RESEARCH ARTICLE Ethnobiology and Conservation 2020, 9:15 (15 May 2020)
doi:10.15451/ec2020-05-9.15-1-24 ISSN 22384782 ethnobioconservation.com Use, management and local ecological knowledge of Sabal mauritiiformis in the Colombian Caribbean Viviana AndradeErazo1*, Ana EstupiñánGonzález1, Néstor García2, Rodrigo Bernal3, Lauren Raz1 and Gloria Galeano1(†)
ABSTRACT
The leaves of the palm Sabal mauritiiformis constitute the natural material most used for thatching in the Colombian Caribbean region. The leaves and other parts of the plant are also used in other economic and cultural activities on a smaller scale. Through 49 semistructured interviews and seven days of participant observation, we identified the most relevant biocultural features of its utilization. We documented the current uses, management and local knowledge of this palm in two Colombian rural communities, and identified the value chain for its leaves. We found 25 uses for S. mauritiiformis, belonging to 11 use categories. The leaves are harvested from wild populations, where the most outstanding management practice is tolerance, consisting of the maintenance of the palms in traditional farming systems, even after the elimination of forest canopy. Leaf marketing results in an organized, simple and regional value chain, mainly linked to tourism. The relevance of this species in the Caribbean was evident in the management modalities, the stock of ecological and technical knowledge that the communities have accumulated, and the structuring of an active marketing, which as a whole has allowed the conservation of this palm, despite the almost total disappearance of its natural habitat. With some adjustments in the practices applied to palms, as appropriate harvest rates, protection from browsing, and agreements on prices in the value chain, the case of S. mauritiiformis in the Caribbean would constitute a model of how use and conservation of native biodiversity can contribute to boost regional economy.
Keywords: Leaf Harvest; NonTimber Forest Products; Palm Thatch; Traditional Management; Value Chain.
1 Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Apartado 7945. Bogotá, Colombia.
2 Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. Bogotá, Colombia, Carrera 7 # 4062
3 Reserva Natural Guadualito, Montenegro, Quindío, Colombia
† Deceased
* Corresponding author. E‐mail address: VA ([email protected]), ACEG ([email protected]), NG ([email protected]), RB
([email protected]), LR ([email protected]). SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT
In Colombia, most of useful wild palms are extracted from the forest and there are few documented cases of palm management in agricultural landscapes. We present the case of Sabal mauritiiformis, which despite being a wild species, is managed intensively by rural communities, who generate income through a regional market of its leaves, while conserving the palm populations inside their farms. Our goal was to achieve an integral panorama about management of the palm groves and associated local knowledge. Management of this resource with huge relevance for peasant communities can be an example of conservation for other native species that are facing the loss of their natural habitat. Our research of this species contributes to the biocultural research scenario of useful palms in tropical America. 1 AndradeErazo et al. 2020. Use, management and local ecological knowledge of Sabal mauritiiformis in the colombian caribbean. Ethnobio Conserv 9:15
INTRODUCTION ecological knowledge for the conservation of natural resources has been widely The leaves of palms in the genus Sabal recognized, both because they are often the have been used for thatching in the first sources of information derived from Caribbean for over a thousand years observation or experimentation (Raymond et (Caballero et al. 2001, 2004; Gómez al. 2010), and because active management Amador 2003; Pérez and Rebollar 2003; can determine the viability of such resources AguileraTaylor et al. 2007; AguileraTaylor over time (Charnley et al. 2007; Torres et al. 2009). In Colombia, Sabal mauritiiformis 2015). Local ecological knowledge (H.Karst) Griseb. and & H.Wendl. has been encompasses the information that human used since preHispanic times as one of the communities have about the processes that most important thatching materials in the occur in their natural environment, the Caribbean (FalsBorda 1979,1986; interactions between organisms, and the BetancourtA. 2008). This use is still practices that are carried out to manage the important among indigenous communities resources that environment offers (Berkes et such as the Zenu people in the departments al. 2000). The main characteristics of this of Córdoba and Sucre (Carsucre and knowledge are its endogenous origin, its Cudesac 2007), and it has been social nature and its dynamic condition incorporated by local peasant communities, (Antweiler 1998; Berkes et al. 2000). who praise the beauty and durability of Management, on the other hand, includes Sabal leaves, compared to those of other the harvest of useful parts, the preservation palm species (Sena 1990; Moreno et al. and tolerance of wild individuals in areas that 1993; Cruz et al. 2009; JiménezEscobar have been transformed by humans, and the and EstupiñánGonzález 2011; Jiménez deliberate increase of populations of the Escobar et al. 2011; AnzelliniGarcíaReyes usable plants (Caballero et al. 1998; Casas 2016). et al. 2007). As with other Sabal species throughout There are multiple negative impacts that the Caribbean (Caballero et al. 2001, 2004; the destructive use of nontimber forest Joyal 1996; Pérez and Rebollar 2003), the products (NTFP) can represent for wild flora growth of tourism on the northern beaches (Arnold and Ruiz 2001; Ticktin 2004; Bernal of Colombia has popularized touristic et al. 2011). Nevertheless, it is possible to facilities thatched with leaves of S. plan the most appropriate strategies to mauritiiformis. Since individuals of S. maximize the benefits, as well as to reduce mauritiiformis are integrated into the ecological impact of harvest, if the agroforestry systems at several places in the scopes of management (Carvalho and region, there is an opportunity to achieve a FrazãoMoreira 2011; Casas et al. 2007; balance between conservation and market Blancas et al. 2013), market characteristics optimization (Galeano et al. 2015; Carsucre (Valderrama 2011; Isaza et al. 2014), and and Cudesac 2007; AndradeErazo and traditional knowledge (Joyal 1996; Berkes et Galeano 2016). This is a special condition, al. 2000; Ticktin and Johns 2002) are known rarely observed for other palm species in in detail. In the case of S. mauritiiformis, the Colombia, and offers an excellent scenario growing interest in the use of its leaves could for an agrosilvopastoral system. become the main conservation opportunity The usefulness of management and local for the species (Galeano et al. 2015).
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In Colombia, regulation of the use of MATERIAL AND METHODS NTFP such as the leaves of S. mauritiiformis is established in the National Code of Study species Renewable Natural Resources and Environmental Protection (Decree 2811, Sabal mauritiiformis is a palm with a 12/18/1974), and by the Forest Use Regime solitary stem, 825 m tall. Its crown is (Decree 1791, 10/4/1996). These decrees spherical and consists of 1015 establish that the users of commercial costapalmate leaves, supported by petioles products of wild flora must obtain permission 12 m long and 34 cm wide at apex. The for its use and extraction. In addition, the law leaf blade is ca. 3 m in diameter, and it is stipulates that a harvest and transport permit deeply divided in many segments arranged must be requested for each load to be in several planes. The segments are green mobilized. The entities in charge of issuing and lustrous on the upper leaf side and the permits in the study area are the whitish on the underside. It has solitary Regional Autonomous Corporations (the hermaphroditic flowers arranged in local environmental authority), which charge repeatedly branched inflorescences that a fee for the processing of these permits. In project beyond leaves. The fruits are the case of the Department of Atlántico, spherical, with a thin and brittle, black skin. such fees are fixed in accordance with the The seeds are hemispherical, approximately Resolution 347 of 2008 of the Corporación 5 mm in diameter and light brown in color Autónoma Regional del Atlántico (CRA), (Galeano and Bernal 2010). It ranges from based on the volume of leaves to be used or central Mexico to southwestern Colombia mobilized. and Venezuela. In Colombia it is found along In this case study we sought to document the Caribbean plain, where it is common, the use of S. mauritiiformis leaves from its and in Valle del Cauca, Cundinamarca and extraction to its final use on roofs, as seen in Tolima departments, where there are small, the rural communities of two municipalities in local populations (Galeano and Bernal the Department of Atlántico, and to 2010). characterize the value chain in the Colombian Caribbean region. For this, we Study area took into account the following aspects: How is the palm stands management? Under The study was carried out in the what socioeconomic and technical municipalities of Piojó and Juan de Acosta in conditions does the leaf trade occur? What the Department of Atlántico, in northern ecological features of the species and its Colombia. In Piojó we documented the populations are known by people who production of S. mauritiiformis leaves, benefit from this resource? This study aims whereas at both municipalities we recorded to contribute to the knowledge of this uses, traditional knowledge and leaf species and its commercialization, to identify marketing. the weak points in its use and current Piojó and Juan de Acosta are located management, and to recognize the most about 10º44'N and 75º06' (Figure 1), in a appropriate strategies to strengthen them. region corresponding to tropical dry forest (bsT), according to Holdridge’s life zones system (Igac 1977), and to Caribbean
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Figure 1. Location of the study area: municipalities surveyed are part of the Deparment of Atlántico, in the Caribbean Region of Colombia.
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tropical dry forest according to Ideam et al. women were represented only as owners in (2007). The area has average annual five cases. We selected the informants using temperature of 2628ºC and an average the snowball technique (Albuquerque et al. annual rainfall of 1,500 mm, under a bimodal 2014) and documented uses of leaves and regime (Ideam 2014). Populations of S. other plant parts, management actions on mauritiiformis are located mainly on hills, palms population and leaves, requirements between 269 and 472 m.a.s.l., where a and processes associated with the broken relief predominates, with slopes production and marketing of leaves. greater than 10% and welldrained soils We gathered information about the supporting shrubs and a thorny herbaceous socioeconomic status of stakeholders such vegetation, or agricultural crops (Andrade as age, education level, income sources, Erazo and Galeano 2016). farm size, and time spent working with the The inhabitants of these two palms, according to recommendations of municipalities are mostly peasants, whose Brokamp et al. (2010) and Mayan (2001). main economic activities are agriculture, For people in direct contact with the palm cattle farming and subsistence fishing. In trees (harvesters, producers, and traders), Piojó, harvest of Sabal leaves is an we also documented their knowledge about important part of the local economy, and in factors affecting ecological attributes of the the coastal areas of both municipalities populations, such as density and distribution. tourism is an important economic activity, With harvesters and thatchers, we carried especially in Juan de Acosta, whose out seven days of participant observation beaches have become one of the main (Bernard 2011; Albuquerque et al. 2014), of tourist destinations in the region (Gallardo approximately six hours per day, to 2013). In this area there are many touristic understand the leaf harvesting and facilities thatched with Sabal leaves. processing up to the final product.
Data collection Palm uses and value chain structure Before fieldwork, we informed people and local authorities about the research project Information on uses was contrasted and and our objectives, and we asked for validated with that found in reports and in permission to gathering information in unpublished technical and academic communitarian meetings and with each documents. We classified uses following person interviewed. Between February and Macía et al. (2011). Using information about September 2014, we carried out semi different phases of leaf utilization, we structured interviews at both municipalities, designed a model of the value chain with 23 producers, who are owners of palm following Kaplinsky and Morris (2002), te stands (representing 75% of all producers in Velde et al. (2006) and Valderrama (2011) Piojó); four harvesters, who are peasants who propose a structure of five sections that cut leaves in return for a payment (Figure 2). (100%), four thatchers (empajadores) (100%), two traders (100%), and 18 owners Management analysis of Sabalthatched buildings. Producers, harvesters, thatchers and traders were men; We arranged the management practices
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Figure 2. Overall scheme of a value chain for palm NTFP. After Valderrama (2011). The first one section describes the general scheme of the chain; the second one addresses the main stakeholders and steps through the chain; the third represents the marketing channels, assignments for stakeholders, and the work space for each, as well as the income received. The fourth section comprises the relation between source, steps and stakeholders, with the time invested in all process. The fifth one describes the specific geographic areas where the chain components are located. applied to S. mauritiiformis under three local names include: palmiche in Antioquia categories: tolerance, promotion and (Galeano and Bernal 1987); palma redonda protection, as proposed by Casas et al. and palmito, in Córdoba (Galeano and (2007) and GonzálezInsuasti et al. (2008). Bernal 2010; JiménezEscobar and We defined tolerance as the presence of EstupiñánGonzález 2011), and chingalé or individuals that belonged to the natural forest palma chinga in Chimichagua, César in areas dedicated to agricultural activities; (EstupiñánGonzález 2012). promotion as all the actions aimed at In the Caribbean of Colombia, S. increasing the populations or the availability mauritiiformis constitutes an essential, of the usable resource; and protection, as all multipurpose resource, contributing to the those practices that seek to mitigate the domestic economy and to the basic needs of damages that biotic and abiotic agents could rural inhabitants. We documented 25 uses in cause to the palms. 11 categories for this palm (Table 1); however, the most cited use was thatching. RESULTS Value chain Common names and uses Working with Sabal mauritiiformis usually The most widely used name for S. involves men aged 4070, although in some mauritiiformis in the Colombian Caribbean is cases women also take part in commercial palma amarga (bitter palm). However, other activities. Their education level ranges from
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no schooling up to some people with vine are required to tie a thousand leaves university degrees. Work specialization and the search for this amount requires on configures a value chain with five types of average four hours. At least three species of stakeholders: producers, traders or lianas are used: Xylophragma middlemen, harvesters, thatchers, and seemannianum (Kuntze) Sandwith users, each with specific tasks, and (Bignoniaceae) (ají), Seguieria sp., interacting among them in a regional market (Phytolaccaceae) (iguana) and an (Figure 3). There were no community unidentified species (bejuco real). organization initiatives for the use of this Leaf harvest is a rigorous work resource, nor were there any agreements demanding a great physical effort, agility and articulating leaf production or marketing. experience. After reaching the crown with a About 90% of the stakeholders involved in ladder or climbing the steam, old leaf leaf production, harvest and trade were sheaths and old infructescences must be unaware or unclear about the existence of removed before the leaves cutting. For each procedures and costs for obtaining use or palm, harvest takes on average, 3.11 (± mobilization permits. 0.43) minutes, including the descent to the Leaf production comes from wild palms ground. Once on the ground, the harvester occurring in farms under agricultural use trims the petiole of each leaf (an activity (Figure 4), either in agroforestry and locally called espique), leaving only a small silvopastoral systems, or in areas under segment ca. 810 cm long. The leaves are regeneration. Productive units range left on the ground to dry until the next day. between 2 and 40 ha, most of them in the The tools used by harvesters are artisanal, range of 2 to 10 ha. and they include ladders and machetes According to the palm owners, leaves are (Figure 5). suitable for commercialization when they are For piling the leaves, the harvesters build obtained from stemmed palms, both a burriquete, which consists of four wooden reproductive and nonreproductive, as well stakes 2 m high, sticked in the ground, as from acaulescent palms that reach 2 m in forming a rectangle ca. 50x78 cm. The height and whose leaf blade exceeds 1.5 m harvester gathers groups of 5 leaves in length. The palms are usually harvested (ayuyos), interlacing their segments, then once or twice a year, rarely up to 46 times a piles 10 ayuyos in the burriquete, and year, and rarely does more than one year proceeds to tie the whole bundle with two pass without harvesting. Based on the lianas 2 m long (Figure 5). This process number of leaves obtained each year from takes an average of 11.41 (± 0.23) minutes. their palm stands, most producers belong to Each pack of 50 leaves is known as a bulto the category of small or medium producers (bundle), which weights ca. 80 kg; two (Table 2). bundles make up a carga (load), the weight Leaf harvest comprises four stages: a mule can move. The harvester usually cutting the leaves, trimming the petioles works individually, and during 68 hours he (espique), piling the leaves, and tieing the can cut and trim ca. 1000 leaves. The whole bundles. Prior to the day of cutting, the process, including the bundling takes harvester gathers in nearby forests and between 2 and 3 days, depending on the secondary vegetation the lianas used for ease of movement or transport in the area. binding the leaf bundles. Around 80 m of When harvesting large volumes of leaves
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Figure 3. Model of the value chain for Sabal mauritiiformis leaves in the Colombian Caribbean.
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Table 1. U ses of the palm Sabal mauritiiformis in the Colombian Caribbean.
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Figure 4. General aspects of a property with Sabal mauritiiformis palm exploitation. Farm of Mr. Bernardo Sulbarán, Piojó, Colombia. Photo: Ana EstupiñánGonzález. (≥10 000), the harvesters hire an assistant, the producers, income derived from leaf often a relative, who helps in cutting, trade has always been complementary to trimming, and tieing up the bundles. In 2014, that obtained through other agricultural a harvester's income was around USD 11 for activities. Only one producer claimed to each day of work. obtain all of his income from his work with Traders are intermediaries between the the palm. palm owners and the final users. In all Leaf merchants have small collection cases, the commercial process is arranged centers at their homes, with room for storing through a verbal agreement and the up to 3,000 leaves. No larger quantities are traditional marketing unit is a batch of one collected, because leaves become fragile if thousand leaves. In 2014, producers sold a not used within two months after harvest. batch at an average price of 116 USD and According to statements we collected, work paid the harvester an average of 33 USD for as merchants began ca. 30 years ago. In our cutting and bundling the leaves. According to study area there were only two people
Table 2. Annual production, number and type of producers of Sabal mauritiiformis leaves in Piojó (Atlántico), Colombia.
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devoted to this trade, and in 2014 they got environmental factors such as humidity and 3366 USD per leaf batch. sea breezes were associated with the On average, more than one half of the deterioration of roofs. Maintenance includes Sabalthatched constructions in the overall the replacement of leaves from the top of the study area were used in commercial roof and the use of insecticides to control activities (Figures 6, 7), but figures varied termites or moths. Users agreed that placing within the area. Whereas on the beaches of a polyethylene mesh on the thatch and Juan de Acosta more than 90% of the applying a mixture of varnish, insecticide and owners of palmthatched constructions shellac to the leaves, once the thatching is associated their commercial activities with finished, reduces the negative effect of sea tourism, in Piojó only 40% of the owners breeze, giving a better look to the roof and associated their buildings with commercial increasing its durability. activities, the remainder corresponding to housing needs. Local ecological knowledge and Interviewees stated that roofs could last management for 2026 years, with occasional maintenance. At Santa Verónica beach, Most producers and harvesters identified
Figure 5. Harvest of Sabal mauritiiformis leaves in Colombian Caribbean. ab, cutting; c. trimming the petioles; df, tieing up the bundles. Photos: Ana EstupiñánGonzález.
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the environmental conditions and factors that period deteriorate rapidly, and insect larvae influence distribution and mortality in S. quickly invade the roofs, reducing their mauritiiformis. Fire was underlined as one of quality and duration. the major drivers of mortality for individuals Fresh sites on hills, and the margins of of all sizes. Drought and livestock grazing streams and creeks were recognized by were listed as the main causes of mortality informants as places where the palms thrive for young, acaulescent palms. For stemmed and become abundant. The palm is individuals, termites (Insecta: Isoptera), considered by local people as a highly wind, lightning and leaf cutting during new droughttolerant species, once it becomes moon were listed as the main death causes established (Figure 8b). (Figure 8a). Producers claimed that Both farm owners and harvesters are harvesting is not carried before the fifth day aware that seeds are the only source of of crescent, locally called the fifth of moon reproduction of the species. In their (el quinto de luna). Other stakeholders statements, the interviewees considered that claimed that leaves harvested during that it was not necessary to use any treatments
Figure 6. Thatching with leaves of Sabal mauritiiformis in Colombian Caribbean. a, home; bc, thatching process; de, beach restaurant. Photographs: a, b, c, Viviana AndradeErazo; d, e, Ana EstupiñánGonzález. 14 AndradeErazo et al. 2020. Use, management and local ecological knowledge of Sabal mauritiiformis in the colombian caribbean. Ethnobio Conserv 9:15
Promotion practices included the occasional burying of complete infructescences at sites devoid of palms. In addition, they protected and transplanted seedlings that had emerged spontaneously, in order to increase palm populations. Seed germinators and fertilization were marginal practices carried out only at one site each. Another promotional activity was pruning the old and senescent leaves of young palms, the purpose being to accelerate the growth of the individuals so that these reach the Figure 7. Uses of Sabal mauritiiformis thatches appropriate size to be harvested in Colombian Caribbean. commercially (Figure 9). Maintenance and protection was carried to induce germination. They also agreed that out by the search and removal of flowering takes place during first semester aggregations of leafeating caterpillars (MarchJune) and fruiting during the second (probably Brassolis sp.) and the elimination one (JulySeptember) (Figure 8c). of termite mounds (Insecta: Isoptera). The All palm groves visited were the result of application of synthetic insecticides and tolerance to the palms, when the natural acaricides to reduce populations of ticks and vegetation was eliminated through slash and termites was part of the chemical control burn for farming. Crop or livestock reported by the interviewees. Other production is carried out directly by the protective activities were fencing, and owners, or by landless peasants allowed to shifting cattle among lots in the property, in use a part of the farm for cultivation, in order to control and reduce both herbivory exchange for eliminating the arboreal and and trampling of acaulescent palms. shrubby vegetation of these areas. Thus, the Weed control is also common, but it is owner benefits from the cleaning of an area aimed at facilitating mobility of harvesters that can later be used for pastures or new and promoting the establishment of pastures subsistence crops, while the landless in the farm, rather than at protecting the peasant obtains a harvest that contributes to palm populations themselves. The farmers his food security. The farmers stated that the stated that they avoid damaging seedlings or palms are not cut down, because they are of small palms during this work, except in a few economic interest; that is why the palms cases, when herbicides or fire were used for become a part of the agricultural landscape, weed control. Only at 17.3% of the palmleaf under the characteristic structure of producing farms is the use of fire in palm agroforestry systems. Interviewees also groves strictly avoided; in other farms, listed other forms of nonselective in situ burning is carried out partially or at irregular management and occasional ex situ time intervals (Figure 9). cultivation, ranging from the promotion and protection of palm populations to the sowing of palms in areas other than those originally occupied by them in the property (Figure 9).
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Figure 8. Local ecological knowledge of the palm Sabal mauritiiformis in Piojó, Atlántico, Colombia. a: factors associated with mortality; b, appropriate environmental conditions for the development of palm groves; c, periods of flowering and fruiting during the year.
DISCUSSION al. 2011; GarcíaAmado et al. 2013). On the other hand, beyond strengthening the Sociocultural importance of Sabal economy of many families, the multiple uses mauritiiformis recorded here for other vegetative and reproductive structures evidence the Sabal mauritiiformis has a great economic relevance of this species for rural and cultural value in the Colombian communities. This situation resembles the Caribbean, and is the base of a regional one described by Bernal et al. (2010) for the market that generates cash income for large palm Attalea butyracea (Mutis ex L.f.) villagers. This situation is not uncommon to Wess.Boer, which is also common in many other palm species, which are preserved and areas of the Caribbean lowlands of managed in anthropized systems because Colombia, and is also a priced thatching their products represent an economic profit material with many subsidiary uses. (Bernal et al. 2011; Torres 2013; García et Elsewhere, similar situations have been
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reported for other palm species such as Festival (Festival del la palma amarga), Attalea phalerata Mart. ex Spreng. and annually held in Piojó and involving the Geonoma deversa (Poit.) Kunth in the inhabitants of nearby towns. Bolivian Amazon (ReyesGarcía et al. 2006), Borassus flabellifer L. in India (Jambulingam Ecological knowledge and and Fernandes 1986) and Arenga pinnata management (Wurmb) Merr. in Indonesia (Mogea et al. 1991). In all cases, the multipurpose profile All people interviewed reported that of these species makes them potential thatching with S. mauritiiformis leaves was plants for planning productive systems already a common practice long ago. integrating native biodiversity and Producers, harvesters and traders reminded conservation. that they lived in homes thatched with palms The wide range of resources of S. and that their parents also did work with mauritiiformis and its incorporation into palm populations. As early as the mid19th agricultural systems evidence the need for century, Karsten (1856) recorded thatching further research on this species, leading to as the most important use of this species. the development of appropriate production This long history of direct contact with S. models for the whole Caribbean region. The mauritiiformis through its utilization has led systems traditionally followed in Piojó make to an accumulation of detailed knowledge this area an excellent starting point. about the palm’s natural history by The cultural significance of S. stakeholders of the value chain. This is mauritiiformis in the Caribbean region of reflected in the recognition of the physical Colombia is evident in many aspects of biotic variables associated with the palm’s everyday life. These include Sabal leaves distribution, its reproductive seasons, and used as the preferred wrapping for the “bollo mortality factors. de yuca”, a priced dough made of manioc; A similar situation was recorded by Joyal Sabalthatched public buildings used as (1996), who showed that direct contact of meeting places for strengthening social local people with Sabal uresana Trel. was cohesion; and the Sabal mauritiiformis determinant for the amount and quality of
Figure 9. Management actions of Sabal mauritiiformis palm groves in Piojó Atlántico, Colombia.
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information provided by informants in considered intensive (Blancas et al. 2013; Sonora, Mexico. For this species and Sabal GonzálezInsuasti and Caballero 2007) pumos (Kunth) Burret (AguileraTaylor because of the number of actions and the 2009), rural inhabitants in Mexico stated that specialization degree of tasks performed to fire, livestock, herbicides and excess of leaf obtain the resource. These actions include harvest were factors negatively affecting planting seeds and transplanting seedlings, palms in different developmental stages. in addition to protective actions against Traditional ecological knowledge of rural herbivores. The economic and cultural communities in the Caribbean appears to be importance of S. mauritiiformis in Piojó is the shared among people that use Sabal leaves, main driver determining the intensity of and provides evidence of common management (Blancas et al. 2016), which is management of these species throughout a often aimed at ensuring or increasing the relatively broad area. However, in several availability of the resource. However, cases the roughness of answers or the although in all palm groves studied the manifest unawareness of the interviewees leaves are used for trade, most protection or about of the species ecology must be taken promotion actions are carried out only by with some alarm. Several authors have less than 30% of the owners of these palm shown that an intensification of NTFP trade groves. This may be because S. can lead to an overexploitation of the mauritiiformis is considered an abundant species and to the erosion of traditional resource, resilient to disturbances as fire or knowledge about ecology and management drought, and able to regenerate without of the species that provide them human intervention. (Schreckenberg and Marshall 2006; Belcher Here, we show that management of S. and Schreckenberg 2007; Ticktin and Johns mauritiiformis in Piojó exemplifies the 2002; Wiersum et al. 2014). maximization of resources in a social As with other Sabal species in the ecological system (Albuquerque et al. 2019). Caribbean region (Joyal 1996; Caballero et The complexity of that management reveals al. 2001; MartínezBallesté et al. 2006; the importance of S. mauritiiformis in the AguileraTaylor 2009), the tolerance of S. Colombian Caribbean, and it could explain mauritiiformis in agroforestry systems of why its use has persisted despite forest Piojó can be interpreted as a strategy of disappearance, and why the palm has multiple forest use developed by indigenous become central in the physiognomy of local and peasant communities (Toledo et al. productive systems. These practices aim at 2003). This emphasizes an adaptive pattern decreasing energy invested in leaf harvest articulating subsistence agriculture and the through wide areas, and extra monetary production of marketable goods in costs derived from the use of other, shorter landscapes of vegetation mosaics, where lasting thatching materials. several successional stages occur simultaneously. At the same time, this Socioeconomic context of system involves conservation of the utilization of leaves knowledge required for the management of these scenarios (Berkes et al. 2000; Toledo Change in the use of S. mauritiiformis et al. 2003). leaves in the Colombian Caribbean coast Management of S. mauritiiformis can be from a scenario of selfsupply, in which this
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resource was used for thatching houses, include stakeholders in multiple levels (e.g., towards a more commercially oriented use is Valderrama 2011; Marshall et al. 2006), the evident in the proliferation of palmthatched value chain of S. mauritiiformis leaves has a constructions for recreation and tourism simple structure. The leaves are not activities in coastal locations. Gamba transformed before their use, and trade Trimiño and Benavides (2013) noticed this occurs only at a regional scale. However, as trend on the beaches of the village of with other Colombian palm products and Guachaca, near Santa Marta; in the Fauna other NTFPs in general, the value chain is and Flora Flamingos Sanctuary, near based on the traditional knowledge of the Riohacha; in Cartagena, and in El Dique communities that use the resource (te Velde region. On the other hand, palmthatched et al. 2006; Valderrama 2011). houses have become less popular and often Both the consolidation of social groups are restricted to rural areas close to Sabal that make a living from the commercial stands, as in El Paso, Chimichagua, exploitation of S. mauritiiformis, and the Bosconia, in César, and La Garita, El Beque emergence of lasting markets are indicators and San Antonio, in Sincelejo, Sucre of an intensive harvest (Joyal 1996). (GambaTrimiño and Benavides 2013). A Although this brings benefits to local people, similar situation has been described for it can also lead to situations of Sabal yapa in Mexico (Caballero et al. overexploitation, speculation, unequal 2004), where tourism has also shaped palm markets, and resource shortages. An management. example of this was recorded for Brahea sp. There is a social paradox in the process, in southern Mexico (RangelLanda et al. though. In the past decades, the more 2014), where the differences between the affluent families in the Caribbean villages profits received by harvestersartisans and progressively replaced their palmthatched hat merchants were very high. Although we roofs for tin roofs (Fernández 2011), which did not see these situations in the value are hot under the sun and noisy under the chain of S. mauritiiformis, there were no rain, but were considered as a symbol of agreement among users on the more higher status. People using Sabal roofs were appropriate mechanisms for its utilization. regarded as poor. With the advent of tourism Such mechanisms should include intervals and the new status gained by palm thatches, between harvests, management practices, some people long for the fresher and quieter quantities harvested, and sale prices. Lack Sabal thatch, but the price of leaves is now of this type of consensus represents a too high for them to be able to afford one. vulnerability of this chain in the face of Market forces deprived them of a traditional decisions that might be imposed by the resource. stakeholders, speculators, or big capitals, or Three aspects characterized the value contingencies such as environmental chain of S. mauritiiformis leaves: the phenomena. Current legal regulations of development of specialized works, like those harvest, represented in the payment of fees of harvesters and palm thatchers; the to environmental authorities, do not divergence between areas of leaf production contribute to improving palm management. and areas of use; and the configuration of This was evident in the overall lack of different scenarios for their use. However, knowledge of stakeholders about this topic. unlike other species of wild palms, which This suggest that sheer legislation is not
19 AndradeErazo et al. 2020. Use, management and local ecological knowledge of Sabal mauritiiformis in the colombian caribbean. Ethnobio Conserv 9:15
enough to improve peoplenature relations. groves under agroforestry arrangements that Moreover, the intensification of leaf integrate other useful species, management extraction due to a growing demand could to minimize the effects of harmful lead to the local extinction of the species if environmental factors, protection against the palm’s vital rates, like recruitment, browsing, and the regulation of other harmful survival and growth, were altered (Ticktin practices, like burning. 2004; Guariguata et al. 2008; Caballero et al. 2001; Bernal et al. 2010). Although palm ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS populations in Piojó are stable and leaf harvest does not have a negative effect The authors are grateful for the funds of (AndradeErazo et al. in preparation), factors the Programa Paisajes de Conservación of such as fire, livestock and overharvesting the Fundación Patrimonio Natural, through might affect individuals and jeopardize the the financing of the project "Formulation of future availability of the resource, particularly management plans and sustainable use of if longterm production is not planned. promising palms of the Caribbean region that contribute to a strategy of use of natural CONCLUSIONS resources of the dry forest tropical". Likewise, we are grateful for the support of The different uses that are given to the the Division de Investigación (DIB) of the vegetative and reproductive parts of S. National University of Colombia, Bogotá, mauritiiformis, together with the cultural which supported the subproject "Use and importance that it has for people, allow the management of the bitter palm (Sabal palm to be recognized as a multipurpose mauritiiformis) in Piojó, Atlántico, species offering a great diversity of Colombia" (Code 20381). Special thanks to resources and with a high potential to be the inhabitants of the municipalities of Piojó, integrated into agricultural production Juan de Acosta and in general of the systems. Furthermore, the growing Colombian Caribbean for all the popularity of the leaves for thatching kiosks collaboration and knowledge that we and other tourism infrastructure in the received during the field phase. We thank to Caribbean beaches is an appropriate the members of the Neotropical Wild Palms scenario for strengthening the value chain of Research Group, Dr. José Juan Blancas this resource, maintaining direct interaction Vásquez and two anonymous reviewers for among actors and promoting the rational use their valuable comments that helped to of this resource. In addition, knowledge improve the manuscript. about environmental factors, both those that favor the development and persistence of DATA AVAILABILITY palm groves and those that affect them, are a valuable tool that must be taken into The data used to support the findings of account in planning the management of this this study are available from the resource by stakeholders in the value chain. corresponding author upon reasonable It is essential to promote and strengthen request. those practices that contribute to guarantee the future availability of the resource. This includes the establishment of new palm
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CONFLICTS OF INTEREST Antweiler C (1998). Local knowledge and local knowing an anthropological analysis of contested "cultural products" in the context The authors have no conflicts of interest of development. Anthropos 93:46949 to declare. AnzelliniGarcíaReyes M, GarciaReyes Röthlisberger MI (2016). Técnicas Vernáculas. CONTRIBUTION STATEMENT Catálogo de arquitectura vernácula con palmas en el Caribe colombiano. AGRA Conceived the research project and Arquitectos y Fondo Patrimonio Natural, Bogotá, Colombia fieldwork: VA, ACEG, RB, GG. Collected and systematized general data, Arnold JE, Ruiz M (2001). Can nontimber forest products match tropical forest wrote the first draft: VA, ACEG. conservation and development objectives?. Carried out the data analysis and Ecological Economics 39:437447 reviewed several drafts of the manuscript: Blancas J, Casas A, PérezSalicrup D, Caballero VA, ACEG, NG, RB, LR, GG. J, Vega E (2013). Ecological and socio Concluded the final version of this paper: cultural factors influencing plant management in Náhuatl communities of the VA, NG, RB. Tehuacán Valley, Mexico. Journal of All authors read and approved the final Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 9:139 manuscript. Blancas J, Casas A, MorenoCalles AI, Caballero J (2016). Cultural motives of plant REFERENCES management and domestication. In: Lira R, Casas A, Blancas J (eds) Ethnobotany of Mexico: interactions of people and plants in AguileraTaylor I (2009). Manejo sostenible de Mesoamerica. Springer, New York, pp. 233256 Sabal pumos: bases demográficas y sociales. MSc. Dissertation, Universidad Michoacana de Belcher B, Schreckenberg K (2007). San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, Commercialisation of nontimber forest México products: A reality check. Development Policy Review 25(3):355377 AguileraTaylor I, Domínguez AC, MuñozCastro G, LópezHoffman L (2007). Servicios Berkes F, Colding J, Folke C (2000). ambientales de una palma endémica: su Rediscovery of traditional ecological importancia para la población rural. Gaceta knowledge as adaptive management. Ecológica 8485:7584 Ecological Applications 10(5):12511262 Albuquerque UP, Ramos, MA, Lucena, RFP, Bernal R, Galeano G, García N, Olivares IL, Alencar, NL (2014). Methods and techniques Cocomá C (2010). Uses and commercial used to collect ethnobiological data. In: prospects for the wine palm, Attalea Albuquerque UP, Cunha LFVC, Lucena RFP, butyracea, in Colombia. Ethnobotany Research Alves RRN (eds) Methods and Techniques in and Applications 8:255268 Ethnobiology and Ethnoecology. Springer, New Bernal R, Torres C, García N, Isaza C, Navarro York, pp. 3964 J, Vallejo M, Balslev H (2011). Palm Albuquerque UP, Medeiros PM, Ferreira WS, management in South America. Botanical Silva TC, Vasconcelos RR, GonçalvesSouza T Review 77:607646 (2019). SocialEcological Theory of Bernard, HR (2011). Methods in Antropology: Maximization: Basic Concepts and Two Initial Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. 5th Models. Biological Theory 14: 73–85 ed. Altamira Press, Plymouth, UK AndradeErazo V, Galeano G (2016). La palma BetancourtA A (2008). Reconstrucción amarga (Sabal mauritiiformis, Arecaceae) en paleoecológica del Holoceno en la ciénaga de sistemas productivos del caribe colombiano: Luruaco. Cambios medioambientales y estudio de caso en Piojó, Atlántico. Acta procesos humanos de adaptación. MSc. Biológica Colombiana 21(1):141150 Dissertation, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia
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Received: 03 March 2020 Accepted: 08 May 2020 Published: 15 May 2020
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