August 11, 1958, p. 58. 29" I t W ill Take More Work How to Get a Diploma," U . S . News and World Report, October 3, 1958, p. 50.

3°"johnrv Beware," Newsweek, September 11, 1958. 16 U

To New awe ok goes th e "kudos" (a favorite word of Time style to

indicate ’’glory,'* "fame”) for comparative objectivity In articles

relating to American education. In both pre-Sputnik and post-Sputnik

years it carried a consistently neutral proportion of articles, 6 9 and

76 percent, respectively. Sputnik evidently made no difference in the

proportion of positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative articles; and

even an examination of the statistics for the three months immediately

following Sputnik discloses never a r i p p l e .

Let it not be said, however, that Newsweek is not disposed to

bias in its reporting of American education, khile this topic was not

categorised, and hence no statistical treatment can be given, the

analyst who reads Newsweek critically and continuously is struck ty the

amount of news, a ll favorable, which is devoted to private schools.

That Newsweek sees the private schools in a more favorable light

than the public schools, may be indicated by the following1 "From th e

University of Pittsburgh has come the lament that a study of fourteen

school systems show American Teaching Methods to be trudging along

pretty much as they were twenty years ago. . . • This atu

obviously did not take in St. Scholastics Academy, a Catholic Boarding

School."Of sons 39 m illion American school children, 9 8 p ercen t are attending either public or parochial schools this year. The parents

of the other two percent send their offspring to the nation's3 # 0 0 0 32 •quality' schools." "James if. Kirchonski, operator of the Three-R

3^Electronic Classroom," Newsweek, June 2U, 1957, p. 99.

^"M iss Hewitt's Young ladies," Newsweek, January 28, 1958, p. 90. 185

School, San Francisco . • • 'I don't like to knock tha public schools, but too many of them are s till operating on the age-and-poundage theory of education! If the kid's old enough and big enough, promote him.'"^

And there are quite a few articles in Newsweek typified by the follow­ ing! "One of the country's leading prep schools, Loomis at Windsor,

Conn*, announced a provocative Innovation in U.S. education this week

• . • w ill seek out gifted youngsters and offer them a chance to work independant3y in scientific projects."^

One is also struck ty the preponderance in Newsweek of articles on events in colleges and there is constant reference to the rising costs of a college education. This concern with prep schools and colleges, however, fits In with the audience of these news magazines and the way in which their role is conceived, as pointed out earlier, in providing information to "influentials" in the community who are, of course, more apt to be college educated and hence interested in this ty pe cf news •

Time, in the pre-Sputnik year, contained Ul percent positive articles, 29 percent doubtful and neutral, and 3 0 percent negative articles on American education. There is no question that Sputnik affected Time's position significantly because the post-Sputnik year shows that positive articles dropped 6 percent from Ul t o 35 p e r c e n t; doubtful and neutral decreased 9 percent from 29 to 20 percent, and negative articles increased 15 percent, from 30 to U5 p e r c e n t.

33nsinarter in Summer," Newsweek, July 22, 1957, p. 5U»

3U"Qoing Something about a Big Problem," Newsweek, March 25, 1957, p. 103. 186

The comparatively loir percentage of doubtful and neutral articles

does not give much stature to Time*s objectivity, but for anyone who is

familiar with Time this comes as no surprise* Here again this analysis measured no aspect of the entertainment function in these magazines, but

there seems little question that Time makes a conscious effort to make

its pages entertaining reading because it tucks away in them things like the following quotes from a book ty Robert ffcul Smith, Translation from the Englishi

f0h, I wouldn't worry about that* At this stage, it's the social adjustment that counts.'

The child cannot read, write or count beyond nine, but has stopped throwing modeling clay in the sand box.

'No, I don't think the work is beyond him. He just won't apply himself*'

Come on now, anybody can say, 'Here we loopy loo.'^

Entertaining? Yes, but there is a message there, too*

U. S. News and World Report in the pre-Sputnik year contained 15 percent positive articles on American education, 3U percent doubtful and neutral, and 51 percent negative articles. Obviously, U. S* News and

World Report took a dim view of American education before Sputnik; but things were destined to become worse, for in the post-Sputnik year, while the percentage of positive articles rose 5 percent (from 15 to 20 percent), the percentage of doubtful and neutral decreased 18 percent

(3b to 16 percent), and the percentage of negative articles increased 13 percent (from 51 to 6b percent); this was 19 percent higher than Time and Jj5 percent higher than Newsweek. However, in line with the total

35'"What Do You idean?1 'Nothing,'" Time, February, 17, 1958, p* 71* 187

sample of Information Bearers ly the last three months of the two years,

U.S. News and World Report had simmered down slgnif leant ly ; and in that

period carried only six articles, four of them positive and only two

negative. the last month, October 8, 1958, U. S. Hews and World

Report could report! "As schools across the country start the school year, signs of a new trend in American education are appearing. That

trend is toward higher scholastic standards, more emphasis on learning, a tougher attitude towards frills and toward la^y pupils."^

Grants' magazine, while, of course, not containing the number of articles of the other three magazines in the Information Bearer category, certainly, if the proportion of doubtful and neutral articles is a valid criterion, deserves inclusion in this category. In the two years of the sample UO percent of its articles could be judged doubtful or neutral which is higher than either Time or U. S. News and World hep o r t. In the pre-Sputnik year Parents1 carried two articles Judged positive, four articles doubtful or neutral, and six articles negative. In the post-

Sputnik year the number of positive articles increased from two to seven; the doubtful or neutral went from four to thirteen, and the negative articles increased from six to ten. It must be concluded that in both years, while not large, the preponderance of opinion in Parents1 evaluates American education negatively

Aomen's Magazines

The overall evaluation of American education appearing in the content of articles in the Women's Magazines group during the two years

3 6 ttit W ill Take More Work Now to Get a Diplom a," U.S. News and World Report, October 31, 1958, p. U0. 103

of the sample, while not aa balanced aa the Circulation Leaders, was not

quite aa negative aa the Information Bearers. Twenty-eight percent of

the 79 articles were straight positive, 6 percent were qualified posi­

tive, 6 percent were doubtful, 1? percent were neutral, 35 percent were

qualified negative, and 6 percent were straight negative (Table 13J.

Grouping the two positive categories, the doubtful and neutral, and the

two negative categories shows percentages of3L, 25 and LI, respectively,

indicating the tendency toward a negative evaluation of American educa­

t io n .

In the pre-Sputnik year this group of magazines published thirty articles on American education and of these LO percent were straight

positive, 7 percent were qualified positive, 7 percent doubtful, 13

percent neutral, 26 percent qualified negative, and 7 percent straight negative (Table 1 2 ). Grouping these into positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative the percentages are L7* 20 and 33* respectively.

In the post-Sputnik year forty articles appeared, and of these 21 percent were straight positive, 6 percent were qualified positive, 6 percent doubtful, 22 percent neutral, 39 percent qualified negative and

6 percent straight negative* Grouping these into positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative, the percentages are 27, 29 and hh, respectively.

The increase in negative evaluation frcm 33 percent pre-Sputnik, to LL percent post-Sputnik; and the corresponding drop in the positive evaluation from L7 percent pre-Sputnik, to 27 percent post-Sputnik suggests a significant effect of the Russian satellite’s launching on the content of articles in the Women's Jagazines groupt "For more than a decade critics of American education have been trying in vain to open TABLE 11

EVALUATION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION— WOM0MS MAGAZINES

(Number o f A r t ic le s )

S tr a ig h t Q u a lified Q u a lified S tr a ig h t P o s itiv e P o s itiv e Doubtful Neutral N egative N egative P re- P o st- P re- P o st- P re- P o st- P re- P o st- P re- P o st- Pre- P o st- Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ n ik n ik n ik nik n ik nik n ik n ik n ik nik nik nik

Ladies* Home Journal 5 3 2 1 1 0 1 0 2 5 0 1

Me Call*s 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0

Good Housekeeping 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2

Parents * 2 6 0 1 1 3 10 5 10 1 0

TOTAL: 12 10 2 3 2 3 i l l 8 19 2 3 1?0 our eyes to the existence of • • . weaknesses. The Russian deus ex machine has succeeded in accomplishing what they could not accomplish ."37

In a sense, Sputnik had a greater effect upon the Women's Maga­ zines than on aqy of the other groups of magazines because pre-Sputnik they had the largest percentage of articles which were positive, and of these the preponderance were straight positive. Interestingly enough, even after Sputnik the proportion of straight positive to qualified positive articles remained very high, 21 percent to six percent.

E v id e n tly , when th e Women's M agazines saw som ething th ey lik e d they really liked it. The same phenomenon did not take place with the nega­ tive evaluations j while the qualified negative rose 13 percent, from 26 pre-Sputnik to 3 !9 percent, post-Sputnik, the straight negative decreased

1 percent, from 7 to 6 percent, in the same period.

The Women's Magazines group, like the others, tended to reserve their negation for the general picture of American education and reserve their positives for the specificst "it takes something—probably the flow of bright young faces and sparkling eyes—to tell the story of Palo

Alto's /C alifornia/ gifted-child program.”3® The program of Niles Town­ ship High School in Skokie, Michigan, gets the same plaudits,^ and a story about Madiera School for girls states t "The climate at the

37a . ’.Vhitney Griswold, "High School to College t Time to Repair the Bridge," Ladles' Home Journal, May, 1958, p« 50.

Glenn Mathew White, "How One School System Is Meeting the Challenge of This Century," ladies' Home Journal, May, 1958, p. 88.

39 Jean Todd Freeman, "A Climate of Freedom," ladies' Home Journal, June, 1957> p. 17k • 191

Madiera School is free; it is also rigorous* A new student who

announced her intention to take only subjects in which she was inter­

ested was firmly chastizedt 'That is a negative attitude* You should

take subjects in which you do not do well* What is education but a

pushing back of the darkness of the mind?"1^

At least once one of the phenomena in contemporary education that

the general evaluation found abhorrent can be found as a straight posi­

tive specific* ""When a bright boy (or girl) who should be taking

advanced mathematics elects in its place a course in homemaking so that

he can study with his 'date' what difference w ill it make if the waste

of talent takes place in a new glass building instead of an old brick

Granted that the following does not necessarily meet the conditions of

studying with a "date,” and one cannot te ll if these boys are missing

advanced mathematics, but it would seam that this may approach what the

preceding quote is railing against* "At Conpton High School, California,

it's a privilege to be one of the twenty seniors selected to take the

hane-making course--if you are a boy. One of the attractions is prac­

tical lessons in baby care* 'Practice with dolls precedes actual

demonstrations—builds up beys' confidence before they tackle the real

thing,' says their teacher, Miss Kathryn Bowers.

^Albert Q. liaise 1, "An Imaginative Program to Spark Science Students," Parents', August, 1953, pp. 50-51, 101-103*

^Griswold, op. c l t », p. 1M.

J 0 "Home Ec Was Never Like This," M cCall's, ...ay, 1957, p* 3lt* 192

The comparatively ^®w number of articles that appear in the

Women's magazine group does not permit ary significant breakdown of

percentages of positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative articles that appeared in three months immediately prior to Sputnik, three months i.nnediately after, and three months at the end of the two-year sample# However, if interest in education can be measured try the number

of articles, examining the canparative number of articles that appeared

in those three periods does indicate that interest in education has been maintained# Furthermore, there does seem to have been some lessen­ ing of negative evaluation during these last three monthsi eight arti­ cles were positive, nine were doubtful and neutral, and seven were n e g a tiv e •

Looking at each of the magazines in this group separately (Table

11), it can be 9een that a ll of the magazines except McCall's generally increased the proportion of negative content in the post-Sputnik year#

Good Housekeeping evidenced the most extreme shiftj in the poet-

Sputnik period it did not carry a single article that was judged posi­ tive, whereas in the pre-Sputnik year it had published three positive and only one negative articles.

Parents' magazine, while carrying a greater proportion of nega­ tive articles in both years increased the proportion of positive to negative articles in the post-Sputnik year# It also Increased its doubtful and neutral articles from four to thirteen articles#

ladies' Home Journal switched from a rather large proportion of positive to negative articles in the pre-Sputnik year, seven to two, 193

respectively, to a preponderance of negative articles poet-Sputnik, four

positive to six negative articles.

McCall's, in a sense, did not publish in those two years a single

article critical of American education in goneral, although one was cate­

gorized as qualified negative, but since it was an autobiographical

sketch of one child's bitter experience with one teacher, it could

hardly be classed as a comprehensively negative article. The opening

paragraph of this article deserves quotations "Miss ^iwood was ny first

grade teacher. . . . After forty-one years her image still haunts me,

s till rakes at the core of ny ego with the Jagged fingernails of frus­

tration, s till churns ny blood with the urge to spit, to kick out, to

slash with the sharpest knife ."^3

Statue Leaders

The overall evaluation of American education appearing in the content of articles in the Status Leader group of magazines during the two years of the sample was overwhelmingly negative. In that time only

one of twenty-eight articles was judged to be straight positive,^4 four were qualified positive, five were doubtful, one was neutral, thirteen were qualified negative and four were straight positive (Table 12).

□rouping the two positive categories, the doubtful and neutral, and the two negatives, shows five, six, and seventeen articles, respectively.

k^Max Kramer, "The Teacher .Vho Taught Me to Hate," M cCall's, February, p. 36.

^Numbers Instead of percentages are given for this group because in most cases the small number of articles involved would distort any percentage picture. 19U

In the pre-Sputnik year of a total of ten articles, one article was straight positive, three were qualified positive, two doubtful, none

neutral, three qualified neutral, and one article was straight negative*

Grouping these into positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative, the

number of articles are four, two and four, respectively—a remarkably

equitable balance.

This balance disappears in the post-Sputnik year* Of the

eighteen articles that appeared, none were straight positive, only one was qualified positive, four were doubtful and neutral, ten were quali­

fied negative, and three were straight negative* Grouping these into

positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative, the number of articles are

one, four and thirteen, respectively.

Quite clearly the Status Leaders took a rather Jaundiced view o f

American education in the year after Sputnik*

Since a ll of the articles, signif icantly, were directed to themes in American education which w ill be analyzed in the next chapter, the tenor of the Status Leaders* evaluation can be picked up there, but the following excerpt from a Harper1s article, as w ell as any, captures the assessment of American education by the Status Leaders t "The stranger who surveys Amerioan education at present senses a kind of tragecty. He cannot avoid the impression, as he looks around the country, that the warmth and idealisoi of the mass of its people, the intelligence and curloeity of its students, deserve better than they h a v e . "^5

^Derek C olville, "British and American Schools," Harper(s, October, 1957, p* 62* TABLE 12

EVALUATION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION—STATUS LEADERS AND AMERICAN MERCURY

(Number o f A rtic le s )

S tra ig h t Q u a lified Q u alified S tra ig h t P o s itiv e P o sitiv e D oubtful N eutral N egative N egative Pre- P o st- Pre- P o st- Pre- P ost- Pre- P o st- Pre- P o st- Pre- P o st- Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik nik

Harper*s 0 0 2 i 1 2 0 1 3 2 0 0

A tla n tic 1 0 1 0 j. 1 0 0 0 8 1 3

TOTAL: 1 0 3 1 2 3 0 1 VT 10 1 3

American Mercury 021100009446 196

As far as the evaluation of American education by the Individual magazine, Harper1 a and the Atlantic Monthly, which make up the Status leader group, the Atlantic indicated the most reaction to Sputnik. In the pre-Sputnik year it carried five articles* two articles were cate­ gorized as positive, two doubtful and neutral, and one article negative.

In the post-Sputnik year it carried no positive articles, only one doubt­ ful article, and eleven negative articles—certainly an extreme shift

In sentiment.

Harper1 a showed no particular reaction to Sputnik. In the pre-

Sputnik year it carried two positive articles, one doubtful article, and three negative articles. In the poet-Sputnik year it carried one less positive article, two more doubtful and neutral articles and one lass negative articles.

The American Mercury

The overall evaluation of American education appearing in the content of articles in the American Uercury during the two years of the sample was decidedly negative. Of the twenty-eight articles published two were straight positive, two were qualified positive, one doubtful, none neutral, thirteen were qualified negative and ten were straight negative. Grouping them into positive, neutral and doubtful, and nega­ tive, the number of articles are four, one, and twenty-three, respec­ tively. It is quite clear that this magazine found little to applaud in

American education.

In the pre-Sputnik year of a total of fourteen articles, none were straight positive, one was qualified positive, none were either 197

doubtful or neutral, nine were qualified negative and four were straight negative* Grouping these Into positive, neutral and doubtful, and nega­

tive the number of articles are one, none, and thirteen, respectively*

In the pre-Sputnik year of a total of fourteen articles none were straight positive, one was qualified positive, none were either doubtful

or neutral, nine were qualified negative and four were straight negative.

Grouping these into positive, neutral and doubtful, and negative, the number of articles are one, none, and thirteen, respectively.

In the post-Sputnik year of the same number of articles as the previous year, fourteen, two were straight positive, one was qualified positive, one was doubtful, none were neutral, four were qualified posi­ tive, and six were straight negative. Grouping them into positive, doubtful and neutral, and negative the number of articles are three, one, and ten, respectively.

Sputnik, if aivthing, appeared to have influenced the American

Mercury into a modest increase, twenty-one, in the number of positive articles, balanced somewhat, fey an increase of two in the straight nega­ tive articles.

Like the Status Leaders, the flavor of the Amerioan Mercury's evaluation of American education is best contained in the themes which run through its content, such to be discussed in the following chapter, however, one quote w ill serve to illustrate somewhat the essence of its negation of American education: "School is introduced to them as some­ thing akin to a three-way circus where the principal lesson is to learn to be happy and caper with uninhibited abandon, and too mary youngsters TABLE13

EVALUATION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION—SUMMARY

(Percentages)

S tr a ig h t Q u a lified S tr a ig h t Q u a lifie d P o s itiv e P o s itiv e Doubtful Neutral N egative N egative

P re- P o st- P re- P o st- P re- P o st- Pre- P o s t- P re- P o st- P re- P o st- Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput- Sput­ Sput— Sput­ Sput- Sput­ n ik nik n ik nik n ik nik nik nik nik nik n ik n ik

Circulation Leaders 25 18 15 14 7 2 24 20 21 34 8 12

Information Bearers 13 12 10 10 6 5 40 37 23 25 8 11

'ndbmen’s Magazines 40 21 7 6 7 6 13 22 26 39 7 6

Status Leaders 10 0 30 6 20 17 0 6 30 57 10 17

American Mercury 0 11 7 7 0 7 0 0 64 29 29 4?

TOTAL: 15 13 11 10 6 4 35 31 25 31 8 11

n O oo 199

have learned the lesson so well that they are s till doped under the spell

of wonderful nonsense when they get to high school and college."^

Summary

The overall evaluation of American education appearing in the

content of articles in the total group of magazines during the two years

of the sample was rather negative. Fourteen percent of the 320 a r t i c l e s

were straight positive, 10 percent were qualified positive, 5 percent

were doubtful, 32 percent were neutral, 29 percent were qualified

negative, and 10 percent were straight negative (Table 1 3 )• Grouping

the two positive categories, the doubtful and neutral, and the two

negatives, shows percentages of 25, 37, and 33, respectively, and indi­

cates somewhat more clearly the negative weighting.

In the pre-Sputnik year 356 articles appeared; of these 15 per­

cent were straight positive, 11 percent qualified positive, six percent

doubtful, 35 percent qualified negative, and 8 percent straight negative.

Grouping these into positive, neutral and doubtful, and negative, the

percentages are 27, U0, and 33, respectively.

in the post-Sputnik year 161 articles appeared and of these 13

percent were straight positive, 10 percent qualified positive, U percent

doubtful, 31 percent neutral, 31 percent qualified negative and 11 per­

cent straight negative. Grouping these into positive, neutral and

doubtful, and negative, the percentages are 2 3 , 35> and U2, respectively*

k^John Gordon, "OTy Johnny S till Gan't Read," American Jercury, November, 1956, p. 7. 200

Considering all of the magazines of the sample, it is quite clear that Sputnik made a difference in the evaluation of American education, that there was a definite shift to the negative. Although in the year before Sputnik the percentage of negative articles was 6 percent higher than the positive, the doubtful and neutral was higher than either. In the year after Sputnik while the percentage of positive articles shrunk

U percent, the negative increased 9 percent, becoming the category with the largest percentage of articles, taking over the position held in the previous year by the doubtful and neutral category which had d ecreased 5 p e r c e n t.

If one considers that neutral and doubtful articles contribute to the information function of the magazines, this decline in neutral and doubtful content in the post-Sputnik year affirms the observation made in relation to the decline noted in the previous chapter in the propor­ tion of informative to persuasive articles during the same period.

Ideally in a democracy each citizen needs to make decisions on the basis of the information he possesses, and ideally the wisdom of those decisions is a function of the quantity and quality of that information. In a culture as large as ours it is obvious that an important source of that information is the mass media.

In a cultural crisis, then, ideally the mass media should increase their informative, their doubtful and neutral content. However, on the basis of the decrease in both informative and doubtful and neutral content that has been noted in this sample of periodical literature, it would seem reasonable to hypothesize that in a cultural crisis the 201

information function of the mass media moves toward ctysfunction, that

informative, doubtful and neutral content decrease, and persuasive,

negative content increases*

To examine more closely the effect of Sputnik on the total sample

of magazine articles and to determine how lasting the effects were, the

same procedure was used with the total sample as was used with the

Circulation Leaders and the Information Bearers of comparing the prooor-

tions of negative, doubtful and neutral, and positive articles during

the three months immediately prior to Sputnik, the three months imme­

diately after, and the three months at the end of the two-year period.

in the three months immediately prior to Sputnik, 2U percent of

the articles were positive, h3 percent were doubtful and neutral, and 33

percent were negative. The bias tward a negative evaluation is obvious

but not extreme •

In the three months immediately after Sputnik the positive articles had shrunk to a percentage of 11, the neutral and doubtful had decreased to 36 percent and the negative articles had risen to 53 per­ cent, a majority of the articles; quite clearly the periodicals of this

sample were extremely unhappy with American education.

Ejy the end of the two-year period the positive articles had climbed to 30 percent, the neutral and doubtful had remained nearly the same at 3$ percent, and the negative had decreased to 33 percent, nearly the same percentage as in the three months prior to Sputnik— evidently the crisis had passed. CHAFTcJi VII

THoI/LS IN AMLRICAN nDUCATIJN IN FnKIODICALS

It has been established in the two preceding chapters that nearly

half of the articles appearing in the periodicals of this sample were

persuasive, calling for something to be done about American education; that more than half affixed an evaluation on American education, either

in general or on specifics* The next dimension of this analysis, then,

is to determine the themes that permeated this persuasion and evalua­ tion, to discover the direction these ;»rioaicals wished American education to take .

The categories of analysis were Jeffersonian-Jacksonian, fativist-

Humanist, Utilitarian-Liberal Arts, and lndividualisnv-Groupism.

In analyzing the significance of the frequency of the appearance

01 these t!i-rr3 in periodical literature on American education two separate aspects must be considered: (1) the frequency of appearance in a r t i c l e s o f each theme a s compared w ith th e oth er member of the dichotony; for example, the number of times Jeffersonian theiuos appear contrasted with Jacksonian; and (?) the frequency with which each dichotomy appears in articles compared with the frequency of the other dichotomies; for example, Jeffersonian-Jacksonian, as compared with ilativist-Humanist. The first aspect measures the relative strength of each member o f th e d ich o to n y ; th e second a sn e c t m easures th e r e la t iv e degree to which each dichotony is seen as an issue by the periodicals*

202 203

It should be noted that the frequency recorded for each theme Is an affirmative measure, and since each theme is half a dichotony, the affirmation of one implies the negation of the other. In a sense, then, the frequency tanles do not really reprosent the number of times each theme appeared, but, as noted, measures the frequency of a positive reference for each theme.

Circulation Leaders

Jeffersonian- Jacksonian.—Six teen percent of the articles in the

Circulation Leaders group of magazines contained positive references to the Jeffersonian theme in American education, contrasted to 6 percent that were categorized as Jacksonian, aefore Cputnik the percentage of

Jeffersonian articles was 12 percent; after oputnik it rose to 21 per­ cent, quite clearly the largest gain of nya of the themes (Table 11); and its counterpart, Jacksonian, had slipped 2 percent, from 7 to 5 p e r c e n t.

It would seem that there was a strong trend, at least in the

Circulation Leaders, away from the same education for a ll, Jacksonian ism, to differential education on the basis of intelligence which is the essence of the Jeffersonian theme. The Rockefeller report on Education,

’’The Pursuit of excellence," which appeared as an article in the ladies1

Home Journal and was widely quoted try many of the other magazines, sums up rather well the evaluation of pre-Sputnik trends In American educa­ tion of those oriented toward the Jeffersonian theme. The following is a portion of that report included in a Life magazine editorial:

Present day United States society, the report /Rockefeller ;ieport on tducation^ points out, has intensified democracy's 20U

TAPLE U

JEFFERSONI AN - J ACK SON I AN THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION CIRCULATION LEADERS (Number of A rticles)

Jeffersonian Jack sonian P re- io o t - P re- P o st- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

Reader*s Digest 5 < 0

L ife 1 e i 1

Ladies* Home Journal k 6 2 1

Saturday Evening Post L 3 1 1

i Look 0 X 0 1

M cCall*s 0 1 0 0

a Good Housekeeping 0 L 2 X

Coronet <. 1 7 0

American Legion 0 1 0

Redbook 1 1 0 0

Time 9 13 0 1

TOTAL: 23 U 11 8

TOTAL PERCENTAGE: 27 51 13 9 20$

old tug-of-war between excellence and quality, 'has posed the problem of how to cultivate the ideal of the one while recog­ nizing the moral values of the other.1 In the t.b. school system, most of the heavyweight pulling has been done on the side of equality. The moral compulsion to give equal oppor­ tunity to everyone has been tamed into a rigid yardstick by which the number graduated ^and the degrees received) are valued more than the kind of education given. ^

Life, itself, illustrates that this tug-of-war Detween Jackson­ ian and Jeffersonianism is far from over; for while in the editorial above it paid lip service to the Jeffersonian ideal, three months later in an a r t i c l e , "How Colleges Can Handle the Throngs," i t says: "From

America's earliest days our educational ideal nas t>een inclusive, not exclusive, our forefathers were well aware that in establishing our particular kind of government, they had embarked upun a great experi­ ment, one which depended upon an enlightened public, uho should go to a college is a question answered fcy our history: every'one should ro who can orofit fcy it."

The issues tjetween Jacksonianism and Jeffersonianism were not always subtly stated, nor couched in objective language, but could be rather highly charged with emotion. Jeffersonian: ’’It is hard to deny that America's schools have degenerated into a system for coddling and entertaining the mediocre. The facts of the crisis are all out in plain sight and pretty dreadful to look at."^ Jacksonian: ". . .other gloomy trends. A major one is the desire of same educators to get rid

^"The importance of being .Excellent," Life, July 7, 1VS6, p. 2u, 2 Henry • Jriston, "How Colleges Can Handle the Throngs," Life, October 6, iy$d, p. Ij2.

^Sloan Wilson, op. c it., p. 31. 206 of the 'cult of mediocrity' ty which they mean we should make college a private club for mental giants*"^ This writer has a very dim view of these mental giants and what they do to a university: "Some universi­ ties, fearful of stocking their campuses with beetle-browed bookworms who will cast a pall on all social life, widen their student communities c to take on some 'live-wire' youngsters."^ Hut not all of the invective is Jacksonian: "Our schools pamper the jackasses, stuff the geniuses under the rug, and meanwhile envelop eveiyone in that fatuous diaper ism they call life-adjustment

A concern of the Jeffersonians, of course, is the education of the gifted child and their consensus was that; "because it is geared to the average child, school can seldom provide sufficient intellectual fare for the gifted chiId.

Life, in a nine-page feature story on the gifted child and his plight said: "... because of ignorance, prejudice, and a paralyzing inflexibility in the whole public school system, tragically little is being done to help them."^

The Jeffersonian solution to the education of the gifted child is, of course, an education adjusted to his talents and not his talents adjusted to the education of all.

^Harold V.ehling, "Will Your Child Get into CollegeV" Coronet, April, 1957, p. 121*. ^Ibid., p. 123. ^John Keats, "Are Public .Schools going Their Job? No I" Saturday Evening Post, September 21, 1957 > p. 33. ^Henry Henderson, "How to Help a Gifted Child," nedbook, .larch, 195d, p • 106 • ^"The irfaste of Fine blinds," life , April 7# 1953, p. 96. 207

The Jacksonian solution is epitomized in the following* "see to

it that ^Ehe gifted child^ learns to do all the things other children 9 can do and enjqy. Normalize him."

Of the individual magazines in the Circulation Leader group,

Time, Life, Ladles1 Home Journal, Saturday evening Post, and header1 s

Digest were the most weighted toward the Jeffersonian theme, and even

in the post-Sputnik year when there was a well defined surge of Jeffer- sonianism, all except reader's Digest included at least one Jacksonian article (Table lu).

header's digest was evidently enamored of the Jeffersonian statement ty Dr. Frank Baxter in the June, 1957, issue! "it is, in fact, amazing to me that a nation which insists on putting out a car for every purse, a blend of coffee for every taste and three sizes of aspaxagis (mammoth, colossal and gigantic) for every nantry shelf— should pride itself on turning out one drab grade of human being, 10 labeled 'run-of-the-mill.'" This article was entitled "Points to

Ponder," appropriately as it turned out, because in an article in

August, 1957, they printed the following: "'In a culture that produces a car for every purse and even grades its olives as large, mamLOth and colossal,' ^Uick Jneiy, principal of an Indianapolis high school7 said in a recent speech, 'the [majority of our public schools continue to turn out ungraded students whose diplomas may or may not mean anything.1"^

^Abraham H. lass, "The Jay to haise a bright Child," Coronet, June, 1957, p. U7« ^Vrank Baxter, "Points to Ponder," Header's Digest, June, 195 p . 58. ■^.■mmraell, op. clt», p. 152. 208

The fact that the Circulation Leaders in the pre-Sputnik year

printed twice the number of Jeffersonian articles as Jacksonian, and

that in the post-Sputnik year they carried over five times the number of

Jeffersonian articles as Jacksonian is clear evidence of their Jeffer-

ao nian bias; although they recognize, evidently, that this may run

counter to current trends in the culture, for a Look article, 'Who ituns

cur Schools?'1 points out*

:.!ost of the critics of American education have chosen to ignore this fact that parents get the kind of school they want* instead, they blame every ill of the schools on the profes­ sional educators to whom they apply the derogatory term 'educa tionist•1

-ore significant are the following facts;

Parents more than educators prefer easy schooling . . . A recent Gallup Poll show's that 90 percent of school principals and only $1 percent of the parents say the public schools today demand too l i t t l e work fo r students. . . .

Parents in sist upon automatic promotion » . .

Most pressures for non-academic courses begin outside the schools."!^

It is quite possible that the burgeoning of Jeffersonianism in the Circulation Leaders is merely a nova-like response to a crisis rather than a lasting phenomena, the basis of a permanent orientation in American education; that the situation described in the Look article above is even more prophetic of the future than descriptive of the tast.

Probably a clue to this is Life magazine, which persuasively assumed the

Jeffersonian position, carrying second only to Time, its sister magazine, the most number of Jeffersonian articles in the post-Sputnik

^George G. Leonard, Jr., 'Who rtuns Our Schools?" Look, June 10, 195$, p . 88. 209 year; however, in an article of July of that year which was designed, obviously, as entertainment, and probably for that reason more likely to reveal the deeper (subconscious?) trends in American education, Life portrayed a blatantly Jacksonian school which minimized the intellectual and aggrandized the "Pursuit of Happiness," ana pointed out that! "Life outside Hempstead's classrooms are so crowded with extra-curricular activities that only a shrinking violet fails to find his yearbook portrait cropping up in the long lineuj of clubs and societies . • • the yearbook is fair to everyone and each gets rewarded for his own speciality, whether it's a sharp brain or a sharp way of dressing,"^ and made it quite clear that the rewards were ty no means equitable for the "brains."

?Jatlv ism-Human ism.—Hativism-Humanism in the two years of the sample, if frequency of appearance is ary indication, were not particu­ lar concerns of the Circulation Leaders. Together they account for a scant 11 percent of the total articles of the sample. Of the two, humanism is unquestionably favored, appearing affirmatively in thirty- nine articles, 9 percent of the total, while Nativism was contained in eight articles, only 3 percent of the total (Table 15).

There was very little difference between pre- and post-bputnik years, in the pre-Sputnik year Mativist themes accounted for two articles, a meager 1 percent of the total; and Humanist themes totaled

22 articles, 12 percent of the total. In the post-Sputnik year,

^"Golden Years at Hempstead High," Life, June 23, 1958, p* 9 2, 210

TABLE 15

NATIVIST-HUMANIST THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION CIRCULATION LEADERS (Number of Articles)

Nativist Humanist Pre- Post- Pre- Post Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

Reader's Digest 0 0 0 1

Life 0 1 2 2

Ladies* Home Journal 1 2 1 0

Saturday Evening Post 1 1 2 A

Look 0 0 1 2

McCall's 0 0 1 1

Good Housekeeping 0 0 1 0

Coronet 0 0 3 1

American Legion 0 1 0 c

Redbook 0 0 0 ti

Time 0 0 11 5

TOTAL: 2 5 22 17

TOTAL PERCENTAGE: A 9 A9 38 211

Nativist articles increased to four, but only 2 percent of the total, and Humanist had shrunk to seventeen, ) percent of the to ta l.

The big issue in the culture related to I'ativism-Kunanism was not Sputnik but the issue of the integration of Negroes into oouthern

schools. Probably two quotes from Life rnagazine in the same issue of

ieptember 22, 1>5d, suns up as .veil as any the aspects of these two

themes that were included in Circulation Ikjarer articles during these

two years: lativisin: "No argument against integrated schools carries

greater weight with white Virginians and other white ^Southerners than

tne prospect that education of races together in the elementary and sucontery schools will lead to ultimate interracial amalgamation and make ours a nation of mulattoes ilitan isJ • • the Court's m viientous decision last Week, although its inunediate sequel is scnool- closing and possible violence, brings us that much closer to the day when a ll negroes, North and Louth, w ill enjoy their constitutional rights to noncegrwgated scnools."^ Jf the other aspects of lativism, the inculcation ai’ "demo­ crat ic" values, the raw oatriotism, the invective against internation­ alism, the suspicion of foreigners, this is almost entirely missing from the Circulation Leaders, found only tucked away, rather faded and almost

^"Dabney Vs. Dobbs on Integration," Life, September 22, 1 p. 3ii*

^Virginius Dabney, "Virginia’s 'Peaceable, Honorable btand,"1 l i f e , Septenbor 22, l>5d, pi. L>[>. 212

r^sonable, in the odd corners of Saturday gvening Post editorials:

"... concerning the system which has spread over half the world and

threatens to engulf the other half, trie ordinary schoolboy had been told

lit t le beyond the idea we must be tolerant . . • the American high school

student certainly needs some i ndoctrination against the kind of 16 instruction he is likely to riot into if and when ne gets to college."

". . . o f course there w ill be some teachers who can't or won't teach

the facts about Comunism unless somebocty builds a fire under them.

That is one of the problems which face Professor n lio t. If he can solve

it without being tagged a 'fascist .ieast' he is entitled to some sort

of Congressional dedal."17

«ith the dcCartly era gone, and with it the bogeyman of domestic

Communism and the replacement ty a considerably more realistic and fear­

ful throat, the technological successes of the Communist world, these

issues have virtually disappeared.

As for Humanism, the traces that appear in the Circulation

Leaders are rather bland, certainly not militant; outside of the issue

of school segregation there are such articles as Coronet's on what university tjroup6 are doing to build racial tolerance;^ Look's story

l6»It's Time Our Young People Jere Taught the Pacts about Com­ munism," Saturday evening Post, December 2o, 1957, p. 6.

17"At Last American Students Can Cet the Hacts on .’arxism," Saturday evening Post, April 20, 1957, p. 10.

""Andrew Hamilton, "The Kids .fho Speak for brotherhood," Coronet, August, 1957, pp. lid -150. 213

on the efforts of a UCIA group to better race relations In Los Angelas;^

and Life *8 account of the pledging of a Formosan bey to an Olivet

College fraternity after a Northwestern University fraternity had

depledged him.^O The most emphatic any of them became can be summed up

ty one line from a Reader's Digest article ty Helen Keller: "The 21 highest result of education is tolerance."

Outside of the issue of racial tolerance there is little else of

the Humanist orientation in the articles of the Circulation Bearersj

neither is there much said about "democratic living" in the classrooms,

nor the necessity for cooperation instead of competition; nor are there

any calls for the schools to teach "international understanding" and

cooperation; and UNESCO is studiously ignored.

All of the magazines of the Circulation Leaders group contained

at least one article with a Humanist theme, tut Reader's Digest, Look,

l.'.cCa U 1 s, Oood Housekeeping, Coronet, Red book, and Time carried no

articles that were categorized as Nativist ^Table 15 )• Time carried

the most Humanist articles in the two-year period, sixteen articles,

and Saturday Evening Post was second with six articles.

Utilitarian-Liberal Arts.—Twelve percent of the articles on

American education appearing in the Circulation Leaders were categorized

19 'Sara Boynoff, "Los Angeles: A Race ielations Success Story," Look, ..larch 19, 1957* pp. 25-29*

20»A Welcome far Nu,» Life, February 25, 1957, p. 52.

21 Helen Keller, "Points to Ponder," Reader's Digest, January, 1956, p. 19. 21li

as Utilitarian and 10 percent were Liberal Arts. Pre-bputnik and post-

Sputnik years indicate no shift in the proportion of Utilitarian themesj

each year they a ccounted for the identical 12 percent of the total.

Liberal Arts themes, however, in the pre-Sputnik year were 15 percent of

the total, but in the post-Sputnik they had increased to 1? percent.

Together the Utilitarian and Liberal Arts themes in the two years of the

sample appeared in proportionately more articles in the Circulation

Leaders than ary other of the themes, 30 percent; they also appeared in

the largest percentage of articles in both the pre- and post-Sputnik years with 27 and 32 percent of the articles, respectively.

The pattern of Utilitarianism in African education is easily

picked up in the periodical literature, but one would expect it to be

even more pervasive than it actually is, for every observer of American

education has noted its prevalence, its domination. No doubt its very

uniquitousness is precisely why, although it accounts for the third

largest percentage of themes behind only Liberal Arts and Jeffersonian,

it is not mentioned oftener. Evidently for most writers on education in the periodicals Utilitarianism is not an issue; it is as much an expected outcome of education as breathing is of living, and the refer­ ences to the theme in the periodicals tend to bear this out; for in mary of them Utilitarianism appears as something taken for granted, mentioned in passing; and there is very little mounting on the soap-box to shout: "Education must be practical, usefull" No one shakes his fist at the "dead, useless trivia" in the curriculum like Iatin, Greek, literature, the humanities. True, there is Utilitarian shouting, but 215

it is directed to the failure of America to keep pace with Russian tech­

no lo y, not so much that we slouch off one kind of education for

another.

The taken-f or-granted aspects of the Utilitarian theme is indi­

cated by the following: "Never before in our history has a college

education been as c r itic a lly necessary for a good job or career."22

"..lore and more, the best schools w ill insist upon fair and equal admis­

sion standards . . . high enough to make sure that the undergraduate

w ill be able to absorb a curriculum preparing him for a useful profes­

sional or business career."^3 "This impulse toward the arts ^at UC1A7 which is felt at many other American state universities reflects the whole nation's rising interest in the field. But at UCIA the interest

i s intensely practical."^

Another aspect of Utilitarianism which accounts for a large share

of its appearance in the Circulation Leaders is the plea for more

scientists, more technicians, for the specific ourpose of beating the

Russians: "The paramount objective of cooperative education is to . . . help solve America's dilemma—the famine in skilled manpower*"^ "The

Reds are ahead of us in mass numbers and w ill stay ahead of us • If we are to maintain or gain superiority over them in apy given essential

22parold hehling, "Will Your Child ^et into College?" Coronet, A pril, 1?57, p» 121. ^Lou Little, "Who's to Blaine for Football's Troubles?" Look, December 10, 1?57, p* 72.

2^"Art Tides High at a great University," Life, ..lay 20, 1?57, r*

■'Uiarion 3oone, "A .ay to Beat the High Cost of College,"Amer­ ican Legion, June, 1?58, p. L3* 216 category, in peace or war, we must do it fcy concentrating on the develop­ ment of specialists.1'^ ".Khether your basic fear is huscian domination or domestic stagnation, the U.S. needs more engineers and scientists— the faster the better."^ hot only are we graduating little more than half the engineers than the Soviet is, but we are wasting talants for lack of a teknikaia counterpart."^®

Nor is this spirit of "beat the hussians" that is associated with the Utilitarian theme confined to periodical literature on the secondary school or college, but it has seeped into that on the primary school.

For example, trs. Taylor, who heads the Beauvoir School in Washington,

D. J., teaches science in kindergarten through third brade. "She met with her thirty-two teachers and said, 'I guess you've all been wonderinc I read these clip .ings about the shortage of scientists.

Their impact isoovious. Bow, is there any way you think Beauvoir can help in the emergency?'

A quotation that probably sums up most admirably the essence of these two facets of Utilitarian themes app^rod as a caption under a picture in Life magazine as part of a story about the teaching of hussian in a halt Lake City elementary school: "Lnjoying class, Vickie

^Joseph Kaplas, "The Case for Big Time F ootb all," Look, December 11, 1956, p . 112.

^ iid g ar A. Grunwald, "Is There an ijigineer in Your House?" American legion, February, 1957, p« 5?.

2^Jlfilliam Benton, "The Soviet Teknikum: Ominous Threat to the West," Coronet, December, 1956, p. 70.

2-^'lary ditchell, "Children Are Smarter Than You Think," aaturday evening Post, tiarch 9, 1957, p. 2d. 217

Lee Hedges grins at her teacher, ’This w ill help me get a good job with

the government •'

There is one more aspect of Utilitarianism that appears in the

articles of the Circulation Leaders, the teaching of certain skills like

driving an automobile or answering a telephone. An article in Saturday

Evening Post captured this spirit very well. It told how the Baltimore

schools which, of course, had a business training program, began

getting ccroplaints from businessmen that the graduates they hired did

not know how to answer a telephone properly. The outcome is obviousi

a textbook was written, telephones were installed in the classroom, and

a course was introduced. "The fact that ^the course/ is now being

adopted by one high school system after another suggests that millions

of our adolescents yearly stand in need of being taught.

iost of the expression of the Liberal Arts theme that appears in

the Circulation Leader articles are directed toward the Utilitarian

surge for the training of technicians and scientists to compete with

Russian technology. As an editorial in the Saturday evening Post atatesi

"Young people are being cajoled and almost brow boated into training

them selves to become engineers, tech n ician s or re se a rc h e rs. . . . '..hy?

The usual answer is to win the arms race against the Ccomurlsts, to help 32 devise new products and processes."

3^"Salt lake Adds Russian to 3hs," Life, October 6, 1956, p. 111.

^^Craig Thompson, "How’s Your Telephone Etiquette?" Saturday Evening Poet, ;iarch 16, 1957, p» 61.

■^"Science Can Provide the Lase That la tin Once Gave," Saturday Evening Post, July 6, 1957, p* 10. 210

The Liberal Arts spokesmen were reatty to answer the onslaught of

Utilitarianism on the curriculumi "Not every child can adjust his

talents to the physical sciences, and no one should be forced into apy

specialized field of stucty against his aptitudes and personality, ,

w ill be doing many of our most promising young people—and ourselves—

a great injustice if, in our present eagerness to reward tomorrow’s

scientists, we slight tomorrow's scholars and artists ."33 "There is

today a clearly visible trend to making it the aim of education to defeat the rCussians. That would be a sure way to defeat education, benuine education is possible only when people realize that it. has to do with persons not with movements . . . the sheer pleasure of being educated does not seem to be stressed."3L Recently former ambassador

Joseph P. Kennecfy- • . • sounded a warning that a ll post-Sputnik clamor fo r more and more science teaching must not be perm itted to shut o ff a l l training in the classics."^

Not all of the Liberal Arts articles were solely the reaction against the Sputnik-induced press for more scientists and technicians} for there were some that were purely and simply in the libera 1-arts traditioni "In private schools our children will stu

33«7he Kind of education Our Children Need," Redbook, February, p . 31. J JUIidith Hamilton, "The Lessons of the F&st," Saturday Evening Post, September 27, 1 p. 25. 35»claasical Training Does No Harm, gven to Young Scientists," Saturday Svenlng Post, February d, 1?57, p. 10.

"^John Keats, op. cit., p. l i d . 219

others that were decrying the Utilitarianism of American education in

general* "At jryn Lawr College in Pennsylvania women are given some of

the most intensive intellectual training available in the U.S. At 3ryn

;.Jawr the intellectual process has been kept pure, undiluted by ar^y voca­

tional or domestic science course."37 "New school buildings w ill mean

little until more of us learn to wlue a good education for its own

sake rather than as a step toward a higher paying jo b ." 3 °

In the magazines of the Circulation Leader group the magazines that seemed to have a Utilitarian bias, if the proportionate number of approhative articles is any measure, were headerfs Digest, Look, and

Good Housekeeping {Table 16). The preponderance of their U tilitarian articles appeared in the post-Sputnik year and were directed *>o the need of turning out more scientists and technicians.

Life, Ladles* Home Journal, Saturday Evening Post, and Tine indicated the most Liberal Arts bias. The Saturday avening Post, particularly in the post-Sputnik period, took up the cudgel editorially for the Liberal Arts theme, running three articles in that year.

None of the Circulation Leaders ignored the issue, and, in fact, as indicated earlier there is little doubt, since these two themes appeared in the two years of the sample in 30 percent of the total articles, that the Utilitarian-Liberal Arts themes represent a major conflict area in the picture of American education appearing in the

Circulation Leaders.

37«Urgent Need for dore Classrooms," kedbook, October, 195d, p. 33.

-^"Tough T raining fo r Women’s blinds," L ife, December 2h, 1956, p. 107. 220

TABLE 16

TTILITARIAN-LIBERAL ARTS THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION CIRCULATION LEADERS (Number of A rticles)

Utilitarian Liberal Arts

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

Reader*3 Digest 2 5 1 2

Life 1 U 3 L

Ladies* Home Journal 2 0 2 3

Saturday Evening Post 5 2 2 6

Look 1 5 i 1

McCall*s 1 0 0 1

Good Housekeeping 1 A 0 1

Coronet 3 0 0 1

.American Legion 1 ± 0 1

Redbook 1 0 c £.

Time U 8 19 22

TOTAL: 22 29 28 46

TOTAL PERCENTAGE: 18 23 22 37 221

Indivldualism-Grouplsm.—Sight parcent of the articles on Ameri­ can education appearing in the Circulation leaders were categorized as embotying the Groupism theme and 11 percent Individualism. Like the

Utilitarian theme, Groupism exhibited no variation in proportion of frequency between pre- and post-Sputnik years, remaining at a constant 8 percent, and the Individualism theme, like the Liberal Arts, increased from 9 percent in the pre-Sputnik year to 13 percent in the post—Sputnik year *

Again, like Utilitarianism, the rather low frequency of appear­ ance of the Groupism theme in the periodical literature in the light of its observed and obvious prevalence in American education suggests that it is so accepted as a matter of course ty most writers that, like

Utilitarianism, there is for them realty no issue, and Grouoism is reported in passing much as one would report on the phenomena of chil­ dren learning to read in school.

Both the constancy of Grcxipism's proportion of appearance in articles in the Circulation Leaders, and the quality of its representa­ tion in the articles tends to bear this out. For example: "He needs experience in group play with the other children. This is the way

/children/ learn to 'take turns' and share with others."'One of the first lessons they learn,' she ^Uoris ..’.arshall, dramatics teacher/ points out, 'is the necessity of belonging to the grouo and of sharing with it. . • . Learning this discipline of sharing offers the sensitive

39irma Simonton black, "Will He Get a Good Start in School?" kedbook, August, 1958, p. 80. 222 youngster emotional satisfaction and a feeling of belonging at the vexy age when he most needs it." 1^ itpenn State is no exception. Going to church is now 'the thing to do1 among students.»xhe drive toward well roundedness Is very strong among Lincoln ^H.S_»7 students . . .

Related to this is a desire to conform. One of Terry's friends says,

'tfe don't have to ask each other wnat we're going to wear each day, we

Just know."bays and girls, and Americans in general, don't under­ stand that most scientists aren't lone wolves or cogs in a machine. i They usually work in a team."

This aspect of Grounism, the assimilation of the individual in a group, is not the only one that appears in the literature, for there is another which carries Grounism one step further to the outright demand of individuality and then another to the effort to humiliate the

Individual who may demonstrate capabilities beyond the ordinary. For example, the parents of the gifted child are advisedi "Your cue is to see to it that your child learns to do all the things other children can do and enjoy. normalize him."^ iven tho day of the jndividual

^^»!Jo 'Problem Children' for Doris Marshall," ueader's Digest, February, 1957, p« 17(3. ^Condensed from Dram atics, October, 1956.) LI -Tones n. Shannon, "Religious Revolution on the Camjus," Satur­ day evening Post, larch 29, 1958, p. 19*

k^George a. Leonard, Jr., "I am a Student," Look, October 1U, 1958.

^"Jihere Do Our Young Peorle Get Such Cra^y Ideas about iVhat Scientists Do?" Saturday Svenlng Post, November 30, 1957, p. 10.

w* LflS3j j P* 223 athletic star in school may be passing: "There is nothing new in the average student's disdain for the 'Brain.' A more recent casualty to the cult of well-roundedness is the standout athlete. Teriy's on the swimming team, but is not a star. Ke actually prefers it that way.

'Gwim.lnr keeps me in good sh a p e,1 he says. 'And I meet a lot of nice guys on the tear,. That's the important thing.

As for the subjugation and humiliation of individuality, it is

W9ll illustrated by the following: "At their annual spring carnival students at the University of Detroit reveled for a modest price in the exquisite pleasure of c u ttin g th e ir Big ,-ien (and Women) on Campus down to size, .fhile campus leaders fearfully squinched up their faces, those of their tormentors made a study of unholy delight as they let fly with water ($1 a bucket) and meringue pies ($1 a piece) at close range

The above ,:dght be more tragic from the Individualistic view­ point had not the IAIOC's often become precisely what they were because they were the quintessence of Groupism.

The balance between the frequency of apjpearance of Groupism and

Individualism themes in the pre-Sputnik year was nearly equal, but

Sputnik brought with it a resurgence of Individualism, and its propor­ tion rose to 13 percent of the total. A significant portion of

Individualism's expression in the articles was associated with a general negati:n of "progressive" education: for example, "... th e ir

/Dewey's educationsts^ exclusive devotion to techniques and group

^Leonard, pp. c it., p. 35*

^".lig Shots, ,1.00 a bhot," Life, June 2, 195b, P* b. 22k adjustment should never again be allowed to hide the fact that America

exists first of all to educate the individual in a body of learning with a tradition and a purpose behind it." 1*^ »a reaction is already building uo against the type of education which rates 'togetherness and social adjustment' as equal, or even superior, to ability to read, figure and

s p o il." 1*8

There is seme evidence that the exponents of Individualism were out of step with actuality because contrast the quote above that was used to illustrate that star athletes were passe with thisi "In games, a boy wants to be the one who does hard work, the one at bat or the one carrying the ball—not the 'vfell adjusted* umpire explaining how to get along with the other team*"1^

The expression of individualism even extended to a lament about the ubiquitousness and puerility of that which is often the epitony of

Groupisnv— the fa c u lty coim iitteei "l s t i l l remember w ith deep resentment serving on a 'commencement committee1 whose p rin c ip a l duty involved hanging Japanese lanterns on the campus and going out to light the candles* I know of one college president who is the member of eighty committees."5^

Probably the most eloquent plea in the Circulation Leaders for individualism came from A* //hitnay Griswold, president of Yale

^"The Deeper Problem in education," Life, -arch 31» 1^56, p* 32. ^"Don’t Put Hobbles on Schools That iteally educate," Saturday Evening P ost, :.tarch 29, I9$d, p* 10. ^Ibid.

^.Vriston, op. cit *, pp. lhO-lhl* 225

University* "The creative power of the individual is more sorely needed

today than ever before. This alone can save us from collective

sterility. . . . Nor shall we recover our self-respect qy chasing after

it in crowds. . . . It comes to us when we are alone, in quiet moments,

in quiet places, when we suddenly realize that knowing the good, we have

done it; knowing the beautiful, we have served it; knowing the truth, we have spoken it.tt'^

Of the individual magazines in the Circulation Leader group,

Life with seven articles, and .Header's Digest and ladies' Home Journal with four each contained the most articles judged as carrying the

Groupism theme; although every magazine in the sample published at least two, with the exception of HcCall's which had only one (Table 17)*

Time with twenty articles, Ladies1 Home Journal with seven, and

Life and Good Housekeeping with five each incorporated the most articles with Individualism themes in their content. I. c C all' s and Look c a rrie d no articles categorized as Individualism.

-ven though the total number of articles in the sample as a whole and in both pre- and post-oputniK years were judged to contain propor­ tionately more individualism than Groupism themes, it should be noted that as a whole and in both years roupism articles appeared in more magazines, whereas Individualism articles tended to group in magazines, particularly the ones noted as carrying the most articles. This re-enforces the suggestion that Groupism is the more pervasive of the two themes.

^"Arise Ye silent Glass of '57," Life, June 17, 1957* P •9k, 226

TABLE 17

INDIVIDUALISM-GROUPISM THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION CIRCULATION LEADERS (Number o f A r t ic le s )

Individualism Groupism

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik

Reader*s Digest 1 1 3 1

Life 1 4 2 5

Ladies* Home Journal 4 3 1 3

Saturday Evening Post 1 3 1 2

Look 0 0 0 2

McCall*s 0 0 1 0

Good Housekeeping 0 5 2 0

Coronet 2 0 2 1

American Legion 1 0 0 2

Redbook 1 0 1 2

Time 6 14 1 1

TOTAL: 17 30 H 19

TOTAL PERCENTAGES: 21 38 17 24 227

Information Bearers

Jeffersonlan-Jacksonian.—Fifteen percent of the articles on

American education in the Information Bearers contained positive refer­

ences to the Jeffersonian theme in American education, contrasted to $

percent that were categorized as Jacksonian. Before Sputnik the per­

centage of Jeffersonian articles was ID percent} after Sputnik it rose

to 18 percent, paralleling the Circulation Leader group of magazines in

that the Jeffersonian themes in the post-Sputnik year indicated the

largest increase in proportion of any of the themes. Unlike the Circu­

lation leaders, however, the proportion of Jacksonian articles in the

Information carers remained the same in the post-Sputnik year.

The overall frequency of the Jeffersonian-Jacksonian dichotomy

in the Information .Bearers also parallels its frequency in the Circula­

tion Leaders, being second behind Utilitarian-Liberal Arts.

The Information Bearers also shared with the Circulation Loaders a quickening interest in the "gifted" child, and Time chose to put its concern in strikingly Jeffersonian terms* "In spite of its traditional horror of the word 'elite' the J .b . is finally facing the fact that there is such a thing as the superior student and that the nation needs him badly.

Homogeneous grouping, the special education of the gifted, was favored try the Information Bearers and their recommendations gave recognition to the Jacksonian theme, substantiating the point made earlier that affirmation of one imt lies the negation of the otherj "A

^"The indispensable ..an," Time, December 3* 11756, p. 77* 228

vocal band of professionals opposes grou; ing as undemocratic and

inirdcal to the social development of the gifted. out, so far as

democracy is concerned, a growing body of evidence points to the fact

that the caliber of teaching tends to improve all along the line when a

program for gifted children is inau* urated in a school."instead of

grouping children by age, they should I® grouped according to ability.

It is time that the schools get over the notion that a child functions

best only within his own age group, that grouping fcy ability is undemo­

cratic, and that there is soraething wrong about letting a student

advance as far as he is able."^ There was even the suggestion that

instead of the school making special provisions for the ^iftea students,

the school program be geared to their needs and the rest of the students

fitted into a :iripheral role: "There '.s far too much emphasis, now­

adays, on fitting the school program to the average or below average

child, and their adopting it to suit the more able ones. The job should

bo done the other way around. The able child should set the pace for

the school, and the program should be adapted, if necessary", for the

other

The uockef oiler *.eport, the "rursuit of micelle nee," was Liven

extensive coverage uy the Inf ormation uearers. All four r.afaaiiines

devoted articles to it, and its approval could be measured by ^ he

^"..'ary '• Hoover, 'tfuidinL the gifted," Parents', ^etobor, lfSb, p. 71. ^"Tim e fo r a SynthesisTime, goutember 2, 1057, p. 52.

^".(8 dr*~ Lass educated Than fifty Years n^o," u. 3 , Hews and tforld heport, November 30, l/>6, p. 70. 229

oditorial salaam it received from Tine: "last week the U.S. had for the

reading as thoughtful and searci:inb an analysis of its educational system

as i t is likely to g e t . " ^ Parents * .-figaiiine echoed th is j "one of the

most promising hints that the search for quality in American education

viill become a top priority in national planning came with the publication

of the hockefoller b.eport on S d u catijn . i/ven i t s t i t l e , 'The P u rsu it of

excellence,1 indicated that the group of experts was in solid agreement 57 that standards and sights needed to \)0 ra ise d ."

lot all of the references to the Jeffersonian theme were directly

related to the education of the gifted child. Tj..•£>, for example,

pointed out that in the general surge for excellence in education there

might not be due recognition given to the possibility that all students were capable of stucfying advanced math and science* "V*hy should every­

body pursue algebra, physics and chemistry? ^-ranted that a know ledge of arithmetic and general science is essential, how far beyond that are low ability students supposed to go?"

Time also, in its usual objective, reportial style, had a comment to make on general education: "Aspen /Colorado/ is suffering from a national disease known as general education.

tfhile the Circulation Leaders did not, ty any means, ignore the colleges and universities, the bulk of their articles dealt with the

^"The Pursuit of excellence," Time, July 7, 1958, p. 55. -’fyred :J. Hechinger, "Is the school Crisis as black as It's Painted?" Parents 1, October, 1953, p. 18.

S0"Back Talk," Time, Aoril 21, 1958, p. 73- School and S kis," Time, March 21, 1958, p . 50. 230

public schools* The same cannot be said of the Information bearers with

the possible exception of b r e n t s * Newsweek' s p red ile c tio n for the private schools and its largo proportion of articles relating to col­

leges and universities has been noted previously; to a lesser extent both Time and U*5* hews and tforld Report share these concerns—the

Jeffersonian theme finds expression in many of these articles.

Newsweek obviously is disgruntled ty the Jacksonian trends in

American education above the high school: "A college education open to all is now being translated from a comfortable American ideal to a frightening American reality. The U. S. will soon have to realize that sustaining such widespread opportunity exacts a high price. jJ this is not realized, lexicographers of 1977 will have to downgrade the old, lofty definition of the wards 'college' and 'education' sharply and disastrously."^ Time assesses the results of Jacksonian ism at the state universities thusi "In the state universities, all you have to do in most of them is to breath to gain admission.

significantly, the Information bearer's concern for the colleges and universities translated itself into an area where the analyst could find some evidence of the Jacksonian theme. Not a single article in the Information 3earers contained the expression of the Jacksonian theme appearing in the Circulation leaders as a reaction against the formation of an "elite," or a characterization of that elite as

^'Scramble for a Degree: How lary hill let into College/" Newsweek, January 11, 1957* p. 79.

^'The 3ig Kindergarten," Time, /arch 13, 1958, p. 6 7 . 231

"beetle-browed bookworms" c astin g a p a ll over college c o n v iv ia lity ;

rather the Jacksonianism of the Information Hearers appeared as tacit

admission, not stated but assumed, of the accessibility of a college

education for all.

U. S. News and florid Report, for example, quotes approvingly

Dr* Raymond Walters who "said the record nigh of nearly 1*8 million

full-time students and a grand total of more than 2.U million on upward

of 1,000 campuses indicates that 'America is sold on higher educa­

t io n .'

Both U. S. News and World .teport and Newsweek gave extensive and

approving coverage of a College Admission Center, a clearinghouse that

was designed to get together unplaced students and colleges with room

for them. As Newsweek reports in an article titled, "College for All*"

"The Nation's first College Admission Center /was7 set up by the Asso­

ciation of College Admission Counselors to serve youth turned down by

crowded first-choice schools. . . . Of $7U who registered, only about

two dozen misfits (like a girl with a 76 I.Q.) failed to make a con­

n e c tio n ." ^

While this is not a college education for "all," this is rapidly

approaching it.

The community junior college movement which is certainly Jack­

sonian is also reported on approvingly ty U» 3» News and 'World Report,

62 "New Report on How Crowded Colleges Are Getting," I1. S. News and World Report, December 20, 1957, p. 1U«

^ "C o lle g e fo r A ll," Newsweek, September 8 , 1958, p. 56. 232 which quotes as an example of the trend, Dean «*. F. Griffith of Caspar,

.Yyoming College: ''Fifty to 60 percent of our local high-school seniors are now enrolling in ;aspar Collage# Thirty percent went to college

before the local school was organized.

Of the individual magazines, Newsweek carried the most articles categorized as Jeffersonian, twenty-five, although there was little difference between it and U.S. News and world .teport and Time, which contained twenty-four and twenty-two articles, respectively.

There was, however, a significant difference between the number of Jeffersonian and Jacksonian articles* Newsweek and U. S. News and

NorId deport carried the identical number of Jacksonian articles, ten,

Time carried in the two years of the sample only one, as contrasted with the two other news magazines and Parents' which, even though it had far fewer articles overall than Time, carried four (Table Id). This tends to confirm the observation made in the previous two chapters that

Time is less objective in the reporting, less disposed to give equal coverage to conflicting positions, particularly those in which Time is interested.

All four of the Information bearers increased the proportion of articles with Jeffersonian themes in the post-Sputnik year, Newsweek increasing them threefold from six to nineteen, and U.S. News and

World Keport doubling them from eight to sixteen. Parents', which contained only one Jeffersonian article in the pre-Sputnik year, pub­ lished six in the post-Sputnik year. Time, indicating a more

Junior Colleges: Low Cost Answer to Crowded Campuses?" U. S. News and World koport, ..lay 2, 1:758, p. 77* 233

TABLE 18

JEFFERSONIAN-JACKSONIAN THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

INFORMATION BEARERS

(Number of Articles)

Jeffersonian Jacksonian

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik T o tal Sputnik Sputnik Total

Time 9 13 22 0 1 1

Newsweek 6 19 25 5 5 10

U.S. News A- Ubrld Report 8 16 21 5 5 10

Parents* 1 6 7 0 A u

TOTAL: 2U U 78 10 15 25 23U

consistently Jeffersonian oriontfltion, increased its articles with this

theme from nine to thirteen.

In both pre- and post-Sputnik years, Newsweek and U. S. News and

'florid report maintained the same number of articles, five; and Parents'

increased its Jacksonian articles from none to four. Time, which also

had no articles categorized as Jacksonian in the pre-Soutnik year,

printed only one in the post-Sputnik year.

Clearly the information Bearers, like the Circulation Leaders, were disposed to favor the Jeffersonian theme, but not to the total exclusion of the Jacksonian*

Nativist-HumanistI f frequency of appearance is any measure of

importance, Nativism-Humanisin was not regarded by the ini’ormation

3earers as a particularly significant issue, for these themes appeared

in only U percent of the articles.

overall both themes were contained affirmatively in only 7 per­ cent each of the articles. In the pre-Sputnik year the Nativist themes were contained in 3 percent of the articles, and Humanist in 8 percent, and in the post-Sputnik year both dropped the Nativist theme 2 percent, to 1 percent, and the Humanist theme dropped $ percent, or down to 3 percent, not a very impressive total, both the low proportion of articles and the decrease in proportion of articles in the post-Sputnik year of Nativist-Humanist themes in the Information Bearers parallel their frequency of appearance in the Circulation leaders*

The big issue in the culture related to these two themes was the integration of Negroes into Southern schools, and this was at its peak 235

in 1957* Uver two-thirds of the articles in the Information Bearers which were categorized as Hativist or Humanist were related to the issue

of integration*

The Information Bearers when examined as individual magazines do not indicate ary consistency as a group* Time, unquestionably Humanist,

in the two-year period contained sixteen Humanist articles and only one judged as Nativist* Parents 1 also was decidedly pro-Humanist, in the two years publishing no Nativist and three Humanist articles*

The balance between Nativist and Humanist articles in Newsweek was nearly even, six were Judged Hativist and eight Humanist*

U» S* News and Yiorld Report leaned toward the Nativist theme, containing five Nativist and one Humanist article in the two years.

Time in reporting on the integration issue brought to its arti­ cles the same type of writing it uses so often that leads readers who agree with its position to label as "colorful reporting," and those who disagree to charge "gross subjectivity"* "While students appeared in class with Confederate flags sewn on their sweaters, they cried 'Negro bitches' and 'Dirty nigger whore* at the Negro coeds* They threw eggs and stones, poured ink over the Negroes' books and into their lockers

That Time regarded integration favorably is borne out by the following* "last week a more reasonable judgment came from Washington's

Assistant Superintendent Carl F* Hansen* Integration 'has been nothing less than a miracle of adjustment.'

^"The Racists' Day," Time, December 10, 1956, p* 81* ^"Miracle on the Potomac," Time, February 25, 1957, p» 72. 236

Not a ll of Time's articles on segregation were directly related

to the issue of the integration of Negroes into the schools, but there were a few on the general impact of the issue on education in the

South* Time carried, for example, a highly sympathetic story about the near dism issal of a white teacher in Georgia who because of a bus break­ down allowed a white boy to ride a few blocks in a Negro schoolb u s {^7 reported, again sympathetically, the firing of Professor Hutchinson at the University of Alabama for praising integration inNew York C ity 68 schools} and commented upon the exodus of the faculty of the Univer­ sity of Jississippi because* "The anti-integration hysteria has became so pervasive that many students have become spies and informers for segregationists in the state, each keeping his own blacklist of 69 suspects." '

Time also took a Humanistic position with regard to Negro educa­ tion unrelated to the issue of integration. For example, it published a story about a Houston real estate man (white) who left $1,350, 0 0 0 of his ^1*600,000 estate to be placed in a trust fund for Negro college scholarships; and another article concerning the efforts of the National

Scholarship Service and Fund far Negro Students to help talented Negroes to get through college.

67ityhe Crime of jainna Lee," Time, :.larch 3, 1958, p* 36*

^"Spring," Time, June 3, 1957, p. 39.

^"Exodus from Ole Miss," Time, July 29, 1957, p. 30* 237

Not a ll of Time1 a articlea categorized aa Humanist were on the

issue of race* For example, it reported negatively the resignation of

School Superintendent, Dr* Milliam Moreland, in the face of pressures

ex e r te d by "right-w ing" members o f th e sch o o l board who were c r i t i c a l

of the "socialism" and internationalism" they purported filled the 70 curriculum and the textbooks*' A few months later Time again com­

mented on the activities of the Houston school board) "last week it

announced the latest phase of its crusade—a revision of the elementary

school social studies curriculum that w ill keep Houston's younger

generation safe from learning anything at a ll about three-fourths of

the globe."7^

Newsweek, maintaining its more objective, reportial structure as noted previously, contained a fairly even balance between Humanist and Hativist themes* Like Time, most of its articles during the two years containing these themes were related to the issue of integration; and while Newsweek provided space for HAymond Moley's reporting on his visit to three segregated Negro schools in South Carolina which gave the

impression that Negroes were actually getting a better education than the whites and concluded: "it shows what can be done where there is a w ill to do and enough time to work out the essential conditions"j72 also reported an the peaceful Integration of Negro students into the previous all-white schools of Louisville, KentudQr."7^

79»Th,j last Brake," Time, April 22, 1957* p. 51*•

7^"Cotton Curtain," Time, August 5, 1957* p* 1*2.

^Raymond Moley, "Negro Schools," Newsweek, October 1L, 1957* p* US • 73»The .Quiet Way," Newsweek, July 2?, 1957, pp. 82-63* 238

TABLE 19

NATIVTST-HUMANIST THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

INFORMATION BEARERS

(Number of A rticles)

N a t iv is t Humanist

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Total Sputnik Sputnik Total

Time 1 0 1 11 5 1 6

Newsweek 5 1 6 7 1 8

U .S . News & Ubrld Report 2 3 5 0 1 1

P a r e n ts 1 0 0 0 1 2 3

TOTAL; 8 A 12 19 9 28 239

occasionally, though, Newsweek, too, engaged in the rather flam­ boyant style of Time, Reporting on the depledging of the son of the former governor of Formosa from a Northwestern University fraternity this was included* "'I guess you'd have to say a lot of it was just on his appearance, on his color,' commented Psi V. president Jack Iage- schutte, 'He's got yellow skin, his eyes are slanted, and his hair is straight* i mean somebody walks into our living room and , , • right away they'd sayi "rfho's that Chinese guy?" It isn't like having a bpy who's Jewish* A lot of tines you can't tell just by looking at a bey whether he's Jewish.

The articles in 17. 3* News and world Report categorised as

Nativist-Humanist were a ll related to the integration issue, and one can detect in the U. 3* Hews and florid Report's use of the term "race-mixing" in place of integration its negative position* "people in the South and in racially mixed cities a ll across the country w ill be watching what happens in Hew York's 'melting pot' sch o o ls." B ig g est threat in Virginia, however, was that some schools—for the first time any- 76 where in the Nation—..dght be closed to prevent race-mixing."

related to the "race-mixing" is a concern in U. 5. News and florid Report with miscegenation and its relation to integration in the

^"Around the Colleges," Newsweek, November 12, 1956, p. 95.

75»Lfttest Crisis in New York Schools," U. 3. Mews and ftorId Report, February 21, 1953, p* U**

7^";iixad Schools: How Crisis in the South," U.S. News and florid Report, August 29, 1958, p* 23. 21*0 schools* "At the bottom of the South's strong resistance to mixed schools is a fear—fear that contacts made in school will lead fro© friendships to dating, and, in the end, sex problems."77 "No argument against integrated schools carries greater weight with white Virginians and other white Southerners than the prospect that education of the races together in the ele:aentary and secondary schools will lead to ultimate interracial amalgamation and make oujaa nation of mulattoes ,"78

.'or Parents1 one of its articles was on Deaceful and successful integration, not in the South, but in ...anhattan.7'? '7 The other two were on that aspect of Humanism related to international understanding* "The goal {pi history7 must be to train students to visit or study other countries in a spirit of search, not of superiority; in an effort to learn, not to teach; to appreciate, not to depreciate; to comprehend, not to judge."Junior linguists . • • are only the advanced guard of a drive which promises to transform America from a land of tongue-tied

•monoglots1 to a nation of linguists prepared for the task of communica­ tion in a one-world world."

That the South .teally Fears about lixed ochools," U.S. News and if* or Id Report, September 1?, 1958, p. 76.

7$Virginius Saoney, "A Virginia sditor Talks about the School Problem," U. S. h^ws and .liorld he port, September 26, 1956, p. 66.

79jack Cohn, "This Is an Integrated School," Parents1, October, 1950, p. 59. ^Jack Ornstein, "Start Young with a Second Tongue," Parents1, October, 1?58, p. 102.

^Sric darner Johnson, "rt"hat Sducation for Living in 1975-20257" Parents1, October, 195b, p. 170. 21*1

Utilitarian-Liberal Arts. —Thirteen percent of the articles on

njr.erican education in the Information 'carers were categorized as con­

taining the Utilitarian theme, and a slightly higher percentage, 15

percent, carried the Liberal Arts theme# in the pre-Sputnik year 10

percent of the a r tic le s were U tilita ria n and IS percent Liberal Arts.

In the post-Sputnik year the Utilitarian proportion of articles had

increased by 5 percent to 15 percent and the Libera] Arts remained nearly the same, decreasing by 1 percent to 11* percent.

The overall frequency of the U t ill tar ian-LiV'cral Arts dichotcny

in the Information Rearers was 27 percent far the two years of the

sample, and appeared more than any of the others.

The observation made in the section on Circulation Leaders that

U tilitarianism is an accepted aspect of American education is borne out additionally by the character of its appearance in many of the Informa­ tion Rearer a r t ic le s . For example, in a parents * magazine a r tic le about the children who never finished high school the importance of education is weighted completely by its Job possitilii ios* "A life time handicap is what it means to our million dropouts. They discover this quite soon, when the dream of ' 'm going to get a job and stand on ny own* are shattered. • • . The eager youngsters find as they go job Jo hunting, that employers want high school graduates." In a Time article the function of education in providing workers for the economic institutions was carried even further to the suggestion that education

Q2 George Hecht, "The Calamity of Our Million School Drop outs," Parents1, September, 1958, p. 3 9 . 2k2

assume a share in corporate management. President Litchfield of the

University of Pittsburgh, who is also chairman of the board of Smith-

Corona, President of Governmental Affairs Institute, and a director of

Av co Manufacturing Corporation, was quoted favorablyi "If business is

responding generously to education's financial p leas, then, Litchfield

believes, education, too, must share responsibility for management of 33 the nation's largest corporations."

Yet another step further toward complete Utilitarianism was taken

in a U. S. News and World Report article which demanded that the United

States system turn out trained people in the exact proportions and with the necessary skills required by industry:

Public u tilities and large manufacturing companies are constantly engaged in market surveys, studies of b ran d s , e t c . They accept without question the responsibility for seeing that telephones, electricity and manufactured products of a ll kinds are provided when and where needed. Our public education system has an equal responsibility to anticipate the needs for its products—trained students— in the quantities required and with the skills necessary to meet the needs. This is an essen­ tial part of the business of education. The job has not been w ell done •

As with the Circulation Leaders, much of the Utilitarian articles were concerned with not being "beat in the international brains race:"^

"Ry this week . . . Russian's spinning Sputnik had brought one . • . question. Afy had U. S. education been defective in turning out

ft "I "business in Education," Newsweek, November 5* 1956, p. 95.

^Arnold 0. Beckman, "A Business .'Jan's View on the 'Failure of Education,'" U. S. News and world Report, November 3^j 1956, p. dR.

^George J. Hecht, "The Caning International Brains Race," Parents', November, 1956, p. d3* 21*3 86 scientists?" "Russia's Sputnik had created an acute awareness of the

need for streamlining the American scientific curriculum." In the

coming years the Russians w ill forge ahead of us, and in the field that

science generates, technology, if that should cane to pass, I think OQ there can be no doubt who w ill determine the future of the world."

"Already Russia is producing far more scientists, engineers, technicians

and doctors than we are. The millions of American children whose

abilities are not being fully developed because of poor schools form a

tragic lost battalion which is badly needed in the remorseless competi- 8 9 tion with the Soviet Union." "The flabty condition of education • . *

is going to put us behind the Russians in more areas than the

m ilitary."^

While the U tilitarians were speaking out on the need for more

scientists, more technicians, to win this "international brains race,"

the spokesmen for the Liberal Arts were not entirely silent* "For those who might go overboard in their awe of the Soviet he Alexander Korol,

V..I.T* senior researcher7 poses two questions* 'When we talk about the

vast Soviet efforts in the schools, colleges and universities, are we

talking about education as we and the other free peoples conceive of

^"Building Brain Poser," Newsweek, November i*, 1957, p. 96. ®^"The Weapons We Need," Newsweek, May 12, 1958, p* 69* O^Edward Teller, "We Have Suffered a Very Serious Defeat," U. S. News and World R eport, November 15, 1957, p* 65* ^"Nation's C ritical Shortage of Schools," Barents', February, 1 9 5 7 , p* 52* 90 "The D r iv e l Poured O ut," Tim e, A p r il 8 , 1957, p* 1*1. 2 U* education? Or are we talking abcxit training, a far narrower concept?"*^

’’The beat way to get more acientiata ia not to lure high-achool gradu­ ates into science but to develop preschool programs to encourage the

imaginations of children* * . • Children so encouraged w ill later go into science and other intellectual pursuits because they want to and not because we want them to. " ^ 2

Not a ll of the Liberal Arts articles were reactions against the headlong flight to science and technology because of the Russian threat, but many were directed against Utilitarianism in general: "Hr* James

Killian, M.I.T. presidentt '. . • there must be an end to the "muck- r a k er '1 pose that it's smart to be anti-intellectual. 1 He called far a

'weeding out of the trivial, narrowly vocational subjects."^ Since the techniques of industry change so rapidly . * . probably the best voca- ticnal education is the least vocational." "Keats scores against the life adjusters, who do not believe • • • in basic courses and proudly call their high school 'cafeterias of learning,' who offer such dessert courses as 'sewing, cooking, dress design,' etc."^ "'Someday we m aterialistic Americans w ill rediscover the importance of those things which lie much closer to the motive in civilization than the mechanical

^■"The Dark Side of the Moon," Time, December 16, 19$7, p. 59* 92 "tfhat They Think," Newsweek, September 22, 195o, p. 106. ^"Muckers or Scholars," Time, April 7, 1958, pp. 77-78.

9l*"The New Mood," Time, March 3, 1958, p. 39.

^"Parents—Unite I" Time, April 1L, 1958, p. 77. 2L5

marvels of its technology, * A* Whitney Griswold, President, Princeton

Univers ity ." ^

There were also a number of articles judged as Liberal Arts In

the Information Bearers which were not merely expressions of anti-

utilitarianism , but were rather affirmations of the Liberal Arts orien­

tation* "Truly liberal education—learning that liberates from ignor­

ance, prejudice, and pr ovine la lisnw—is a necessity for all citizens,

not only those who go to college* Liberal education, therefore, is the 97 responsibility of all our schools on every level*" "In a democracy,

we want educated people to have true breadth of knowledge and under­

standing so that their judgments on a ll matters of citizen-concern will 98 be valid." "Robert Goheen, President, Princeton University* 'The

pressures of the future are going to lead higher education in the United

S ta te s in to more and more recep tion ra th e r than S ocratic inquiry* I t

seems to me very important that a number of libera 1-arta colleges do

everything in their pow«r to preserve individualized education—and an 99 education rather than reception.'" "Arthur Bestor, professor of

History* 'I do not think science, mathematics, history, &iglish, foreign languages are mere specialized skills useful for getting into

^ "What They Think," Newsweek, December 3 1 , 1 9 5 6 , p . 1*8.

^paul Woodring, "What Should We Expect of Our Schools?" Parents', October, 1958, p* 168.

^M ilton S. Eisenhtwrer, "How to Get Better Schooling," U. S* News and World Report, February 21, 1958, p. 68.

^ " S c h o la rly A ctain istrato rs," Newsweek, December 19, 1956, p . 91* • 2U6

colleges and far nothing else. I think they are important for every

citizen whether he goes to college or not. ’ ” ^ 0 0

Of the individual magazines in the Information Bearers, Time was

much more biased toward the Liberal Arts theme than any of the others.

It had as many Liberal Arts articles, forty-one, as the other three

magazines combined, and nearly twice as many as Newsweek which was

second with twenty-one articles. Time with twelve carried far fewer

U tilitarian articles than any of the other Information Bearers with the

exception of brents* which contained eight. Newsweek had twenty-nine articles, and U.S. News and World heport, twenty.

Illustrative of Time *s Liberal Arts bent is the fairly frequent inclusion in its education columns of odd bits of Liberal Arts lore that demonstrate, fascinatingly, scholars motivated by curiosity, at work on problems to which the Utilitarian would find difficulty in attributing any "practicality

In an article, "When the Twain keet," for example, Time describes the translation of a script on clay tablets found on the island of

Crete* "Scholar Gordon, a Ph.D. in Semitic languages from the University of Pennsylvania, had a hunch there was ^a connection between two scripts7* 'When I started this research,’ he admits, ’I was merely setting out to see whether ny notion was correct.'

In another article, ’’Philosophies of Hope,” Time portrayed extremely sympathetically William Hocking, an American philosopher,

lOOit^ro do Less or B etter educated Than SO X iars Ago?" U. S. News and World deport, June 17, 1 9 S 7, p* 1?7.

^^T'there the Twain f e e t , ” Tiine, September y , VJS71 p . 53 • TABLE 20

TT'ILITARI AN-LIBERAL ARTS THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

INTORMATION BEARERS

(Number of A rticles)

Utilitarian Liberal Arts

Pre- Post- Pre- Post Sput.nik Sputnik To ta l Sputnik Sputnik 1Total

T ime L 8 12 19 22 U

Newsweek 12 17 29 12 9 21

U.S. News ^ World Report 5 15 20 5 6 11

P aren ts 1 2 6 8 0 5 5

TOTAL; 23 Lh 69 36 12 78 218 with no attempt, as is done in many other popular writings on ffcilosophy,

to make philosophy seem as a vary "practical11 tool far thought. ^ 2

Again, in the Liberal Arts tradition, Tima chronicled in an article, "Scrambled Cyphers and 3acon," the proof of two cryptologists that the search for hidden codes to the authorship of Shakespeare's plays as fu tile.10^

The Liberal Arts theme could appear, too, as scholarly collecting as in "Hie Haec Hoax," which told of the collection by Allen talker Heed, associate professor of Lnglish at Columbia, of humorous misuses of

Iatin. Examples! "General dtilw ell's Y.orld «ar II motto; lllegltirati non carborundum. (Don't let the bastards grind you down.) "Adlai

Stevenson's classic cry of anguish, Via ovidlptum dura eat. i,The way of the egghuad is hard.)" 4

Utilitarian-Liberal Arts .—Newsweek, which consistently main­ tained a fairly even balance in its articles, made its coverage of

Utilitarian-Liberal Arts no exception in the pre-3put.n*k year when it carried twelve articles each; however, in the post-Sputnik year the bal­ ance disappeared, and Newsweek very nearly doubled the proportion of

Utilitarian to Liberal Arts articles, carrying seventeen of the former and only nine of the latter.

U.S. News and World Report, like Newsweek, in the pre-Sputnik year published identical numbers of Utilitarian and Liberal Arts

Philosopher of Hope," Time, November 11, 1957, pp* 63-61.

^°^"3cmmbled Ciohers and Bacon," Time, October 17, 1957, p. 50. lQ l "Hie Haec Hoax," Tims, August Id, 1959, p. 6 8 . 2h9 a r t i c l e s , f i v e j and a l s o , lik e Nemaweek in th e p o st-3 p u tn ik y e a r , i t increased its Utilitarian articles, although to a greater extent, from five to fifteen. There was also an increase of one in its number of

Liberal Arts articles, from five to six articles.

U.S. News and World lie port quite clearly sees a college educa­ tion in the "Job aspect"i "Competition for graduates now rivals that displayed by baseball scouts offering contracts to promising players."^*

"The boom for college graduates shoes no signs, at this time, of letting up. All across the country, more and more employers are bidding for the services of students who w ill not get their diplomas until June."

"This year's crop of college graduates will step into a 'generally favorable' job market, but will find employers 'much more selective.

Parents' magazine in the pre-Sputnik year carried two Utilitarian and no Liberal iLrts articles; in the post-Sputnik year it increased the

Utilitarian articles to six and the Liberal Arts to five, a fairly equitable distribution.

Individua 1 isifr.Gro u p ls a Seven percent of the articles on American education appearing in the Information Bearers were categorized as cox^ taining Individualism themes and 3 percent Groupism.

10S lO O a Week Common for the Class of '57," U. S. News and World Report, May 17, 1957, p. 1*5*

10^"Dad Never Had I t Like T h is," U. S. News and World Report, February 22, 1957, p. 10.

^■^"Job Outlook for College Graduates,"U.S. News and World Report, May 23, 1958, p. 8 . 250

Neither Individualism nor Groupism varied particularly in propor­

tion between pre- and post-Sputnik years# in the pre-Sputnik year

Individualism themes appeared in 6 percent of the articles and increased to 8 percent post-Sputnik. Groupism themes accounted for 3 percent of the articles in the pre-Sputnik year and increased to U percent post-Sputnik.

The lack of fluctuation in the frequency of the Groupism theme and its concomitant low frequency of appearance noted in the Circulation

Leaders group of magazines is evidenced also in the Information Bearers; and the inspection of some of the materials categorized as Groupism provides some substantiation for the observation made previously that

Groupism may be so accepted that it Is not really an issue* except for those in rebellion against it#

For example* the following quotes to some extent indicate this quality of acceptance t Wilfred D. Gillen, president of Bell Telephone of Pennsylvania, states in discussing the role of education in training people far business (Utilitarian) i "'Industry functions through people and an understanding of people and their motivations is essential to acquire success in business.'" "The characteristic fear of our generation is our horror of finding ourselves ludicrous. . . . We envy without daring to imitate—our fathers' freedom to Join Corminist cell groups, to cultivate Dadaist fads# . . . .'re are accused of not being 109 rebellious enough. But our elders have done the rebelling for us."

K^"Mhat They Think," Newsweek, karch 18, 1957, P# 122.

^ " ie Envy—Without Daring to Imitate," Newsweek, February 17, 1958, p. 90. 251

Even the protestations against forms of Groupism may tako on themselves "groupy" characteristics! "Dozens of Yale professors wear

[I Like7 Ludwig buttons* • • . Ey last week the club had 20,000 members on 1 0 0 different campuses.

The final example, while it may not be Groupism, but Sex, cer­ tainly has elements of "togetherness* in it, and in addition ite historical significance as the really important news in higher education in 1957 bears recording! "The big news in higher education is that, for reasons of efficiency and econoqy and academic reward, more and more

111 men and women students are stucking together and liking it."

These were, of course, not the only elements of Groupism present in the Information Bearers; it appeared twice in a form that is particu­ larly abhorrent to the spokesmen of Individualism! "^Ct school7 the child can function in a small world of other children learning the give and take of social living on his cwrn level. • . . Being able to live comfortably in a group of children his own age is important, too. These 112 things count more than knowing hear to write his name or count." M,0 h , those ninth-grade dances. . . . What's wrong with them? . . . Our ninth graders didn't know what to do . • • they were uncertain and shy . • • •

But why? .

^-^"Combat the Menace," Time, April 2 9 , 1957* p* 5 3 . Hl"Triumph of the F a ir Co-Ed," Newsweek, September 23, 1957, p. 65.

112Iihoda IV. Backmeister, "The Learning Years," Parents', Novem­ ber, 19 5 6 , pp. h i , 97-

^^Evelyn Hawes, "Our Eight O'clock Club," Parents *, January, 1953, p . U 2 . 252

Against this above manifestations of Groupism the Individualists

had their say in Information Bearer articles * "The group determines a ll

in the school. Pupils are made to feel they must go along with the

group. . . . iven the extremely gifted is told, 'What you need is to

go out and play marbles with the other bays.'"^^* "As long as instruc­

tion for social living takes precedence over those subjects which are

d e sig n e d to e q u ip th e stu d e n t to tak e h is p la c e a s a member o f th e human

race, not just his local community, the: education of the individual

fa ils miserably."^-5 *j^g if togetherness, life adjustment and the

organization Man were not enough, the U. S. must also bear up under

something called 'group cfynamics.' The only way a person can 'cheat1

in a group (dynamics situation is to fa il to cooperate."How

fortunate it is that G alileo, Newton, Beethoven, Karaday, and Pasteur

had not been taught to work in an 'atmosphere of social awareness."

The Information Bearers, in keeping with their predilection noted previously to devote a great deal of space to the colleges and universities, did not neglect Individualism themes directed at that level: "William Faulkner, writer in residence, University of Virginia:

1 * • • /college students7 have more and more pressures to be submergent to a mass. The young man is tricked into not realizing the p-assures to

^^"keport Card," Tima, February 2i±» 1958, p . 85.

^>"T he New Mood," Time, March 3, 1953, p. 39*

l l 6 "That did 'W9 Feeling,'" Time, December 23, 1957, p* 55* 117 "Change the Thinking," Time, November 25, 1957, p. 99. 253

belong to a mass, a group which wants to do his thinking lor him. • • •

The young man must strugj 7le against the maas*,n

In a stoiy on the appointment of Clark Kerr as president of the

University of California, Time said this about himi "But more important

to his scattered faculty men Is the kind of person Clark Kerr is—a

constant critic of the Organization iian—of the cult of factory soci­

ology, of all those who would place security above free enterprise, 119 whether economic or academic." Newsweek fairly well sums up the

Individualism at the college Inveli "'Vie should take a lot more risks

than we do , 1 /William Fels, president of Bennington College/ said,

'Instead of the "well-rounded" man, we should go in and take some of 120 the odd specimens. ..any a well-rounded man has a short rad iu s* '"

Time magazine took the issue of Individualism —'I roup ism most

seriously, and consistent with its treatment of the other dichotomies

took a position for one theme—individualisia—and virtually excluded all articles that could be judged as Groupism. In the two years of

the sample it printed two Grounism compared to twenty Individualism articles, twice as maiy as Newsweek with ten, and two more tton the

other three magazines in the Information Bearers grouo combined.

In the pre-Sputnik year Time carried six Individualism articles, nearly the same number as Newsweek and U. 5» News and World import with

^"R esist the ilass," Time* -June 3, 1957, p. UO.

■^•^"Levelheaded In d iv id u a lis t," Time, uctober 25, 1957* p . 70.

120,,Th«. Avalanche of Colloge-Kge Americans . . . nho Should Go, .Vho Shouldn't—and a C risis," Newsweek, 'larch 3, 1953* r - 83 . 254

TABLE 21

INDIVIDUALISM-GROUPISM THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

INFORMATION BEARERS

(Number of A rtic le s)

Individualism Groupism

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik To ta l Sputnik Sputnik T otal

Time 6 14 20 1 1 2

Newsweek 5 5 xQ 5 t

U.S. News ft torld Report 4 7 0 2 7

Parents * 0 1 3 4 7

TOTAL: 15 23 38 t. 12 18 25S five and four, respectively; however, in the post-Sputnik year Time contained fourteen Individualism articles while Newsweek had five and

V . S. News and World Report, three, r. 5. News and /forld teport was at le a s t c o n siste n t in the number of Or ou pi sit a r t i c l e s ; i t rub lished one in each y e a r.

To got the flavor of the Time position with regard to Individual— isn. one need only to re fe r back to the Guoter; a ttr ib u te d to Time; one easily ascertains that Time in some respects is waging a one-magazine campaign for Individualism.

Newsweek again demonstrated its more neutral position by carrying nearly the same number of Individualism as -roupisri articles, ten and seven, respectively.

In the pre-Snutnik year Kewsv.-eek published five individualism and two Groupism articles; in the post-Sputnik ytrar it carried the identical number of Individualism and Groupism articles, five.

S. News and rforld report tended to loan somewhat toward the

Individualism there, containing in the two years a total of seven as compared with two Groupism articles.

in the pre-uputnik year I), d. News and tforld report carried four

Individualism and no Groupism articles; in the post-Sputnik year it pub­ lished three Individualism and two Groupism articles.

Parents 1 magazine quite definitely favored Groupism themes, carrying a total of seven Groupism articles to only one individualism a r t i c l e . 256

In tho pre-Sputnik year Parents' contained no Individual!®! and three Groupism articles; in the post-Sputnik year it published one

Individualism and four Groupism articles.

To get the tenor of Parents ' Groupism articles refer to the two examples given in this section.

Women's Magazines

Jeff er son tan-Jacksonian.—Twenty-eight percent of the articles on

American education apnearir.g in the Women's Magazines were categorized as Jeffersonian; this was over twice the percentage of Jacksonian arti­ c le s , 13 percent, which were published by these magazines.

In the pre-Sr^itnik year the Women's Magazines contained 17 per­ centJeffersonian articles, in the post-Sputnik year this percentage had more than doubled to 35 p ercen t.

Jacksonian articles in the pre-Sputnik year accounted for 13 percent of the total, fairly close to the Jeffersonian percentage; but in the post-Sputnik year, while the Jeffersonian proportion of articles more than doubled, the Jacksonian articles decreased by 1 p ercen t.

Evidently the luissian satellite made an impression on the

Women's Magazines. It "must be the supreme lesson. It must set 121 American educators off on a new search for excellence." "Schools have become a symbol for survival. Quality of education and the search for talent have been turned into National Priority Number One."^^ "The

^V red M. Hechinger, "Has Sputnik Taught Us a LessonV" Parents', February, ly56, p. 0 6 .

^2pred Hechinger, "Pro and Com The Year-Round School," p a re n ts♦, June, iy5d, p . lO'A 257 life-and-death contest we are now in Is far more than a race between

missile men. Fundamentally, over the long pull, it is a contest to

produce the best trained m i n d . " ^ 3

Not a ll of the concern over the achievements of the Russians were a product of their Sputnik because as early as November, 1956, the first month of this sample, brents' magazine said: "The area in which the

Russians seem to be far ahead of us is in their great respect for

intellectual pursuits and their recognition of brains, through high 121 salaries and social respect for teachers and professors."

A inajor concern, then, of the ..omen's uiagazines was the search for talent and the improvement of education for the gifted: "It is ntw widely recognized that our society has given too little attention to the 125 individual of unusual talent or potentialities."

This was courled with the expressions that indeed the Jeffersonian ideal was the democratic method: "A great many professional education­ ists say that maintaining basic standards of intellectual achievement in the schools would be "undemocratic." One wonders what they think democracy means* By the same reasoning, I suppose, it is undemocratic to refuse a license to practice medicine to a young hopeful who hasn't 12 6 bothered to learn ana tony and physiology." "The eighteenth-century

^^Arthur bestor, "School C risis, U.S.A.: The Soft Curriculum," Good Housekeeping, May, 1956, p. 67.

orge J. Hecht, "The Coming International Brains Race," Parents', November, 1956, p. 76.

^^Rockefeller Report, "The Pursuit of Excellence," ladies' Home Journal, September, 1956, p* U?. 12 6 Bestor, op. clt., p. 21d. 258

TABLE 22

JEFTERS0NIAN-JACK30NIAN THEMES IN AMERICAN EDI'CAT I ON

’WOMEN'S MAGAZINES

(Number of A rtic le s)

Jeffersonian Jacksonian

Fre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik T otal Sputnik Sputnik T otal

n Ladies* Home Journal A 6 10 *, 1 3

McCall's 0 1 1 0 0 0

Good Housekeeping 0 AA 2 1 3

P a re n ts' 1 6 7 0 A A

TOTAL: 5 17 22 A 6 10 259

philosophers who made equality a central term never meant to imply that

men are equal in all respects . • . men are unequal in their native

capacities and therefore in their attainments.”^^ And in an article

on the Palo Alto, California, program far gifted children, it was

pointed out that differential treatment of the gifted in no w^y

created an ”elite” s ”The creation of a ’snob' or 'elite1 group of

children • • • did not occur in practice. . . . Children not included

in the program are generally not envious of those who are.”^®

Jacksonian themes in the Women's magazines were not expressed as

opposition to Jeffersonianism, but were rather acceptance of education

for all at all levels as a fait accompli which, indeed, it very nearly

is. For example, one article in Good Housekeeping categorized as

Jacksonian was an informative article concerning the accessibility of a

college education for everyone who desired it: 'Whatever your aim,

whether you want to build up credits toward a degree, advance yourself

in your work, widen your interests, or just pursue a hobby, there is a

/college7 correspondence course that w ill help you attain it.”^^ The

Jacksonian trend is also evident in this: "Educators feel that the time w ill come when two years of higher education w ill be routine for every-

127 Rockefeller Report, op. c lt.

12®"The Challenge of This Century,” Ladies' Home Journal, Hay, 1958, p. 51. 129 "Yes, College, too, through the Mail," Good Housekeeping, iia rch , 1 9 5 8 , p . 1 6 0 . 13 Q Jichael Drury, "Why Not Consider a Junior College;” Good Housekeeping, February, 1957, p. 15U. 260

ladles* Home Journal in the two years of the sample carried the

most Jeffersonian articles! ten, followed ty Parents * with seven, and

Good Housekeeping with four.

In the pre-Sputnik year only ladies 1 Home Journal W i\ich had four

and I* rent s ' with one were the only magazines of the Women’s Magazines which published ai$r Jeffersonian articles.

After Sputnik a ll of the Women's Magazines published Jeffersonian

articles, Parents 1 and Good Housekeeping shearing the largest increase,

five and four, respectively.

p a re n ts 1 magazine contained in the two years of the sample the most Jacksonian articles, four; while ladles 1 Home Journal and Good

Housekeeping had three each, and ..tcCall 1 s had none.

In the pre-Sputnik year only ladies' Home Journal and Good

Housekeeping carried Jacksonian articles, two each.

After Sputnik ladies' Home Journal and Good Housekeeping only carried one Jacksonian article, while brents' had Increased its total from none to four.

Nativisn^-Humanism.—Nativlsm was contained in only three articles of the Women's Magazines in the two years of the sample; all were pub­ lished in the ladies' Home Journal, and all articles were written fcrjr the same au th o r, Dorothy Thompson, who took a dim view of American education, to say the least, and who favors the JcGuffey Readers, the

"little red schoolhouse" and is particularly incensed at the amount of money spent on schools and school buildings, for* 'What is important and essential is that these young people should learn basic things under 261

TABLE 23

NATIV1ST-HUMANIST THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

WOMEN fS MAGAZINES

(Number o f A rtic le s)

N a tiv ist Humanist

Pre- Post- Pre- P ost- Sputnik Sputnik T otal Sputnik Sputnik Total

Ladies* Home Journal 1 2 3 1 0 1

Me C e ll's 0 0 0 1 1 2

Good Housekeeping 0 0 0 1 0 1

F arent 3 * 0 0 0 1 2 3

TOTAL: 1 2 3 A 3 7 262

conditions suitable to the standard of living moat of them can reasonably

anticipate* Is it really a good idea to bring children up in a school

atmosphere of extreme luxury and send them back to very modest little

homes at night?"^^

Humanism themes in the two years were contained in seven articles

of the Women's Magazines* Ladies’ riqme Journal had one article j McCall’s,

two; Good Housekeeping, one; and ftirents1, three.

Before Sputnik four Humanism articles were published, one each in

the four magazines of the group; and after Sputnik McCall1 s carried one and Parents' two; Ladies’ Home Jourital and Good Housekeeping contained none during the year.

The Humanist articles in the Women's Magazines were not particu­ larly related to the integration of Negroes in Southern white schools; 132 only two, "The Story Nobody Tells You," in McCall's, and "This Is an

Integrated School,"^^3 ^ parents1 were concerned with this aspect of

Hxmani sir. •

Four of the articles treated the "international understanding" facet of Humanism: "Paris Is Their Caupus,"^^ in Good upugekeeping,

"Start Young with a Second Tongue,"and "What Education for Living

■^^Dorotly Thompson, "Must Schools Be Costly Palaces?" Ladies' Home Journal, August, 1?57* p* 13*

peters, "The Story Nobo

^•^Cohn, op* c lt., pp. 59-60.

■^Charlotte and Denis Pliimner, "Paris Is Their Campus," Good Housekeeping, January, 1957, pp* 62-63; 1U3-1U5. ^^Ornstein, op. c lt., pp. 5&-S7; 96-102. 263 in 1975-*2025?"^-^ in Parents' , and "Our Girls Helped P*y Their Afay through College,in Ladies' Horae Journal.

One article, "The Tiachor »Vho Taught Me to H a t e , "^8 in McCall1 s revolved about the acceptance of differing ethnic groups in the public sch ools•

Utilitarian-Liberal Arts.—Twenty percent of the total of arti­ cles on American education published in the Aforaen's Magazines were cate­ gorised as Utilitarian and 15 percent were Liberal Arts.

In the pre-Sputnik year U tilitarian themes were contained in the same proportion of articles as in the total sample, 20 percent; and

Liberal Arts themes wore carried in only 7 percent of the articles.

After Sputnik Utilitarian articles rose 1 percent to 21 percent, while Liberal Arts articles increased lu percent to the same percentage as Utilitarian, 21 percent.

In the Utilitarian articles in the Women's Magazines, like those in the Circulation Leaders and the Information Bearers, there could be found concern with competition with Russia: "Alreatfy Russia is produc­ ing far more scientists, engineers, technicians, and doctors than we

136j0hnson> pp. c lt., pp. 50; 170-177.

^?Laura Date, "Our Girls Helped Pay Their Yfay through College," la d le s 1 Home Journal, March, 1957, pp« 192, 203* Kramer, "The Teacher Aiho Taught Me to Hate," McCall's, February, 1957, pp. 36; 71-7U*

“-^"U ation 1 s Critical Shortage of Schools," Parents', February, 1957, p. 52. 2 U

TABLE 2A

UTILITARIAN-LIBERAL ARTS THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

WOMEN*S MAGAZINES

(Number o f A r t ic le s )

Utilitarian Liberal Arts

Pre- Post- Pre- Post Sputnik Sputnik Total Sputnik Sputnik Total

Ladies* Home Journal 2 0 2 2 3 5

McCall*s 1 0 10 11

Good Housekeeping* 1 U 5 0 1 1

Parents* 2 6 8 0 5 5

TOTAL: 6 10 16 2 10 12 265

There waa also evidence of the acceptance of Utilitarianismi "It has been estimated that for every engineering job there are four to five openings for skilled technicians. . . . A Junior college can help equip UiO him fo r such a Job."

Most of the expressions of the Liberal Arts theme in the articles of the Aomen's .Magazines were d ire c te d a g a in st U tilita ria n ism ra th e r than purely exposition of Liberal Artst "All of them almost without exception believe that high school can (and will) prepare them far their life occupation, and are harassed immeasurably ly being unable to choose and play for it* High school will not and cannot "... prepara­ tion for a professional career is not the primary aim of liberal educa­ tion. It aims, rather, to train the individual in whatever she does."^^

"Activities like these—practice of intellectual skills--are the only T) -s kinds of ’learning by doing' that real]y count."Driver training is a useful thing, but there are plenty of after-school hours for it, as well as for cooking and handicrafts and the rest. Vuch of the chitchat and busywork that goes on in classes in 'consumer education' or 'social problems' is harmless enough in itself, except that it takes time away from the systematic stuc^y of . . . mathematics, science and history."^1

^^Drury, op. cit., p. 77. ^^Dorotfy Thompson, "Are Our Teen Agers so Dumb." ladles' Home Journal, November, 1957, p* 119. ^H^Nevitt sandford, "Is College education pasted on WomenV" ladles' Home Journal, it ay, 1957, p* 190.

^^Arthur Bestor, "School Crisis U.S.A.i Getting away with Mistakes in English," Good Housekeeping, October, 1950, p. 221. ^*3estor, op. cit., June, 1950, P» 210. 266

Indies1 Home Journal and b ren ts' carried the most Liberal Arts articles, five each; and McCall's and Good Housekeeping had one each.

In the pre-Sputnik year Ladies' Home Journal with two articles was the only magazine of the group to carry ary Liberal Arts articles*

After SDutnik a ll four magazines carried Liberal Arts articles* parents * five; ladies1 Home Journal, three; and Good Housekeeping and

McCall1s , one each.

Parents1 and Good Housekeeping published the most U tilitarian articles of the Aomen's Magazines, eight and five, respectively? Ladies'

Home Journal c a rrie d two and M cCall's one*

Before Sputnik Ladies' Herne Journal and Parents' contained two

U tilitarian articles each, and /.cCall1 s and Good Housekeeping, one apiece.

Post-Sputnik Parents 1 increased its number of Utilitarian articles to slot and Good housekeeping to four. ladies' Home Journal and McCa 11's carried none.

Individualism-Groupisia.—Sixteen percent of the total number of articles on American education in the Aomen's . agasines were categorized as individualisn, while Id percent of the total number of articles con­ tained the Groupism theme* The women's Magazines was the only group of the entire sample to have a greater proportion of articles Judged

Groupism than Individualism.

In the pre-Sputnik year individualism appeared in only 13 percent of the articles, while Groupism accounted for 23 percent*

After Sputnik the proportions were nearly reversed with Individ­ ualism appearing in 18 percent of the articles and Groupism, 1U percent. 267

Indications of the shift in sentijnent that occurred in these two

years appeared in IcCall's which gives an annual "Teacher of the Year

Award" including an article about the winner. In the pre-Sputnik year

this was said about the winner j "Vary Field Schwarz regards the

thirty-seven beys and girls of the third-grade class she teaches as

of an age at which they particularly want adult attention. And this,

she feels, is what makes then her favorite age to teach, Mrs. Schwarz

sees her job as helping her pupils develop a feeling of security and

belonging."^4'’

Note the contrast between the above and what was written in the

post-Sputnik year about the "Teacher of the Year"i "Miss Listebarger

. . . teaches Spanish to the twenty-seven members of her class. She works closely with each child's family to develop special talnnts. In

tho same classroom she is able to challenge her superior students with more assignments while she is encouraging and working overtime with

those who are more backward.

A concern of the n omen's ...agazines in the tawo-year period were teen-^ge "codes" which were sub rosa tools to channel the currents of

Groupism in the culture into direction desired ly adultsi "These rules, called Social Standards, establish what everyone wears to school, what time everyone goes to bed, how late everyone can stay out, when and where bicycles can be ridden, and a thousand-and-one points ofbehavior that are often a subject of contention between teen-agers and

^"Teacher of the Year," McCall's, June, 1957, p. 62.

^^"Teacher of the Year," icC all's, March, 1956, p. 56. 268

adults. . • • In Halo Alto ^ialifornia7 they think what 'everybody's

doing1 is the right thing for teen-agers to do."

And everybody's doing it in Arlington, Virginia: "'I've been

in five schools,' pretty, blond Kay Baumgardner, who recently trans­

ferred to Stratford Junior High from a school in Paris, Trance, told

them. 'In each school the ways are different. Tlds Guide is really a

help to me because I read it and say to nyself, ' do this is the way they

do things in Arlington.'"^®

Reference to the "whole child" wnich in the last few years has

become anathema to critics of American education was found only once

in a positive reference, s ign if icant ly in November, 1756, the first

month of the sample: "Presently educators began to talk about the

'whole c h ild ' and to r e a liz e th a t bobby comes to school in one

piece

TJ nf or tuna te ]y the w riter then dropped the sunject because cer­

tainly some readers must still no wondering if pre-whole child educators must not, have neen suffering from some rare eye disease that fragmented their vision; of course there is the possibility that at one time the

"Bobbies" did come to school sunewhat like Cheshire cats, but that the

"new" education has since transferred this j.ower to school administra­ tors wearing what Aillard .taller ten.'is their "public smiles."

^^Dorothy Shaftner, "Ahen These Teen-Agers Say: 'everybody's Doing it,' everybody Is I" Good Housekeeping, April, 1757, pr» 38, 212.

^^.largaret Hickey, "Teen-Agers Draft a Code . . . Arlington, Virginia," ladies' Home Journal, September, 1758, p. 32.

U i9 Racm.jister, op. c i t ., n. 16. 26?

The other references to the whole child in the literature were In

the Individual ism-Liberal Arts frame of reference! Vor the past three

or four decades, educators have been concerning themselves with the

•whole child' with his adjustment . . . to social situations. . . . In

the old days, educators perhaps did bother with only half a childand

did ignore his potentiality to dance or make palaver in a tjroup. ut

that half a child they concerned themselves with learned the rudiments

of the Lnplish lanpua^e well • . . and went on to stucfcr foreign la.n-

^ua^es, sciences, etc."^0

The ladies1 Home Journal of the .Vomen's i'a^azlnes carried the

T artest number of Individualism a r t i c l e s , a to ta l of seven; GoodHouse­ keeping published four; Parents1, one; and cCall' s, none.

In the pre-Sputnik year the ladies1 Home Journal was the only magazine to contain Individualism art icles ana ittad four, in the post-Sputnik year ~ood Housekeeping carried five; Ladies' Homo Journal, three; Parents 1, one.

Parents' napazine carried the mos * ’,r our ism articles, seven; ladles 1 Home Journal published four; Good Housekeeping, two; and

). cC al.'s , one .

In the rre-Lputnik year Parents1 contained three Iroui is:- arti­ cles; Good ?iouseket;pinp, two; .IcGall1 a and ladies' Hong Journal, one each. Post-Lrutr.it-: Parents' carried four; ladles' ?'x.e Jourral, th re e ; and L cC all's and ■ jud Housekoep ir,^, none.

Lila Chal;:in, "The Less Grac:-ar Low, the .’.lore Tutorint; later," Good Housekeeping, April, 19?6, p. 5?. 270

TABLE 25

irror/iDr.ALisM-GHotiPisM themes in American education

InDMEJI *S MAGAZINES

(Number of A rtic le s)

Individualism Groupism

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Total Sputnik Sputnik Total

Ladies* Home Journal I 3 7 1 3 I

McCall»s 0 0 0 1 0 1

Good Housekeeping 0 5 5 2 0 2

Parents* 0 1 1 3 i* 7

TOTAL: U 9 13 7 7 U 271

status Leaders

Jeffersonlarw^cksuniar,.—Seven out of the twenty-eight articles

on Anerican education that appeared in the Status Leaders during the two

years of the sample were Jeffersonian and four were Jacksonian.

In the rre-Crutnik year one article out of a total of ten was

Jeffersonian and two wei’e Jacksonian. Jost-Cputnik, of eighteen arti­

cles, six were Jeffersonian, an increase of five, arid two were Jackson­

ian, unchanged from the crevices year.

As has been noted in the analysis of themes in the other three

groups of magazines, the appearance of Jacksonianirm is marked try the

quality of acceptance, and its character in the Status leaders was no

exception. Its most positive statement came, not from an American, but

a visiting professor from England: "The American ideal, on the other

hand, is denocratic throughout—higher education for many— xrhaps,

some day, for most . . . this is immensely d e s i r a b l e

Jeffersonian themes, however, did not have this quality but were characterized cry a certain can hat iveness: "... the current attitude that the slowest must not be made inferior . . . is called deaocracy.

How nany, who could do superior work with encouragement, are sacrificed ptro so that the dullest can have the illusion of being smart."

Harper*s in the two years of the sample published the most

Jeffersonian articles, four; the Atlantic carried three.

Iti uere1-' I'lv iH e, "hritish and American hchools," h'arper* s, October, 1757, p. 62. ^■^oally Qarrighar, "kurder in the Classroom," Harper's, June, 1757, P* 62. 272

TABLE 26

JEFFERSONIAN-JACKSONIAN THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

STATUS LEADERS AND AMERICAN MERCm

(Number of A rtic le s)

Jeffersonian Jacksonian

Pre- Fost- Pre- P ost- Sputnik Sputnik T otal Sputnik Sputnik Total

A tlantic 0 3 3 1 1 2

Harper* 3 1 3 k 1 1 2

TOTAL: 1 6 7 2 2

American Mercury 2 4 6 2 16 273 Ref ore Sputnik Harper' s contained one Jeffersonian article and

the Atlantic, none; in the year after Sputnik both Harper’s and the

Atlantic published three •

carper' s and the Atlantic also both carried the same number of Jacksonian articles, two, one each in each year of the sample*

Nativisifr-Humanisnu—For the Status Leaders a l l but one of the

a r tic le s in the Nativi3t-Humanist dichotony were Humanist; that one apjje&red in the Atlantic in the first month of the sample, November,

1956, when the impact of the Supreme Court's integration order was really being felt in the South. The remainder of the articles, four

in the A tlantic and thr«e in Harper's, were Humanist; of these seven articles both magazines published one in the nre-Sputnik year and the remainder post-Sputnik.

The one h’ativist article published by the Atlantic, "Mixed

Schools and Mixed Races," as the tita l suggests, was concerned mainly with miscegenation but also contained reference to that aspect of

Nativism implying "native, white superiority": "In general the pure- blooded white nations have outstripped the far more numerous American mixed blood nations in most of the achievements which constitute progress as commonly defined,and suggested that separation of the races is really instinctive: "hace preference (which the propagandists miscall race prejudice or hate) is one of the instincts which develop gradually as the mind develops and which if taken in hand early enough, car be prevented from developing at all,"^ ^

153nerbart Kavenal Sass, "Mixed Schools and Mixed Blood," Atlantic Monthly, November, 1956, p. L5*

1^Ibid», p. LJ. 27U

The one Humanist article that appeared in the Atlantic during

the pre-Sputnik year was contained in the same issue as the one just mentioned and was obviously written to offset it. Aritten by Oscar

Handling, it attempted to allay the fears of Southerners that miscegena­ tion would occur if schools were integrated: "The experience of schools in which segregation has come to an end amply confirms these Judgments.

In the southern colleges, Negroes, once acknitted, have generally enjoyed a minimum of social contact with white students. Elsewhere the relationships between the race has extended beyond the classroom to the formal social activities conducted under school auspices. But even when the bey and girl of different color dance together at the same prom they do not think of d a tin t ." J

Not all of the Humanism articles in the Status Leaders, however, were of this "Sunday School" brand of Humanism; they could have some rather biting words for the race Droblsm: "Segregation has worked brilliantly in the South, and in fact, in the nation, to this extent: it has allowed white people, with scarcely ary pangs of conscience whatever, to create in every generation, only the Negro they wished to see. As the walls come down they w ill be forced uo take another, harder look at the shiftless and the menial and w ill be forced into a wonder concerning them which cannot fail to be agonizing."^'^

^^Oscar Handlin, "Where Equality Leads," Atlantic Monthly, November, 1956, p. 6b.

156 James Baldwin, "The Hard Kind of Courage," Harper's, October, 1956, p. 65. 275

TABLE 27

NATIVIST-HUMAN 1ST THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

STATUS LEADERS AND AMERICAN MERCURY

(Number of A rtic le s)

N a tiv ist Humanist

Pre- Post- Pre- Post Sputnik Sputnik Total Sputnik Sputnik Total

A tlan tic 1 0 1 1 3 U

H arper's 0 0 0 1 2 3

TOTAL: 1 0 1 2 8 7

American Mercury 7 7 U 0 1 1 276

The implications of education for the Ha-war* 1st position were

discussed tool "There is reason to wonder if our system of education

has served us adequately when in its ultimate flowering it has produced a generation, North and South, that appears not only unable to grasp

the implications of the race problem but unwilling to face it 157 square ly.n

Utilitarian-Liberal Arts*—The Status Loaders were almost solidly

oriented to the Liberal Arts position. In the two years of the sample out of twenty-eight articles on American education, only two were Judged as Utilitarian and fifteen tover half) were Liberal Arts.

Before Sputnik the Status Leaders published one U tilitarian and six Liberal Arts articles; the Utilitarian article was carried ty the

Atlantic as wore two Liberal Arts articles. Harper's had no Utilitarian and four Liberal Arts articles.

After Sputnik the Status Leaders again carried one Utilitarian article but had increased the number of Liberal Arts articles to nine.

As in the previous year the Utilitarian article was published fcy the

Atlantic which also had six Liberal Arts articles. rlar;er's had no

Utilitarian and three Liberal Arts articles.

The two Utilitarian articles that were published in the Atlantic reflect the general asoects of Utilitarianism that appeared in the other magazines* The first, pre-Sputnik, was concerned with the role of the

157 Harry Ashmore, "The Untold Story behind Little Hock," Harper's, October, 1?56, p. 65. 277

Junior college in providing occupational training- "in skilled, techni­ cal, and semi professional occupations that require more training: than 1 is provided in high school,"

The second, after Sputnik, was a reaction to Russian technology i

"iVe must clarify our goals, reconsider our programs of education, and apply our ingenuity new to provide schools and teachers for our times.

The dramatic ways in which Russia has laid claim to world supremacy may well prove to be the sput to our own greatest period of educational advance.

Tho expression of the Liberal Arts theme in the Status Leaders took two general forms: (1) the castigation of the "useful," non- academic courses in public schools and college:;, and ( 2 ) the exposition of the worth of Liberal Arts as opposed to utilitarianism.

examples of the first fora are the following* "if these colleges are 3hort on intellectual interests, they are long on courses in psychol­ ogy of personal adjustment, consumer problems, communication skills, art for enjoyment,, principles of cimmunity recreation, mother and daughter foods, father and son works!., and, of course, innumerable courses in 160 family life education." "The purpose of a high school education, one

bigurd Rislov, "The Tonnunitv College," Atlantic -ionthly, June, 1957, p. 65.

1 5 0 Alvin C. Rurich, "Russia's Tew Schooling," Atlantic Tor.thly, A nril, 1?58, p. 6/j.

igene ^oungert, "Oollege Athletics* Their Hresrure on the High ichool," Atlantic Monthly, October, 1’^jh, r. 3 6 . 278

gathers, so far as these mettlesome girls ^jbruin n»Jorettes7 are con­

cerned, is to train them to perform during the intermission of profes­

sional snorts events and to march through the streets in department

store parades. . . . Just how the annual outlay for the chemistry lab

stacks up with what is spent on truchones or boot tassles is probaoly

not known by the good people of Nirvana lig h ts, but the school of edu­

cation catalogue is beginning to include such course designations as

'public performances' and 'd rill tea.us

ixacroles of the second form of the Liberal Arts theme are these:

"• • • we may say in favor of a classical education that it is always

good to know the sources of our culmure, even if they have few prac- 1^2 tical uses*" "In every realm of modern life we necessarily encounter

intellectual structures which had their origins in classical antiquity

or in Christianity. So it can be urged in favor of humanistic education

that it is pood to know these structures, even though mar\y of their

aspects nay not be directly necessary for modern life." ' "gvery

student who is fit to attend college at all should expose himself to as much of the liberal arts as possible. If he concentrates narrowly in his vocational speciality he may be slightly more marketable in the first year of his Job life* Rut he is not ore paring hLnself solely for

^ \ ; h a r l e s h. Morton, "Accent, on Living," A tlan tic Monthly, Kobruary, 1^58, p. 9U.

.Yerner Heisenberg, "A S c ie n tis t's base for th e C la ssic s," H arper*s, May, iy$8, p. 25.

163 ' Jerner Heisenberg, "Atoms with Hooks and iy es," Atlantic Monthly, March, 1?57, p. 121. 279

TABLE 28

TTTILITARIAN-LIBERAL ARTS THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

STATUS LEADERS AND AMERICAN MERCURY

(Number of A rtic le s)

Utilitarian Liberal Arts

Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Total Sputnik Sputnik Total

A tlan tic 1 i 2 2 6 8

Harper*s 0 0 0 A 3 7

TOTAL: 1 1 2 6 9 15

American Mercury 1 L 5 0 1 1 280

the first year of his job life* He is preparing for an arlult life­

time ." l6i4

Probably this final example expresses fairly closely the general

tone of the Liberal Arts theme in the Status Leadersj '’Harvard college

is free from vocationalism • 'fta don" have undergraduate business

courses,1 President Pusey told me. 'I suppose you might say we're

snobbish about that.'"^^

1ndividualism—Groupism.—It is obvious that the Status Leaders

wished to have nothing to do with Croupism, at least they published no

articles on American education in the two years of the sample that were

categorized as containing this theme; they did, however, care about

Individualism•

In the pre-Srutnik year the Status Leaders published two

Individualism articles, both of them in Harper's. After SoutnLk six

Individualism articles wore carried, five of them in the Atlantic and

one in H a rp e r's•

The articles on Individualism in the Status leaders looked with

disfavor on the specific manifestations of Grourism in the public

schools like the following: " '/fhy do you think they ^the teachers^

don't praise you during the school year?' ' asked.

'"If a teacher praised one, that would make '‘he other pupils all 156 jealous.' The class agreed."

^*John Gardner, "How to Choose a College, If Any," Qarper1 s, February, 1958, p. 52. l^Gavid Boroff, "Imperial Harvard," Harper’s October, 1958, p. 2d. l^Carrigher, op. clt. 281

TABLE 29

INDIVIDHALISM-GROUPISM THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION

STATUS LEADERS AND AMERICAN MERCURY

(Number o f A r t ic le s )

Individualism Grouoism Pre- Post- Pre- Post- Sputnik Sputnik T otal Sputnik Sputnik Total

A tlantic 0 5 5 0 0 0

Harper^s 2 1 3 0 0 0

TOTAL: 2 6 8 0 0 0

American Mercury L 5 9 1 0 0 262

The Status Leaders also castigated public school Groupisn In

general* "The usual genuflections are made in the direction of demo­

cratic living, group activities, and group action."*^7

This same article found its specific Groupisn examnle to shake

its head over* "A high school in the southern part of the state

^alifom ia7 has recently inaugurated an eleventh and twelfth grade

course for boys called 'bachelor living.

There is one more examole of Individualism which in a sense

typifies the character of the Status leaders. One uay, as he reads it,

put it not only in the frame of reference of the public school text­

books, its subject, but also the mass media magazines, the Circulation

le a d e rs.

The temptation to rub off the sharp edges of difference is particularly great in subjects which face lively public scrutiny. The mathematician has little to fear from the school boards. But the historian knows that a reference to the "rebels" even in a question may cost him a Southern adoption. The treatment of iuther must offend neither Catholics nor Protestants and no suspicion may be cast upon accepted institutions. In the social sciences it is essen­ tial to be eternally cautious; it is dangerous to be pro-labor or pro-capital, to approve or disapprove war or inflation, to favor or oppose any section or ethnic group* In short, it is dangerous to be deeply committed with regard to ary- thing that matters *3-69

This sort of individualism is the one big factor which separates the Status Leaders from the other groups of magazines* .Vhereas in the

l67Mortimer Smith, "How to Teach the California Child," Atlantic Monthly, September, 1958, p. 33*

b id .

^^Oscar Handlin, "Textbooks That Don't Teach," Atlantic ..’.onthly, December, 1957, p* 111* 283 other groups tendencies toward one theme or another nay be found, in the Status Leaders these become virtually •stands." With the exception of the Jeffersonian-Jacksonian themes, all of the dichotomies in the Status Leaders wen characterized ty overwhelming, and in one case, Individualism, unanimous affirm ation of one side* Perhaps, though, in a sense it is "dangerous" to be deeply committed; after all, what 1s a circulation of 160,000 (Harper's) to one of 11,000,000 (Reader's Digest)?

American Mercury The American Mercury in the two years of the sample had one "big" oause—Nativlan, and to it devoted fourteen articles, seven pre-Sputnik and seven post-Sputnik, half of the twenty-eight articles it carried on American education. The a rtic le s i t devoted to Nativlsm were not the delicate, half-disguised variety, but the vigorous, fist-shaking brand: "For a quarter of a century, the green ivy on the walls of American colleges has served to hide the pink thoughts and Ideologies taught within. . . . Marx has been deified and Alger Hiss and Dean Acheson have been canonized by Hutchins and other professional apostles of liberalism ."1^ "Don't you see what's happening? Through UNESCO— American children—not Russian—are being influenced away from th e ir national allegiance;" 171 "Education which csdts religion is the curse

170jttrick Riley, "Conservatism on the Cantus," American Mer­ cury, April, 1957, p. 39. 1^1Faul Harvey, "UNESCO* Communism's Trap for Our Youth," American Mercury, July, 1958, p* 82. 28 a of modern civilisation , and may in time prove our downfall."**^ "Those who agree with Dr. Lesley's internationalist, pro-collectivist bias may

share his self-satisfied opinion of the NEA's purity of purpose. But

other, mere taxpayers and patriotic parents, should watch closely the

path the NEA chooses for American education."*73

As can be seen, the American Mercury cared not a bit for UNESCO

or "internationalism.1* This hatred far internationalism, if a n y one aspect of Nativism were to be selected, would be the most frequently mentioned in American Mercury articles; and it often appears, in a sense, not quite in keeping with the topic of the article! "Mental

Health 'analyzing* and gullible dupes to perform the bra in-picking con­ stitute a current p olitical movement of One-Worlders to revamp the a tti­ tudes of children toward collectivism ."*^1 "Apparently the freedom of speech and the right of dissenters to dissent that we hear so much about today from the Ford Fund for the Republic, and the Freedom Agenda Pro­ gram and other self-styled 'Liberal' groups is only for left-wing collectivists and internationalist "One-Aorlders. '«*?5

The issue of the integration of Negroes into Southern white schools also was present in the American Mercury1 s Nativism* "The

*^W illla!n R. Bright, "Christianity on the Campus," American M ercury, D ecem ber, 1 9 5 6 , p . 11*2. 171 Richard Whalen, "The NEAt A Self-Portrait," American Mercury, S ep tem b er, 1 9 5 7 , p . 11*9.

*^Jo Hindman, "The Fight for Your Child's Mind," American Mercuiy, November, 1957, p. 7* 175 James H. W inchester, "The Case of the PTA Victim.," American Mercury, June, 1957, p. 102. 285

leadership in the fight to end segregation is suppliedb y those best able to protect their children from the fu ll effects of this policy.

Wealth is the perfect insulation against the common herd of a ll colors." ^ ^

As for the other themes, the American Mercury articles tended to bo Jeffersonian in six articles to two judged Jacksonian; Individualism, nine articles to one Groupism; and Utilitarian, five articles to one

Liberal Arts •

The American Mercury had this in conman with the Status Leaders, at least with respect to Nativism—when it believed in something there was never any doubt about it*

Summary

Themes in the overall magazine sample, which decreased in pro­ portionate frequency between the two years were Humanism, which dropped from 9 to 6 percent, Jacksonian from 7 to 5 percent, and Nativism fr

5 to 3*

Groupism appeared with the same frequency in both years, in 6 percent of the articles*

If frequency of appearance of the dichotony is, as was sug­ gested at the beginning of this chapter, an index of the relative importance of the dichotony as an issue in American education, the most important issue in American education from the viewpoint of the maga­ zines of this sample was Utilitarian-Liberal Arts which appeared in 28

176 Russell Maguire, "Lxodus fran Public School," American Mercury, June, 1957* p* 102* 286

percent of the articles* This was followed by the Jeffersonian-

Jacksonian theme contained in 23 percent of the articles} then Individual-

ism-Groupisn, 16 percent, and Nativist-flumanism, 11 percent*

In the pre-Srutnik year Utilitarian-Liberal Arts was first in

proportionate frequency with 26 percent of the articles* followed by

Jeffers on ian-Jacksonian carried in 19 percent of the articles; then

Individualism-C-roupisci, 15j and Nativisra-IIunanisn, 11* percent*

In the poet-Sputnik year Utilitarian-Liberal Arts was again first

in proportionate frequency, appearing in 3 2 percent of the articles;

followed again by Jeffersonian-Jacksonian contained in 26 percent of the

articles; Indlvidualism-Groupism, 17; and Nativisn-IIumanism, 9 percent

of the articles*

All of the dichotomies gained in the post-Sputnik year in fre­

quency of appearance except Nativism-IIumanism which decreased from 11* to

9 percent* The largest gain was that of Jeffersonian-Jacksonian from

19 to 26 percent; Utilitarian-Liberal Arts increased in frequency from

26 to 32 percent; Individualisn>-Croupisin, 15 to 17 percent of the a r t ic le s *

It would appear that far the periodicals of this sample, both from the standpoint of the frequency of the appearance of individual themes and the dichotomies, that the issues of Utilitarian-Liberal Arts and Jeffersonian-Jacksonian were important before Sputnik and gained

in importance after Sputnik.

As for the individual themes, while Jeffersonian was regarded highly before Sputnik, its large increase in the year following, TABLE 30

FREQUENCY OF APPEARANCE OF THEMES IN AMERICAN EDUCATION IN PERIODICALS

(Percentages)

Amer­ ican Circulation Information Women* s Status Mar— Leaders Fearers Magazines Leaders curv T otal Sample

■H (0 V O Sputnik Pre- Pre- Sputnik P ost- P ost- Pre- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Pre- P ost- Sputnik P ost- Pre- P ost- Sputnik Sputnik Total 1 Total | T otal T otal E— [Sputnik 1

Jeffersonian 13 19 16 10 18 15 17 35 28 10 33 25 21 12 21 17

Jacksonian 6 3 5 I 5 5 13 12 13 20 11 U 7 7 5 6

N a tiv ist 1 2 1 3 1 2 10 k L 10 0 I 50 C2 3 L

Humanist 12 7 9 8 3 5 13 6 9 20 28 25 L 9 6 7

Utilitarian 12 12 12 10 15 13 20 21 20 10 6 7 18 12 16 u

Liberal Arts 15 19 18 15 U 15 7 21 15 60 50 51 U U 16 15

Individualism 9 13 11 6 8 7 13 18 16 20 33 29 32 9 11 10

Groupism 8 8 8 3 U 3 23 U 18 0 0 0 L 6 6 6 287 TABLE 31

FREQUENCY" OF APPEARANCE OF DICHOTOMIES IN AMERICAN EDOCATION IN PERIODICALS

(Percentages)

Amer­ ican Circulation Information 'Jomen1 s Status Mer­ Leaders Fearers Magazine s Leaders cury T otal Sample Pre- Sputnik Poat- Pre- Pre- Sputnik Pre- Sputnik Sputnik Post- Sputnik Pre- Post- Post- Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Sputnik Total 1 Total | Total | T otal Total T otal ' Post-' SputnikI

Jeffersonian- Jacksonian 1? 22 21 14 23 19 30 a 41 30 44 39 29 19 26 23

N a tiv ist- wuraanist 13 9 11 11 4 7 17 10 13 30 28 29 54 U 9 11

Utilitarian- Liberal Arts 27 32 30 25 29 27 27 a 36 60 56 61 21 26 32 28

Individualism Croupism x7 21 19 9 12 10 37 33 34 20 33 29 36 15 17 16 288 269 appearing In 21 percent uf the articles in the sample, Lnnicates the extent to which the periodicals of the sample were taking up the cause of th e " i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e . " The r e l a t i v e low frequency of the o th er theme in the dichotony, Jacksonian, 7 percent before Sputnik, and lower,

5 percent, after Sputnik, indicates the extent of agreement in the periodicals for the necessity of differential education.

The issue for the periodicals, the area of deep disagreement., appeared in the htilitarian-LJoera 1 Arts dichotomy which was reflected both in the near balance of frequency' between the two in each year of the samole, and the overall frequency of the dichotony, appearing in the largest percentage of articles both before and after Sputnik.

In summary, then, the nagazines wanted differential education, but they coulc agree on neitner its reason, nor its direction. CHAPTER VIII

CONCLUSION

Since at the end of each chapter covering the data of this study

a fairly thorough summary of the results was attempted, this final

chapter vrill (1) bring together the major findings of the stuefy; (2)

discuss areas untouched by the categories; and (3) suggest areas for

further stucfy.

Vajor Findings

This stu<$r had its inception in the conclusion, seemingly shared

by educators and the lay public alike, that public education in the

United States was the topic of a "great debate" and was being sub­

jected to a chorus of negative criticism that had risen in sharp

crescendo after the launching of the hussian satellite, a symbol of the failure of American education, .ihat was found, however, was that the evaluation of American education appearing in the magazines of this

sample was indeed n eg ativ e, but th a t th is negation was f a r from over­ whelming. In the total sample of two years 33 percent of the articles were negative compared to 25 percent positive and a large proportion,

37 percent, neutral. There was no question either that the negative evaluation increased from the pre- to the post-Sputnik year, 33 to U2 percent, but even this proportion, which was not a majority, cannot bo

290 291

considered as symptomatica 1 of sharp negation, especially since in the

same period the positive article decreased only from ?7 to 23 p ercen t.

The question is, of course, how much negative criticism is

necessary to consider an institution under attack? This study does not attempt to answer this, and no other content analyses of any of the mass media have dealt with the evaluation appearing therein of ary comparable

institution such as the chtirch, the family, etc* Consequently there is no basis for comparison.

in spite of the absence of comparative data, however, it is cer­ tainly safe to suggest that, while American education is evaluated rather negatively, it is not the subject of a "great debate" and that apropos the symbolization used in the Introduction of this stucty, mary of the "veritable arny of fingers pointing accusingly at the American public schools" turn out to be those of straw men.

This study also attempted to determine the direction or direc­ tions in which the periodicals wished American education to go. It was found that there was general agreement that the schools should move toward Jeffersonianism, that there should be differential education for children of differing abilities with particular emphasis on the so-called

"gifted" child. This disposition to favor the Jeffersonian theme was present in the nre-Sputnik year and became an obsession in the post-

Sputnik year, evidently the result of the threatening display of Russian intellectual achievement represented by the satellites. An Parents * magazine put it* "i-lai^y of those who had been laughing at the eggheads 292

are now screaming for a crash program to manufacture a maximum number of

eggheade

.Vhile there was agreement with the necessity for the development

of an intellectual "elite," there was sharp and rather evenly balanced

disagreement over the direction that education should take. If there wag anything that could be likened to a "great debate" in the period­

ic a ls i t was over th is issu e .

There were those, the U tilitarians, who conceived education in

terms of the technological necessities of the culture, and in reaction to the Russian threat would have the American school system turn out the scientists, technicians, even linguists, in the proportions needed to

insure once again, American technological superiority# The character­ ization, made more than once in the magazines, of the situation being

"an international brains race" is an apt description of the frame of reference of the Utilitarians•

Onposed to th is noint of view , and appearing, rather su rp risin g ly , with slightly more frequency in the periodicals, was that of the Liberal

Arts which saw education not in terms of its immediate and apparent utility, but naively as "brain muscle building"; and in a more sophis­ ticated form as training citizens in the art of critical judgment in every aroa of living. The Liberal Arts position tended to decry any aggrandizement of the physical s ciences in the curriculum at the expense of the humanities, and more than once inveighed against apy mass adontion in America of a Kussian-type educational system.

Vred !.! • Hochinger, "Has Sputnik Taught Us a Lesson?" Parents', February, 1958, r. 33. 293 With regard to the other themes, their rather low frequency of appearance in the magazine articles suggests that they are conceived as of minor importance in American education with the possible exception of the Individualism theme, which appeared in 10 percent of the articles*

The hypothesis i* advanced here that Individualism's manifesta­ tion in the articles on American education is related to a general reaction to the pervasiveness of overt conformity in American culture; certainly the number of books and articles on the subject would tend to support this*

In view of the relation of Nativism-Humanism themes to the Negro integration into Southern white schools the relatively low frequency of apnearance of these theme3 in articles on American education was rather surprising. However, since magazines, the Circulation Leaders in particular, are dependent upon nationwide circulation; and in view of the depth of feeling on both sides of this issue, the South especially, it is possible that the desire to avoid offending any section would account for these themes' infrequency.

Another finding of major importance was the balance between informative and persuasive articles* The fact that informative articles accounted for £8 percent of the total number of articles would suggest that the magazine-reading ;*iblic is provided with a surprisingly large amount of material on American education that is not attempting to sell a point of view, but is letting the public know what is going on in the fiold of education* 2%

In the nre-Sputnik year the balance of informative to cersuasivo

articles was especially hirh, bl percent to 3'V percent, respectively ;

and even in response to the tus.-ian satellite the pro; ortion of informa­

tive articles decreased to only percent, still a majority.

This relatively high frequency of appearance o*' informative

articles bolsters additionally the observation made initially’' in the dis­

cussion of the proportions of negative, positive and neutral articles,

that it would appear that the American educational system is not the sub­

ject of a major attack in the periodicals*

To what extent, however, the pro, ortion of informative to per-

s'lasivc articles on ■unerican education compares with the proportions

appearing in articles on other institutions is unknown, just as it is

with the relative proportion of negative, positive, and neutral arti­

cles; consequently, no comparisons can be It is possible that the

schools are the subject of proportionately more persuasive articles than

other institut ior. 3 ; but, based on the rather thorough scanning of two

years of the four major women's magazines, it seems reasoriable to advance

the hypothesis that there are proportionately more :>ersuasive articles

written on the family than on education.

There is one other finding of some importance, the evidence based

on a comparison of the evaluation of American education three months at

the beginning of the two-year sample, three months immediately after

dputnik and three months at the end of the two-year sample, that what­ ever storm of criticism of American education took place, it was evidently tending to subside* This ebbing of criticism and concomitant

interest in American education found expression in the comment of an NhA 29$ spokesman on the prospects of a major bill for Federal Aid to educa­ tion* "This bill's be3t hone is that the Russians will shout off 2 s one thing else."

Jntonched Areao

'"’ho development of categories in content analyses can be likened to the construction of a net, and its subsequent use unavoidably results in letting much material slip through. In this analysis of the content of magazine articles on African education the relative importance of what passed through th is net cannot be determined; obviously' th is study attempted to concentrate on what was felt to be the most important aspects of American education likely to appear in the popular period­ icals; if the analogy of the net may be carried a Little further, the analysis was interested in the big fish and Irt the little ones get away •

One of the issues in American education that was not covered was the inadequacy of teachers' salaries. Clearly this is no small fish to the teachers involved, but in the general picture of education this was not felt, to l)e as significant as other aspocts. The same applies to the relative prestige of the American teachers.

Another aspect of education that was not covered was the general fie ld of methodology • fl!iile i t is true that the themes in American education tend to imply certain methodologies, mary items of methodology, such &3 the integration of subjects, methods of teaching specific

^"jutlook for Aid," Newsweek, January 13, 19$6, p. dU. 296

subjects, the use of movies, T—V, etc., in the classroom; and

nethodologica 1 approaches, ouch as appeal to Interest, "authoritarian”

vs. "democratic” classroan, etc., were not. covered by this analysis.

Jethodology tends to be more a professional rather than a lay concern,

and «vhen an initial cursory insoection was made of the periodical liter­

ature not many specific references to it were found. During the analy­

sis the initial jud^nent of the paucity of references tended to be

c onf irmed.

Still another facet of American education appearing in maga­

zine articles which was not analyzed except to tho extent, as with

methodology, where the themes themselves contained im plications, was

the area of specific curriculum recommendations. Obviously, for exam­

ple, in a Utilitarian article decrying the lack of scientists and

engineers there was definitely implied, and quite often spelled out in

some detail, an increase in emphasis on science and mathematics in the

curriculum; but there was no attempt in this analysis to determine

specific curriculum patterns.

There were also rrany relatively minor items in public education

that were not specifically covered, such as pupil—teacher ratio,

school building needs and costs, teacher shortages in general and in snecific areas, and grading.

Suggestions for Further Study

This analysis was limited to the contemporary picture of American education appearing in the periodicals because of an immediate concern for the clues it might provide as to the direction of American education 297

being called for ty the mass media. This nad the strength of providing

same insight into the current scone, but it had the weakness, since no

historical bench narks were provided, of not giving ary insight into ary

long-range trends in the periodical literature, «hile it says something

about the impact of onutnik on American education to indicate that nega­

tive criticism rose in the following year, ’unless one knows the pattern

of criticism going back farther in time than one year one cannot say that

the rise after Soutnik was not Just part of a continuing rise in criti­

cism or American education.

Then, too, knowing tto t Jeffersonianism is a prevalent theme in

contemporary periodicals does not permit, much prediction of the extent

of its existence in coming years in Anerican education. :-ut if it could

be demonstrated that prior to, or contemporary with, the great surge of

Jacksonianism in education there were evidences of the predominance of

such themes in the f^eriodical literature, or that, nrior to, or contem­

porary with, the burgeoning of concern with the *whole child" and

Orourisra themes in American education there were evidences of this

the'ie in t.ne periodical literature, one could 'undoubtedly have at least

something to say about the future of Jefforsonianisrn.

It is suggested, then, that future analyse go back at intervals at least to the beginning of the century to determine what trends can

be discovered in the ntrriodical literature and check these with known trends in American education.

Although nary of the magazines used in this sample, Life, Look,

j'evrsweek, Time, U .S . Mews and .’

American Legion, and the American Mercury do not extend back to the beginning of the century, since this study was made basically fay maga­ zine category, "Circulation Leaders, Information Bearers, etc., rath er than fay individual magazines, the same categorization of magazines, but not necessarily the same magazines, could be used at the selected intervals and roughly comparable results could be obtained.

Another suggested area far further stuffy- has already been men­ tioned at the beginning of this stuffy. It is not known hear the extent of negative criticism , nor the relative proportions of informative and persuasive content on American education that appears in the periodicals, compares with that on other American institutions. Content analyses could be made to Indicate the relative proportions of such aspects for other institutions. APPENDIX PERIODICAL ANALYSIS WORK SHEET 299

Name and Date of Maga­ zine. Author*s Name. Title of Article. Page Article Begins.

PURPOSE

Informative

Persuasive

EVALUATION

Straight Positive

Qualified Positive

Doubtful

Neutral

Qualified Negative

Straight Negative

THEMES

Jeffersonian

Jacksonian

N ativist

Humanist ------Utilitarian

Liberal Arts

Individualistic

Oroupism 300 PERIODICAL SAMPLE

AMERICAN LEGION MAGAZINE

Goeden, Louise Edna, "You Can Hurt Them With Happiness,*1 American Legion, Vol. 62, No. 1 (January, 1967), pp. 22-23; 45-47.

Grunwald, Edgar A., "Is There an Engineer in Your House?" American Legion, Vol. 62, No. 2 (February, 19&Y), pp. 20-21; 62-l>4.

Harvey, Paul, "Symptoms of Delinquency," American Legion, Vol. 63, No. 3 (September, 1967), pp. 18-19; 57-38.

Kamirer, Thomas P ., “I ’l l Take Teaching," American Legion, Vol. fa4, No. 1 (January, 1966), pp. 14 -I d; 4 0 -4 3 .

Boone, Marion, "A Way to Beat the High Cost of College," Amerioon Legion, Vol. 64, No. 6 (June, 1968), pp. 14-16; 4l-4o.

Haddon, W. James, PhD., "What’s Wrong „ith Education," American Legion, Vol. 64, No. 8 (August, 19o8J, p. 18.

Kuhn, Irene Corbally, "Battle Over Books," Anerii* n Legion, Vol. b6» No. 10 (October, 1968), pp. 20-21; 37-it).

AMERICAN MERCURY

Boss, Ruth, “I Like to Teach," Amei icau Mercury, Vol. 83, No. 393 (October, 19bo), pp. 47-61.

Roosevelt, Edith Kennit, The New Religion in Our Schools," American Mercury, Vol. 83, No. 693 (October, 19oo), pp. lb^-loo.

"Why Johnny S till Can’t Read," American Mercury, Vol. 83, No. 394 (November, 195b), pp. 6-12.

Bright, William R., "C hristianity on the Campus," American Meroury, Vol. 83, No. 395 (DeowmDer, 19&6), pp. 137-14TI

Turner, Russell, "The NEA and the School Grab," Amerioan Mercury, Vol. b3. No. 39b (December, 19ob), pp. 47-54.

Varney, Harold Lord, "Our College Graduate cnobooracy," American Mercury, Vol. 64, No. 39o {January, i96 0 , pp. 98-101.

Drake, Jr., Josh, "Parents on v-he Sidelines," American Mercury, Vol. 84, No. 347 (February, 19o7), pp. 14-1'b.

Lane, Richard Bert, "I Speak for tno High Sohools," American Leroury, Vol. 34, No. 398 (March, 1967), Pp. 25-32.

Hindman, Jo ., "Los Angeles * City in Turmoil," Americanmercury. Vol. 84, No. 399 (April, 1957), pp. 141-HIT AMERICAN MERCURY (Contd.)

Riley, Patrick, "Conservatism on the Campus," American Mercury, Vol. 84, No. 339 (April, 1957), pp. 39-42“ ------

Castle, Vadelyn Wood, "School Buildings Can Bankrupt You," American Mercury, Vol. 84, No. 400 (May, 1957), pp. 107-112. Benson, Shirley, "I.Q. Tests Mean Nothingl" American Meroury, Vol. 84, No. 401 (June, TSF7), pp. 57-bTI

Maguire Russell, "Exodus From Public School," American Mercury, Vol. 84, No. 4 0 1 (June, 1957), pp. lOl-lOTT

Sohott, Rev. John, "I Hate Homework," American Mercury, Vol. 85, No. 403 (August, 1957), pp. 25-28.

Whalen, Richard, "The NEAi A Self P o rtra it," American Mercury, Vol. 86, No. 404 (September, 1957), pp. 147-149."

Halliburton, Laurine, "What Every School Needs," American Meroury, Vol. 85, No. 405 (October, 1967), pp. 9o-98.

Clevenger, Jr., Theodore, "College Professors Don't Teach," American Meroury, Vol. 85, No. 40b (November, 1957), pp. 79-84.

HincLian, Jo ., "The Fight For Your Child's Mind," American Mercury, Vol. 85, No. 406 (November, 19o7), pp. 7-12. Core, Jack W., "Quest E ditorial," American Mercury, Vol. 85, No. 407 (December, 190/), pp. lOb-lOo. Rudd, Augustine G., "Bending the Twig" (Book Condensation), American Mercury, Vol. 8b, No. 408 (January, 19b8), pp. 70-80. Kirk, Russell, "Rural Schools," American Mercury, Vol. Ho, No. 410 (March, 19b8), pp. bb-72. Hancock, Lee, "lie Knew How to Teach," American ...ercury. Vol. 8o, No. 412 (May, 1358), pp. 83-8o.

Hemsted, Ruth D., "Questions For Colleges," American Mercury, Vol. bo, No. 413 (June, 1958), pp. 123-128. Butler, H. C., "They Train 'Em Young in Kansas," American mercury, Vol. 87, No. 414 (July, 1958), pp. 77-80. Harvey, Paul, "UNESCOt Cormnniat's Trap for Our Youth," American Meroury, Vol. 87, No. 414 (July, 1958), pp. 81-04.

Jenkins, Stern, "Teachers Learn by Teaching," American Mercury, Vol. 87, No. 414 (July, 1358), pp. 103-10T:

B ell, John, and Green, Arthur L., "Solving the Reading Froblem," American Meroury, Vol. 87, No. 41b (September, 1958), pp. 133-137. AMERICAN MERCURY (Contd.)

"A Sohool Board States Its Principles," reprinted from Town Crier, American Mercury, Vol. 87, No. 416 (September, 195b), pp. 99-102.

Hind;nan, Jo, "Secret Cum Pilest A L eftist Wedge," American Meroury, Vol. 87, No. 417 (bctober, 1958), pp. 118-l2o.

Atlantic monthly

Handlin, Oscar, "Where Equality Leads," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 198, No. 5 (November, 1956), pp. 50-54.

Sass, Herbert Ravenel, "Mixed Schools and Mixed Blood," Atlantic .Monthly, Vol. 198, No. 5 (November, 1956), p. 45.

Heisenberg.Werner, "Atoms With Hooks and Eyes," Atlantic ’onthly. Vol. 199, No. 3 (’/.arch, 1957), p i. 121-124.

Rislov, Sigurd, "The Comiinity College," Atlantic .onthly, Vol. 199, No. 6 (June, 1957), pp. o4-67.

Conant, James B., "Education in the Western World," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 200, No. 5 (November, 1957), pp. 73-77.

Livingstone, Richard, "The Rainbow Bridge," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 200, No. 5 (November, 1957), pp. 174-178.

Handlin, Oscar, "Textbooks That Don’t Teaoh," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 200, No. 6 (December, 1957), pp. 110-113.

Riesnan, David, "Booksi Gunpowder of the Mind," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 200, No. 6 (December, 1957), pp. 1:.3-130.

Meyer, Agnes E., "Race and the Schools," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 201, No. 1 (January, 1958), pp. 30-37.

Morton, Charles W., "Accent on Living," Atlantio Monthly, Vol. 201, No. 2 (February, 1958), pp. 87-88.

Wilkins, Roy, "integration Must Move," Atlantio Monthly, Vol. 201, No. 3 (March, 1958), pp. 63-b5.

Eurich, "Russia's New Schooling," Atlantio ;■ onthly, Vol. 201, No. 4, (April, 1958), pp. 55-b8.

Stout, Lydia, "What Strangles American Teaching," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 201, No. 4 (April, 1958), pp. 59-63.

"The Certification Racket," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 202, No. 1 (July, 1958), pp. 34-39.

Smith, Mortimer, "How to Teaoh the California Child," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 202, No. 3 (September, 1958), pp. tf^-36• 303 ATLANTIC MONTHLY (Contd.)

Youngert, Eugene, "College Athletics* Their Pressure on the High Schools," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 202, No. 4 (October, 1958), pp. 36-38.

CORONET

Benton, William, "The Soviet Tekhnikum* Ominous Threat to the West," Coronet, Vol. 41, No. 2 (December, 1956), pp. 69-73.

Feinberg, Lark, "The Principal is a Short-Order Cook," Coronet, Vol. 41, No. 4 (February, 1967), pr * b4-ob.

Mehling, Harold, "Will Your Child Get Into College?" Coronet, Vol. 41 No. 6 (April, 1957), pr. Ul-125.

Lass, Abraham H., "The Way to Raise a Bright Child," Coronet, Vol. 42 No. 2 (June, 1957), pp. 44-48.

Hamilton, Andrew, "The Kids Who Speak for Brotherhood," Coronet, Vol. 42, No. 3 (July, 1957), pp. It;4-l28.

Swift, Philip, "Skipper of the 3R'a," Coronet, Vol. 42, No. 4 (August, 1957), p. 148-150.

Buchanan, Gwen, "He Makes Bad Boys Good," Coronet, Vol. 42, No. 5, (September, I9t>7), pp. 124-128.

Horn, L eslie, "All Night From," Coronet, Vol. 43, No. 4 (February, 1958), pp. 132-143.

Carlisle, Norman, "Push Button Pedagogy," Coronet, Vol. 43, No. 6 (April, 1958), pp. 90-94.

Bell, Joseph, "Ho.. Chicago Rescues Its Gifted Kids," Coronet, Vol. 44 No. 1 (Lay, 1958), p. 112.

Gross, J-artin, "-argain Basement Education is No Bargain," Coronet, Vol. 44, No. 6 (October, lab8), pp. 83-89.

GOOD HOUSEKEEPING

Pliruner, Charlotte, and Denis, "Paris is Their Campus," Good House­ keeping, Vol. 144, No. 1 (January, 1957), pp. bus-ob; 143-145.

Drury, Michael, "Why Not Consider a Junior College," Good House- keeping, Vol. 144, No. 2 (February, lab7), pp. 7b-77; T&4.

Shaftner, Dorothy, "When These Teen-Agers Say* Everybody’s Doing I t, Everybody 1st" Good Housekeeping, Vol. 144, No. 4 (A p r il, 1957), pp. 38; 217. GOOD HOUSEKEEPING (Contd.) 3 0 J *

Harrington, Edna Horne, "Why Has the Pleasure Gone Out of Senior Year in High Sohoolt" Good Housekeeping, Vol. 144, No. 6 (June, 1967), p. t>7

"Yes, College, Too, Through the Wail," Good Housekeeping, Vol. 14b, No. 3 (March, 1966), p. 160.

Chalpin, L ila, "The Less Grammar Now the More Tutoring Later," Good Housekeeping, Vol. 14b, No. 4 (A pril, 1968), pp. 69} ?4TT-74'1 . ------

Bestor, Arthur, "Sohool Crisis, U.S.A.i The Soft Curriculum," Good Housekeeping, Vol. l4o, No. 5 (Llay, 19&8), pp. b7; rrd-T.s. — — 3estor, Arthur, "School Crisis, U.S.A.i Diplomas the Easy Way," Good Housekeeping, Vol. 14b, No. o (June, 1958), pp. 14; ?18 - 2 2 2 . "A Way to Go to College While You're Still in High School," Good Housekeeping, Vol. 147, No. 2 (August, 1958), P* l4o. Bestor, Arthur, "School Crisis, U.S.A.i When the Teacher Calls it 'Social -studies,1 1 Good r\A Housekeeping, pAiisalraari^ntt ^ Vol. 147, No. 3 (September, 19o8), pp• 16; 212-214. Bestor, Arthur, "School Crisis, U.S.A.* Getting Amy With Mistakes in English," Good Housekeeping, Vol. 147, No. 4 (October, 19p6), pp. 47; 220-2Tn

HARPER'S Foley, Teresa, "A Lesson in Discipline," Harper1s , Vol. 213, No. 1279 (Decenber, 19bb ), pp. 41-44. Gardner, John W., "The Great Hunt for Educated Talent," Harper1a, Vol. 214, No. 1280 (January, 1967), pp. 48-63. Muse, Beniamin, "When and How the South Will Integrate," Harper's, Vol. 214, No. 1283 (April, 19o7), pp. 51-55. Carrighar, Sally, "Yurder in the Classroom," Harper* s , Vol. 214, No. 1285 (June, 1957), pp. bO-b5. Whyte, Lancelot Law, "Can We Grow Geniuses in Science," Harper1s , Vol. 214, No. 1285 (June, 1957), pp. 4b-50. Colville, Derek, "British and American Schools," Harper1s , Vol. 215, No. 1289 (October, 1957), pr. 58-b2.

Gardner, John W., "How to Choose a Collage, If Any," Harper's, Vol. 216, No. 1293 (February, 1958), ir . 49-54. HARPER’S (Contd.)

Druoker, Pete, "Math Even Parents Can Understand," Harfer's, Vol. 2lo, No. 1296 (April, 19bb), pp. 75-78.

Heisenberg, Werner, "A Scientist’s Case For The Classics," Harper' Vol. 21to, No. 129to (May, 1958), pp. 2b-29.

Aahnore, Harry, "The Untold Story Behind Little Rook," Harper's, Vol. 21b, No. 1297 (June, 19o8), pp. 10-19.

Falciwin, Janes, "The Hard Kind of Courage," Harper's, Vol. 216, No. 1501 (October, 1958), p. bl-o6.

Boroff, David, "imperial Harvard," Harper's , Vol. 2lo, No. 1301 (October, 19b8), pr. 27-4.

LADIES' HOME JOURNAL

Hickey, Margaret, "Mother Takes Over the Class," Ladles * Hone Journal, Vol. 74, No. 2 (February, 19b7), pp. 41-42; 1&4»

Date, Laura, "Our Girls Helped lay Their Way Through College," Ladies' Hone Journal, Vol. 74, No. 3 ( arch, 19o7), pp. 192; 205'. ------

Dolson, Hildegarde, "There's More Fun than Money in Teaching," Ladies' Hone Journal, Vol. 74, No. 4 (April, 19b7), pp"' m -lB iy "Igb-19T.

Sandford, Nevitt, "Is College EducMtion V.astod on Women," Ladies' Hone Jo u rn a l, Vol. 74, No. b (J.-ay, 19oV), pp. 78-79; 198 .

Thompson, Dorothy, "American Education Has —any M erits," Ladies' Home Journal, Vol. 74, No. 5 (:ay, 1957), pp. 11; I;.** 2,t).

Bolton, Frederick £., "I Would Like to Teaoh Another Seventy Years Ladles* Hone Journal, Vol. 74, No. b (June, 19b7), p. 44.

Freeman, Jean Todd, "A Cli;^ate of Freedom," Ladies* Home Journal, Vol. 74, No. b (June, I9b7), pp. 174; 204.

-ills, Abott, "Campus Romance," Ladiea' Home Journal, Vol. 74, No. 7 (Ju ly , 19o7), pp. llO -llo .

Hickey, !-argaret, "Untapped Leadership," Ladies' Home Journal, Vol. 74, No. 8 (August, 19&7), p. 39.

Thompson, Dorothy, "Must Sohools be Falaces," Ladies' Hoi-e Journal Vol. 74, No. 8 (August, 1957), pp. 11-13;~BB1

Hickey, Margaret, "High School is Worth Working For," Ladies* Home Journal, V ol. 74, No. 8 (August, l9 o v ), r ■ • b l-3 3 . 306 LADIES' H0).H JOURNAL (Contd.)

Thompson, Dorothy, "Are Our Teenagers So Dumb," Ladies' home Journal, Vol. 74, No. 11 (Noverber, 19b7), pp. 11-lb; llb-lls.

Thompson, Dorothy, "Do American Educators Know What They are Up To?" Lad lee* Ho^e Journal, Vol. 76, No. 2 (February, 1968), p. 11.

Stuart, Neal Oilkyson, "Is One Billion Dollars for Education Enough?" Ladies’ Home Journal, Vol. 7b, No. 4 (April, 1958), pp. 178-OT;

Griswold, A. Whitney, "High Sohool to Collegei Tine to Repair the Bridge," Ladies' Hone Journal, Vol. 75, No. 5 (j.ay, lyb3), pp. 50-61; 144; 140-147.

Hiokey, iai.rgaret, "Where Children Find Understeuiding," Ladies' Hone Journal, Vol. 7b, No. 5 (Lay, 1958), pp. 27; £9-30 7

Spock, Benjamin, "Foroing Children beyond Their Abilities in School," Ladies* Home Journal, Vol. 7b, No. 5 (l ay, 19o8), p. lb; 18; £3.

White, Glenn M., "How One School System is Leeting the Challenge of This Century," Ladi«s* Hone Journal, Vol. 75, No. 5 (Lay, 1968), pp. 51; 88; 90.

Thonpson, Dorothy, "Oh. Professor," Ladies' Hone Journal, Vol. 76, No* 8 (June, 19b8j, pp. 11-lb.

"The Pursuit of Excellence," the Rockefeller Report in indies' hor.ie Journal, Vol. 7b, No. 7 (July, 1906), pp. 47; 123-126.

Hickey, i-argaret, "Teen-Agers Draft a Code," Ladies* Horne Journal, Vol. 76, No. 9 (September, 19b8) , pp. 29-3o.

LIFE

"A Busy Educator's Latest Quest," Life, Vol. 41, No. £2 (November 2b, 1966), pp. 163-166.

"A Science Road Show Wows the Pupils," L ife, Vol. 41, No. 22 (November 2b, 19bo), p. 99.

"Tough Training Oround for Women's Minds," L ife, Vol. 41, No. 2b (December 24, 195b), pp. 102-107.

"An S for Science Joins the Three R's," Life, Vol. 42, No. 1 (January 7, 1957), pp. bb-o7.

"A Big L ift for I llite r a te s ," L ife, Vol. 42, No. 4 (January *8, 1957), p.

“Teaching with T.V.," Life, Vol. 42, No. 8 (February 2b, 1957), pp. 123—132. 307 LIFE (Contd*)

"A Weloome for Ifti," Life, Vol. 42, No. 9 (Maroh 4, 1967), p. 52.

"Hoops, Dear, In Iowa," Life, Vol. 42, No. 9 (March 4, 1957), pp. 95-98.

"Candidate Under False Colors," Life, Vol. 42, No. 10 (April 1, 1957), pp. 73-70.

"Light Turns for Spring Fanoy," Life, Vol. 42, No. 15 (April 15, 1957), pp. 58-69.

"Domestic Arts Taught With A Twist," L ife, Vol. 42, No. 18 (May o, 1957), pp. 110-114.

"Surprise Rise for a Rooket," Life, Vol. 42, No. 18 (jiay o, 19o7), rp. ol-63.

"Art Rides High at a Great U niversity," L ife, Vol. 42, No. 20 (May 20, 1967), pp. 92-103.

"Nun, Preaident and Poet," Life, Vol. 42, No. 23 (June 10, 1957J, pp. 129-132.

"Spring and Youth* A Case With Complieat ions," Life, Vol. 42, No. 23 (June 10, 195 (), pp. 3u—31.

"Arise Ye Silent Class of ’57," Editorial, Life, Vol. 42, No. 24 (June 17, 1957), p . 94.

"A Farewell to Bright College Years," Life, Vol. 42, No. 25 (June 24, 1957), pp. I30-13o.

"Pedagogical Wingding for a Centennial," Life, Vol. 43, No. 3 (July 15, 1967;, pp. 109-112*

Woodring, Paul, "Reform Plan for Schools," L ife, Vol. 43, No. 10 (September 2, 1957), pp. l:3-13o.

"Troul ' ‘ " * ’ ~ ------" Life, Vol. 43, No. 12 (September 16, 1967), p. 2b

"'.iath With Marionettes," Life, Vol. 43, No. 14 (September 5 0 , 1967), pp. 123-127.

"A Historic Week of Civil Strife," Life, Vol. 43, No. 16 (October 7, 1957), pp. 37-47.

"Sound of Girlish Voices Strikes a New Note at Muhlenberg," Life, Vol. 43, No. 17 (October cl, U*o7), pp. 111-116.

"Young Spangled Sirens," Life, Vol. 4o, No. 18 (October 28, 1957), pp. 53-54. 308 LIFE (Contd • J

Ashmore, Harry S ., "A Southern Challenge and Epitaph for Dixie," L ife, Vol. 43, No. 19 (November 4, 19b7), pp. 128; 148.

"Cla&sroom in a Railroad Coach," L ife, Vol. 43, No. 19 (November 4, 19b7), p. 71.

Smith, Marshall, "Sad Ne*B From the Campus i Nobody Lotos the Football Hero Now," L ife, Vol. 43, No. 20 (Novecber 11, 19oY), pp. 149-loO.

"Paok of College Prexiea in Searoh of Caah," Life, Vol. 43, No. Hi (November lb, 19o7), p. 119.

"School of Skylignts," Life, Vol. 43, No. 21 (November 18, 1957), pp. 119-120*

"Claso In A Store nindow," Life, Vol. 43, No. 23 (Deoenber 2, 1957), p . 144•

"Students Pan a Dancing Ban," L ife, Vol. 43, No. (December *, 19b7), pp. 3^-35.

"From Coast to Coast, U.S. Youths Get Its Rockets Up in the Air," Life, Vol. 43, No. 2b (December lb, 19oy), pp. 32-33.

"Junior High Epic of Crusadet.*" L ife, Vol. 43, No. 2b (Decencer lb, 19b7), pp. 9b-y7.

Gaither, R., Citizens Give Ideas in Crisis," Life, Vol. 44, No. 2 (January 13, 19b6), p. 13.

"School rroblem—And a Suicide," L ife, Vol. 44, No. o (February 10, 19o8), pp. fb-BBT-"

"Science vs. Culture* A Pf ony Aar," Life, Vol. 44, No. 7 (February 17, 19oo), p. 38.

Butt, Otto, "The 'Unsilent Generation' Breaks Silenoe," Life, Vol. **4, No. 7 (February 17, 19b8), pp. 113-130.

"A Kansas To*n with Basketball Fever," Life, Vol. 44, No. y (liareh 3, 19b8), pp. 81-eo.

O'Neil, Paul, "U.S. Change of Lind," Life, Vol. 44, No. 9 (Larch 3, 19b8), pp. 91-luO.

"Big City's Problem Pupils," Life, Vol. 44, No. 11 (."arch 1^, 19b8), pp. l^l-lko•

"Crisis In Educutioni School boys Point Up a U.S. Weakness," Life, Vol. *4, No. 12 (Larch 24, lyb8), pp. 2b-3 b. LIFB (Contd.)

Wilson, Sloan, " It's Time to Close our Carnival," Life, Vol. 44, No. 12 Oiarch 24, 1958J, pp. 30-3Y.

"The Deeper Problem in Eduoation," Editorial, Life, Vol. 44, No. 13 (Maroh 31, 1958), p. 32.

"An Underdog Profession Imperils the Schools," Life, Vol. 44, No. 13 (March 31, 1956), pp. 93-101.

"The Waste of Fine f. inds," Life, Vol. 44, No. 14 (April 7, 1958), pp. 89-97.

"Tryouts for Good Ideas," Life, Vol. 44, No. 15 (April 14, 1958), pp. 117-125.

"Collegiate Spring Spree," L ife, Vol. 44, No. lo (April 21, 1958), pp. l65-lo6.

"School Boys Whaok the Sack," L ife, Vol. 44, No. lo (April 21, 1958), p. 56.

"Children Coach Future Coaohus," L ife, Vol. 44, No. 18 (May 5, 1958), pp. 11&-119.

"A Collegiate Celebration in a False-Front Town," Life, Vol. 44, No. 19 (Lay 2, 1958), pp. 141-142.

"Big Shots $1.00 a Shot," L ife, Vol. 44, No. 22 (June 2, 1958), pp. 8-9.

"A Graduate In Hu:.ian Relations," Life, Vol. 44, No. 23 (June 9, 1958), p. 108.

"Golden Years at Hempstead High," L ife, Vol. 44, No. 25 (June <.Z, 1^58), pp. 87-95.

"The Importance of Being Excellent," E ditorial, Life, Vol. 45, No. 1 (July 7, 1958), p. 24.

"Two Kids in Crowns," Life, Vol. 45, No. 1 (July 7, 1958), pp. 93-95.

"In the U.S. Mostly Quiet," Life, Vol. 45, No. 11 (September 15, 1958), p. 30.

Dabney, Virginius, "Virginia's 'Peaceable, Honorable Stand,'" Life, Vol. 45, No. 12 (September 22, l9o8), pp. 51-56.

"Dabney vs. Dabbs on Integration," Editorial, Life, Vol. 45, No. 12 (September 2 2 , 19b8), p. 34.

"School's Out* Nobody's Glad," L ife, Vol. 45, No. 13 (September 29, I9b8), pp. 30-4b. LIFE (Contd*)

"Salt Lake Adds Russian to 3 R's," Life, Vol. 4b, No. 14 (October b, 1958), pp. ll3-llo.

"A Song Amid Discord, Mandate for Defiance," Life, Vol. 45, No. 14 (October o, 19o8), pp. 34-35.

Wriston, Henry M», "How Colleges Can Handle the Throngs," Life, Vol. 45, No. 14 (October b, I9b8), pp. 132-142.

"Hatred Again Hurts School," Life, Vol. 4b, No. lb (October 20, 19b8), pp. 32-33.

"Old Elegance at Old Nassau," Life, Vol. 4b, No. lb (October 20, 1958), pp. 55-56.

LOOK

Kaplan, Dr. Joseph, "The Case for Big-Tiine Football," Look, Vol. 20, No. 25 (December 11, 195b), pp. 111-118.

Epstein, ’nthew, "Is Kandwritinr Obsolete?" Look,Vol. 20, No. 25 (Deoenber 11, 19bb), pp. lo3-lb5.

Boynoff, Sara, "Los Angeles* A Kace Relations Sucoess Story," Look, Vol. 21, No. o (liarch 19, 19b/), pp. 2b-29.

S tar, Jack, "The Big New Battle in the Big Ten," Look, Vol. cl. No. 13 (June 2b, 1957), p. 147.

"Young Man for Old Nassau," Look, Vol. 21, No. 22 (October 29, 1957), rp . 127-132 .

Knobel, Fletcher, "The Real L ittle Rock Story," Look, Vol. cl, No. 23 (November 12, 1957), pp. 31-37.

L ittle , Lou, "Who's to Blame for Football’s Troubles?" Look, Vol 21, No. 25 (December 10, 1957), p. 71-77.

Lead, L argaret, "How Anerioan Youth Sees the Scientist* The Dangerous Godless Brain," Look, Vol. 22, No. 1 (January 7, 1958), pp. 20-27.

"Grunts and Groans Hit the High School C ircuit," Look, Vol. 22, No* 3 (February 4, 1958), pp. 82-84.

"The Wondei- of Reading," Look, Vol. 22, No. 7 (April 1, 1958), pp. 117-119.

Leonard, J r ., George B.» "Who Runs Our Schools," Look, Vol. c2, No. 12 (June 10, 1958), pp. 79-88.

Brown, Minnidean, "What They Did to e in L ittle Rock," Look, Vol. 22, No. 13 (June 24, 1968), pp. 30-40. 311 LOOK (Contd.)

"The Changing Coed," Look, Vol. 22, No. 20 (September 30, 1958), pp. 61-65.

Derthlok, Lawrence, and Leonard, George B., "The Frightening Chal­ lenge of Russia'a Schools," Look, Vol. 22, No. 21 (October 14, 1968), pp. 38-477

Leonard, George B., "Education--Fall 1968 1 * I an a Student,'" Look, Vol. ^2, No. 21 (October 14, 19b8), pp. 01-37. ——

"So'Te Proposed Solutions—and a Look Forecast," Look, Vol. 22, Mo. 21 (October 14, 1958), p. 41.

HeCALL'S

Kraner, Max, "The Teacher Who Taught Me to Hate," McCall* s , Vol. 84, No. 5 (February, 1967), pp. 36; 71-74.

“Hone Ec Was Never Liko This," ^oCal11 a , Vol. 84, No. 8 (.ny, 1967), pp. 32-34.

"Teacher of the Year," .-cCall' 3, Vol. 84, No. 9 ^June, 1967) pp. 62; 67—68.

"Teacher of the Year," McCall* s , Vol. 86, Mo. 6 (larch, 1968), p. 68.

Peters, William, "Tho Story Nobody Tells You," McCall* s , Vol. 85, No. 12 (September, 1968), pp. 36; 120-1,4.

NEWSWEEK "The Irish and the Hod," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 19 (November 5, 1956), p. 80.

"Around the Colleges," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 20 (Kover.iber I 2 , 1966), p . 95.

"Business in Education," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 20 (November 12, 1956), p. 95.

"Big inn on Campus," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 2 I (November 19, 1956), p . 82.

"Older and S rnrter," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 21 (November 19, 1956), p . 82 •

"Workshops," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 21 (Noveiiber 19, 1966), p. 82.

"The Poet at Greenup," Newsweek, Vol. 4 j, No. 22 (November 26, 195b), p. 94. 312 NEWSWEEK (Contd.)

"Venture In Teaching," Newsweek, Vol. 46, No. 22 (November 2b, 196b), p. 94*

"Anger on the Campus," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 23 (December 3, 1956), p. 59•

"School# and Soholars," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 23 (December 3, 19b6), p. 59*

"Seven Year# in S olitarv," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 24 (December 10, 1956), pp. 116-117.

"Vanishing C lassicists," Newsweek, Vol* 48, No. 24 (December 10, 195b), p. 117.

"Harsh Words," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 25 (December 17, 1956), p. 94.

"Soholarly Administrator," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 2b (December 17, 19bo), p7 94.

"What They Think," Newsweek, Vol, 46, No. 2b (December 17, 195o), p . 94 .

"Windfall from Ford," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 2b (Deoenber 24, 195b), p. 64.

"I An Hopeful," Newsweek, Vol. 46, No. 27 (December 31, 195b), p. 39*

"New Men, New Money," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 27 (December 31, 1956), p. 46 •

"A Superior History Man," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 27 (December 31, 19boj, pp". ~59-i0.

"What They Think," Newsweek, Vol. 48, No. 27 (December 31, 1956j, p. 40.

"Grad School Waste," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 1 (January 7, 1957), p. 46.

■’Scramble for a Degreet How Many Will Get Into College?" Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 2 (January 14, 19b'/), pp. 7b-79.

"The Final Tally," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 3 (January 2l, 1957), p. 67.

"Growing Pains," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 3 (January 21, 19b7), p. 67.

"Climbing Ivy," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 4 (January 2 8 , 1957), p. 63.

"Triple-Threat Man," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 4 (January 2b, 1957), p • 63. 313 NEWSWEEK (Contd.)

"Nais K itty ,n Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 5 (February 4, 1957), p. 7b.

"Scholars and Dollars, Article b,'1 Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 5 (February 4, 19b7), p. 7o.

"Quest for B illions," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 6 (February 11, I957),l*8b.

"Our Battered Language," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 7 (February 18, 1967), p. 96.

"The Big Boom in History," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 8 (February 26, 1957j, p. 113.

"The Married Student," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 9 (.arch 4, 1957), pp. 92-94.

"Unlikely to Succeed," Newsweek, Vol. 4B, No. 9 (!arch 4, 1957), p. 94.

"What They Think," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 9 (March 4, 1957), p. 92.

"Gloriously Contented," Newsweek, Vol, 4 j . No. 10 (March 11, 1957), pp. 102-103.

"Man from Delaware," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 10 (I.arch 11, 1957), p. 102.

"Teen 'Monkey Suits," News we etc, Vol. 49, No. 10 ( a r c h 11, 1957),

"200 Words l'or Refugees," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 11 (larch 18, 1957), p. T VT.

What They Think," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 11 (.’larch 18, 1957), p. 122.

"The Big Question Mark," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 12 (March 2b, 1957), p. 10b.

"Do Something About a Big Problem," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 13 (April 1, 1957), p. 103.

"High Cost of Learning," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 13 (April 1, 1957), p. 103.

"Dig Deeper to Learn," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 14 (April 8, 1967), pp. 104-106.

"'Light' on Orpenheiner," Newsweek, Vol. 4y, No. 14 (April 8, 19b7), pp. ^106-107»

"Those Who Teach," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 14 (April d , 1957), p. 107.

"Filling the Vacuum," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 15 (April 15, 1957), p. 102. NEWSWEEK lContd.)

"For Ageless Wisdom," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. lb (April 15, 1957), pp. 102-103.

"Religeon in Our Colleges," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. lb (April 22, 19b7), pp. lib - 121.

"About How to Read," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 17 (April 29, 1957), p* 98.

"The World in Texes," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 17 (April 29, 1957), pp. 9b-98.

"Are TheBe the Heat?" Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 18 (May 6, 1957), p. 74

"The Electronic Teachor," Newswotk, Vol. 49, No. 19 (.%y 13, 1957), p. 120.

"Our Girted Children," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 19 (Lay 13, 1957), p. 118.

"Parent Meads: Find *he Thousands Like TV's Robert otrori," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 19 ^.ay 13, 1 j 57), p. 118. "The Cribbers at l.ork," Newsweek, Vol. 45, No. 20 (Lay 20, 1957), p. 75.

"No Role for the Coed," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 20 (Lay 20, 1957 , p . 75.

"The Fullbright Filgri;-*," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 2 l (May 27, 19o7), p. 102.

"A Y.onderful Time," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 22 (June 3 , 1957), p. 97.

The Academies in the A-Age," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 23 (June 10, 1957), pp. 110-113.

"...and Topside Thinking," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 23 (June 10, 1957) p. 113.

"Learning's 'Lr. Different,'" Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 24 (June 17, 1957), pp. 114-lib .

"No Jobs Kanted," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 24 (Juno 17, 1957), p. 114.

"Electronic Classroom," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 25 (June 24, 1957), pp. 99-100.

"The Job...and the End," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 25 (June 24, 1957), p. 100•

"Students Cor.* to Us," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 2b (June 24, 19b7), p. 99. 315 NEK'S WEEK (Contd.)

"...What They Think," Newsweek, Vol. 49, No. 2b (June 24, 1957), p• 100•

"The * Confused* Young," Newsweek, Vol. 60, No. 1 (July 1, 1957), p. 7b.

"Emptying Shelves," Newsweek, Vol. bO, No. 1 (July 1, 1957), p. 76.

"Our Backward Adults," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 1 (July 1, 1957), p. 76.

"The Old School T itle," Newuweek, Vol. 50, No. 3 (July 15, 1957),

"What's the Teacher ’Worthy" Newsweek, Vol. bQillo. 3 (July 15, 19bV)» p • 91! •

"Snarter in Suix er," Newsweek, Vol. bO, No. 4 (July 1 2, 1967), p. 54.

"Push-Button Library," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 5 (July 1:9, 1957), p. 82.

"The Quiet Viay," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 5 (July 1:9, l9o7), p. 82.

"Integration—and Rone," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 8 (August 19, 1967), p. 81.

"Invitation to Feking," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 9 (August 19, 1557), p. 81 • "School Days--The Jan. The Shortage," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 9 (August 2o, 19c7), p. 70.

"The Carrots wer-j Tasty," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 10 (Septenber 2, I9t7), p. 71.

"A Sobering S ta tistic," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 10 (September 2, 1S57), p. 71.

"Southern Sohooling--The Negro Pupil," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 10 (Septenber 2, 19b7), p. 71.

"Listening Post," Newsweek, Vol. bO, No. 11 (Septenber 9, 1957), p . 3o.

"Prep-School Rush," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 11 (September 5, 1957), pp. 94-95.

"Teacher on tne Spot," Newswuek, Vol. bO, No. 11 (Septenoer 9, 1957), p. 95.

"...a;:d Double Cheok," Newsweek, Vox. 50, No. 12 (September lo, 1957), p. 110

"A University's Horizon," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 12 (September 16, 1957), p. 110. 316 NEWSWEEK (Contd.)

"Triumph of the Fair Co-ed," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 13 (Septenber 23, 1957), rp. oS-68.

"Robes of the Scholars," Newsweek, Vol. 5 0 , No. 14 (Septenber 30, ls b v J T T m ? . "Sense and Our Sohools," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 14 (September 30, 1957), p. US.

"Early Bookworms," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 15 (October 7, 1957), p. 69.

"The Priest at Princeton," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 16 (October 7, 1957), p. 69. "Left to ’Arite," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 16 (October 14, I9b7), p. 120. "Negro Schools," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. lb (October 14, 1957), pp. 47-48.

"Venture at Wittenburg." Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. lo (October 14, 1957), pTTZbT- "View From an Egghead," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. lb (October 14, 1957), pp. 120-128. "Classroom on the Dial," Nerowewk,Vol. 50, No. 17 (October 2 l, 19o7J, p. VE.

"Grades--Excellent," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 17 (October 2 l , 1957), p. 75. “Harking the Rounds," Ne»swesk, Vol. 60, No. 18 (October 28, 1957), p. 99.

"Building Brainpower," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 19 (November 4, 1957), p. 96.

"99 Percent to College," Newsweek,Vol. 50, No. 19 (November 4, 1957), p. 96. "What High Sohools Need," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 20 (November 11, 1958), p. 93* "Young ftviet Minds," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 21 (November 16, 1957), p. 85. "Churoh-School Money?" Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 22 (November 25, 19b7), p. 93.

"The PhD and Learning," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 22 (November 25, 1957), p. 93. 3X7 NEWSWEEK (Contd •)

"A Danger Point!" New week, Vol, 60, No. 23 (December 2, 1967), p. 69. "L et's Danoe," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 23 (December 2, 19o7), p. 69.

"Wrong About Red Schools," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 23 (December 2, 19b7), p. t>9.

"High Cost of Learning," Newsweek, Vol. bO, No. 2b (Deoember lb, 19o7), p . 10b•

"What They Think," Newsweek, Vol. bO, No. 26 (December lb, 1957), p. 10b*

"P.S. 191—Moscow," Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 2b (Deoember 23, 1957), p . 73 .

"Flunks, T ries, and Shooks," Newsweek, Vol. bO, No. 27 (December 30, 19cV ), p. w . ------

"School All Year," Newsweek, Vol. 60, No. 27 (December 30, 19b7), p. 58.

"Will It Fly?" Newsweek, Vol. 50, No. 27 (December 30, 1957), p. 58.

"How to Build a School," Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. 1 (January b, 1958), p. bb.

"How to Save Type," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 1 (January o, 1958), p. 65.

"Man Who Wakes You Up," Newsweek, Vol. b l. No. 2 (January 13, 1958), p. 8TTI

"Outlook for Aid," Newsweek, Vol. b l, No. 2 (January 13, 1958), p. 89•

"Who's in Who's Who," Newsweek, Vol. b l. No. 2 (January 13, 1958), pp. 84-85.

11183 Hewitt' s .. .Young Ladies," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 4 (January 27, 1958), pp. 90-51.

"How to Teaoh English," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 5 (February 3, 1958), p. 64. "Death of a Teacher," Newsweek, Vol. ol. No. b (February 10, 1958), pp. 7^-73•

"Parties and Lectures," Newsweek, Vol. ol, No. 6 (February 10, 19b8), p. 73.

"Blackboard Briefing," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 7 (February 17, 1958), p . 91. 318 NEWSWEEK (Contd.)

"Help for the Troubled," Newweek. Vol. 51, No. 7 (February 7, ly58), pp. 90-91.

"'We Envy nithout Daring to Imitate,*" Newsweek, Vol. bl, No. 7 (February 17, 19b8)» p. 90.

"Incident at Princeton," Newsweek, Vol. bl, No. 8 (February 29, I9b8), p. 92.

"liusoles and Minds," Newsweek, Vol. b l, No. 9 (March 3, 19b6), p. 84*

"The New Avalanche of College-Age Americana. . .Who Should Go, Who Shouldn't—And a C risis," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 9 (March 3, 19b8), pp. 8c-64.

"A College Comes Alive," Newsweek, Vol. bl, No. 10 (Maroh 10, 19bb), p. 77.

"Are Rus&iana Smarter7" Newsweek. Vol. bl. No. 10 (March 10, lyb8), p. 77.

"Cuddling—and a C ritic ," Newsweek, Vol. b l , No. 11 (March 17, l^b8), p. 90.

"Onward From Wabash," Newsweek, Vol. bl, No. 11 (March 17, 1958), p. yo.

" ’The Sm artest,'" Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. 11 (March 17, 19c8 ) , p. 90.

"Teaching the Talented," Newsweek, Vol. 61, No. 11 (Maroh 17, 1958), p. 90.

"The Athletes Got 'D'a,'" Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. 12 (:arch i,4, 19o8), p. 98.

"Do Away with Report Card-," Newsweek, Vol bl, No. 12 (March 24, 1958), p. 98.

"Never too O ld ...," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 12 (March c4, 19b8), pp. 98-99.

"Separating the Sexes," Newsweek, Vol. bl, No. 12 (March 24, 1958), p. 99•

"Filling a big Gap," Nowawceic, Vol. 51, No. 13 (Maroh 31, 1958), p. 90.

Are Teachers Any Good," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 13 Uiarch 31, 19o8), p. 90.

Brightness Isn 't Enough," Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. 14 (April 7, ly58), p . bO. 319 NEWSWEEK (Contd.)

"'Hard* and ’Soft'--What arc the C ritics Talking About?" Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 14 (April 7, 19&8), pp. 60-bl.

"Yale's 'Devils,'" Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 14 (April Y, 1958), pp. bO-ol.

"English Spoken Here?" Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. lb (April 14, 1958), p • 89*

"Hypnotic Learning," Newsweek, Vol bl, No. lb (April 14, 19b8), p. 84.

"Rapping Knuckles," Mewsweok, Vol. 51, No. 15 (April 14, 19b8), p. 84.

"Classroom and Cash," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. lo (April cl, 1958), p. 70.

"Salos-nan of Science," Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. lb (April 2 I, 1958), p. 70.

"Class of '58—Outlook," Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. 17 (April 1:8, 1956), p r. 94-96.

"Going Out into the Cold, Cruel World?" Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 17 (April 28, lybd), p. 94.

"Pointed," Newsweok, Vol. 51, No. 17 (April 2 8 , 1958), p. 95.

"Departure at Smith," Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. 18 (Nay 5, 1958), p. 105^

"tiuoh More for Many," Newsweek, Vol. bl , No. 18 (.ay b, 1958), p. 104.

"Chemistry by Camera," Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. 19 ^.Uay 12, 1958), p. 69.

"The Weapons We Need," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 19 (May 12, 1958), p. b9.

"Fisherman's ' Catoh,'" Newsweek, Vol. bl, No. 20 (May 19, 1958), p. 92.

"Harvard Honors All?" Newsweek, Vol. bl, No. 20 (May 19, 1958), p. 92.

"Land We Learn In," Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 20 (’lay 19, 1958), op. 92-93.

"Low Marks," Newsweek, Vol. 51,No. 20 (Lay 19, 1958), p. y3.

"The Art of Thinking, Newsweek, Vol. 51, No. 2l (lr.ay 2o, 1958), pp. bO-bl*

"Education of a Korean," Newsweek, Vol. bl. No. 2l (Nay 2 0 , 195o), p. bO-ol.

"Get Thera Into College," New&woek, Vol. bl. No. 2 I (May co, 1958), p. o2. 320

NEWSWEEK (Contd.)

"Dumb Luck," Newsweek. Vol. 51» No* 22 (June 2, 1958)* p* 58.

"Is ECAEF Ftopia?" Newsweek. Vol. 51* No, 22 (June 2, 1958), p. 58,

''Silly Season,” Newsweek. Vol. 51* No. 22 (June 2, 1958), p. 52.

"Comnotion at Cornell," Newsweek. Vol. 51* No. 23 (June 9* 1958), p. 73.

"The Executive Touch,” Newsweek. Vol. 51* No. 23 (June 9, 1958), p. 72.

"Laboratory on Wheels," Newsweek, Vol. 51* No. 23 (June 9* 1958), p. 73.

"Down to Frass Tacks About Hours of Schoolwork in What Russia’s and Europe’s Students Do—and How," Newsweek. Vol. 51* No. 23 (June 16, 1958),pp. 106-107.

"Biggest Campus of Them All," Newsweek. Vol. 51* No. 21. (June 23, 1958), p. 69.

"Education with a Mission," Newsweek. Vol. 51, No. 2U (June 23, 1958), p . 6 9 .

"There’s A Way," Newsweek. Vol. 51, No. 24 (June 23, 1958), p. 69.

"Greatest Givers," Newsweek. Vol. 51, No. 25 (June 30, 1958), p. 78.

"Quest For Millions, Newsweek. Vol. 51, No, 25 (June 30, 1959), p. 76.

"The Scale of Greatness," Newsweek. Vol. 51, No. 25 (June 30, 1958), p. 76.

"How To Make President," Newsweek. Vol. 52, No. 1 (July 7, 1958), p. 50.

"Periscoping Education," Newsweek. Vol. 52, No. 1 (July 7, 1958), p. 50.

"School Fables A- Facts I," Newsweek. Vol. 52, No. 1 (July 7, 1958), p. 76.

"Educators in a Squeeze," Newsweek. Vol. 52, No. 2 (July 14, 1958), pp. 80-81.

"Integration in South’s Schools.. .Stands Now," Newsweek. Vol. 52, No. 2 (July 14, 1958), pp. 80-81. 321 NEWSWEEK (Contd.)

"Stanford-in-Germany," Newsweek, Vol. 62, No. 2 (July 14, 1968), p. 80.

Moley, Raymond, "School Fables * Faots II," Newsweek, Vol. & 2 , No. 2 (July 14, 19b8), p. 6 8 .

"Parking Space in Texas," Newsweek, Vol. 52, No. 3 (July 21, 19b8), p. 84.

"Sigp of Life in Latin," Newsweek, Vol. t> 2 , No. 3 (July 21, 1968), p. 84.

"No Reason for 'MadnessNewsweek, Vol. be, No. 4 (July 28, 1968), p. 7o.

"Pupils--Pull 4 Tug," Newsweek, Vol. 62 , No. 4 (July 2 8 , 1958), p. 7o.

"As Students See Sin," Newsweek, Vol. 52, No. 5 (August 4, 1958), p. 44.

"The Language B arrier," Newsweek, Vol. 6 2 , No. 5 (August 4, 1968), p. 44.

"Freshman on Top," Newsweek, Vol. 62, No. 6 (August 11, 1958), p. 77.

"Red Students See Os," Newsweek, Vol. 62, No. 6 (August 11, 1968), p. 77.

"Brutal Talk," Newsweek, Vol. 6 2 , No. 7 (August 18, 196b), p. 86.

"I.Q.—How In tellectu al," Newsweek, Vol. 62, No. 7 (August 18, 1958), p • 85 •

"The New Aerie," Newsweek, Vol. 6 2 , No. 7 {August 18, 1958), p. 84.

"The 80 Percenters," Newsweek, Vol. 52, No. 8 (August 25, 1958), P e 50 •

"integration Hot Spot," Newsweek, Vol. 0 2 , No. 8 (August 25, 1958), p. 60.

"Creating a University," Newsweek, Vol. 52, No. 9 (September 1, 1958), p. 56.

"Integration Hot Spots," Newsweek, Vol. 6 2 , No. 9 (September 1, 1958), pp. 18j 19.

"Johnny Beware," Newsweek, Vol. 62, No. 9 (September 1, 1958), p. 55*

"College For All," Newsweek, Vol. 52, No. 10 (September 8, 1958), p. 60 . 322 NEWSWEEK (Contd.J

"Design for Careers," Neamweek, Vol. be, No. 10 (September 8 , 1958), p. 58.

"The Gradeles* School," Newsweek, Vol. 5k, No. 11 (September lb, 19b8), p. 76•

"Talented Teen-Agers," Newsweek, Vol. be, No. 11 (September 16, 1968), p. 7b.

"Dartmouth's Think Plan," Newsweek, Vol. be, No. 12 (September eZ, 19b8 ) , p . loo.

"What They Think," Newsweek, Vol. 5k, No. 12 (September k k , 19b8), p. 1 0 0 .

"Why Get Fanned," Newsweek, Vol. be, No. 12 ^September eZ, 1958), p. 1 0 0 .

"Brains Xake the Varsity," Newsweek, Vol. bk. No. 13 (September 29, 1958 ), p. 87.

"Pay Later to Learn," Newsweek, Vol. 5k, No. 13 (September 29, 1958), p. 87. lloley, Raymond, "Status of Our Teachers," Newsweek, Vol. 5k, No. 14 (Ootober o, 19o8), p. 9o.

"TV Schooling Any Goodt" Newsweek, Vol. tie, No. 14 (Ootober 8, 1958), p. 8 b *

"The Hoivsiok Sex," Newsweek, Vol. bk. No. 15 (October 13, 1958), p . 90*

"The Teo-Sec Problem," Newsweek, Vol. 5k, No. 16 (Ootober 13, 1958), p . 9 0 .

"The Young Hoods," Newsweek, Vol. bk, No. 15 (October 13, 1958), p. 90.

"Boosting the Brothers," Newsweek, Vol. be. No. lo (October k O , 1958), pp. 1 1 1 -llk .

"Calling the Junkman," Newsweek, Vol. be, No. 16 (October 20, 1968), P. Ilk .

"The Top Ten on F raternity," Newsweek, Vol. 52, No. lo (Ootober 20, 1968), p. 111.

"Peter Cooper's College," Newsweek, Vol. o 2 , No. 17 (Ootober 27, 19o8), p. 84.

" It's Yale t s • Harvard for Skulls," Newsweek, Vol. 5k, No. 17 (Ootober k7, 19o8), p. 84. 323 PARENTS'

Bacmeister, Rhoda W., "The Learning Years," Parents' , V© 1 . 3 1 , No. 11 (November. 19bt>), pp. 4o-47; 95-98.

Hecht, George J., "The Coming International Brains Raoo." Parents', Vol. 31, No. 11 (November, 19oo), pp. 3b; 74; 7b; 78;~B0; 62-83.

Havre a, Evelyn, "What To Do About High School Fraternities," Parents', Vol. 31, No. 11 (December, 19t>b), pp. 3o; 09-71. ~~

Wilson, Sloane, and Livingstone, Maxine, "More Schools For the Money," Parents', Vol. 32, No. 1 (January, 1957), pp. 32-33; 64-06.

"The Nation's Critical Shortage of Schools," Parents', Vol. 32, No. 2 (February, 1957), pp. 52-53; 80.

Brandon, Richard, "Teaching Kindergarten Is a Man-Sited Job," Parents' , Vol. 32, No. 3 (March, 1957), pp. 50-51.

Shields, Laura, "Painless Pedagogy," Parents', Vol. 32, No. 4 (April, 1957), p. 14b.

Wilson, Sloan, "A New Deal for Teachers," Parents’ , Vol. 32, No. 4 (April, 1957), pp. 40-41; 91-94.

Moffatt, James, "If You Want Your Child to Go to a Private School," Parents1, Vol. 32, No. 5 (May, 1957), pp. 42-43; 121-123.

Hecht, George, "The Calamity of Our Million School Dropouts," Parents*, Vol. 32, No. 9 (September, 1957), pp. 39; 100-101.

S&rgeant, Jeanne, "See Here Dick and Alice," Parents', Vol. 32, No. 9 (September, 19b7), pp. 4t>-47; 102.

Johnson, Eric Warner, "What Education for Living in 1975-20257" Parents', Vol. 32, No. 10 (October, 1957), pp. 50; 170-177.

Olson, James W., "Making Sure of C ollege," Parents * Vol. 32, No. 10 (October, 1957), pp. 52-03; 112-114.

Dyke, Barbara Hart, "Some Parents Make Me -ad," Parents' , Vol. 32, No. 11 (November, 1957), pp. 4b; I I 8 -I 2 O.

Heohinger, Fred M., "The Coining College Crisis," Parents * , Vol. 32, No. 11 (November, 1957), pp. 05; l24-l2b.

Komaiko, Jean R«, "Some Teachers Make Me Mad," Parents', Vol. 32, No. 11 (November, 1957), p. 45; 115-117.

Spieglor, Charles G., "Who Says Our Cnildren Don't Read," Parents', Vol. 32, No. 11 (November, 1957), pp. 40-41; 8 b-8 8 .

Hawes, Evelyn, "Our Eight O'clock Club," Parents' , Vol. 33, No. 1 (January, 1958), pp. 42-44; 8o. 324 PARENTS' (Contd.)

"Has SputnUe Taught Us a Lesson?" Parents 1 , Vol. 33, No. 2 (February, 19b8), p. 3b; 83.

Nixon, Richard W•, "Our Urgent Need for Better Schools," Parents', Vol. 33, No. 3 (Laroh, 19b8), p. 3bt 72.

Hechinger, Fred 11., "N^w Developments in Education," P arents', Vol. 33, No. 4 (April, 1968), pr. 3b; 66-87. —

Oprenheimer, Garrett, "Before They Go to College," Parents', Vol. 33, No. 5 (Lay, 1968), pp. 48-49.

Hechinger, Fred M., "Pro and Com The Year-Round School," Parents', Vol. 33, No. b (June, 1958), pp. ob; 108-111.

"Shut Ins Go to College," Parents' , Vol. 33, No. 6 (June, 1958), p. 111. Maisel, Albert Q., "An Inaginative Program to Spark Science Students," Parents', Vol. 33, No. 8 (August, 1958), pp. bO-bl; 101-103,

Hechinger, Fred L., How to Get Your Boy or Girl Into Col lege," Parents *, Vol. 33, No. 9 (September, 1958), pp. 36-37; 7b-78; 83.

Butterworth, Edvard L., "You Have to Fight for Good Schools," Farents*, Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 1958), pp. 47; 80-86.

Cohn, Jack, "This Is An Integrated School," Parents*, Vol. 33, No. 10 (Ootober, 19oo), pp. 59-60; 178-180.

Davenel, George, "Let's Lake the I.ost of Every Child," Parents', Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 1968), pp. b3; 106-112. '

Garber, liartin D., "School Lunch Teamwork," Parents' , Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 1958), pp. 74; lo3.

Hechinger, Fred 1!., "Is the School Crisis ua blaok as It's Pointed?" Parents', Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 195b), pp. 43; 146-149. Hoover, Mary B., "Guiding the Gifted," Parents' , Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 1968), pt>. 50; 90-9b.

Ladimer, Irving, "School Checkups Safeguard Health," Parents', Vol. 33, No. 10 (Ootober, 19b8), pp. 61; 180-183~

McLeod, John W., "Cheap Schools Cofat the ;.ost," Parents' , Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, I9b6), pp. 0 6 ; 114.

Omstein, Jacob, "Start Young With a Second Tongue," Parents', Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 19b8), pr . b6-67; 96-1012.

Shoemaker, Don, "What's the Score on Desegregation?" Parents', Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 19b8), pp. 58; 173-176. 325 PARENTS' (Contd.)

Stodola, Quentin C., "Tests and What They Tell You," Parents', Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 1958), pp. 56; 104.

"TV Comes to the Classroom," Parents' , Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 1958), pp. 55; 157-lbl.

Vosk, Jeanette, "First Aid for the Troubled Ones," Parents', Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 1958), pp. 62-53; 151-lb5*

Walker, Helen .Vaconber, "The School Lunch Teaches as Well as Feeds Your Child," Parents', Vol. 33, No, 10 (October, 1958), pp. 71-73.

Woodring, Paul, "What Should We Expect of Our Schools?" Parents', Vol. 33, No. 10 (October, 196o), pp. 45; lu7.

READER'S DIGEST

Vaisel, Albert, "Doc Harrington's Dawn Patrol of Younr Scientists," Reader's Digest, Vol. 69, No, 415 (November, 19bo), pr. 14^-146.

Hunt, Horton H., "There's No Substitute for Parents," Reader's Digest, Vol. 69, No. 4lo (December, 19oo), pp. 3y-42. (Frotn ’Together, December, 1956 .)

"No 'Problem Children' For Doris Marshall," Reader's Digest, Vol. 70, No. 418 (February, 1957), pp. 17o-80. (Fron tframatloVV October, 1966 . )

Runnel1, Frances, "The Teacher V/no Yrfon't Answer Quest ions , "Reader's Digest, Vol. 70, No. 420 (April, 19b'/), r: . 228-232. (From Together, -'..arch, 1957.)

Manchester, Harland, "The Surprising Growth of Educational T.V.," Reader*s Digest. Vol. 70, No. 42l (May, 1957), pp. 157-160. (From Television Age, April 8, 195V.) Baxter, Dr. Frank, "Points to Ponder," Reader's Digest, Vol. 70, No. 422 (June, 1957), p. 58.

Cooper, Irving Ben, "Salute to a Teacher," Reader's Digest, Vol. 70, No. 422 (June, 1967), pp. 154-160.

Stowe, Leland, "What You Need Nowadays to Get into College," Reader*s Digest, Vol. 71, No. 4^3 (July, 1957), pp. 40-45.

Rmnnell, Frances, "Dick Emery Teaches Them from Hand to Head," Reader's Digest, Vol. 71, No. 424 (August, 1957), pp. 148-152.

Harvey, Holman, "Do School Pupils Need Costly Palaces?" Reader * s Digest, Vol. 71, No. 42o (September, 1967), pp. 3 7 ^ 2 . 32b READER'S DIGEST (C ontd.)

Bakel, Carl* "Screen Test for Tomorrow's Schools," Reader's Digest, Vol. 71, No. 4^7 (November, 1957 ), pp. 14 c-14o T (From Saturday Review, August /4, 1957.)

Fope, Elisabeth, "Are Teen-Agers the Worst Drivers?" Reader's Digest, Vol. 71, No. 428 (December, 1957), pp. 7b-VB • CFrom Locall1a, Ootober, 1957.)

Keller, Helen, "Points to Ponder," Reader's Digest, Vol. 72, No. 429 (January, 1958), p. 19.

Tunley, Roul, "Johnny Can Read in Joplin," Reader's Digest, Vol. 72, No. 429 (January, 1958), pp. 41-44. (Vron Saturday Evening Post, Oetober 2 o, 1967.) ------

Linn, Edward, "Wiltwyekt Home of the Wild Ones," Reader's Digest, Vol. 72, No. 430 (February, 19b8), pp. 19i-19o. (From New York World Telegram and Sun Saturday Feature wlagaslne, January 4, 1958.)

Gunther, John, "Russia Rings the School dell," Reader's Digest, Vol. 72, No. 431 (March, 1958), pp. 17o-l?T: (From Inside Russia Today, New York* Harper & Brothers, 1956.)

R u rn ell, Frances, "Three Cheers for George Washington High!" Reader's Digest, Vol. 72, No. 431 (M&roh, 1958), pp. 65-89. (From National Parent-Teacher, Idarcn, 1 9 5 8 .)

Bath, Gerald Horton, "Points to Fondur," Reader's Digest, Vol. 7 2 , No. 432 (April, 1958), p. 237.

Murray, Don, "The Great Surfer Gold Rush," Reader's Digest, Vol. 72, No. 433 (May, 1958), ip. b6-72. (From Today's Living, April 13, 1958.)

Wilson, Sloan, "It's Time to Close the Carnival," Reader * s Pi gest, Vol. 73, No. 434 (June, 1956,), pp. 31-35. (From L ife , Larch 24, 1956.)

Shannon, Jones B ., "Religious Revolution on the Campus," Reader1a Digest, Vol. 73, No. 435 (July, 1958), pp. 107-109. (From Saturday Evening lo st, i>.arch 29, 1958.)

Mallei, Albert Q., "Opportunity For the Brilliant Science Students," Reader's Digest, Vol. 73, No. 43b (August, 1958), pp. 158-172. (From Parenus~r 7 August, 1958.)

Runnel1, Frances, "Education While You Work," Reader's Digest, Vol. 73, No. 437 (September, 1958), pp. 152-184. (From Today's L iving, August 10, 1958.)

Fadiman, Clifton, "The iisss in Education—’Who's Responsible?" Reader's Digest, Vol. 73, No. 438 (October, 1958), pp. 49-52. (From Holiday, August, 1958.) 32 7 READER'S DIGEST (Contd.)

Thompson, Dorothy, "LJust Schools B« Palaces?" Reader's Digest, Vol. 73, No. 438 (October, 1958), pp. 47-48. (From Ladles' Hone Journal, August, 1957.)

REDBOOK

Lader, Lawrence, "Hov We Can Help Troubled Children," Kedbook, Vol. 108, No. 2 (December, 19bb), pp. 34-35; 99-101. Baker, Falcon 0 ., "What Happened to the Three R's?" Kedbook., Vol. 106, No. 3 (January, 1957), pp. 32-33; Sb-fTb".

Black, Irma, "Will He Get a Good S tart in School?" Kedbook, Vol. 109, No. 4 (August, 1967), p. 80.

Davidson, B ill, "Why Young People Won't Take Chances," Redbook, Vol. 109, No. 5 (September, I6b7), pp. 2 t>j 95-98.

Lake, Alice, "Should Teachers Spank," Redbook, Vol. 110, No. 3 (January, 1958), pp. 39; 72.

"The Kind of Education Our Children Need," Editorial, Kedbook, Vol. 110, No. 4 (February, 19o8), p. 31.

Rowan, Carl, "We Led Our Children Into Trouble," Kedbook, Vol. 110, No. 4 (February, 1968), pp. 4 5 - 4 7 ; 5 5 - 6 7 .

Blaok, Irma Simonton, "Learning to Read," Kedbook, Vol. 110, No. 5 (March, 19b8), p. 12.

Henderson, Henry, "How To Help a Gifted Child," Kedbook, Vol. 110, No. 5 (Larch, 1968', pr. Ob-58; 106-107.

Hunt, Morton, "The People Your Child Needs," Kedbook, Vol. 11C, No. 6 (April, 19b8), pp. 45-4o; 94-95.

Black, Irma Simonton, "Learning About Friends Who Are Different," Redbook, Vol. Ill, No. 1 ( ay, 1968), p. 12.

Black, Irma SL”nnton, "The Right Tirie and Place for Homework," Redbook, Vol. I l l , No. 6 (October, 1958), p. 10.

"The Urgent Need For More Classrooms," E d ito rial, Redbook, Vol. I l l , No. 6 (October, 19b8), p. 33.

SATURDAY EVENING POST

"He Made Ole Miss a Menace," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 15 (October 13, 19bb), pp. ^ 2 ; 129-1^51. "Terror of the Big Ten," Saturday Evening P ost, Vol. 229, No. 16 (October 20, 1956), pp. 31; 11*7-1110. SATURDAY EVENING FOST (Contd.) 328 Donatelli, Rosemary V., "Will Your Child Fail In School!" Saturday sr-wEvening .----- Post, Vol. 229, No. 17 (October 27, 195b), prT S'li 56: Alderman, L. R., "Children Get Along Better At School When Their Parents Are Interested," Editorial^ Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 18 (November 3, 19bo), p. 1 0 .

"Oklahoma's L ittle Round Coach," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 18 (November 3, 19 o 6), pp. 31; llti-118•

Grimsby, Will, "Football's Craftiest Recruiter," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 19 (November 1 0 , 19b6), pp. SI, 100-102.

Gleason, William. (Red), "The Lorry Maestro of Michigan State," Satur- day Evening Post, Vol. 229, Ho. 20 (November 17, 19bb), pp. 37; T 5 b - 1 5 8 .

Storrs, Jeanne, "We're Lucky to be Teachers," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 20 (November 17, 19oo), 1L3-154.------

"Many Good Teachers Are 'Sub-Standard* to the ’ odern Educator," (E ditorial), Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 21 (November 24, 19t>b), p. 10. Hunt, Morton M., "The Truant Officer Learns to Smile," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 24 (December lb, 19bo)T pp. 30; TPS -lPo.------

Russell, Fred, "Winningest Basketball Coach," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 29 (January 19, I9b7), pp. To;' T4-7V; 78'.

Riokover, Rear Admiral H. G., U.J.N., "Let's Stop Wasting Our Greatest Resource," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 3b ( (March 2, ityoY)'t' pp." 108-112.

"Children Are Smarter Than You Think," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229 No. 36 (March 9, 19&7), pp. 26-29; 87-88.

Thompson, Craig, "How's Your Telephone Etiquettef" Saturday Evening Post, Vol. ;29, No. 37 (March lo , 19b7), po. 2 0 - 2Y j 58; t>l-b27

"At Last Arnerloan Students Can Get the Faots on Marxisml" Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 42 (April 20, 19b7), p. lS7 Jarman, Rufus, "The Senior Class Goes to Washington," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 229, No. 42 (April 2 0 , 19b7), pp. 24-2.); lc4-126.

"Science Can Provide the Basic Training that Latin Once Gave," Editor­ ia l, Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 1 (July 6 , 1957), p. 10

"Our Young Feople Haven't Been Told the Romance of Scienoe," Editorial Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 5 (August 3, I9b7), p. 10.

"Sui.u.«r Is When Parents Know Why Teachers Go Crazy," Editorial, Satur­ day Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. b (August 10, 19b7), p. 10. 529

SATURDAY EVENING FOST (Contd.)

"Some Communities Build Schools by Local Land Lease," Editorial, Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 7 (August 17, 1957), p. 10.

Hirshberg, A1, "Prodigy at Harvard," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 11 (September 14, 1957), pp. 38-39j 177.

Brown, Herbert L., "Are Public Schools Doing Their Job—Yes I" Saturday Evening P ost, Vol. 230, No. 12 (Septer.toer 2 l , 1957), pp. 39; 1 J 125,

Keats, John, "Are Public Schools Doing Their Job—Not" Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 12 ^September 21, 1957) , p. ^ 8 : TTV-llB.

Kahn, Roger, "The Headaches of Notre Dane." Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 13 (September 2 8 , 1957;, pp. 42; 13)3-139.

Dura lag, Lelvin, "The Woos of West Coast Football," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 15 (October 12, 1958), pp. M7; lOb-108.

Rowan, C arl, "The Negro in the North—Part I," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 2 3 0 , No. 15 (October 12, 1957) ,™pp7 3^-35; 74-78.

Rowan, Carl, "The Negro in the North—Part II, Saturday Evening Post, 'ol. 230, No. lb (October 19, 196 7 )pp • 44-4b; 65-88; 90.

Tunley, Roul, "Johnny Can Read in Joplin," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. C60, No. 17 TO tober 2o, 1957), pp. VIj 1(381 1 1 0 .------

I'allette, lual, "Jin: T .turn of the Tarheels," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 18 (November 2, 1957), pp. 30; 90-92.

Russell, Had, and Gallagher, Jack, "Sot.athing’ s Got to Give at Texas U," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 19 (November 9 , 1957*}, pp. 38-39; 111-113.

"Where Do Our Young People Get Such C.-azy Ideas About What Scientists Do," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 2 3 0 , No. 22 (November 30, 1957),

HoGuire, Frank, "How We Becajne the Champs," Saturday Evening P ost, Vol. 230, No. 24 (Deaember 14, 1957), pp. 25j 0 8 ; 90.

“I t ’s Time Our Children Were Taught the Facts About Communism," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 2o (December 2 8 , 1957), p m

"We Can’t Do Without Our Independent Endowed Colleges," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 2 3 0 , No. 28 (January 11, 1958), p.' lb.

Cope, . yron, "Amazing Half Pint," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 3l (February 1, 1958), ppT 19; oS-To. 330

SATURDAY EVENING POST (Contd.)

"Classical Training Does No Harm, Even to Young Scientists," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 2 3 0 , No. 32 (February 8, 19b8), p. 10

"Why Did It Take Sputnik To Wake Up the U.S.A7" Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 3 2 (February 8, 1958), p. 10.

"Owning and Operating A Car in High School Can Dull the Student's Zest for Learning," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 33 (February lo, 1958), p. 10.

Hanson, Earl H., "The Middle Way Is the Best Way," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 34 (February cZ, 1958), pp. 33; 1U4; 106.

"Retired Teachers Could Reduce the Pedagogue Shortage," Editorial, Saturday Evening Post, Vol. c30, No. 3o (llarch 8, 1955), p. 10.

"Don't Put Hobbles on schools That Really Educate," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 39 (lArch 49, 19o8), Editorial, p. 10.

Shannon, Jones B., Religious Revolution on the Camnua," Saturday Evening P o st, Vol. c30, No. 39 (.March 49, 19o8),

Noble, John Wesley, "The Coaoh Nobody wanted," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 230, No. 46 (May 10, 19b8), pp.'iil; 115-118.

Taylor, Frank, "ColonuJ Campus of tne Islands," Saturday Evening P ost, Vol. 230, No. 47 (May <.4, 19o8), pp. 35^39';' W-'S'St SB.

"Unbeaten 'i'ear.s Don't Inke Up for Mediocre tducHtion," E ditorial, Saturday Evening P o st, Vol. 2 0 I, No. 1 (July 5, 1958), p. 8.

"They Wouldn't Let Beetnovon Teaoh Musio in Indiana," E ditorial, Saturday Evening P ost, Vol. 231, No. 3 (July 19, 1958), p. 8.

Jarrell, aandall, "The Appalling Taste of the Age,“ Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 231, No. 4 (July 2 5 , 19o8), pp. 18-19; 44-45; 47-487

H ill, hva N., Sohool for Young Waders," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 231, No. 7 (August 16, 1958), pp. 25; 70-72.

"Our Night Colleges Are Entitled to Better Support," Editorial, Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 231, No. 7 (August lb , 1968), p. 10.

"Let's Not Get Hysterical About Scientific Education," Editorial, Saturday Evening P ost, Vol. 231, No. 9 (August 30, 1958), p. 10.

Gropius, Walter, "The Curse of Conformity," Saturday Evening P ost, Vol. 231, No. 10 (September o, 1958), pr".' 18-19; 51-52; 54.

Murray, Don, "Children of the E.upty World," Saturday Evening Post, Vol. 231, No. 11 (Septoiaber 13, 1958), pp • 29-30; 77-78; 5T7 331 SATURDAY EVENING POST (Contd.)

"How About Some Aoadenio Freedom for University and College Trustees," ...... ^ . Post, Vol. 4i31t No. 13 (September *7, 1958J, p. 10.'

Hamilton, Edith, "The Lessons of the Past." Saturday Evening Post, Vol. *31, No. lo (September ^7, 1958), pp. *4-*b; 114-117,

Paxton, Harry T., "A Visit With Bud Wilkenson." Saturday Evening Post, Vol. *31, No. 15 (October 11, 19b8), pp. 31 j 85-06.

Faurot, Don, "Is College Football Worth Saving?" Saturday Evening Poiat, Vol. *31, No. 16 (October 18, 19b8), pp. 56; 99-150.

TBS

"The P eace::jd cerTime, Vol. 0 8 , No. 19 (November 5, 19bo), p. 73.

"TV College," Time, Vol. 6 8 , No. 19 (Noverber b, 1956), p. 73.

"Goodbye to * Baiia,1" Time. Vol. t> 8 , No. *1 (November 19, I9bb), p. 58.

"The Jews Are Hosts," Tine, Vol. 08 , No. id 1 (November 19, I9b8), p. 58.

"Authors In the Nursery," Time, Vol. t>6 , No. *2 (November *b, 19bb), p. 40.

"Universities lust be Beggars," Time, Vol. 68, No. *2 (Novectoer 2o, 19bo), p. 4*.

"Getting Johnny to Read, Time, Vol. b 8 , No. *3 (Dooe:ber 3, 19bo), p. 7o.

"Goodbye to Griff," Tine, Vol. 0 6 , No. *3 (Dece ber 3, 19bb), p. 76.

"The Indispensable I-ian," Tire, Vol. o&, No. *3 (Deceiver 3, lybo), p « 77.

"Integrating the Blind," Tine, Vol. 0 8 , No. 24 (December 10, 19b6), pp. 8 1 - 8 2 .

"The P-oderate," Tine, Vol. bB, No. c4 (December 1 0 , 19bb), p. 81.

"The Racistrf Day," Time, Vol. b8 , No. 24 (December 10, 19bb), p. 81.

"The Delinquent Teachers," Time, Vol. 6 8 , No. 2o (December 17, 1956), p • 54.

"One of the Ablest," Time, Vol. b 8 , Ho. *5 (Dece-ber 17, 195b), p. 54.

"Extracurricular Tyooon," Time, Vol. 0 8 , No. 2o (December <-4, 19bb), p. 47. 332 T1UE (Contd.)

"Ford’s Gift," Tims, Vol. 68, No. to (December 2 4 , 19bb), p. 47.

"The Hell with Spelling," Tine, Vol. o8, No. 2o (December 24, 1966), p. 47.

"Is Your Sohool a Clambake?" Time, Vol. 66, No. 2b (Deoember 24, 19bb), p. 377“

"Publio Education, 1 9 b b Time, Vol. 0 8 , No. 2o (December 24, 19bo), p. 47.

"The Defector," Tine, Vol. 0 8 , No. 27 (December 3l, 195b), pp. 44-46.

"Dynamo at Pitt," Tine, Vol. b9. No. 1 (January 7, 1957), pp. 49-50.

"The Lest Dike," Time, Vol. o9. No. 1 (January 7, 1957), p. 49.

"Integration in Washington," Tine, Vol. o9. No. 1 (January 7, 1957), p. 49.

"Me Too D," Tine, Vol. b9, No. 2 (January 14, 1957), p. 80.

"The Perishable Resource," Time, Vol. o9, No. 2 (January 14, 1957), pp. 79-80,

"The Malady," Time, Vol. o&, No. 3 (January 21, 1957), p. 50.

"Something to Hope For," Tine, Vol. b9, No. 3 (January 2 l , 1967), pp. 60-51.

"A Chanoe at Normality," Time, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Junuary 28, 1957), p. b2•

"Here Cone the Vfar Babies," Time, Vol.-69, No. 5 (February 4, 1957), pp. 41-42.

"Dynamics A All That," Tine, Vol. 69, No. 6 (February 11, 1957), p. 43.

"Get-Together," Time, Vol. 69, No. 7 (February 18, 19b7), pp. 64; 66.

"The Quiet One," Time, Vol. b9, No. 7 (February 18, 1957), p. 63.

"Groton's Intentions," Time, Vol. bd, No. 8 (February 2b, 1957), p. 72.

"Miraole on the PotomAo," Tine, Vol. 69, No. 8 (February 2 b, 1957), pp. 72—73.

"Th« Visitors," Time, Vol. 69, No. 8 (February 2b, 1967), p. 72.

"Buckley & the Blight," Tine, Vol. 69, No. 9 (March 4, 1957), p. 71.

"The Hidden Ones," Time, Vol. 69, No. 9 (March 4, 1957), pp. 71-7t. 333 TIUE (Contd.)

"Broadening the S pecialist," Tine, Vol. t>9. No. 10 (Karoh 11, 1957), p. 43.

"Give Them Their Heads," Time, Vol. 69, No. 10 (March 11, 1967), p. 40.

"One Way to Kill a College," Time, Vol. b9, No. 11 (March 16, 1957), p. 49.

"Price of Neglect," Time, Vol. o9, No. 11 (March 18, 1957), pp. 49-50.

"Teacher's Champion," Tine, Vol. o9, No. 11 (March 18, 1957), p. 50.

"Away With the Crutohes," Time, Vol. 69, No. 12 (Larch cb, 1957), p ■ 9 1 «

"The Janitor," Time, Vol. b9. No. 12 (Maroh 2b, 1957), p. 91.

"The Drivel Poured Out," Time, Vol. o9, No. 13 (April 8, 1967), p. 41.

"The Ivy League," Time, Vol. 69, No. 14 (April 15, 1957), pp. 66; 90.

^ore of the best," Time, Vol. 69, No. 14 (April 15, 1957), p. 7.

"Jet the Student Free," Tine, Vol. 6~, No. 14 (April 15, 1957), p. 87.

"The Last Brake," Tine, Vol. 59, No. 15 (April 22, 1957), p. 54.

"Combat the -enace," Time, Vol. 69, No. 15 (April 2 9 , 1957), p. 58.

"Help on Celluloid," Tine, Vol. 69, No. 16 (April 29, 1957), pp.57-58.

"A Pleasure Lost," Tine, Vol. 69, No. 16 (April 2.-, 1957), p. 57.

"Out with Stout?" Tine, Vol. 69, No. 18 (May 6, 1957), p. 77.

"Federal School Aid—Do the States Want It?" Time, Vol. 69, No. 19 (lfay 13, 1957), pp. ob-o6.

"The Eyes of Texas," Time, Vol. o9, No. 20 (May cQ, 1957), p. 50.

"Morman Dynamo," Time,(Vol. 69, No. 20 (May 20, 19oV), pp. 48; 50.

"Eastward Hoi" Tine, Vol. 69, No. 21 (May 27, 1967), pp. 53-54.

"The Fire Setter," Time, Vol. b9, No. 21 (May 27, 19b7), p. 53.

"Report Card," Tine, Vol. b9, No. 21 (May 27, 1957), p. 54.

"Poets on the Farm," Tine, Vol. o9, No. 22 (June 3, 1957), p. 39.

"Resist the Mase," Tine, Vol. o9, No. 22 (June 3, 1957), pp. 39-40.

"Spring," Time, Vol. o9, No. 22 (June 3, 19b7), p. 39. 354 TIME (Contd.)

"Philanthopoid No. 1," Time, Vol. o9. No. 23 (June 10, 19b7), pp. t>0-o8.

"Mild-Mannered Maverick," Time, Vol. o9, No. 24 (June 17, 19b7), pp. o7-o8.

"0-R-D-E-A-L in Washington," Time, Vol. o9, No. 24 (June 17, 19b7), p. 67.

"For Freedom and Justice," Time, Vol. o9, No. cf> (June 24, 19b7), p. o2.

"Thou Shalt Not..*," Time, Vol. o9. No. 2o (June c4, 19b7), p. e>2.

"The Visitor," Tine, Vol. 69, No. 2b (June ck, 19b7), p. t>2.

"The Absentees," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 2 (July 8, 19b/), p. 34.

"Goodbye, Messrs. Chips," Time, Vol. 70, No. 3 (July lb, 19b7), pp • b4; o©.

"Exodus From Ole Miss," Time, Vol. 70, No. b (July 29, 19b7), p. 38.

" ’A Monstrous Thing,'" Time, Vol. 70, No. b (July 29, 19b7), p. 38.

"Razors At the Frontier," Tine, Vol. 70, No. S (July 29, 19b7), pp. 38; 40.

"Cotton Curtain," Tine, Vol. 70, No. o (August b, lyb7), p. 42.

"'Not Right and Not Soriptural,1" Tine, Vol. 70, No. 6 (August b, 19o7), p. 42.

"Old Masters in Houston," T ire, Vol. 70, No. 8 (August 19, 19b/), p. b2.

"Who's Who," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 8 (August 19, 19b7), p. b 2 .

"Find the Balance," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 9 (August 2 0 , 19b7), p. 34.

"Time for a oynthesis," Tine, Vol. 70, No. lo (September 2, 19b7), pp. bO; b2.

"The Integration Front," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 11 (September 9, 19b7), P . b3 .

"Let Freedom Ring," Tire, Vol. 70, No. 11 (September 9, 19b7), p. bb*

"Whero the Twain Meet," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 11 (September 9, l9b7), pp. 00-b^; oO.

"How Educated People Speak," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 12 (September lb, 19b7), p. b3« 336

TIME (Contd*)

"High School Researchers," Time, Vol. 70, No. 13 (September c3, 1967J, p. 69.

"Campus Idealism* 1 9 & 7 Time, Vol. 70, No. 14 ^September 30, 19b7), p • 7 c •

"A Modern MoGuffey," Time, Vol. 70, No. 14 (September 30, 1967), p. 7 c*

"The Ohio Six," Time, Vol. 70, No. 14 (September bO, lyb7), pp* 72-Yo.

"God and Man at Princeton," Time, Vol. 70, No. lb (October 7, 1967), p. 47.

"Scrambled Ciphers and Baoon," Tine, Vol. 70, No. lo (October 14, 19t> /) , pr* OU-ol •

"To Be Contxnued," Time, Vol. 70, No. lo (October 14, lyo7), p. 47.

"The Danger of Importance," Time, Vol. 70, No. 17 (Octobei cl, 19oV), pp. ba o4.

"Decision in Nevada," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 17 (OctODer cl, 19o/), p. 64.

"What Makes Them Good7" Time, Vol. 70, No. 17 (October cl, 19oY), P * e

"Levelheaded Individualist," Time , Vol. (0, No. 18 (October cS , 1967 J, pp. o9-70.

"Put Up—or Shut Up,“ Tine, Vol. 70, No. 18 (October c S , 1967), p. 7o.

"Philosopher of Hope," Time, Vol. 70, No. 20 (November 11, 19o7), pr. o3-64.

"The Vaniuning Teaoher," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 20 (November 11, 1907), p . 63.

What's Wrong," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 20 (Noverber 11, 1 jo 7;, pp. o4-o5.

"The No-Nonsense Kids," Time, Vol. 70, No. 21 (November 18, 19b7), pp. bl-64.

"Change tn© ihinking," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 22 (November Co, 19o/), p. 99.

"The xortuous PhD," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 22 (November 2b, 1967), pp. 99-100.

"Appetiser," Time, Vol. 70, No. 23 (December 2 , 1967), pp. 51; 63.

"Football Anyone?" Time, Vol. 70, No. 23 (December 2, 1957), p. 54. 35b TE.1E (Contd.)

"What Price Life Adjustment," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 23 (Deoember 2, 1957), pp. b£-54•

"The Dark Side of the Moon," Tine, Vol. No. 70, No. 2b (Deoember 16, 1957), op. bo-56.

"Shooting for the S ta rts," Time, Vol. 70, No. 2b (Deoember 16, 1957), p. bo.

"Genial R ealist," Time, Vol. 7 1, Ho. 2o (Deoember cZ, 1957), p. 55.

"That Old 'V«e Feeling,'" Time, Vol. 70, No. 2b (Deoember 23, 1957), p. 55.

"The Light That Failed," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 2o (December ^3, 1967), p . 55 .

"The Young A rtificers," Tine, Vol. 70, No. 2u (Deoember cZ, 1957), p. 55.

"The Big Ten," T1: .e, Vol. 71, No. 1 (January o, 1955), p. 32.

"Campus for the Lord," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 1 (January b, 19o8), p. 32.

"Delay for Dallas," Time, Vol. 71, No. 1 (January o, 1958), p. 32.

"Vocational Supplement," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 1 (January 6, 1958), p • 34 •

"Limited Boost," Time, Vol. 71, No. 2 (January 13, 1958), p. o3.

"The It an YiTio Played George," T lne, Vol. 71, No. 2 (January 13, 1958), p. 63.

"Religiosity & Falaver," Tine, Vol. 71, Nn. 2 (January 13, 195b), p • t> 3 *

"Shook in YJest Virginia," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 3 (January 20, 1958), p . 73 .

"The Painter," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 3 (January 20, 1958), p. 74.

"The Failures," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 3 (January 20, 1958), p. 74.

"How to be F irst Clast.," Time, Vol. 71, No. 4 (January cl, 1958), p. It •

"The Kansas City Trouble," Time, Vol. 71, No. 4 (January cl, 1958), p. 71.

"Spinach with Vinegar," Time, Vol. 71, No. 4 (January c l, 19ob), pp. 71-72. 337

TIME (Contd*)

"The Thame,” Time, Vol. 71, No. 4 (January £7, 1958), p. 72.

"Help Wanted,” Tine. Vol. 71, No. 5 (February 3, 1958), p. 48.

"The New M athenntleaTine, Vol. 71, No. 6 (February 3, 1958), p. 48.

"What*8 a S cien tist?” Time, Vol. 71, No. 5 (February 3, 1958), p. 48.

"The Boys fror Georgia,” Tine, Vol. 71, No. o (February 10, 1958), p. 3o.

"Outrage in Brooklyn,” Tina, Vol. 71, No. 5 (February 10, 1958), p. 3o.

"The Super and the Redhc-ad,” Tine, Vol. 71, No. 7 (February 17, 1958), pp. 71-72.

"Turn Then Out," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 7 (February 17, 19t>8), p. 71.

"Wasteland, USA, " Tine, Vol. 71, No. 7 (February 17, 1958), p. 7k.

7/hat Do You Mean?' 'N othing!'" Tine, Vol. 71, No. 7 (Febru-jry 17, 19o8), p. 71.

"Report Card,” Tine, Vol. vl, No. 8 (February <:4, 1958), p. 86.

"Uncle Sid," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 8 (February ^4, 1958), p. 82.

"ftantedi P re stig e,” Tine, Vol. 71, No. 8 (February c4, 1958), p. 82.

"The Crime of Minnie Lee,” Tine, Vol. 71, No. 9 iMaroh 3, 1958), p . 38.

"The New Mood," Time, Vol. 71, No. 9 (Larch 3, 19ob), pp. 39-40.

"The Trans format ion," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 9 ( j.rch 3, 1958), p. 40.

"All Year Cure—ALL," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 10 (Larch 10, 195b), p. o7.

"The Big Kindergarten," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 10 (..arch 10, ly58), p. b7.

"Report Card, ” Time, Vol. 71, No. 10 (fiiarch 10, 1958), p. 68.

"The New Physics C lass,” Time, Vol. 71, No. 11 (Larch 17, 15o8), pp. 41-42.

"The Teacher and the Jackass," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 11 (’.arch 17, 1958), p. 42 •

"The Troubleinakers," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 11 (March 17, 1958), p. 41.

"Two for the Money,” Tine, Vol. 71, No. 11 (Larch 17, 19bb), p. 42. 338 TBffl (C ond.)

"Caesar and God," Time, Vol* 71, No* 12 (March c4, 1968), p. 50.

"School and S k is," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 12 (Larch 24, 1958), p. 50.

"The Long Shadow of John Dewey," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 13 (March 31, 1968), p. 44.

"Colleges—Help Wanted," Tine. Vol. 71, No. 14 (Anril 7, 1958), p. 77.

"Muckers and Scholars," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 14 (April 7, 1958), p. 77.

"Parents—Unite’." Tine, Vol. 71, No. lb (April 14, 1958), p. 77,

"Parents vs. Teachers," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 15 (April 14, 1958), pp. 77-78.

"Back Talk," Tine, Vol. 71, No. lo (April 21, 19b8), p. 73.

"The Best Defense," Tine, Vol. 71, No. lo (April 21, 19b8), pp.73-74.

"Gifts of the Vieek," Time, Vol. 71, No. lo (April 21, 1958), p. 74.

"Teacher's Crime," Tine, Vol. 71, No. lo (April c l, 19t>8), p. 74.

"The Money Tree," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 18 (Lay 5, 19&8), p. 40.

"Training for Brains," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 18 (May 6, 1958), p. 39.

"The Language Merchants," Tir.e, Vol. 71, No. 19 vLay 12, 1958), pp. 7b-Vo.

"Ransom Harvest," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 19 (.’ay lc, 1968), p. 75.

"The Good Teacher," T lne, Vol. 71, No. 20 (Lay 19, 19b8), pp. 44-46.

"The Taxpayer View," Tii.e, Vol. 71, No. 20 (May 19, 1958), p. 44.

"After-School Scholars," Time, Vol. 71, No. c2 (June 1968), p. 48.

"integration's Next Battle," Time, Vol. 71, No. 22 (June 2, 1958), p. 48.

"The Clean-Cut Kid," Time, Vol. 71, No. 23.(June 9, 1968), p. 42.

"Quiet Day at Little Rock," Time, Vol. 71, No. 23 (June 9, 1958), p. 42.

"Cash for Yale," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 24 (June lo, 1958), p. 55.

"Repaying the Rent," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 24 (June l o , 1968), p. 56 339

TIME (Contd.)

"Education Race (Contd.)," Time, Vol. 71, No. to (June 23, 1958), p . 73 •

"Hymning Harvard's Sona," Tine, Vol. 71, No. 'do (June 30, 1958), pp. 50; 02•

"The 11,000 Word," Time, Vol. 71, No. 2o (June 23, 1958), p. 73.

"Pre-ohewed Classics," Tine, Vol. 72, No. 1 (July 7, 19b8), p. 55.

"The Pursuit of Excellence," Tine, Vol. I'd, No. 1 (July 7, 1958), pp. b5-b0.

"Goodbye, Messrs. Chips," Time, Vol. 72, No. 3 (July 2 l , 1958), pr . ob-oo.

"The Big, Big C," Tine, Vol. Id, No. 4 (July 2 8 , 19b8), pp. 4b-47.

"PhD at Sat," Tine, Vol. 72, No. 4 (July 28, 1958), p. 47.

"The Language Barrier," Tine, Vol. 72, No. 5 (August 4, 1958), p.p. 52-53.

"Transmutation," Tine, Vol. It, No. 5 (August 4, 19&8), p. 52.

"Wistfully, the Yteed," Tine, Vol. It, No. 5 (August 4, 1958), p. 52.

"Dead Cain for Federal Aid," Tine, Vol. 7 2 , No. o (August 11, 1958), p. 58.

"Leas Circus, Lore School," Tine, Vol. 72, No. 6 (August 11, 1958), pp. 58-ba.

"Hie, liaec, Hoax," Tine, Vol. ft, No. 7 (August 18, 1958), p. 8 8 .

"Integration A Defiance," Tine, Vol. 72, No. 7 (August 18, 1958), p. 58. "The Foor Get Richer," Tine, Vol. 72, No. 7 (August 18, 1958), pp. ob-7C.

"English Spoken Here," Tice. Vol. It, No. 8 (August 2 b, 1958), p. 45.

"Exam for Sale," Tine, Vol. 72, No. b (August tb, 1958), p. 45.

"Films th rt Teach," Time, Vol. 72, No. 9 (September 1, 195b), pp. 52-53.

"Hew Physios (Contd.)," T i e . Vol. 72, No. 9 (Softe nber 1, 1958), p. 53.

"Some Aid, Sore Trade," Time, Vol. 72, No. 5 (September 1, 1958), p. 52.

"English Taught Hore," Time, Vol. 72, No. 10 (September8, 1958), p. 63. 340 TIME (Contd.)

"The Rise of Harvey Ludd," Tine > Vol. No. lo (^ep^onbor b ^ 19b8 ) f p. 60.

"Try School Today," Time. Vol. 72, No. 10 (September 6, 1958), p. tiO, "Home of the Doolies," Tine, Vol. 7dt No. 11 (September 15, 1956), p: . 41-42.

"The Idea of Freedom," Tlne, Vol. 72, No. 12 (September 22, 1958), P ■ bD «

"Atomic Flayhouse," Tine, Vol. 7 c, No. 13 (September c9, 1958), p. 55. "Appointment of the W-ek," Time, Vol. 72, No. 15 (October 13, 1956), p. 4c.

"The Organization Scholar," Tine, Vol. 7 c, No. 15 (October 13, 1958), nr. "4"o-47. "Joe Knowledge," Tine, Vol. 7ct No. 17 (October 27, 1958), p. 71.

"Oberlin’s l2oth," Tine, Vol. lct No. 17 (October 27, 1958), pp. 71-72.

U.S. NEVIS * WORLD REPORT

"Now It's 'Integration' on Fraternity Row," U.S. News ic World Report, Vol. 41, No. 19 (November 9, 1950 ), pp." 9^-92 • ' " " "How Eixed Schools are Changing Nation's Capital," U.S. Ne..s & World Report, Vol. 41, No. 21 (November co, Iboo), p. 110. " ......

"Avalanche of Pupils," U.S. News & World Report, Vol. 41, No. 22 (November 30, 19oo)T pp. B-'S". Hackman, Dr. Arnold, "A Husinessnan1 s View on the "Failure of Education,'" U.S. News & ^0**^ Report, Vol. 41, No. 22 (November 30, l9oo),' p'p* 63-89. "An Interview ith Dr. Arthur Hestori We Are Less Educated Than 50 Years Ago," U.S. News ft. World Report, Vol. 41, No. 22 (November 30, l5b6), pp. 0&-B2* "New Shag For School 'ands," U.S. Nev.s A Y«orld Report,"Vol. 41, No. 22 (November 30, 1950 ), p. n t r "Where Football Isn 't Big Business," U.S. News AWorld Report, Vol. 41, No. 22 (November 30, 19oo), p. 577 "Born Teacher," U.S. News A World report. Vol. 41, No. <-3 (December 7, 19o6),' p ."20. “ 541

U .S. NEWS A WORLD REPORT (Contd.)

"Rise in College C osta” U.S. News & World Report. Vol. 43, No. 5 (February 1, 1957), pV b s ; —

"TV's Test in Classroom Here's Whut It Shows,” U.S. hews A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 6 (February 8, 1957), pp. 52-bry’.

"Who'll Get the Billions in School Aid,” U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 42, No. o (February 8, 19b7), pp. 48-feO.

"Dad Never Had It Like T his,” U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 42, No. 8 (February 22, 1957), pp. 40; 43. *

"Scholarships* Next 'Fringe Benefit?'” U.S. News A Yiorld Report, Vol. 42, No. 9 (Larch 1, 19c>7), pp. 108-109.

"Year-Round Schools—An Idea That's Coning Back,” U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 4c, No. 9 (^arch 1, 19t>7), pp. 32-34.

"Change in the Sohools--baok to the 3 R's?” U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 72, No. 11 (March lo, 1957), pp. 38-4^; 122-124; ISoT

"First Graders Below Average in the Nation's Capital," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 72, No. 13 (March 29, 1957), p. 40.

"College Costs* Up," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 42, No. 14 (April 15, 19&7), p. 12.

"If You Want to Send Your Child to College," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 42, No. 16 (April 19, 19o7), pp. 75-78.

"$100 a Week Is Con. on For the Clas^ of '57," U.5. News A World Report, Vol. 4c, No. 20 (ilay 17, 1957), pp. 45-4o; 48-49.

"Studying for Music," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 4c, Ho. 21 (Lay c4, 1957), p . &4.

"Are We Less or better Educated than oQ Years Ago?” U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 4c, No. 23 (June 7, 1957), pp. IcO-lfcO.

"Crisis in the Colleges," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 42, No. 24 (June 14, 1957), pp. 48-50; 53-o0; V3-05.

"Are We Less or Better Educ»ted Than 50 Years Ago?" U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 4r, No. 25 (June cl, lao7), pp. 114-121.

"That Bond Put Away for ColUg< Doesn't Look So Big Now," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 1 ^July 5, 19o7), p. 54.

"Pregnancies Grow in Vi'at,hington Schools," U.S. Nev.s A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 2 (July 12, 1957), pp. 55-69. 342

U.S. NEWS A WORLD REPORT (Contd.)

Vandersliok, H.R., "What One Town Learned in 10 Years of Year-round School," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 6

"Who Killed School Aid," U.S. Newa A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 5 (August 2, 1957), p. 12.

"Who Killed the School Bill--How Blame is Passed Around," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 6 (August 9, 1957), p. 657

"Integrationiats1 Target," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 7 (August lo, 1957), pp.- 14; 16.

"To Solve the College Problem," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 7 (August 16, 1957), p."Ti157

"Integration* The Opposition Grows," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 8 (August B3, 195/), p. o.

"How A College Student Can Get A Loan," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 9 (August 30, 19b'/), p7~YV.

"As Schools Open, Few More aro Mixed," U.S. News A World R eport, Vol. 43, No* 10 (September o, 1957), pp. 44; 4o.

"Classroom, Teachers--Still Not Enough," U.S. News A WorldReport, Vol. 43, No. 10 (September o, 19 o 7 ) ,~ppV 90-91 •

"Are Taxpayers Getting Their tnney's Worth in Schools?" U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 11 (September 13, 195"/;, pp. 50-5<:.

"Few Negroes Attend White Schools In Border, South," TT.C. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 11 (September 13, 1957J, pp. 31-3*:; 5i7

"Pawtucket, R»I»," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 13 (September 27, 196/), p. 6.

"How Princeton Tried to Oust Its Catholic Chaplain," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 14 (October 4, 195 7), pp. 114-1lb.

"Books and Budgets," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 18 (November 1, 1957), p. lt)9.

Archer, Glenn L., "Two Controve. sial Issues," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 20 (November 8 , 19 5 7~],p p. 134-135.

Keeney, Barnaby C., "Money Trouble in Colleges—and a Plan to Relieve I t »V U.S. Newa A World Report, Vol. 43, No. BO U’ovenbur ti, Y9o7), pp. 100-101.

"The 3 K's in rtussla Are Really Tough," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 43, No. *:1 ^November lb, 195/)7 rr. 137-141. 343 U.S. NEWS A WORLD REPORT (Contd.)

Toller, Dr. Edward, ’’We Have Suffered a Very Serious D efeat," U.S. Newa A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 2 l (Novenber lb, 19b7) , p. t>b.

"Ex-President Tells Why U.S. Has Shortage of Scientists," U.S. Newa A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 23 (November c9, 19ov), p. 15. "Policeman in School Corridors," U.S. New* A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 24 (December o, I9b7), p . ^4.

Rickover, Rear Adn. H. G. , U.S.N., "A Size-Up of What's Wrong With American Sohools," U.S. New^ & World Report, Vol. 43, No. t4 (December o, l9o'/), pp. 8o-91.

Those 'Good1 Soviet Schools--Not For A ll," U.S. l.'ew. A World Report, Vol. 43, No. 2o (December 13, 19o'/), n; . 8o-B7. "New Report on Hon Crowded Colleges Are Getting," U.S. News & World Report, Vol. 43, No. 2o (December 20, ISbYJ, p. 14. "Engineers--Too Many or Too Few?" U.S. News <5-Vi'orld Report, Vol. 44, No. 2 (January 10, 19b8), pp. 0C-91. "Who Will Get the Billion in School Aid?" U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 2 (January 10, 19o8), r t V 85-o7'. Boring, 1.,, "Will Scholarships (jive U.S. Bettor Trained Scientists?" U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 4 (January c.4, I9b8), 7 r. 78; 5t).

Griswold, A. Whitney, "’Symptoms of 111 Health in Education*--Four Years Ago," U.a. Newa A ’World Report, Vol. 44, No. 4 (JanuHry 24 ,—l9o8 ) , pp. ’7o-l/7. K illian, James R., J r ., "White House Missile Expert Takes a Look at U.S. Schools," U.S. News & World Report, Vol. 44, No. 4 (January 24, 19Stf), pp. 63-04. "'Thousands of American Children Are Denied Competent Teaching,'" U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 4 (January 24, 19o8), pp. 84-85. "What Went Wrong With U.S. Schools?" U.J. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No . 4 (January 24, 19o8), ;p. o o - 7 7 .

"Who Needs Help L!ost--Student.s or Colleges?" U.S. News A World Re]ort, Vol. 44, No. 4 (Janu u'y <:4, 19 l>6), p. lo. "New York Schools Under Guard," U.S. New3 A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 5 (January 31, 19t>8), p. 1U. "Biggest City’s N ight: are--Its Crime Ridden Schools," U.S. N ews A World Report, Vol. 44, No. o (Fobr’nry 7, 19t>8), pp. 4b-S0. 544 U.S. NEWS A WORLD RLPORT (Contd.)

"About Ike's Plan For Scholarships#” U.S. Nev.’S A World Report# Vol. 44, No. 6 (Februf-ry 7# 195BT, p. Vo. ’

"What Your Money Buys When You Build A School," U.S. Ne* s A World Report# Vol. 44, No. b (February 7, 1958), pf . 51-53.

"More Special Schools for Juvenile Hoodluna?" U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 7 (February 14# 19b8), p. lB.

"Bad S p eller,” U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 8 (February cl, 19o8), p. 10.

Lisenhower, -lilton S., "Ho* to Sot Setter Schooling,” U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 8 (February 21, 1958) ,~~ppT~ 56-75.

"Latest on Crisis in New York Schools,” U.S. News A Y/orld Report, Vol. 44, No. 8 (February cl, 1958), ; p. 40; 43-44.

"Preparation for College," U.S. News A Y.orld Report, Vol. 44, No. 8 (February 2l, 1958), p. 78.

"TV Scholars,” U... News A World Report , Vol. 44, No. 8 (February 21, 195& ), p. IT.

"Problems in the Classroom," U.S. News A World R eiort, Vol. 44, No. 9 (February 28, 1958), p. b.

"Wh:.t Principals Want Johnny to Learn," U.S. Newa A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 9 (February 28, 19b8), p. 14*

"Tougher Study Load for U.S. Students," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 10 (.V.aroh 7, 1958), p. 14 *

"Teacher Shortagei How Real?" U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 12 (Larch cl, 19b8), pp. 75-82.

"Junior Collegouj Lo«. Coat Answer to Crovrded Campuses?" U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 18 (Lay 2, 1958), j ; . 77-Ct).

"Big Need: New l ediail Schools," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 19 (Lay 9, 19oo), pp. 72-7$^

"The Debate Qvur quality of U.S. Schools," U.S. Nev.s A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 20 (.May lo , l9o8), pr. 9 8-"10 2; 104.

"Uncrowded Colleges," U.S. News A World Report, Vol. 44, No. 20 (Lay lo, 1958), p. 85. ' '

"Job Outlook for Col logo Graduates," U.S. News A Y/orldReport, Vol. 44, No. 21 (May 23, 1958), p. 6. 345 U.S. NEWS 4 WORLD REPORT (Contd.J

Kvaraceus, W. C., "Why Youngsters Go Wrong.. .Wh;;t Should He Done About I t," U.S. News 4 World Report, Vol. 44, No. 22 (Lay 30, l&SFT; pp.' 70-77. ------

"When Violence Hits the School," U.S. News 4 W'orld Report, Vol. 44, No. 22 (Lay 30, 19o8), ; p. b^-68.

"Tho 'Three R*s'--and lore—Are Coning Hack," U.S. News 4 World Report, Vol. 44, No. ^4 (June 13, 1968;, pT~. 73-79.

"Is U.S. Really Too Stingy With Its Schools?" U.S. News World Report, Vol. 4o, No. 1 (July 4, 19b8), rp. o8-71.

"New Aid for Schools, Sfudenta--Who Can Get It and How," U.S. News 4 World Report, Vol. 4b, No. 11 (Septenber lc, 1958)” pp. 78-80.

"College Scholarships," U.S. News 4 World Report, Vol. 45, No. 12 (Septectoer 19, 19b8), p. 93.

"it Will Take Lor” Work No». to Get a Diploma," U.S. News 4 World Report, Vol. 4b, No. 14 (Ootober 3, 19b8), pp. 48-50.

"T.V. Teaching Gets a Trvout," U.S. News 4 World Report, Vol. 45, No. 14 (October 3, 1958), pp. 73-75.

"Abolish 14,OCX) U.S. High Schools?" U.S. News 4 World Report, Vol. 4b, No. 17 (October c.4, 1958), p. 10. 346 BIBLIOGRAPHY

PERIODICALS

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Berelson, Bernard, "Who Read3 What books and Why," Saturday Review of Literature (May 12, 1951), pp. 7-8; 30-31.

Berelson, Bernard, and Saltor, Patricia, "Majority and Minority Americans! An Analysis of ...agazine Fiction, Public Opinion Quarterly, No. 10 (194b).

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Morgan, W. L., and Le&hy, A. M., "The Cultural Cont«nt of Cen

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BOOKS

A llport, Gordon, The Nature of Prejudice. Garden City, Nev. York* Doubleday & £o . , Tnc ., l9sfe .

Bamouw, Erik, Hass Co.:. ■unication t Television, Radio, Film, Press. New York* Rinehart A Co., T9bt>. ' ......

Bar run, Jacque, and Graft, H-nry F., The -Modern Researchers. New York* Hi*rcourt, Brace k Co., Inc., 19'fjV.

Bartun, Jacques, Teacher in America. Boston* L ittle , Brown k Co., 1945.

Becker, Carl, Modern Democracy. New Haven* Yale University Press, 1941.

Berelson, Bernard, Content Analysis in Communications Research. Glencoe, Illinois'*' The" Free Fross, 11)52.' —— —— — Berelson, Bernard, "Who Reads 'What Books and Why," in itosonberg, Bernard, and White, David (eds.), Mass Culture* The Popular Arts in An.erica. Glencoe, Illinois* Free Press, 195Y. 346

BOOKS (Contd.)

Braneld, Theodore, Toward a Reconstructed Philosophy of Education. New York* The- Dryden Press , 195o.

Campbell, Angus, Gurin, Gerald, and f i l l e r , Warren E., "Television and the Election, in Katz, Daniel, et al •, Public Opinion and Propaganda. New York* The Dryden Press, 19’5¥T"

Canpbell, Angus, and Detzner, Charles A., "Books, Libraries and Other Media of Cor~:unicat ion," in Katz, Daniel, e ta l., Public Opinion and Propaganda. New York* Dryden fV ess, 1954. Cantril, Hadley, e ta l., The Invaa ion From Lars. Princeton* Prince­ ton University PressyT9^0.

Chapin, Richard, Mass Conriunloution. East Lansing* Michigan State University Press, 19b7.

Cherry, Colin, On Hunan Com.xmloation. New York* John Y/iley A Sons , Ino .V YJfeY.

Chitwood, Oliver Perry, A History of Colonial Anerloa. New York* Harper A Bros., 1931 •' '

Conant, James B., The American High School Today. New York* McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 195b.

Continuing Study of Magazine Audlencos, Report No. 8. New York* OrossleyT iu o l» 4 o .

Continuing Study of Magazine Audiences, Report No. 9. New York* Crossley, Inc., 1947.

Counts, George S., Education and American C ivilization. New York* Bureau of Publications, 'Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952.

Cubberly, Elwood F., Public Education in the United States. Boston* Houghton M ifflin "CoT, 1919.

C urti, Merle, "The Hoots of American Loyalty. New York* Columbia University Press, lb4t>.

Dale, Edgar, "introduction," in Henry, Nolson B. (ed.), Mass .~edia and Education, F ifty-third Yearbook of the NSSE. Chicago * Vhe University of Chicago Press, 19b4.

DeBoer, John J ., e t a l ., Education and the Mass Media of Corn unioat ion. Chicago* National Council of1 Yeao'he'rs of anglish, 1950.

DeGrazia, Sebastian, The Political Co. junlty. Chicago: The Univer­ s ity of Chicago Press, 194&. 349

BOOKS (Contd.)

Dio Icons , Charles* Hard TineB. London: Nonesuch Press, 1938*

Dulles, Foster Rhea, Twentieth Century America. New York* Houghton l if f l i n Co., 1945.

Fearing, Franklin, Social Inpact of the Mass Media of Con. unicat ion," in Henry, Nelson B. (ed.), Matia Media and Education, Fifty- third Yearbook of the N3SL. Chicago: Tho University of Chicago Press, 1954.

Finley, Peter Dunne, Mr. Dooley at his Best, ed.,Ellis, Elmer. New York* Charles 3crlbner's Sons, 1938•

Foff, Arthur, "The Teaoher >is Hero," in Foff, Arthur, and Granbs, Jean, Readings in Education. New Yorki Harper A Bros., 1956.

Frasier, George Willard, An Introduction To the Study of Education. New Yorki Harper A Bros., 19bo•

Fronn, Erich, The Forgotten Language. Her.’ Yorki Rinehart A Co., Inc •, 19STI ------

Gilchrist, Robert S, Dutton, Wilbur H., and Wrinkle, William L., Seoondary Education for American Democracy. New York* Rinenart A tfo.Y In c ., 1957.

Granling, Oliver, A.P.i The Story of News. Nev.- York* Farrar A Rinehart, Inc., 194b.

Havighurst, Robert J., and Neugarten, Bernice L ., Society and Education. Boston* Allyn A Bacon, Inc., 1957.

Henry, Nelson B. (ed.), Mass Media and Education, F ifty-third Year­ book of tho National Society ior VFTe Study of Education. Chicago* The University of Chicago Press, 1954.

Hockett, Homer Carey, Political and Social Growth of the American Peoplei 149B-18 o 5 . New York* The Macmillan ^loV) ll?4b.

Ho viand, Carl I ., "Effects of the Mass Media of Communication," Handbook of Social Psychology, ed., Lindzey, Gardner. Cambridge, Mass.* Addison-Wealey Publishing Co., 1954.

Hovland, Carl I ., et a l •, Experiments on Mas a Communication. New Haven: Yale University PreVs, 19o2.

Hutchins, Robert J..., Kducc.tion for Freedom. Baton Rouge, La* Louisiana State University Press, 194o.

, The Higher Learning in America. New Haven: Yale Tiniversity Press, 19^5. 350

BOOKS (Contd.)

Johnson, B. Lamar, General Education in uhe American High School. New Yorki Scott, Fores.-an 4 Co.,' 1941.

Kass , Babette, "Overlapping Magazine Reading! A New Method of Determining the Cultural Level of Magazines," in Lazarsfeld, Paul F., and Stanton, Frank N., Communications Hesearchi 1948-1949. New Yorki Harper A Proa., 1949.

Katz, Daniel, e t a l ., Public Opinion and Propaganda. New Yorkt The DryderTTress, 195^.

Katz, Elihu, and Lazarsfeld, Paul, Personal Influence. Glencoe, Illinoisi The Free rre a s, 19b5.

Kelley, Earl C., and Raaey, Marie I ., Education and the Nature of Man. New Yorki Harper A Bros., l9b<:.

Kendall, Patricia, and Wolf, Katherine, "The Analysis of Deviant Cases in Comrunlection* Research," in Lazarsfeld, Paul, and Stanton, Frank, Communications Researchi 1948-1^49. New Yorki Harper A- Bros., 1949.

Kitt, Alice S., and Gleich«r, Daniel B., "Determinants of Kating Behavior,” in Katz, Dani^ " 1 tion and Propaganda. New Yorki

Klapper, Joseph T., The Effects of Maas Media. New Yorki Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University, 1949.

Knapp, Robert, An I.V .I. Manual For Preoinot Work. Chicagot Independent Voters of Illin o is.

Koch, Adrienne, The Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson. New Yorki Columbia Univers iiy P^ress , 1943.

Langdon, Grace, and Stout, Irving W., Helping Parents Understand Their Child’s Schools. New Yorki Frentioe-Hall, Inc., 1957.

Lazarsfeld, Faul, Berelson, Bernard, and Gaudet, Helen, The People*s Choice, in (ed.) Peterson, William, American Soclal~!Pattorns7 Garden City, New Yorki Doubleday 4 to .. Inc., l$6o.

Lazarsfeld, Paul, and Kendall, Virginia, ”The Communication Behavior of the Average American! Some Tables," in Schramm, William, The Process and Effects of Mass Communication. Urbana, ill.i The University of Illinois Press, 1954.

Lazarsfeld, Faul, and Merton, Robert K, "Mass Comainication, Popular Taste, and Organized Social Action," in (eds.) Rosenberg, Bernard, and While, David M., Mass Cultural The Popular Arts in America. Glencoe, Illinois i' the Free Fres3, ~TW T.------551 BOOKS (C o n td .) Lazarsfeld, Paul F., and Stanton, Frank N. (eda.), Corarumioatlons Researchi 1948—1949. New York* Harper 4 Bros., 1943- L erner, Max, America As a C iv iliz a tio n . New York* Simon 4 S c hus te r , 1958

Magazines for Advertising. New York* Magazine Advertising Bureau, 1953* "

Mercer, Blaine, and Carr, Edwin R., Education and the Sooial Order. New York* R inehart 4 Co., 1957T

Merton, Robert K., Mass Persuasion. New York* Harper 4 Bros., 1946 •

, "Patterns of Influence* A Study of Interpersonal Influence and of Comnunications Behavior in a Local Community," in (eds.) Lazarsfeld, Paul, and Stanton, Frank N., Comnmni- cations Research* 1948-1949. New York* Harper 4 Sros•, 1949.

, Sooial Theory and Struoture. Glencoe, Illinois* The Free' Tress, 1950.---*------Montague, Ashley, Education and HunanRe la tio n s. New York* Grove Press, Inc., l9b6. - Mumford, Lewis, Technics and Civilization* New York* Harcourt, Brace 4 Co., 1954. Olsen, Edward G., at a l. , School and Community. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.* Prentic e-Ha11, Inc., 1954. Parrington, Vernon L., Main Currents in American Thought, Vol. II, New York* H arcourt, Brace 4 Co., 1927. ' " ' Parry, Hugh J., and Crossley, Helen M., "Validity of Responses to Survey Questions," in Katz, Daniel, et al., Public Opinion and Propaganda* New York* The Dryden P re ss, 19&4•

Peterson, Theodore, Magazines in the Twentieth Century. Urbana, 111.* The University of Illinois Press, 195b. Peterson, William (ed.), American Sooial Patterns. Garden City, New York* Doubleday 4 Co., Inc., 1^56.

Frescott, Daniel A., The Child in tne Educative Process. New York* McGraw-Hill Book Co., I n c .,1957. Richey, Robert W., Planning for Teaching. New York* McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 19bB. Kiesnan, David, Individualism Reconsidered. Garden City, New York* Doubleday 4 Co . , Inc . , LSTKtT. POOKS (Contd.)

Rio small, David, The Lonely Crowd. New York: Doubleday ft Co., 1950

Rosenberg, Bernard, and tAiite, David M., Mas3 Culture: The Popular Arts in America. Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1957.

Rudd, Augustin G., Bending the Twig. New York: New York Chapter, Sons o f the American Revolution, 1958.

Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur, The Age of Jackson. Poston: Little, Brown ft Co., 194.5#

Schramm, Wilbur, "Ffocedures and Effects of Mass Conraunicatlons," in (ed.) Henry, Nelson P., Mass Madia and Fdpeation. Fifty-third Yearbook of the NSSE. Chicago: The TFniversity of Chicago Press.

______, The Process and Effects of Mass Communication. Urbana, 111.: University of Illinois Press, 1955.

______, Responsibility in Mass Communication. New York: TTarper ft Pros., 1957.

Seldes, Gilbert, The Great Audience. New York: The Viking Press, In c ., 1950

______, The Public Art3. New York: Simon and Schuster, *9 5 6 .

S ieb ert, Fred S ., "The Role o f Mass Communication in American Society," in (ed.) TTenry, Nelson B., Mass Media and Education. Fifty-third Yearbook of the NSSE. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954.

Smythe, Dallas W., "The Content and Effects of Broadcasting," in (ed.) Henry, Nelson B., Mass Media and Education. Fifty-third vearbook of the NSSE. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1954.

Steinberg, Charles S., The Mass Communicators: Public Relations. Public Opinion, and Mass Media. New York: TIarper ft P ro s., 1958.

Swanson, Charles E., "Procedures and Effects of the Printed Nfedia," in (ed.) Henry, Nelson P., Mass Media and Education. Fifty- third Yearbook of the NSSE. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1954.

Syrett, Harold C., Andrew Jackson. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Nterrill ft Co., 1953. 353 BOOKS (Contd.)

Thayer, V. T., The Attaok Upon the American Secular Sohool. Boston* Beaoon Press, 1961. Tillioh, Faul, The Protestant Era. Chicago* Univeisity of Chicago Press, 1948.

Trilling, Lionel, A Gathering of Fugitives. Boston* Beacon Press, 19bo.

Tylor, I. Keith, "Freedom of Access of Broadcasting," in (ed.) Henry, Nelson B., Mass Media and Education, Fifty-third Yearbook of the NSSfc. chicagoT The University of Chicago Press, 19b4• Ulrich, Robert (ed.), Three Thousand Years of Educational YJisdon. Cambridge, Mass.* Harvard University Press, 194V.

U.S. Information Service, "Prestige, Personal Influence and Opinion," (ed.) Schran. , Wilbur, The Process and Effects of Mass Communication. Urbana, ill.* University of Illin o is FrebS , TSBVl

Van Den Haag, Ernest, The Fabric of Society. New York* harcourt. Brace 4 Co., 19b7. Wagner, Robert W.f "Motion Pictures in Relation to Social Controls," in (ed.) Henry, Nelson fl., Mass Media and Education, F ifty-third Yearbook of the NSSE. Chicago* The University of Chicago Press , 19b4. Waples, Douglas, Berelson, Bernard, and Bradshaw, Franklin R., What Reading Does to People. Chicago* The University of Chicago Press , 19iO. Warner, Ruby H., The Child and His Elementary School World. Englewood C liffs, W.J.i Prer.tic e-Hal 1, Inc ., 1957.

Whyte, William, Orraniiation Ran. New Yorki Doubleday 4 Co., Inc., 1956. Williams, Robyn, American Society. New York* Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1951. Wolseley, hol&nd E., The Magazine World. New York* Trentice-Hal1, Inc ., 1951. r'.ood, Jar.es Playytoad, - arazineu in the United States* Their Social and Economic Influence. New” Ronald Press , 19Do.

Ynaf«r, William A., School-Con unity Relations. New York: The Dryden PresT^ 1951. 354

autobiography

I, David Aard Martin, was born in Clearfield, Pennsyl­ vania, September 21, 1921. I received my secondary school edu­ cation in the public schools, of Akron, Ohio, and ay undergraduate training at Ohio State University, which granted r.e the Bachelor of Science degree in 1948. Also from Ohio State University I received my ..aster of Art* degree in Iy49. While in residence there 2 was assistant to Professors Robert E. Jev-ett and Alan •■rnm Griffin.

From 1949 to 1952 I taught J.n Lorain Senior High School,

Lorain, Ohio, and from 1952 to 1956 in Bexley Junior High School,

Bexley, Ohio In October, 1956. I was appointed an instructor in the

Department of Education at Ohio State University. I held this position for three years while completing the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy.