RMUTT International Conference on Social Sciences and Service Industry 2018

Multidisciplinary Research, Innovation and Sustainability RMUTT International Conference On Social Sciences and Service Industry 2018

June 30, 2018 Lecture Hall, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand RMUTT ICSS 2018 PROCEEDINGS

RAJAMANGALA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

THANYABURI, THAILAND

Co-hosted by:

De La Salle University, Dasmarinas (DLSUD), Philippines Ifugao State University (IFSU), Philippines National Pingtung University of Science and Technology (NPUST), Taiwan

St. Robert’s Global Education and Management Service

(SRGEMS), Philippines

Rajamangla University of Technology Bankok (RMUTK), Thailand Foreword

On behalf of the Faculty of Liberal Arts, I would like to extend my warmest welcome to all presenters, participants, and delegates who have come today for the RMUTT International Conference on Social Sciences and Service Industry 2018.

International collaboration that showcases recent research in the field of Social Sciences and Service Industry and networking is essential to address the diverse challenges of today’s knowledge body. It is our university’s interest to be an active participant in international engagement, particularly in the field of Liberal Arts. We aim at addressing the challenges of internationalization to keep abreast with global trends.

Today is truly an exceptional occasion for sharing our ideas and best practices and establishing long-lasting friendships that will help build stronger bilateral relationships between our co-hosts and RMUTT in the coming years. We are nurturing long-term working collaborative relationships with universities abroad, particularly those that have complementary research priorities, common challenges, and mutual interests.

Finally, I would like to say that I am confident that our efforts and commitment will bear the fruits of stronger working relationships among our institutions.

Thank you very much and once again welcome to RMUTT ICSS 2018 and welcome everyone to RMUTT!

Asst. Prof. Rungrudee Apiwathnasorn

Chairperson, Steering Committee, RMUTT ICSS 2018 Dean, Faculty of Liberal Arts

i TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword ...... i

Managing Committee RMUTT ICSS 2018 ...... 3

Editorial Board and Staff RMUTT ICSS 2018 Proceedings ...... 5

List of Reviewers RMUTT ICSS 2018 ...... 6

Summary of Papers RMUTT ICSS 2018 ...... 9

Notes to Authors/Contributors of Proceedings ...... 11

Notes to readers/users when using any portion of these proceedings ...... 12

About the Authors ...... 13

Ways of Being Multidisciplinary in Research Richard Watson Todd...... 17

Predictors of Health Promoting Behaviors among Teenage Pregnancy in Ratchaburi Province, Thailand Sarinthorn Mungkhamanee, Viparat Yomdit, Phatcharin Wihokharn, Issara Siramaneerat ...... 29

The Influence of Social Media on Tourism: A Case Study of Man-made Tourist Attraction in Thailand Atchira Tiwasing ...... 41

Challenging Accepted Practices in Questionnaire Design Eric Agrie Ambele, Richard Watson Todd ...... 56

How Do Applied Linguists and Programmers Speak Psychology? Punjaporn Pojanapunya ...... 69

Pre-reading Strategies and the Academic Performance of Students in Science at Rachinee Burana School, Nakhonpathom, Thailand Luz Bulawin Darantinao ...... 85

Dynamics Power of Language in Clinching a Crown in a Beauty Pageant Kevin Darwin Crisostomo Balayan ...... 104

A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Selected Speeches of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte: A Corpus-based Approach Remart Padua Dumlao ...... 119

An Investigation of Thai Student’s Perception on Interactional Strategies in General English Course at the University Level Panadda Pratoomrat, Kulaporn Hiranburana ...... 145

Introspection into the Formulation Processes of the Writing of Cover Letter Writing :An application to English Language Teaching at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi Parichart Kluensuwan ...... 158

Project-Based Learning upon Storytelling for Thai Students: Under Independent Study Supervision Nattinan Congpueng, Apitchaya Pliewma, Maleerat Keawy ou, Kulasatree Hosuwan, Sulaganya Punyayodhin ...... 179

Mother Tongue Interference in Students’ Speaking Weerapa Pongpanich ...... 193

Using Path of Accomplishment to Encourage Students in Studying English Aree Thongrit ...... 209

Implementing a Genre-based Approach: Modifications on the Teaching and Learning Cycle Tawatchai Chaisiri ...... 221

Problems in Learning English for Communication 1 Course at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi Suarsaraha Suwannathep ...... 243

Fossilization in Early Childhood Language Acquisition Rotsukhon Songkhong, Lawrence Honkiss Platon ...... 254

Managing Committee

RMUTT ICSS 2018

President of RMUTT Assoc. Prof. Prasert Pinpathomrat, Ph.D.

President of DLSU-D Bro. Augustine Boquer FSC, Ed. D.

President of IFSU Prof. Serafin L. Ngohayon, Ph.D.

President of NPUST Chang-Hsien Tai, Ph.D. Robert Galindez, Ph.D. President of SRGEMS

President of RMUTK Sukit Nitinai, Ph.D.

Chair of Steering Committee Asst. Prof. Rungrudee Apiwatlunasorn

Asst. Prof. Parichart Kluensuwan

Asst. Prof. Surawong Srisuwatcharee

Asst. Prof. Paisal Sukasame

Dr. Tawatchai Chaisiri

Chair of Organizing Committee Dr. Tawatchai Chaisiri

Dr. Lawrence Honkiss, SWU

Ms. Rotsukon Songkhong

Ms. Yaowaret Ketkaew

Ms. Patcharin Jungprawate

Asst. Prof. Chalad Sawangjaeng

Ms. Rapee Sawangjaeng

Dr. Pim-on Kaewdang

Asst. Prof. Nopparat Phipek

Asst. Prof. Pimnapat Bhumkittipich

Asst. Prof. Dr. Kantarin Rugsakorn

Asst. Prof. Dr. Parichart Kleunsuwan

Ms. Warisara Sukumolchan

Dr. Pimpika Thongrom

Dr. Thitapa Sinthurat

Dr. Issara Siramaneerat

Dr. Wanpen Poomarin

Dr. Benjawan Rungruangsuparat

Dr. Supaphorn Akkapin, RMUTK

Dr. Ariya Riengchantr, RMUTK

Dr. Jennifer Arroyo, DLSUD

Dr. Alehndro Tenorio, DLSUD

Editorial Board and Staff

RMUTT ICSS 2018 Proceedings

Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief Dr. Tawatchai Chaisiri

Associate Editor Assoc. Prof. Suchada Nimmannit

Associate Editor Asst. Prof. Dr. Panuwat Pakdeeaksorn

Associate Editor Asst. Prof. Dr. Danai Bawornkiattikul

Associate Editor Asst. Prof. Dr. Ubon Sanpatchayapong

Associate Editor Asst. Prof. Dr. Parichart Kluensuwan

Associate Editor Dr. Lawrence Honkiss

Associate Editor Asst. Prof. Rotsukon Songkhong

Associate Editor Asst. Prof. Kamonnat Tamrackhitkun

Associate Editor Dr. Wanpen Poomarin

Associate Editor Dr. Benjawan Rungruangsuparat

Associate Editor Dr. Thitapa Sinturat

Associate Editor Ms. Kanyalek Futrakul

Associate Editor Ms. Karla Walker

Associate Editor Mr. Gary McGill

List of Reviewers

RMUTT ICSS 2018 Local Reviewers

1. Asst. Prof. Dr. Panuwat Pakdeeaksorn Prince of Songkla University

2. Asst. Prof. Dr. Danai Bawornkiattikul Burapha University

3. Assoc. Prof. Suchada Nimmannit Rangsit University

4. Asst. Prof. Dr. Ubon Sanpatchayapong Rangsit University

5. Dr. Paradee Yasothonsrikul Mahasarakham University

6. Dr. Lawrence Honkiss Srinakharinwirot University

7. Dr. Nutsurang Pukkalanun Surin Rajabhat University

8. Asst. Prof. Dr. Arisa Samrong Ramkhamhaeng University

9. Dr. Ariya Riengchantr Rajamangala University of Technology Bangkok

10. Dr. Supaporn Akkapin Rajamangala University of Technology Bangkok

11. Asst. Prof. Dr. Nisakorn Singhasenee Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

12. Asst. Prof. Dr. Parichart Kluensuwan Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

13. Asst. Prof. Kamonnat Tamrackhitkun Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

14. Dr. Tawatchai Chaisiri Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

15. Dr. Thitapa Sinturat Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

16. Dr. Wanpen Poomarin Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

17. Dr. Benjawan Rungruangsuparat Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

International Reviewers

1. Asst. Prof. Dr. Farid Agushybana Faculty of Public Health, Diponegoro University

2. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Bagoes Widjanarko National Indonesian Foundation of Public Health Expert

3. Prof. Dr. Nancy Ann Gonzalez Ifugao State University, Philippines

4. Prof. Dr. Faith Basilio Ifugao State University, Philippines

5. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Alice Brawner Ifugao State University, Philippines

6. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Chin-Hui Chen National Pintung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

7. Dr. Robert Galindez Eulogio Rodriquez Institute of Science and Technology, Philippines

8. Dr. George Francisco De La Salle University Dasmarinas, Philippines

9. Dr. Merlyn Lee De La Salle University Dasmarinas, Philippines

10. Dr. Jan Chonavec Masaryk University, Czech Republic

11. Dr. Heather Sharp University of New Castle, Australia

Summary of Papers

RMUTT ICSS 2018

Total number of papers presented 24

Number of papers by local presenters 13

Number of papers by overseas presenters 11

Number of papers submitted for peer-reviewed 15 proceedings

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About the Authors

Richard Watson Todd is Associate Professor and Associate Dean for Research at King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi and holds a PhD from the University of Liverpool. His interests include Text Linguistics, Computer Applications in language use, and Innovative Research Methodologies. His recent book is entitled: Discourse Topics.

Sarinthorn Mungkhamanee is a nursing lecturer at Boromarajonani College of Nursing Ratchaburi, Praboromarajchanok Institute, Ministry of Public Health (M.N.S in Mother and Child, B.N.S in Mother and Child). Her research interests involve reproductive health, child and pregnancy women.

Viparat Yomdit is a nursing lecturer at Boromarajonani College of Nursing Ratchaburi, Praboromarajchanok Institute, Ministry of Public Health (M.S in Nursing, B.N.S in Mother and Child).

Phatcharin Wihokharn is a nursing lecturer at Boromarajonani College of Nursing Ratchaburi, Praboromarajchanok Institute, Ministry of Public Health (M.N.S in Mother and Child, B.N.S in Mother and Child).

Issara Siramaneerat is a social science lecturer at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi (Ph.D. Demography, M.A. in Demography; B.A. in Sociology and Anthropology). Her research interests involve sociology of health and illness.

Atchira Tiwasing is a tourism and hospitality lecturer at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi (M. in International Tourism and Hotel Management, M.A. in International Tourism and Hotel Management, B.B.A. in Tourism and Hotel Management, B.B.A. in Business Computer) Her research interests involve technology in tourism or related service business, solo travel, and feminist travel.

Eric A. Ambele is currently a Ph.D. Candidate in Applied Linguistics at King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi. He holds a master’s degree in English Language. His research interests focus on Language Variation, Sociolinguistics, Discourse Analysis, World Englishes, and Innovation in Research Methodologies.

Punjaporn Pojanapunya is a researcher in Applied Linguistics at School of Liberal Arts, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi. Her research interests include keyword analysis, corpus linguistics, and corpus-based analysis of academic language. Her recent research work (with Richard Watson Todd) is Log-likelihood and odds ratio: Keyness statistics for different purposes of keyword analysis.

Kevin Darwin Crisostomo Balayan is a Filipino subject lecturer in a public school in Poblacion National High School. He took up Bachelor of Secondary Education major in Filipino as his bachelors’ degree at Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Muntinlupa. His research interests focuses on Filipino Language, Culture, and Ethnicity.

Remart Dumlao is an English Project teacher at Unisearch, Chulalongkorn University (MA Student at KMUTT) His research interests involve corpus-based research, critical discourse analysis, political discourse analysis, metacognition, and sociolinguistics.

Panadda Pratoomrat is a Ph.D. candidate in English Language Teaching (ELT) at the Graduate School of Human Sciences, Assumption University, Bangkok, Thailand and currently an English lecture at Language and Academic Services Centre, International College for Sustainability Studies, Srinakharinwirot University (SWU). Her doctoral dissertation under the supervision of Assistant Professor Dr. 2Kulaporn Hiranburana. This study is a part of the dissertation entitled “A study of Classroom Interactional Competence at a Thai University level”.

Kulaporn Hiranburana is an Assistant Professor and former Director of the Chulalongkorn University Language Institute (CULI), Thailand. She is at present a Senior Lecturer at the Graduate School of Human Sciences, Assumption University. Her areas of interest include discourse analysis, business communication, English at the workplace, testing and language assessment in English for specific purposes, and cross-cultural communication.

Parichart Kluensuwan is a lecturer working at the Department of Western Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. She holds a doctorate in TESOL from the University of Leeds, UK. She has been teaching EFL for over 30 years. Her research interests include language strategies especially writing strategies, learners' differences, and material design.

Sulaganya Punyayodhin (the corresponding author) is an English lecturer at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand (M.Phil – Ph.D. Linguistics, M.A. Teaching English; B.A. English major). Her research involves Linguistics, Languages, English Language Teaching, Kinship terms and PBL. Co-authors: The four authors are 4th year RMUTT students majoring in English for Communication under the supervision in an Independent Study course of the Corresponding Author.

Weerapa Pongpanich is an English lecturer at Rangsit University (M.A. in English for Professions; B.A. in English for International Communication). Her research interests include error analysis and the interference of the mother tongue.

Aree Thongrit is Assistant Professor teaching English at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. Her research interests involve students’ behavior in classrooms and related fields. Her previous research paper is entitled: Behavior Modifier to Enhance Students in Studying English for Science and Technology by Using Self-Rating Behavioral Observation Form.

Tawatchai Chaisiri is a lecturer at the Department of Western Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. He holds a professional doctorate in TESOL from the University of South Australia. He has been teaching English in the EFL context in Thailand for more than 20 years with his research interests including teaching English writing, TEFL, TESOL, Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) and teacher development.

Suarsaraha Suwannathep is a lecturer at the Department of Western Languages, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. She teaches fundamental English courses for students across the University. Her research interests involve TESOL and material development.

Rotsukhon Songkhong (B.Ed. in English Teaching and M.A. in Linguistics) is an Assistant Professor and English lecturer at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi and a recipient of numerous University achievement awards. She has played a crucial role in organizing English camps on and off campus. Her research interests include sociolinguistics, learner’s autonomy and English as an International Language.

Lawrence Platon is a lecturer at Srinakarinwirot University (Ph.D. Educational Management, M.A. in TEFL; B.S. in Commerce; B.S. Military Science). His research interests include corpus- based research, psycholinguistics, and lexical fossilization. His is currently working on his book entitled: Lexical Autism: A Mirror System Neuron Phenomenon.

Ways of Being Multidisciplinary in Research

Richard Watson Todd

King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

‘Multidisciplinary’ is a 21st century buzzword in academia with proponents arguing that multidisciplinary research is more creative and has greater impacts than research bounded within a single discipline. Multidisciplinary research where people from different disciplines work together has led to the establishment of new mixed disciplines such as mechatronics, bioinformatics and even primate archaeology. Examples of such research in Thailand include the multidisciplinarity of environmental impact assessments where scientists and sociologists examine different aspects of environmental impacts separately before combining them into a single assessment, and the interdisciplinarity of natural language processing where specialists in linguistics and computing work closely together to produce a single product. Such truly multidisciplinary research is still relatively rare in the social sciences in Thailand, but there are other more practical ways of drawing on different disciplines to produce higher-quality research. While true multidisciplinary research requires people from different disciplines to work together, cross-disciplinary research involves simply borrowing constructs and methods across disciplines, and I will suggest three sub-categories. The first is cross-disciplinary construct borrowing, which involves using concepts or theories from another discipline. For example, I have used fuzzy logic to explain disagreements in topic identification in discourse. Second, cross-disciplinary method borrowing involves applying a research tool designed in one discipline into a second discipline. An example of this is the use of the Implicit Association Test, a tool used in social psychology to investigate prejudice, as the basis for applied linguistics research examining attitudes towards native and non-native speaker teachers of English. Third, cross-disciplinary method improvement involves gaining new perspectives or deeper insights from one discipline into research procedures already commonly used in another discipline. For example, pilot studies and action research are already common practices in education, but the use of these practices in educational research could potentially be improved by integrating insights from the literature in

the nursing field. While truly multidisciplinary research is very complex to organize, these three cross-disciplinary alternatives provide a feasible way to gain many of the benefits of multidisciplinarity in research.

The word ‘multidisciplinary’ was first coined in 1949 and has seen a steady growth in use since then. Using data from the Corpus of Historical American English, ‘multidisciplinary’ was used five times more frequently in the first decade of this century than in the 1970s, and is fast becoming a 21st century buzzword. The most common collocates of ‘multidisciplinary’ are ‘team(s)’, ‘approach(es)’ and ‘research’, and it is the last of these – multidisciplinary research – that is the focus of this paper.

Types of multidisciplinary research

As the term suggests, multidisciplinary research usually involves researchers from different disciplines working together. This, proponents argue, can lead to more creative research with higher impacts than research conducted within a single discipline and to unusual scientific inventions (Bhavsar, 2017). With such potential benefits, some major funding sources stipulate that funded research projects must involve researchers from more than one discipline. The growth in multidisciplinarity has led to new mixed disciplines in science, such as mechatronics and bioinformatics, but the impact of this trend on the social sciences is less clear. One interesting new mixed discipline involving social scientists and relevant to Thailand is primate archaeology. Macaque monkeys on islands in Phangnga use tools to crack nuts, and archaeologists have conducted digs to investigate the history of this tool use (Gumert et al., 2009; Tennenhouse, 2018). This, however, is an exception with most other new mixed disciplines combining traditional scientific disciplines.

As with many popular buzzwords, ‘multidisciplinary’ means different things to different people. Most confusingly, ‘multidisciplinary’ is both a superordinate term for any research involving multiple disciplines and a hyponym of this term referring to one specific type of such research (Pain, 2003). While the superordinate is common in general discussions of research, more focused discussions (e.g. Jensenius, 2012; Resnick, 2012; Stember, 1991) often distinguish

several sub-categories of the superordinate, reserving ‘multidisciplinary’ for one of these. The three most common sub-categories are:

1. Multidisciplinary research where researchers from different disciplines work separately on the same problem, each from their own perspective, and then share their results together. 2. Interdisciplinary research where researchers from different disciplines work closely together throughout the research process. 3. Cross-disciplinary research where constructs and/or methods are borrowed across disciplines but where the research is conducted by researcher(s) from within a single discipline.

In this paper, I will look at each of these three types of multidisciplinary research using examples involving the social sciences in Thailand with a particular focus on the benefits of cross- disciplinary research.

Multidisciplinary research: Environmental impact assessments

Perhaps the most common multidisciplinary research conducted in Thailand (and, indeed, elsewhere) is the research needed to generate environmental impact assessments (EIAs). In Thailand, the Enhancement and Conservation of the National Environmental Quality Act of 1992 mandates that large-scale infrastructure, industrial and agricultural projects need to complete an EIA before construction. Although some EIAs are completed by environmental scientists alone, guidelines from the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (2012) stipulate four major elements that EIAs should consider (abiotic resources, biotic resources, human use value, and quality of life value), and for large projects specialists from these areas may be required to supplement the input from environmental scientists. For example, geologists may be needed to analyse geomorphology and soil (sub-sections in abiotic resources) and economists to provide input on human use values. In addition, sociologists are often employed on EIAs to organise and summarise public input on projects (e.g. Stærdahl et al., 2004). In most cases where experts from multiple disciplines give input into the final EIA report, each expert works separately on their own area of specialism first before bringing all the findings together, the key defining characteristic of multidisciplinary research.

Interdisciplinary research: Natural Language Processing

In contrast to multidisciplinary research where researchers work separately before coming together, in interdisciplinary research researchers from different disciplines work closely together throughout the research process. This is often the case in the new mixed disciplines, and in this section, I will draw on my own experience to explore Natural Language Processing (NLP), or programming computers to process natural language data, where researchers from linguistics and computing work together. NLP applications are wide-ranging and include speech recognition, automated text categorisation, and natural language generation. For language teachers, two particularly relevant applications are automated writing evaluation (such as the automated marking of TWE essays in TOEFL) and automated feedback on writing. It is the last of these that I will focus on.

English teachers in Thailand spend an inordinate amount of time giving feedback on student writing, focusing on issues such as grammatical accuracy, lexical appropriateness, and coherent organisation. If some of this work could be automated, there would be two key benefits: teachers would be freed up to devote more time to other priorities, and students could work and learn more autonomously. As someone whose research interests include text linguistics, I was approached by the School of Information Technology to collaborate on a project to create a program that would provide useful feedback for student writers on the organisation of their writing.

To create an automated writing organisation feedback program, a linguistic methodology which fulfills two criteria is needed. First, the methodology should produce an output that gives useful feedback on writing organisation which, if implemented, would improve the writing; second, it should be automatable. Hoey’s (1991) lexical cohesion analysis appears to fulfill both criteria. This analysis involves identifying all reiterations of concepts between sentences, counting these reiterations to identify bonded sentences, and using the patterns of bonded sentences in a text to give feedback on its organisation. From a computing perspective, the greatest challenge is probably to identify the reiterations of concepts. While identifying repetitions is straightforward, identifying paraphrases and the use of pronouns requires taggers and databases such as WordNet. In addition, presenting the results of the analysis to student writers in a meaningful and easily comprehensible way is a design challenge. In the program we produced (see Chansripiboon et

al., 2011), the output colour-coded the sentences in the text into seven types. For example, sentences highlighted in red are those with no bonds to other sentences which could possibly be deleted; and sentences highlighted in cyan have bonds to sentences in the succeeding paragraph but no bonds to the other sentences in the current paragraph, meaning that such sentences could be usefully moved to the succeeding paragraph.

My experiences on this project highlight some of the pros and cons of being involved in multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research (see also Bhavsar, 2017). The project, I believe, was valuable and innovative, and I learnt a lot from being involved. However, although I was the linguist on the project, I still needed a basic understanding of computer programming to be able to make useful contributions. There were also times when I felt somewhat isolated and sidelined, being the only linguist working with three programmers. Perhaps the biggest issue is that projects such as this need funding and are difficult to set up and run. For many researchers in the social sciences, this severely limits the likelihood of being involved in multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research.

Cross-disciplinary research

Cross-disciplinary research is much easier to accomplish than multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary research in that a researcher working on his or her own or a research team from within a single discipline can do it. The greater practicality of cross-disciplinary research means that the research outcomes are less likely to be ground-breaking than in, say, interdisciplinary research, but cross-disciplinary research is still of great potential value in that it can push a discipline forward by expanding its remit or by expanding or improving its methodologies. In this section, I will look at three sub-types of cross-disciplinary research: construct borrowing, method borrowing, and method improvement, from the perspective of applied linguistics.

Cross-disciplinary construct borrowing

Since its inception when it was primarily concerned with English language teaching, applied linguistics has steadily expanded its remit (de Bot, 2015). For example, all of the articles in the first issue of the journal Applied Linguistics concerned language teaching, but the most recent issue at the time of writing includes articles on healthcare communication and aviation communication as well as language teaching. This expansion of applied linguistics has happened in two ways: first by applying the constructs and methods of applied linguistics to new contexts, and second by applying constructs and methods borrowed from outside applied linguistics to its traditional contexts (which I will term cross-disciplinary construct and method borrowing). Construct borrowing has become such a standard practice that we do not realise how many of the constructs that we now consider to be central to applied linguistics did not actually originate in the discipline. For example, most of the sociocultural theory currently prevalent in analyses of language learning was borrowed from general education, and most of the constructs used in investigating affect in language learning derive from psychology. Such cross-disciplinary construct borrowing can create whole new sub-fields in applied linguistics, but construct borrowing also allows researchers to solve specific problems in particular research studies, and I will look at one example of this from my own work.

My research in text linguistics focuses on how to identify topics in discourse (e.g. Watson Todd, 2016). Some of this research examines the extent to which certain topics are prioritised through the discourse and produces graphs such as that shown in Figure 1. Here, the horizontal axis shows points through the discourse (indicated by the number of each sentence). The various graphs show the amount of emphasis given to the various concepts at different points in the discourse (with scores representing amount of emphasis on the y-axis). From the graph, we can see that only one concept, film, is emphasised between sentences 55 and 59, whereas around this section two or even three concepts compete for emphasis. To be able to conduct further analyses, ideally I needed a single measure of the extent of single or competing emphasis of concepts at each point in the discourse. I could have used one of several simple measures (such as the emphasis score of the most emphasised concept, or the number of concepts scoring over, say, 20). However, in the graphs produced for several texts, there would be some points where each of these simple measures would produce misleading scores. Eventually, I found a somewhat

complex, but manageable, measure that did not produce misleading results since it accounted for the amount of emphasis of every active concept at each point. This complex measure, called fuzzy entropy, produces low scores when a single concept dominates the discourse and high scores when there are several competing concepts, as shown below the graph in Figure 1. Fuzzy entropy comes from fuzzy logic, a field originally created in the discipline of electrical engineering. In this case, borrowing a construct from the very disparate discipline of electrical engineering into the discipline of applied linguistics solved a specific problem and allowed me to continue the analysis. Cross-disciplinary construct borrowing, then, has the potential to enable analyses which could otherwise not be conducted in applied linguistics.

Fuzzy entropy scores

film

100 robot 90 name 80

70 R2D2

60 C3PO

50 cook 40 work 30

20 servant

10 fighter

0 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61 64 67 70 73 question Sentence 0.255 0.382 0.395 0.085 0.298 0.187

Figure 1 Graph showing amount of emphasis on different concepts through discourse

Cross-disciplinary method borrowing

Similar to cross-disciplinary construct borrowing, applied linguistics (or, indeed, any discipline) can be enriched and improved through borrowing research methods from other disciplines. Many current widely accepted practices originated in other disciplines. For instance, the Likert scales so commonly used in questionnaires were developed in psychology. Methods borrowed from other disciplines often have the potential to improve current data collection and analysis practices, but they can also open up new areas of investigation. Again, I will give an example of this last point from my own research.

Especially since the publication of Medgyes’ (1994) book The Non-Native Teacher, there has been substantial research interest in applied linguistics in comparing and questioning the effectiveness and impacts of native English speaking teachers (NESTs) and non-native English speaking teachers (non-NESTs). Numerous surveys, especially examining students’ attitudes and beliefs, have been conducted (e.g. Levis et al., 2016; Ling and Braine, 2007; Ma, 2012). While valuable, such surveys are somewhat problematic since issues of NESTs and non-NESTs involve prejudice and even racism (Ali, 2009; Ruecker and Ives, 2015), and respondents to surveys may give false information when the survey topic concerns prejudice. For research into NESTs and non-NESTs, this means that survey results are “more politically correct than accurate” (Braine, 2005: 22). To conduct valid survey research into students’ attitudes towards NESTs and non- NESTs, it would therefore be useful if we could use a survey methodology that accounted for prejudice.

The discipline of social psychology is particularly concerned with prejudice, and so is a likely source for a survey methodology accounting for prejudice. There are, in fact, several such methodologies in social psychology, but the most commonly used and accepted one is the Implicit Association Test or IAT (Greenwald et al., 2003). A video explaining the IAT can be found at https://www.jove.com/science-education/10368/the-implicit-association-test. At the time of our study (Watson Todd and Pojanapunya, 2009), no previous research had been conducted into attitudes towards NESTs and non-NESTs that took prejudice into account. Our research showed that a traditional questionnaire survey showed that Thai students have more positive attitudes towards NESTs than non-NESTs. However, implicitly or subconsciously, these students do not have any clear preference and, indeed, feel more comfortable with non-NESTs.

By engaging in cross-disciplinary method borrowing by using a survey method from another discipline, our research shed new light on the issue of attitudes towards NESTs and non-NESTs in applied linguistics.

Cross-disciplinary method improvement

Where cross-disciplinary construct and method borrowing have the potential to both expand and improve research in the target discipline, the third type of cross-disciplinary research can improve research but does not expand the remit of the discipline. Cross-disciplinary method improvement aims to improve the use of research methods that are already standard in the target discipline. To illustrate this, I will look at how research methods commonly used in applied linguistics can be improved by drawing of the research literature from nursing.

The first example concerns pilot studies. Although many published research guidelines in applied linguistics (e.g. Weir and Roberts, 1994) state the need for piloting in research, the reporting of pilot studies in published research in applied linguistics is often lacking (Derrick, 2016; Serafini et al., 2015). One reason for this may be a lack of clear guidance on how to conduct pilot studies in applied linguistics. Conducting a Google Scholar search for “pilot studies” + “applied linguistics” gives 1,890 results. Although this may seem substantial, none of the top results specifically concern pilot studies (the summaries of the top four results are “The effects of repetition on vocabulary knowledge”, “Speaking with style”, “Second language accent and pronunciation teaching”, and “Rethinking applied corpus linguistics”). It therefore appears to be the case that, although applied linguistics acknowledges the need for pilot studies, there is little concern for how such studies are best conducted. If, in our Google Scholar search, we replace “applied linguistics” with “nursing”, we now find 27,700 results and these are far more clearly focused on the nature of pilot studies (the summaries of the top four results are “The importance of pilot studies”, “The importance of pilot studies”, Considerations in determining sample size for pilot studies”, and “Pilot studies”). It would therefore appear that the nursing discipline places a much greater emphasis on pilot studies than does applied linguistics and provides greater guidance. The use of pilot studies in applied linguistics research, therefore, would likely become more effective through cross-disciplinary method improvement drawing on the research literature in nursing.

While pilot studies may seem a somewhat peripheral concern in applied linguistics, cross- disciplinary method improvement can even be beneficial for methods far more central to applied linguistics research. An example of this is action research, an approach of considerable interest in applied linguistics as shown by two well-known books with “action research” in their titles (Burns, 2010; Wallace, 1998). Despite this, if we conduct further Google Scholar searches similar to those conducted for pilot studies, we find similar results. A search for “action research” and “applied linguistics” gives 15,600 results with the top results not specifically directed to action research (“Qualitative research in applied linguistics”, “Research methods in applied linguistics”, and “Dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics”). The same search in nursing gives 77,100 results with the most of the top results directly relevant (“Action research: what is it?”, “Handbook of action research”, and “Nursing research”). Even for a research approach which many applied linguistics researchers might consider to be closely associated with the discipline, much can be learnt and subsequently improved by drawing on other disciplines, and researchers should be willing to read about research methodology outside their field to enhance their research.

Conclusion

In this paper, I have shown several different approaches to conducting multidisciplinary research. Most discussion of multidisciplinary research focuses on the sub-types of multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary research. Such research can be highly productive in addressing new problems and creating innovations, but usually requires extensive funding and administrative support, and is often reliant on personal networks, making it difficult to implement in practice. For many researchers, cross-disciplinary research is more practicable. While unlikely to reach the heights potential in the other types of multidisciplinary research, cross-disciplinary construct borrowing, method borrowing and method improvement can lead to new areas of interest within a discipline, more creative and impactful research, and higher research quality. Researchers need to be willing to move beyond the comfort zone of their own discipline to learn and improve from other disciplines.

References

Ali, S. (2009) Teaching English as an International Language (EIL) in the Gulf Corporation Council (GCC) countries: The brown man’s burden. In Sharifian, F. (ed.) English as an International Language (34-57). Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Bhavsar, M. (2017) Multidisciplinary research: pros and cons. Retrieved from: http://blogs.nature.com/naturejobs/2017/09/11/multidisciplinary-research-pros-and-cons/ Braine, G. (2005) A history of research on non-native speaker English teachers. In Llurda, E. (ed.) Non-native Language Teachers: Perceptions Challenges and Contributions to the Profession (pp. 13-23). New York: Springer. Burns, A. (2010) Doing Action Research in English Language Teaching. New York: Routledge. Chansripiboon, P., Nukoolkit, C., Mongkolnam, P. and Watson Todd, R. (2011) Text cohesion visualizer. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Computer Science and Education (ICCSE2011), August 3-5 2011, Singapore, pp. 205-209. de Bot, K. (2015) A History of Applied Linguistics. Abingdon, Oxon.: Routledge. Derrick, D. J. (2016) Instrument reporting practices in second language research. TESOL Quarterly 50(1), 132-153. Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R. (2003) Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85(2), 197–216. Gumert, M. D., Kluck, M. and Malaivijitnond, S. (2009) The physical characteristics and usage patterns of stone axe and pounding hammers used by long‐tailed macaques in the Andaman Sea region of Thailand. American Journal of Primatology 71(7), 594-608. Hoey, M. (1991) Patterns of Lexis in Text. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jensenius, A. R. (2012) Disciplinarities: intra, cross, multi, inter, trans. Retrieved from: http://www.arj.no/2012/03/12/disciplinarities-2/ Levis, J. M., Sonsaat, S., Link, S. and Barriuso, T. A. (2016) Native and nonnative teachers of L2 pronunciation: Effects on learner performance. TESOL Quarterly 50(4), 894-931. Ling, C. Y. and Braine, G. (2007) Attitudes of university students towards non-native speaker English teachers in Hong Kong. RELC Journal 38(3), 257-277. Ma, L. P. F. (2012) Advantages and disadvantages of native- and nonnative English-speaking teachers. TESOL Quarterly 46(2), 280-305. Medgyes, P. (1994). The Non-native Teacher. London: Macmillan. Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (2012) Environmental Impact Assessment in Thailand. Retrieved from: http://www.onep.go.th/EIA/images/7handbook/ Environmental_Impact_Assessment_in_Thailand.pdf Pain, E. (2003) Multidisciplinary Research: Today's Hottest Buzzword? Retrieved from: http://www.sciencemag.org/careers/2003/01/multidisciplinary-research-todays-hottest- buzzword Resnick, J. (2012) Interdisciplinary and Multidisciplinary Research. Retrieved from: https://www.4researchers.org/articles/5213

Ruecker, T. and Ives, L. (2015) White native English speakers needed: The rhetorical construction of privilege in online teacher recruitment spaces. TESOL Quarterly 49(4), 733-756. Serafini E. J., Lake, J. B. and Long, M. H. (2015) Needs analysis for specialized learner populations. English for Specific Purposes 40, 11-26. Stærdahl, J., Schroll, H., Zakaria, Z., Abdullah, M., Dewar, N. and Panich, N. (2004) Environmental impact assessment in Malaysia, South Africa, Thailand, and Denmark: Background, layout, context, public participation and environmental scope. The Journal of Transdisciplinary Environmental Studies 3(1), 1-19. Stember, M. (1991) Advancing the social sciences through the interdisciplinary enterprise. The Social Science Journal 28(1), 1-14. Tennenhouse, E. (2018) Primate archaeology: Digging up secrets of the monkey Stone Age. New Scientist 31 January 2018. Wallace, M. (1998) Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Watson Todd, R. and Pojanapunya, P. (2009) Implicit attitudes towards native and non-native speaker teachers. System 37, 23-33. Watson Todd, R. (2016) Discourse Topics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Weir, C. and Roberts, J. (1994) Evaluation in ELT. Oxford: Blackwell.

Predictors of Health Promoting Behaviors among Teenage Pregnancy in Ratchaburi Province, Thailand

Sarinthorn Mungkhamanee1, Viparat Yomdit1 Phatcharin Wihokharn1, Issara Siramaneerat2

1Boromarajonani College of Nursing Ratchaburi, Praboromarajchanok Institute, Ministry of Public Health 2Department of Social science, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Pathumthani, Thailand.

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Background More than half a million women's deaths are caused by factors related to pregnancy and childbirth each year. Maternal health problems are influenced by maternal behaviors either before or during pregnancy. Teenagers are acknowledged to be at high risk of health-damaging behaviors including smoking, teenage pregnancy, and drug and alcohol use.

Objectives This study was conducted with the following objectives: 1) Investigating self-control, familial relationships, access to news and information and health care behaviors of adolescent females; 2) To compare the health care behaviors of pregnant adolescents with differing ages, educational levels, occupations and family incomes; 3) To study self-control, familial relationships and access to news and information as factors influencing the self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents seeking antenatal care at tertiary hospitals in Ratchaburi areas.

Population and sample The population was pregnant adolescents who seek antenatal care at tertiary hospitals in Ratchaburi areas. The sample group comprised 260 primiparous adolescents selected by stratified random sampling.

Methodology The instrumentation employed in the research was composed of questionnaires and the statistical methods employed in the data analysis comprised percentage (%), mean ( X ), standard deviation (S.D.), and Pearson correlation. P-values <0.05 were considered as statistically significant.

Findings The analysis revealed that 1) The pregnant adolescents’ self-control and access to news and information were excellent. Familial relationships were at a good level and the health care behavior of the pregnant adolescents was excellent. 2)The pregnant adolescents with different ages, occupations and family incomes had health care behavior that differed with statistical significance at 0.05. As for level of education, no differences were discovered and 3) Self-control and access to news and information were able to jointly predict the health care behavior in pregnant adolescents at 38.4 percent with statistical significance at 0.01.

Keywords: pregnant, adolescent, self-control

Background and significance of the problem

Adolescent pregnancy is a significant health problem for mothers and children further leading to economic and social problems that attract attention in many countries (Ministry of Public Health, 2014). The National Economic and Social Development Plan, 11th Edition, of 2012-2016 stipulates that the problem of adolescent pregnancy and unprepared pregnancy are a crisis among Thailand’s social issues. The pregnancy rate among Thai female adolescents under 20 years of age is constantly escalating (Ministry of Public Health, 2014). According to the Ministry of

Public Health (MoPH), adolescent birth rates increase slightly from 2004 to 2011 and then decline from 2012 to 2013. For adolescents aged 15-19, the birth rate rises from 47 per 1,000 in 2004 to 54 per 1,000 in 2012; it begins to fall to 48.8 in 2013. Births to adolescents aged 10-14 follow a similar pattern, as they increase slightly from 1.0 per 1,000 in 2004 to 1.8 per 1,000 in

2012, and fall to 1.6 in 2013. In 2013, out of every 1,000 births to women aged 10-49 (n=747, 307), 4.6 are to younger adolescents aged 10-14 and 163.2 were to adolescents aged 15-19 (Unicef, 2015). The main reasons for increased adolescent pregnancy rates are sexual preference changes, earlier sexual activity, absence of respect, deficient self-worth and a need for love.

Changes in adolescents across the world, or what is called the Global trend, give the adolescents the condition to decide on having sexual relationships leading to unprepared pregnancy (Black, A. Y., Fleming, N. A., and Rome, E. S., 2012).

Adolescent pregnancy has impacts on both the adolescent and the unborn fetus because adolescents unexpectedly take on maternal roles which bring on feelings of difficulty as adolescent lives are disrupted by the pregnancy. Some of the adolescents may feel the unborn fetus causes them difficulty and hence pay no attention to self-care, thereby causing additional risks to both mothers and fetuses (Hindin, M. J., and Fatusi, A. O., 2009). Thus, practicing suitable self-care during pregnancy can prevent risks in addition to promoting the health of pregnant adolescents and helping babies survive with good development and growth (Hindin, M.

J., and Fatusi, A. O., 2009).

According to the aforementioned data, the health problems occurring with pregnant adolescents affect the monitoring and health promotion work of public health agencies with a serious need for prevention and correction to prevent potential complications among pregnant adolescents and fetuses (Kirby, D., and Lepore, G., 2007). Promoting pregnant adolescents to practice self-care behaviors during pregnancy can help prevent the problems and impacts occurring with adolescents and fetuses. Primary preventive guidelines for pregnant adolescents involve the following: physical and mental readiness, nutritional monitoring, physical health monitoring, illness prevention and maintaining happy and good mental health (Kirby, D., and Lepore, G., 2007). Pregnant adolescents with good health care behaviors rely on a number of factors such as the pregnant adolescents themselves and other people surrounding the adolescents such as husband, parents, relatives, family members and friends in addition to access to information on

self-care from a variety of sources. Conducting studies on the physical and mental self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents, planning on the development of public system on pregnant adolescents and organizing projects to help pregnant adolescents can lead to improved self-care in this group of patients (Kirby, D., and Lepore, G., 2007).

Research objectives

1. To investigate the level of self-control, familial relationships, access to information and self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents at tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi. 2. To compare the self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents of different age, educational attainments, occupation and family incomes receiving antenatal care at tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi. 3. To investigate the effect of self-control, familial relationships and access to news and information toward self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents at tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi.

Expected benefits

1. Awareness about the factors affecting the pregnant adolescent’s self-care behaviors at tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi. 2. Awareness about the pregnant adolescent’s level of self-care, familial relationships, access to news and information and self-care behaviors at tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi. 3. The findings obtained can be used in public health work planning for the part related to health promotion. 4. Motivation for pregnant adolescents to realize the importance of health care and promotion for the pregnant adolescents in their families by focusing on self-care at tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi. 5. To study self-control, familial relationships and access to news and information as factors affecting the self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents receiving antenatal care at tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi.

Methodology

The present study comprises descriptive research aimed at investigating the factors affecting the self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents in Suphanburi. The research methodology was as follows:

Population and sample group

The sample group in this study comprised 260 pregnant adolescents with ages not exceeding 20 years and receiving antenatal care at the antenatal care unit of tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi.

Instrumentation

The instrument comprised a set of questionnaires divided into four sections, namely, a questionnaire on the personal data of the pregnant adolescents, self-control, familial relationships and health care behaviors. The researcher conducted the present study based on concepts, theories and research in addition to related documents. Next, the scope and content structure of the questionnaires, scoring requirements and criteria for each reply were set. The questionnaires obtained were then verified by qualified experts for reliability and language clarity, after which they were edited before implementation in a pilot study with a sample group of thirty patients in tertiary hospitals in surrounding provinces. Then the questionnaires were tested for reliability by using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient.

Data collection

The researcher submitted a letter of request to the directors of tertiary hospitals in Suphanburi to request cooperation from the Antenatal Care Department and to seek permission and cooperation with data collection. Next, the researcher used the questionnaires developed and modified in data collection by handing the instruments out to the sample group of 260 patients who had weekly

antenatal checkup appointments. The questionnaires were then returned and checked for completeness.

Data analysis

Descriptive statistics, One-way ANOVA and Pearson correlation were applied. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted to describe the characteristics of mother’s involved in the study. Level of information and self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents with different ages, educational attainments, occupations and family incomes were analyzed using One-way ANOVA. When differences with statistical significance were encountered, a paired t-test was performed using Scheffe’s method. Factors including the self-control, familial relationships and access to news and information affect the self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents receiving antenatal care using Pearson correlation. P-values <0.05 were considered as statistically significant.

Findings

1. The analysis on personal data of 260 pregnant adolescents in Suphanburi who answered questionnaires revealed that 51.9% were 18-20 years old, 42.3% were with primary school education, and 42.7% were self-employed with adequate incomes, but nothing left for savings at

60.8%.

2. Analysis on the level of self-control, familial relationships, access to news and information and self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents in Suphanburi, which yielded the following findings self-control was at a high level (xˉ =3.76), familial relationships were at a high level

(xˉ =3.79), access to news and information was at high level (xˉ =3.68), and self-care behaviors were ranked at a high level (xˉ =3.68).

3. The following findings were yielded by the analysis comparing the self-care behavior

of the adolescents in Suphanburi who had different ages, educational attainments, occupations and incomes:

3.1 Pregnant adolescents aged 18-20 years and not over 17 years old had different self- care behaviors with statistical significance at 0.05. The pregnant adolescents aged 18-20 years had higher levels of self-care behaviors than pregnant adolescents age not over 17 years old

(xˉ =3.75, 3.61, respectively). 3.2 Pregnant adolescents with secondary school educational attainments and pregnant adolescents with primary school or lower educational attainments had no differences in terms of self-care behaviors.

3.3 The pregnant adolescents with different occupations had different self-care behaviors with statistical significance at 0.05. The pregnant adolescents who were unemployed had higher levels of self-care behaviors than the pregnant adolescents who were self-employed

(xˉ =3.76,376, respectively).

3.4 The pregnant adolescents with different levels of family income had different self- care behaviors with statistical significance at 0.05. The pregnant adolescents with sufficient levels of family income with savings had a higher degree of self-care behaviors than the pregnant adolescents with inadequate levels of family income for savings (xˉ =3.82, 363, respectively).

4. Self-control, familial relationships and access to news and information affected the self-care behavior among the pregnant adolescents statistically significant at 0.05.

Discussion 1. The results of the analysis of the comparison between the self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents in Suphanburi with different ages, educational attainments, occupations and levels of family income can be discussed as follows: Age According to the analysis, pregnant adolescents with different in ages had different self-care behaviors with statistical significance at .05, which was in agreement with

Hypothesis 1. Pregnant adolescents aged 18-20 years old practiced more self-care behaviors that pregnant adolescents with ages not exceeding 17 years because 51.9% of the pregnant adolescents in the sample group were in late adolescence at ages of 18-20 years and 40.4% were in mid- adolescence who had thoughts and intelligence similar to that of adults’ and so they could practice proper behaviors. Interesting data reveals that female adolescents are engaging in sexual relations earlier because pregnant adolescents are still of school age and need to depend on others economically. Pregnant adolescents also need to face personal development from childhood to adult maturity and need to take responsibility for self with self-reliance. According to the study by Kamonrat Supwititpattana (2010) who found pregnant females to have overall health promotion behaviors ranked at a good level and age to affect health promotion behaviors.

Furthermore, older pregnant females take care of themselves better than younger adolescents. Educational attainment Pregnant adolescents with different educational attainments had similar self-care behaviors, which did not support Hypothesis 2, possibly because 42.3% of the pregnant adolescents had similar educational attainments at the primary school level and 37.3% had early high school educational attainments. Thus, the pregnant adolescents were able to develop similar self-care behaviors to one another concerning daily routines. The present study found access to news and information from relatives, neighbors, public health personnel and media to be ranked at a high level (xˉ = 3.68) without any relevance to educational attainment. The aforementioned findings concurred with Kamonrat Supwititpattana

(2010) who found educational attainment to be unable to predict the health promotion behaviors of pregnant adolescents. The present findings were also in agreement with the findings of Kirby, D., and Lepore, G. (2007) who found educational attainment to be unable to predict the

self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents. Thus, according to this study, the conclusion can be drawn that pregnant adolescents with different educational attainments have no differences in self-care behaviors. Occupation According to the analysis, pregnant adolescents with different occupations had different self-care behaviors with statistical significance at 0.05, which supported

Hypothesis 3, “Pregnant adolescents with different occupations have different self-care behaviors.” Pregnant adolescents who are unemployed or housewives practice more self-care behaviors than pregnant adolescents who were self-employed or had their own business because the unemployed pregnant adolescents mostly worked at home, had no definite work schedules and were able to schedule tasks (Hindin, M. J., and Fatusi, A. O., 2009). Hence, the pregnant adolescents were able to perform health activities independently and rest without rushing. Because the pregnant adolescents were unemployed, there were no job-related risks such as lifting heavy loads, exposure to environment potentially affecting pregnancy. The pregnant adolescents did not need to travel far and, because they were not main income generators, the pregnant adolescents had to practice particular pregnancy care in order to avoid financial burdens on their families, which is different from the self-employed pregnant adolescents who had more time limitations because they had to devote part of their time to occupations leaving less time for pregnancy care (Hindin, M. J., and Fatusi, A. O., 2009). Income According to the analysis, the pregnant adolescents with different levels of income had differences in self-care behaviors with statistical significance at 0.05, which supported Hypothesis 4, “Pregnant adolescents with different level of income have different self- care behaviors”. Pregnant adolescents with sufficient levels of income and savings practiced more self-care behaviors than pregnant adolescents with sufficient levels of income without savings and without sufficient levels of income because income is a basic element of living and allows response to the basic needs of the pregnant adolescents in terms of secure residence, valuable foods and quality treatment. Thus, income is an essential factor encouraging pregnant adolescents to practice self-care behaviors regularly and properly. Furthermore, income is an essential element in the adolescents’ self-care and antenatal care capacity. The aforementioned

finding concurred with the findings of Black, A. Y., Fleming, N. A., and Rome, E. S. (2012) who found women with higher incomes to be more maternally prepared than women with low incomes with statistical significance at .01.

2. Analysis results on self-control, familial relationships and access to news and information capable of predicting the self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents in Suphanburi can be summarized as follows: The analysis of the correlation between the independent and dependent variables revealed self-control and self-care behaviors to be positively correlated with statistical significance at 0.05 (r = .527), which was ranked as a high level. Hence, the pregnant adolescents had tendencies toward developing more self-care behaviors because self-control is the ability to endure disruptions caused by changes with increasing gestation age. The pregnant adolescents were able to control behaviors properly and suitably as anticipated with determination for their babies to be born healthy with complete and perfect bodies, good and proper birth weights, good health and no illness, which was the pregnant adolescent ‘s goal. Familial relationships were found to be positively correlated with pregnant adolescents’ self-care behaviors with statistical significance at 0.05 (r = .482), which was ranked at high level. Hence, better familial relationships led to higher levels of self-care behaviors because the fact that family members living in the same house, such as husbands, parents, relatives or other people, expressed their love and sympathy in helping one another encouraged the pregnant adolescents to practice better self-care during pregnancy. The fact that family members took good care of the pregnant adolescents showed that they cared for the pregnant adolescents’ health, possibly be because the adolescents were young and primiparous. The aforementioned findings concurred with Catalano, R. F., Fagan, A. A., Gavin, L. E., Greenberg, M. T., Irwin Jr, C. E., Ross, D. A., and Shek, D. T. (2012). who found adolescents living in families with good relationships to have more desirable social behaviors than adolescents living in families with poor relationships with statistical significance at 0.05. Thus, pregnant adolescents with family members providing special care should also be encouraged toward a high degree of self-care behaviors.

Access to news and information and the pregnant adolescent’s self-care behaviors were positively correlated with statistical significance level at 0.05 (r = .579), which was ranked at a high level. Receipt of information on recommended foods or foods to avoid during pregnancy, proper exercise methods during pregnancy and relaxation methods. The pregnant adolescents who received information were able to assess risks and prevent potential accidents from occurring during pregnancy with proper self-care practice leading to improved self-care behaviors (Boonpakdee, N., 2006).

Conclusion The self-control, familial relationships and access to news and information capable of predicting the self-care behaviors of pregnant adolescents in Suphanburi. Thus, pregnant adolescents require self-control by not eating harmful foods and by seeking additional nutrients required during pregnancy, for example, by taking an iron supplement daily by a doctor’s prescription. Exercise is also important to pregnant adolescents to ensure physical fitness, which in turn leads to a normal birth. Moreover, pregnant adolescents need to exercise properly and receive prenatal care services as scheduled with plenty of rest and good moods leading to even better self-care behavior by the pregnant adolescents. Moreover, family members were afraid the adolescents would not exercise as much caution or pay attention to their pregnancy as they should. Hence, the more information the pregnant adolescents received, the more the pregnant adolescents developed self-care behaviors because access to news and information made the pregnant adolescents aware of the guidelines for self-care during pregnancy from the time they learned that they were pregnant to delivery

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the tertiary hospitals in Ratchaburi, for providing the data.

References

1. Black, A. Y., Fleming, N. A., and Rome, E. S. (2012). Pregnancy in adolescents. Adolescent Medicine: State of the art reviews, 23(1), 123-38. 2. Boonpakdee, N. (2006). Relationship between pregnancy intention and outcome of pregnancy: An in-depth study of two communities. M.A.Thesis. Population and Reproductive Health Research, Faculty of Graduate Studies. Mahidol University. 3. Catalano, R. F., Fagan, A. A., Gavin, L. E., Greenberg, M. T., Irwin Jr, C. E., Ross, D. A., and Shek, D. T. (2012). Worldwide application of prevention science in adolescent health. The Lancet, 379(9826), 1653-1664. 4. Churchat, S. (2006). The Royal Thai government Civil and Commercial Code, 5th edition. Thailand Penal Code. Article 279. Retrieved from: http://www.samuiforsale.com/law-texts/thailand-penal-code.html 5. Hindin, M. J., and Fatusi, A. O. (2009). Adolescent Sexual and Reproductive Health in Developing Countries: An Overview of Trends and Interventions. International Perspectives On Sexual and Reproductive Health, 35(2), 58-62. 6. Kamonrat Suppawititpattana. (2010). Correlation between social support and socio-

economic factors, and pregnant adolescents’ health practice”, Master’s thesis in medical

and health social sciences. Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University. 7. Kirby, D., and Lepore, G. (2007). Sexual Risk and Protective Factors: Factors affecting teen sexual behavior, pregnancy, childbearing and sexually transmitted disease – Which are important? Which can you change? Washington, DC: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. 8. Ministry of Public Health (2014). Adolescent Pregnancy: Policies, approaches, and evaluations. National Library of Thailand Cataloging in Publication Data. 9. Unicef (2015) Situation analysis of adolescent pregnancy in Thailand, unite for children.

The Influence of Social Media on Tourism: A Case Study of Man-made Tourist Attraction in Thailand

Atchira Tiwasing

Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Tourism industry is very important to Thailand economic development since Thailand has competitive advantage in proper location, abundance of natural resources, creative man-made tourist attractions, and variety of unique cultures that present in local tradition, national festival, and street food. There are valuable resource benefit for tourism marketing.

Nowadays, Global connectivity is become more interesting since mobile phone or electronic devices able to change public communication platform via social media. In 2015, Tourism Council of Thailand stated that 27% of foreign tourist and 61% of Thai tourist using the internet to get information about traveling in Thailand. Therefore, it can be seen that social media is impact to tourist decision making.

The research focused on man-made tourist attraction in Thailand and social media which is now popular in Thai tourist. The study aims to study social media influent factors on tourism and to investigate tourists’ decision making behavior. This study was quantitative research which sample group were 400 Thai tourists aged 20-60 years old who have been traveling to man-made tourist attraction in Thailand selected by non-probability sampling.

The analysis revealed that the most influent factor on tourism was technology factor with average 4.49. The most popular in social media category was social networking. For tourists’ decision making behavior, most of the respondent using social media 4-6 hours a day. The most hit tourist attraction was historic site, ancient remains, and religion. On the other hand, the least popular tourist attraction was technique and industrial site.

Keywords: social media, man-made tourist attraction, tourist behavior

Introduction

Tourism industry is known as the largest hospitality business that brings benefit to economic sector then becomes a part of global economic growth continually. The growth tends to increase 4% of tourist numbers every year. Moreover, by the estimation the number of tourists who travel for business, leisure, education, and etc. will be increasing to two thousand millions in 2030 (Office of the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Tourism and Sports, 2015). Thai government have realized tourism as the obvious tool for generating stability and economic development for the country for the reason that Thailand has numerous competitive advantages in proper location, abundance of natural resources, creative man-made tourist attractions, and variety of unique cultures that present in the forms of local tradition, national festival, and street food. These attractive points are valuable for tourism marketing (Ministry of Tourism and Sports, 2015). Furthermore, the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) claimed by the Office of the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Tourism and Sports (2015) stated that the drives of sustainable tourism industry is disruptive technologies or technological advancement since global connectivity by social media is able to change public communication platform which it can be accessed easily from mobile phone or electronic devices. In 2015, Tourism Council of Thailand (2015) revealed that from collecting data from both Thai and foreign tourists visiting Thailand, there were approximately 27% of 350 foreign tourists using the internet and 22% using guidebook to get information about traveling in Thailand while 61% of Thai tourist using the internet (Tourism Council of Thailand, 2015). Therefore, it can be seen that the social media had an impact on tourist behavior regarding decision making. Therefore, with this interest of social media importance, the researcher aimed at studying about the study of the influence of social media on tourism by concentrating on the man-made tourist attraction in Thailand. The results gained from this study will enhance the development of social media to support the man-made tourist attraction that would finally benefit the tourism sector.

Objectives

1) To study personal characteristics of tourists visiting man-made tourism attraction in Thailand 2) To study behavior of tourists using social media related man-made tourism attraction in Thailand

3) To study level of tourists’ opinion towards influence of social medial on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand

Population and sample

This study used the tourists aging between 20-60 years old and travelling to man-made tourism attraction in Thailand as the population. At the confident level as of 95%, the samples of study were 400 ones followed the Taro Yamane’s sample size table (Yamane, 1973). However, to prevent the error of collected data, the researcher had therefore extended the number of samples to 420 tourists.

Methodology

The researcher used the convenience sampling method to collect the data. The close–ended questionnaire consisting of three parts (personal characteristics, tourist behavior in social media usage and influence of social media on man-made tourism attraction) and adjusted according to the experts was used as a tool for data collection. The first part is about gender, age, education level and career. The second part is about the amount of hours and social media type. The last part is about technology, society, information, tourists and attraction places. The check-list question type was employed for the first and second part of the questionnaire meanwhile the rating scare was used for the third one. In terms of rating scale, the research employed 5 scales which “1” means “mostly disagreed” and “5” means “mostly agreed”. To validate and verify the data, the researcher had experts in related fields check the accuracy and consistence of questions and used Cronbach’s alpha coefficient to check the reliability of the questions. In terms of reliability check, the study found that the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient as of 0.930. This meant that the data obtained from this survey questionnaire can be proceeded to have further study. To analyze the data, the researchers employed descriptive statistics including frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation. The results of the study had been tabulated in detail in the next section.

Findings

Personal characteristics of tourists visiting man-made tourism attraction in Thailand

Table 1 Personal characteristics of tourists visiting man-made tourism attraction in Thailand Item Frequency Percentage Gender Male 122 30.5 Female 278 69.5 Age Lower than 20 years old 38 9.5 Between 21-30 years old 268 67.0 Between 31-40 years old 50 12.5 Between 41-50 years old 28 7.0 Between 51-60 years old 12 3.0 Higher than 61 years old 4 1.0 Education level Lower than bachelor’s degree 68 17.0 Bachelor’s degree 285 71.3 Master’s degree 40 10.0 Higher than master’s degree 7 1.8 Career Civil servants 24 6.0 Partially-owned state enterprise employees 33 8.3 Private enterprise employees 184 46.0 Students 123 30.8 Freelance 30 7.5 Others 6 1.5 Orders of attraction preference Historical and religious site 118 29.5

Department store and souvenir shop 94 23.5 Culture, tradition and sport 74 18.5 Recreation activity 44 11.0 Amusement park 40 10.0 Public park 27 6.8 Technical and industrial site 3 0.8 Total 400 100.0

From the table 1, the study found that the respondents were age was female 69.5% while male was 30.5%. In terms of age, the respondents mostly has age between 21-30 years old (67%), followed by between 31-40 years old (12.5%), lower than 20 years old (9.5%), between 41-50 years old (7%), between 51-60 years old (3%) and higher than 61 years old (1%). In terms of education level, it was found that the respondents mostly graduated from bachelor’s degree (71.3%), followed by lower than bachelor’s degree (17%), master’s degree (10%) and higher than master’s degree (1.8%). In terms of respondent’s career, most of them work as private enterprise employees (46%), followed by students (30.8%), partially-owned state enterprise employees (8.3%), freelance (7.5%), civil servants (6%) and others (1.5%). Lastly, in terms of man-made attractions, most of respondents prefer historical and religious site (29.5%), followed by department store and souvenir shop (23.5%), culture, tradition and sport (18.5%), recreation activity (11%), amusement park (10%), public park (6.8%) and technical and industrial site (0.8%), respectively.

Behavior of tourists using social media related man-made tourism attraction in Thailand

Table 2 Type of social media related man-made tourism attraction in Thailand

Type of social media Use Percentage Not use Percentage Webblog 70 17.5 330 82.5 Social Networking 380 95.0 20 5.0 Online Video 262 65.5 138 34.5 Photo Sharing 37 9.3 363 90.8 Discuss/Review/Opinion 77 19.3 323 80.8 Crowd Sourcing 2 0.5 398 99.5 Others - - 400 100.0

From the table 2, the study found that most of the respondents use social networking (95.0%), followed by online video (65.5%), discuss/review/opinion (19.3%), webblog (17.5%), photo sharing (9.3%) and crowd sourcing (0.5%), respectively.

Table 3 Hour usage of social media related man-made tourism attraction in Thailand Hour usage social media (per day) Frequency Percentage Between 1-3 hours 61 15.3 Between 4-6 hours 155 38.8 Between 7-6 hours 99 24.8 Between 10-12 hours 44 11.0 More than 12 hours 37 9.3 Others 4 1.0 Total 400 100.0

From the table 3, the study found that most of the respondents use social media between 4-6 hours a day (38.8%) followed by between 4-6 hours a day (24.8%), between 1-2 hours a day (15.3%), between 10-12 hours a day (11.0%), more than 12 hours (9.3%), and others (1%), respectively.

Level of tourists’ opinion towards influence of social medial on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand

Table 4 Influence of social medial in terms of technology on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand Technology Mean S.D. Interpretation

1 Social media can help easily access information 4.57 .729 Mostly agreed 2 Social media can be easily accessed by mobile 4.55 .720 Mostly agreed phone/electronic devices

3 Social media can help access tourism information 4.48 .788 Mostly agreed anytime

4 There are many types of social media can be selected 4.38 .733 Mostly agreed in accordance with their own behavior

Total 4.49 .597 Mostly agreed

From the Table 4, most of respondents mostly agreed that social medial in terms of technology had an influence on making decision to travel to the man-made tourism attraction in Thailand with mean score as of 4.49 (S.D. = .597). When considering each item, it was found that most of respondents mostly agreed on “Social media can help easily access information” with mean score as of 4.57 (S.D. = .729).

Table 5 Influence of social medial in terms of society on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand Society Mean S.D. Interpretation

1 Social media can help see the world in different 4.40 .739 Mostly agreed perspectives.

2 Social media motivates to make a decision in traveling. 4.40 .910 Mostly agreed 3 Social media discovers the recently well-known 4.50 .804 Mostly agreed attractions.

4 Social media discovers new human-made attractions such 4.14 .956 Highly agreed as the World Cup.

5 Social media discovers the way nearby people, such as 4.27 .800 Mostly agreed family friends, travel.

6 Social media discovers the attractions where different 4.04 1.097 Highly agreed people with the same tourism style travel to.

7 Social media implies about the tourism season 4.25 .921 Mostly agreed

Total 4.29 .604 Mostly agreed

From the Table 5, most of respondents mostly agreed that social medial in terms of society had an influence on making decision to travel to the man-made tourism attraction in Thailand with mean score as of 4.29 (S.D. = .604). When considering each item, it was found that most of respondents mostly agreed on “Social media discovers the recently well-known attractions.” with mean score as of 4.50 (S.D. = .804) as the first order. Meanwhile, the “Social media discovers the attractions where different people with the same tourism style travel to.” with mean score as 4.04 (S.D. = 1.097) was ranked as the last order.

Table 6 Influence of social medial in terms of information on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand Information Mean S.D. Interpretation

1 Social media offers a wide range of travel information 4.47 .822 Mostly agreed including images, sounds and animations.

2 Presenting information through social media is appealing. 4.40 .769 Mostly agreed 3 The information can be selected to meet the needs of 4.32 .896 Mostly agreed viewers such as prefer to watch movies more than picture.

4 You compare information from social media before making 4.34 .856 Mostly agreed travel decisions.

5 Social media can keep track of current information, such as 4.18 .933 Highly agreed politics, weather, exchange rates and etc.

6 Social media gives both positive and negative feedback 4.25 .900 Mostly agreed from the travelers who have direct experiences towards the attractions.

7 Social media records a relevant attraction history, useful 4.26 .869 Mostly agreed information helping make travel decision

8 Social media is considered one of the sources of 4.36 .817 Mostly agreed information.

Total 4.32 .604 Mostly agreed

From the Table 6, most of respondents mostly agreed that social medial in terms of information had an influence on making decision to travel to the man-made tourism attraction in Thailand with mean score as of 4.32 (S.D. = .604). When considering each item, it was found that most of respondents mostly agreed on “Social media offers a wide range of travel information including images, sounds and animations.” with mean score as of 4.47 (S.D. = .822) as the first order. Meanwhile, the “Social media can keep track of current information, such as politics, weather, exchange rates and etc.” with mean score as 4.18 (S.D. = .933) was ranked as the last order.

Table 7 Influence of social medial in terms of tourists on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand Tourists Mean S.D. Interpretation

1 Social media help access travel expense information, 4.23 .987 Mostly agreed facilitating planning the travel.

2 Social media can link to discount, prizes or related 3.73 1.353 Highly agreed promotions such as being credit card membership.

3 Social media can help save the cost from searching 4.11 .991 Highly agreed information such as contact information.

Total 4.03 .908 Highly agreed

From the Table 7, most of respondents highly agreed that social medial in terms of tourists had an influence on making decision to travel to the man-made tourism attraction in Thailand with mean score as of 4.32 (S.D. = .604). When considering each item, it was found that most of respondents mostly agreed on “Social media offers a wide range of travel information including images, sounds and animations.” with mean score as of 4.47 (S.D. = .822) as the first order. Meanwhile, the “Social media can link to discount, prizes or related promotions such as being credit card membership.” with mean score as 3.73 (S.D. = 1.353) was ranked as the last order.

Table 8 Influence of social medial in terms of attraction places on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand Attraction places Mean S.D. Interpretation

1 Attraction places uses social media to PR so make you 4.32 .841 Mostly agreed decide to travel easily

2 Attraction places uses social media to pre-release promote 4.29 .837 Mostly agreed make attracted you

3 Attraction places uses social media creating the destination 4.47 .735 Mostly agreed image that impact your travel

Total 4.36 .661 Mostly agreed

From the Table 8, most of respondents highly agreed that social medial in terms of attraction places had an influence on making decision to travel to the man-made tourism attraction in Thailand with mean score as of 4.36 (S.D. = .661). When considering each item, it was found that most of respondents mostly agreed on “Attraction places uses social media creating the destination image that impact your travel.” with mean score as of 4.36 (S.D. = .661) as the first order. Meanwhile, the “Attraction places uses social media to pre-release promote make attracted you.” with mean score as 4.29 (S.D. = .837) was ranked as the last order.

Conclusion and discussion Study of personal characteristics of tourists visiting man-made tourism attraction in Thailand From the study of personal characteristics of tourists visiting man-made tourism attraction in Thailand, it was found that most of the tourists were female, aged between 21-30 years old, graduated from bachelor’s degree, worked as private enterprise employees and prefer historical and religious site. The result can confirm the study from Saejhaw (2015) & Denchai (2014) finding that female, aged between 21-29 year old, graduated from bachelor’s degree, worked as private enterprise employees had the perception toward travelling by advertising and public relations from social media directly then they able to use the worth information gained from social media for making decision to travel. This is because the mobile phone and electronic device are high quality with multifunction and the high speed internet is easier to access that matched with Permcheevit & Cheayjunya (2010) stating that working age people search for

travel information from other tourists who have direct experience in tourism products and services from forums in website or webboard due to it is useful and trustable.

Study of behavior of tourists using social media related man-made tourism attraction in Thailand From the study, it was found that most of tourists used the social networking and online video to search information about the travelling to the man-made attraction place because these sources of information can give different feedbacks from the person who have been travelling to the same places and share the opinion towards the places. Social networking is very important because it can link every one from the different corners of the world together. Moreover, social networking has been popularly used in many kinds of business (Jotikasthira & Onputtha, 2018). For the online video, this source can give the tourist with real movement pictures that can strongly motivate and attempt the tourists to travel to the places played in the video. The most well-known online video is YouTube. In the meantime, the crowdsourcing was least interested because crowdsourcing allows anonymous person to create or edit the content therefore it seems unreliable or has a bias. The most famous crowdsourcing is Wikipedia. In terms of hours to use social media, it was found that the tourist use social media between 4-6 hours a day because they are using social media for relax after work or before bedtime.

Study of level of tourists’ opinion towards influence of social medial on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand From the study of level of tourists’ opinion towards influence of social medial on man-made tourism attraction in Thailand, it was found that most of the tourists had strongly agreed that social medial in terms of technology, society, information, tourist and attraction places had an influence on making decision to travel to the man-made tourism attraction in Thailand. When considering each category, it was found the highest average of each item are following: technology—social media can help easily access information, society—social media discovers the recently well-known attractions, information—social media offers a wide range of travel information including images, sounds and animations, tourists—social media help access travel expense information, facilitating planning the travel, and attraction places—attraction places uses social media creating the destination image that impact your travel. It can be seen that communication technology affect the tourism industry in several perspectives such as change the

structure of business roles, change of product and service presentation and internet advancement lead to change the tourist’s behavior directly (Sitthanont & Prachaknate, 2016). In addition, social media has become a center for exchanging experiences among tourist matched with Chainirun (2010). The tourist able to discover many travel information or destination facts from social media then create the travel plan by themselves. It is correspondent to the study of Veerawan Saejhaw (2015) mentioning that the perception towards advertising and public relations by social media had impact to tourists’ travel planning. However, López (2011) claimed that the tourist expenditure was insignificant in terms of using technology for making travel plan in advance.

Recommendations For practitioners From the study, the recommendations can include that; 1) The entrepreneurs should focus on female tourist because they are become a major target group in tourism market. If the destination provides appropriate facilities and safety circumstance to attract female tourist, it would be advantage to the destination image. Consequently, the increasing revenue can be generated to the destination and nearby community. 2) The entrepreneurs should provide information regarding man-made attraction mainly through social networking and online video in order that the tourists can reach information from different networking sources and realistic scenery. This can strongly attempt the requirements of the tourists. 3) The entrepreneurs should provide information such as traveling expense, relevant history, new promotion, destination location, contact information, destination picture gallery and review from others tourist through social media with complete content, influencing not only the direct tourists, but also nearly persons of the tourists. In addition, the information should be easily accessed and quickly understood.

For future research From this study, there has been limitations, therefore, the future research can include that; 1) The researcher will be study the public relation management via social media of the man- made tourism destination manage by private entrepreneurs and government agencies in order to

benchmark the effective of online marketing. Then, facilitate suggestion for government agencies to increase tourists’ awareness. 2) The researcher will be study the effective of the public relation management via social media in term of destination online marketing regarding semantics; content, picture and video in order to design the semantics which able to decrease the number of social media hours usage which is good for the tourists’ health. 3) The researcher will be use strong statistics to interpret the data in order to identify another variables that able to know the linkage data.

References Chainirun, P. (2010). Marketing Trend by Social Media. Bangkok: Se-education. Denchai, K. (2014). The influence of social media behavior and awareness of online information on the tourist’s selection of destination and accommodation in Pattaya. Bangkok University: Bangkok. Jotikasthira, C. and Onputtha, S. (2018). Factors Associating with Purchasing Decision of Gems and Jewelry and Possible Implication of Online Marketing to Empowering Entrepreneur’s Sale Performance. International Journal of Applied Computer Technology and Information Systems, 7(2). 47-55 López, E. Parra et al. 2011. Intentions to use social media in organizing and taking vacation trips. Computers in Human Behavior. 27(2), March 2011: 640-654. Ministry of Tourism and Sports. (2015, July). Thailand Tourism Strategy. Retrieved from http:// www.mots.go.th/ewt_dl_link.php?nid=7114 Office of the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Tourism and Sports. (2015). Tourism digital economy. Tourism Economic Review. (1), 34. Permcheevit, N. & Cheayjunya, P. (2010). Information searching, Utility, and trustworthiness on travelling information from social media by Consumer Generated Media of working people. Journal of Public Relations and Advertising. 3(1). 99-121. Sitthanont, K. and Prachaknate, P. (2016). Thai Tourists’ Lifestyle, Online Media Use and Purchasing Intention of Tourism Products and Services. Journal of Communication and Management NIDA. 2(1). 1-17 Tourism Council of Thailand. (2015, December). Thailand tourism confidence index 2015/4. Bangkok. Saejhaw, V. (2015). The influence of attitudes on and satisfaction of media exposure in tourism public relations media via the internet on decision-making behavior in travel planning. Bangkok University: Bangkok. Yamane, T. (1973). Statistics: An Introductory Analysis. Third edition. New York: Harper and Row Publication.

Challenging Accepted Practices in Questionnaire Design

Eric Agrie Ambele, Richard Watson Todd

King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Questionnaire surveys are widely used in research across different disciplines. Although there are some practices which differ by discipline, in most disciplines there are certain generally accepted practices associated with their use. For example, it is widely accepted that questionnaires should be distributed to respondents to read, fill in and return, and there is a general agreement that questions should be phrased to be as clear and precise as possible. This paper derives from our experience in attempting to conduct a questionnaire survey in sociolinguistics where we found that the accepted practices created problems. In our case, approaching the respondents on the street and asking them to fill in the questionnaire was not practical. Therefore, we looked through market research discipline to learn other ways of questionnaire administration, an example of cross-disciplinary method improvement. In this situation, the market research practice of treating the questionnaire as a structured interview where the researcher fills in responses proved more effective than the respondent-filled questionnaires generally accepted in cross-disciplinary studies. In addition, we found that clear, precise questions created confusion for the respondents, in which case the literature in all disciplines appears to promote clear, precise questions. However, using ambiguous, vague questions elicited more useful responses. This experience may be useful to other disciplines to learn from (in the future) as a cross-disciplinary method improvement.

Keywords: questionnaire design, questionnaire administration, question phrasing

1. Context This paper reports on a problem encountered while designing a study on language choices in everyday, social context during interactions. The problem, as we will discuss, was largely involved with issues regarding participant recruitment for data collection in the main study. The main linguistic criterion for the recruitment was to select speakers who were fluent in both

Cameroon Pidgin English (CPE) and Standard English (SE). A key concern was setting up the basis to justify the selection. To achieve this, a sociolinguistic questionnaire was designed. The purpose of the questionnaire was to identify and recruit potential participants for our main study. The sampled informants were not the actual participants for the main study, but were in every way (almost) similar to the target population for which the questionnaire was designed (Dörnyei, 2007).

2. Questionnaires in applied linguistics A popular instrument in collecting survey data across many disciplines is by means of structured interviews and questionnaires. However, questionnaires have been the main data collection instrument in survey research (Rossi et al., 2013; Dörnyei, 2007; Moser & Kalton, 2017). A questionnaire, by default, presents a set of questions to an informant who with his/her responses will provide data to a researcher (Bradburn et al., 2004; Neuman, 2016). But the question is why is questionnaire important? The reason why questionnaires have become one of the most important and popular research instruments across many research fields such as applied linguistics is because of the systematic and disciplined manner in which a question is designed to find answers to questions (Dörnyei, 2007; Litosseliti, 2017; McDonough, 2017). In fact, Dörnyei, (2007:101) succinctly puts it like this:

The popularity of questionnaires is due to the fact that they are relatively easy to construct, extremely versatile and uniquely capable of gathering a large amount of information quickly in a form that is readily processible. In questionnaire design, so much of its success depends on how the questionnaire is used to collect data from the informants (Bradburn et al., 1992; Brace, 2004; Richards & Schmidt, 2013; Litosseliti, 2017), in addition to the correct phrasing of the question items (Sudman & Bradburn, 1983; Bradburn et al., 2004; O'Brien & McCay-Peet, 2017). A ‘good’ and ‘popular’ practice in administering a questionnaire in applied linguistics is that the questionnaire is given to informants to fill in and then return to the researcher (Litosseliti, 2017). Likewise, for question phrasing, questions should be phrased in a simple and clear manner that will enable the informants to provide the correct responses (O'Brien & McCay-Peet, 2017). Therefore, rigorous ‘field-testing’, in other words, piloting the questionnaire before using it in our main study was

necessary to check the validity and reliability of our questionnaire. So, we initially set out to pilot our questionnaire based on this good practices in applied linguistics.

3. Problems arising in pilot studies An important recommendation in questionnaire design and use (as a data collection instrument) in research is the need for piloting (Neuman, 2016; Moser & Kalton, 2017). Iterating its significance in applied linguistics research, Dörnyei (2007: 75) summarised it as “… always pilot your research instruments and procedures before lunching your project.” As a matter of fact, piloting is a way to help the researcher achieve high quality results in the specific study (in terms of reliability and validity). Emphasizing the cruciality of this stage in designing a questionnaire, Sudman and Bradburn (1983: 283, cited in Dörnyei, 2007: 75) opined that “if you do not have the resources to pilot-test your questionnaire, don’t do the study.”

Piloting within applied linguistics has been referred to as “a dress rehearsal” (Dörnyei, 2007: 75; Rungruangthum et al., 2011: 27). This type of piloting has as one of its purposes to try out research instruments (Robson, 2002) in order to “assess the practicality of data procedures, to identify problems before doing the actual study, and to enhance validity and reliability of the research instrument” (Mackey & Gas, 2005; Rungruangthum et al., 2011). These justify why dress rehearsal piloting of our questionnaire became an integral part in the study. In this light therefore, our questionnaire went through different piloting stages following accepted guidelines of questionnaire design in order to be able to find the best workable design for our study. Findings from the dress rehearsal piloting proved unhelpful and unsuccessful in yielding the expected outcome of the design in two ways: (a) administering the questionnaire, and (b) phrasing the questions. These two issues form the key problems that we encountered from dress rehearsal piloting in our study. Details of these two problems (administering the questionnaire and phrasing the questions), and how we solved them will be dealt with in the following sections (4 and 5, respectively).

4. Solving problems of questionnaire administration The procedure of how questionnaires are administered is a very crucial one that needs careful consideration. Dörnyei (2007: 113) argues that ‘there is an ample evidence in the measurement literature that questionnaire administration procedures play a significant role in affecting the quality of the elicited responses’. In applied linguistics research, participant-filled questionnaires

– pencil-and-paper questionnaires, where the questionnaires are given to the informants to complete and then return to the researcher, is very common (Bradburn et al., 1992; Dörnyei, 2007; McDonough, 2017). This is partly because, like Dörnyei argues: … the typical targets of the surveys are language learners studying within institutional contexts, and it is often possible to arrange to administer the instrument to them while they are assembled together, for example, as part of a lesson (Dörnyei, 2007: 113). Brown (2001: 6, cited in Dörnyei, 2007: 102) refers to the pencil-and-paper questionnaires as ‘any written instrument that presents respondents with a series of questions or statements to which they are to react either by writing out their answers or selecting from among existing answers.’ Thus, a careful and thought-out plan of administering a questionnaire can successfully lead to the correct elicitations from the respondents. Although this method of administration nicely fits within a confine context like the classroom, its ‘workability’ in our dress rehearsal piloting turns out to be a fiasco.

The dress rehearsal piloting, at the level of administering the questionnaire could not work since the context within which our study was conducted was different from that of a typical confine classroom context in applied linguistics research. To contextualize these developments of our tried-and-true administration experience, suffices here to reiterate that our study was based on a more social context with informants from public places like the street and market. It was on such basis that our dress rehearsal piloting failed at the initial stage of piloting (stage 1). However, within Nursing, piloting is not just a dress rehearsal but also a decision-informing stage. This other type of piloting (decision-informing piloting) has been defined by Polit et al., 2001: 467, cited in Rungruangthum et al., 2011: 28, as “a small-scale version(s) done in preparation for the main study”. This type of piloting extends the scope of a dress rehearsal piloting, mainly in that it takes into account the variables affecting the success or failure of a pilot so as to make sound decisions in the actual study.

In an attempt to solve this problem (in stage 2), we drew inspiration from the field of market research to see what the experts in this area do to collect data from street informants since they deal with, in most cases, the man on the street. They collect data from ‘the man on the street’ through a researcher-filled or interviewer-administered interview (Brace, 2004; Malhotra et al., 2013; Babin & Zikmund, 2015). Taking on this therefore, researcher-filled, or as it is called in market research, ‘interviewer-administered interview’ proved successful in our piloting at stages

2 and 3. In this case, implementing this method as used in market research became instrumental in informing our (next stage) piloting decision since the practice in market research is quite different from what is traditionally obtained in applied linguistics dress rehearsal type of piloting. Drawing on issues relating to practicality, interview effect and interviewee (participant) effect with collecting data from ‘street informants’, as we observed in stage 2 (see Table 1 below), we considered the adoption of a researcher-filled or interviewer-administered questionnaire (Brace, 2004; Kothari, 2004; Babin & Zikmund, 2015) suitable in eliciting correct responses from the ‘man on the street’ kind of research like ours.

Table 1 Observation administering questionnaire (researcher-filled) (stages 2 & 3)

Practicality administering Interview Interviewee

effects effects

Quicker and convenient in More leisurely for Willing to participate once recording responses participants they don’t have to fill in the questionnaire

Use of unique writing Participants who seemed Less time spent in convention to quickly record very busy still willingly understanding and participant’s responses talked through the responding to the questions interview

Possible to (re)phrase the questions many times for participants to understand

4.1 The questionnaire administration method that worked

To be able to effectively collect data from street informants, instead of asking the informants to fill in the questionnaire (which in our piloting (stage 1) was totally unsuccessful), we resulted into the method used in market research (in stages 2 and 3). Here, the researchers filled in the questionnaire by interviewing the informants - researcher-filled. This highlights the fact that interviews and questionnaires are not different instruments per say, but different ends of a continuum (Neuman, 2016). Having an interviewer (researcher) administer the questionnaire has the advantage of: (i) gives an opportunity for a quicker and convenient way of collecting data, (ii) repeatedly (re)phrasing the questions, and (iii) less time spent for the respondents to complete the questionnaire. In his posits on the key benefits of using a researcher-filled method in questionnaire administration, Brace (2004: 24) identified three key benefits, enumerated as: (1) Queries about the meaning of a question can be dealt with, (2) Misunderstood questions may be corrected, and (3) Informants can be encouraged to provide deeper responses to open questions. The protocol for how the researcher-filled method is implemented is very much like the participant-filled traditional method of collecting data through questionnaires. There is some resemblance in the nature of these two methods. But from a technical and practical point of view, there is difference between the two. The difference lies in the fact that, for the researcher-filled method, the researcher approaches the informants (with a set of questions) and the questionnaire is being completed by the researcher who elicits responses from the informants through interview. The researcher, along with the questionnaire, asks the respondents the questions following the order in which the questions are listed on the questionnaire, and then records the replies. With this procedure, the researcher has the opportunity to explain the aim(s) of the study and also any difficulties which the respondents may have in the process of understanding the implication of any particular question or clarification on any difficult concept or technical word. Above all, as Moser & Kalton (2017) observed, this method of data collection is very useful and has been widely adopted in extensive and multidisciplinary investigations. It can also lead to fairly reliable results. However, this method, like every other, is not void of drawbacks. It is very expensive and usually stressful and tiring to complete the whole questionnaire administration process. From administering the questionnaire (stages 1 and 2), we then noticed the phrasing problem. That is, we observed that most, if not all informants constantly misunderstood the

questions and elicited the wrong answers, thereby highlighting question phrasing as another key problem of concern.

5. Solving problems of question phrasing Question phrasing in a questionnaire can be in many different ways to be used in many different situations, couple with many different data-gathering media. It is just as important in writing a good questionnaire as it is with correctly phrasing the questions in the questionnaire. After all, anybody can write a set of questions, can’t they? On the surface, it seems a fairly simple task to write up a set of questions to collect data. However, if the questions are the wrong questions, poorly phrased, or in the wrong order, the “answers obtained may be worse than meaningless: they may be misleading” (Brace, 2004:1). This would suggest that there are certain guidelines as to how a correct question should be phrased. Within the field of applied linguistics, there are some laid down rules about phrasing a good question. An important ‘golden rule’ of question phrasing that is popular in the literature in applied linguistics and other fields illustrate that questions should be phrased in an order that ‘it (the question) ask what you want to know, not something else’ (Richards & Schmidt, 2013; Litosseliti, 2017). In fact, Dörnyei (2007: 108) clearly puts it this way: “aim for short and simple items.” In order words, the questions should be phrased in a concise manner. With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, on their part, Hashemi & Babaii (2013) observe that the researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a study. However, also of utmost importance, as noted by Bradburn et al. (2004: 3), “the ambiguities of language and the powerful force of context in interpreting the questions and answers” are, in most cases, ignored in applied linguistics research. In phrasing our questions for the dress rehearsal piloting, we depended on weeding out ambiguities and phrased the questions as clearly and specifically as possible – to ask about what we want to know, not something else. Consequently, the kind of phrasing we had in stages 1 and 2 (Table 2).

Table 2 Questions & responses (stages 1 & 2)

Stage 1 Responses Stage 2 Responses

1. What do you 1. To be intelligible 1. When do you 1. Easy flow of typically use speak in Pidgin? communication pidgin for 2. To sound (purpose)? appropriate 2. What is the reason 2. Language that my why you talk about friend’s understand 2. What do you 3. To be understood certain topics in typically use easily Pidgin? 3. My favourite English for language (purpose)?

The importance of this issue in our piloting can be illustrated by the examples of very specific questions that we started with at the first and second piloting stages. For example, the questions ‘What do you typically use pidgin for (purpose)?’; ‘What is the reason why you talk about certain topics in pidgin?’ are likely to be understood as clear and specific questions (as one would imagine). The goal of these questions was to elicit what social functions that people perform in making language choices during social interactions. Surprisingly, however, we found that these questions, which we thought were clear, concise and specific were instead confusing and misleading to the informants, thereby unable to elicit the right answers from the informants. It can be said that this kind of phrasing may be clear to the applied linguists, as they understand the meaning of ‘social function’ in language choices, however, our informants, the man on the street, could not understand this technical phrase. Its application within a more general, street context requires further practices uncommon to the applied linguists. As a way of uncovering these practices, Sudman & Bradburn (1983); O'Brien & McCay-Peet (2017); O’Grady & O'Grady (2017) suggest that it is the rigorous decision informing piloting of the questions that will validate the question items. Since there is no everyday language to correctly phrase the idea of “social function’ such that the informants could be able to understand, we made multiple

attempts of decision informing piloting before piloting again for the third time. We did this by rephrasing the questions following practices in market research.

5.1 Vague and general phrasing that made the big difference From the responses obtained in stages 1 and 2, we therefore realised that we needed to make changes to the questions in such a way that it will probe the informants to give the expected responses. Interestingly, we noticed that the seemingly small changes we made in rephrasing the questions made such a big difference in the informant’s responses – from the specific questions with misleading answers to vague questions eliciting the correct answers. As we earlier mentioned, some people still erroneously believe that formulating a typical question in a questionnaire is not so much of a difficult task as there are, in almost all the literatures on questionnaire design, spelt out guidelines on how to correctly formulate questions. As a matter of fact, Dörnyei (2007: 108), in his discussion on ‘rules about item wording’ succinctly states: “avoid ambiguous or loaded words and sentences”. However, if we consider the ‘powerful force of the social context’ wherein the research is conducted, from the informant’s perspective, in interpreting questions and giving answers especially with ‘street research’, then, we need to be more flexible in utilizing techniques from the experts in ‘street’ research – market research(ers). Here is how we reformulated the questions at the third piloting stage: ‘What sort of things are you trying to do when you use pidgin?’ ‘What sort of things are you trying to do when you use English? ‘This kind of question looks vague and too general. From the outset, one would think that it will be very difficult for the informants to understand, as it does not clearly indicates what exactly the researchers are trying to find out. However, despite the fact that the reformulated phrasing was vague and too general (like ‘What sort of things…...?’), in our piloting, this is the only kind of question phrasing that worked as in Table 3.

Table 3 Question & responses (stage 3) Stage 3 Responses

1. What sort of 1. Gossip a friend things are you trying to do when you use 2. Bargain pidgin? 3. To womanize 1. What sort of things are you trying 4. Show solidarity to do when you use 5. To purchase at discount English?

6. To signal intimacy

7. Plan a party

8. To praise among pals

A question can sometimes be unintentionally ambiguous. In which case, once realised, should be made clear and specific (Hashemi & Babaii, 2013; Richards & Schmidt, 2013; Litosseliti, 2017). However, in market research, researchers (Brace, 2004; Kothari, 2004; Malhotra et al., 2013; Babin & Zikmund, 2015; O'Brien & McCay-Peet, 2017) have argued that, sometimes, questions can be intentionally vague and general provided it probes the respondents to elicit the right answer. The reason (we believe) that what the literature considers a well-phrased question failed here is because there is no everyday language for the concept we were investigating – the purpose for which informants make certain language choices in everyday interactions. When we tried to be clear and specific through several phrasing and clarifications using technical terms like social function, the informants did not understand. Surprisingly, even postgraduate students who were part of the pilot at stages 1 and 2 could not understand the questions. We found that using vague, informal phrasing is the only way to get a correct answer, rather than being clear

and specific. This piloting experience corroborates with Kothari (2004: 102) observation in question formulation and wording. He succinctly states that ‘all questions should meet the following standards - (a) should be easily understood; and (b) should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking. This therefore shows how a researcher can, and should be flexible in phrasing a question to obtain desired answers. Yet, typically, this kind of reformulation is highly discouraged within questionnaire practices in applied linguistics as it is assume that, because of its vagueness and generality, it might lead to misunderstanding (Bradburn et al., 2004; Dörnyei, 2007). However, as we observed, only a vague and general phrasing could elicit the correct responses from the ‘street’ informants. In line with this, Dörnyei opines that though there are rules as to how questions should be phrased and worded, it is still not a ‘100 per cent’ scientific activity because “in order to write good items one also needs a certain amount of creativity and lots of common sense” Dörnyei (2007: 108). To this end, perhaps not surprising that it was as a result of this kind of ‘creativity’ and ‘common sense’ that we employed in rephrasing our questions that led to a successful pilot at the third stage.

6. Conclusion This paper has reported on two main areas in questionnaire design – questionnaire administration and question phrasing where actual practices with ‘street’ informants challenged the rules in applied linguistics. We have reported on our piloting experience which defies the general guidelines in questionnaire design. As we undertook piloting the questionnaire, we discovered that questionnaire administration and question phrasing within a more social context (like in other disciplines dealing with the ‘man on the street’) did not actually require the traditional, widely acceptable practices in applied linguistics. The traditional pen-paper style of administering questionnaires for participants to fill in and return to the researcher proved practically impossible and unwelcomed by informants. This is because the informants were in public places like the market etc. However, interviewer-administered interview (Brace, 2004), as it is known in market research or better still researcher-filled administration, proved instrumental. Moreover, applied linguists (Dörnyei, 2007; Richards & Schmidt, 2013; Litosseliti, 2017) suggest that questions in a questionnaire should be short and specific. They discouraged the formulation of long and vague questions which, to them, may be confusing and misleading to the informant. The so-called ‘short and specific question’ phrasing advice in the literature was unsuccessful in our piloting. Rather, vague and unclear question phrasing was successful in

eliciting the appropriate responses. Overall, piloting our questionnaire through the different stages gave us insights into how sometimes, depending on the nature of the research, we might need to break the rules in order to achieve the research goal. First, the traditional method of administering questionnaires proved unhelpful at stage 1, but successful at stages 2 and 3 after implementing practices from market research. Second, the questions that we thought were specific and clear were unclear to the informants – signs that the questions were not understood correctly at stages 1 and 2. However, after rephrasing the questions again at stage 3, we were able to elicit the right answers from the informants with vague and ambiguous questions (Table 4).

Table 4 Overall piloting

Stage Questionnaire Question phrasing administration

1 Unsuccessful Unsuccessful

2 Successful Unsuccessful

3 Successful Successful

The experience, we hope, should be able to provoke and challenge researchers in applied linguistics and other disciplines to (re)think on the need to incorporate practices in other fields (for example, market research or nursing) when designing a questionnaire for ‘street informants’ in a non-confined context. This therefore implies that researchers should be flexible in adopting and/or adapting practices from other research disciplines to obtain a desired research objective. This experience may be useful to other disciplines to learn from (in the future) as a cross- disciplinary decision-making method improvement.

References Babin, B. J., & Zikmund, W. G. (2015). Exploring marketing research. US: Cengage Learning. Brace, I. (2004). Questionnaire design: How to plan, structure and write survey material for effective market research. London: Kogan Page Publishers. Bradburn, N. M., Sudman, S., & Wansink, B. (2004). Asking questions: the definitive guide to questionnaire design--for market research, political polls, and social and health questionnaires. CA: John Wiley & Sons. Bradburn, N. M., Sudman, S., Blair, E., Locander, W., Miles, C., Singer, E., & Stocking, C. (1992). Improving interview method and questionnaire design: Response effects to threatening questions in survey research. Michigan: University Microfilms. Brown, J. D. (2001). Using surveys in language programs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hashemi, M. R., & Babaii, E. (2013). Mixed methods research: Toward new research designs in applied linguistics. The Modern Language Journal, 97(4), 828-852. Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International. Litosseliti, L. (2017). Research methods in linguistics. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second language research: Methodology and design. UK: Routledge. Malhotra, N. K., Birks, D. F., & Wills, P. (2013). Essentials of marketing research. London: Pearson. Moser, C. A., & Kalton, G. (2017). Survey methods in social investigation. UK: Routledge. McDonough, S. (2017). Applied linguistics in language education. UK: Routledge. Neuman, W. L. (2016). Understanding research. London: Pearson. O'Brien, H. L., & McCay-Peet, L. (2017, March). Asking Good Questions: Questionnaire Design and Analysis in Interactive Information Retrieval Research. In Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Conference Human Information Interaction and Retrieval (pp. 27-36). ACM. O'Grady, J. V., & O'Grady, K. V. (2017). A Designer's Research Manual, Updated and Expanded: Succeed in Design by Knowing Your Clients and Understanding what They Really Need. Rockport. Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. W. (2013). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. UK: Routledge. Rungruangthum, M., Watson Todd, R., & Aroonmanakun, W. (2011). Re-conceptualization of piloting Research in Applied linguistics. In Proceedings of the Internationaal Conference: Doing Research in Applied Linguistics (pp. 27-33). Bangkok, Thailand. Rossi, P. H., Wright, J. D., & Anderson, A. B. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of survey research. Cambridge: Academic Press. Robson, C. (2002). Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner- Researchers (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. Sudman, S., & Bradburn, N. M. (1983). Asking questions: a practical guide to questionnaire design. CA: John Wiley & Sons.

How Do Applied Linguists and Programmers Speak Psychology?

Punjaporn Pojanapunya

King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Increasingly, multidisciplinary research has been conducted to achieve a research goal which requires a collaboration of different knowledge domains. Different disciplines have varied research approaches and technical jargon of specialties. One of the greatest challenges in collaborations between researchers from different backgrounds is that they often have a different ‘language’ of research communication. It is challenging for a research team to create a shared language and knowledge understood by all members to promote a successful collaboration.

In this study, researchers in applied linguistics employed the psychological program that requires programming knowledge to produce. The study, therefore concerns three major domains: applied linguistics, psychology, and computer sciences. Main researchers in applied linguistics collaborated with a teacher and students in computer sciences to develop a computer program which has theoretical foundation in psychology.

This study presents ways of communicating psychological methods and knowledge between researchers in applied linguistics and those in computer sciences. While some of the most common channels of communication, e.g. physical and virtual meetings, emails, phone calls, and personal text messaging, were useful for this collaboration, the most effective channel highlighted in this study is a comprehensive briefing document which can simply be created as a Word document. The document used semiotic resources (e.g. color-codes, typing style and formatting) to present details across disciplines (e.g. the program components and content in applied linguistics, the calculation and data interpretation methods in psychology, and the technological requirements for programmers). Instead of writing long explanations for the requirements of the program, the researchers used the shared codes to transfer the specialised knowledge content, show the program interface, and guide the navigation and links effectively.

The models of researcher collaboration and information exchange provide guidelines which other researchers can consider implementing in the design of their multidisciplinary research.

Keywords: multidisciplinarity, multidisciplinary collaboration, communication

Introduction There has been an increasing number of multidisciplinary studies since they have positive influences on the development of knowledge and innovation. A variety of terms were used to refer to scientific research collaborations, e.g. inter-, multi-, trans-, and cross-. Some of them, such as multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary collaborations might be used interchangeably by different authors (Sonnenwald, 2007). In this article, ‘multidisciplinary research’ is used to refer to a combination between scientific knowledge from more than one discipline in which researchers bring their own expertise to answer the same research question or to achieve the same research goal.

Previous studies support the idea that a research collaboration between researchers with different research backgrounds could be beneficial to a research project (e.g. National Academies, 2005; Sonnenwald, 2007; Van Rijnsoever & Hessels, 2011; Wachsmuth, 2016). The collaboration allows researchers to bring their complementary skills to deal with complex problems and issues that require a combination of scientific background and knowledge from more than one discipline. More importantly, many research problems are complex and cannot be addressed by researchers of a single discipline. These problems require the combination of expertise to come up with innovative solutions to achieve the research goal.

Multidisciplinary studies have been conducted in various disciplines. Knowledge domains combined in previous studies were, e.g. business and information systems (Forman & Markus, 2005), computer science and social science (Beck, Meinecke, Matsuyama, & Lee, 2017), health and medical sciences (Lustig et al., 2015; Kusano, Conger, & Wright, 2016), physics and statistics (Vissoci et al., 2016), natural sciences (Chung, Kwon, & Lee, 2016), and other studies in information science, psychology, sociology, philosophy (as cited in Sonnenwald, 2007). One of the examples of multidisciplinary projects which required a collaboration between researchers from diverse disciplines was discussed in Kusano, Comger, and Wright (2016). In the project, engineering students and medical trainees worked together to improve the design of a medical

equipment. They discussed and shared ideas on the design and the use of the current model and came up with the ideas for improving the equipment. The collaboration in this project supports that multidisciplinary research, where researchers from different disciplines work together to address the same goal, can contribute to an innovation. The collaboration can even be beneficial to researchers as a learning environment since they can learn the methods used in other disciplines.

Although multidisciplinary studies are typically advantageous, challenges and difficulties in doing them have been mentioned in many studies. One issue is that practicality of collaboration of researchers from various disciplines can be challenging. A number of factors influence success or failure of the collaboration. Some of the factors which have been addressed in previous studies include interests, experiences and styles of researchers, budget concerns, credit concerns, time of collaboration, places where the research takes place, discipline-specific methodologies, information sharing practice, and other factors in relation to large differences between academic fields (see Chung, Kwon, & Lee, 2016; Kyvik & Reymert, 2017; Maglaughlin & Sonnenwald, 2005; Mumuni, Kaliannan, & O’Reilly, 2016). These studies seem to suggest that doing multidisciplinary research demands a certain level of understanding of other disciplines and one of the key factors which is considered as the basis of this understanding is research communication.

Communication in multidisciplinary research To work together, researchers from diverse academic disciplines might have difficulties in communication in many ways, for example, differences in communication channels available to them, distance between research members (Lang, 2003), and differences in communication style and practice between members (Chung, Kwon, & Lee, 2016; Monteiro & Keating, 2009). Some studies (e.g. Bracken & Oughton, 2006) highlighted that the use of language in research practice is the key to effective communication and it became the main concern of this study.

Since each discipline has a unique language (Lustig et al., 2015) including technical jargon of specialty, language practice in this article is particularly discussed in terms of the language that researchers from diverse disciplines use for communication in multidisciplinary research. The language has to be comprehensible to all members regardless of their disciplines. It could be said that this language is used in the same way that English language is used as an international

language for communication by many people from different countries who have their own national languages. The unique language of particular disciplines could lead to difficulties in communication as well as misinterpretations of meanings, especially when some specific terms can be defined differently in different disciplines. For example, in Vissoci et al. (2016), physicians and statisticians were unaware that their languages are specialized and are usually difficult to be understood by specialists from other disciplines. These specialized languages could lead to problems in translations and misinterpretations of discipline-specific concepts as well as to information loss. Therefore, the study suggested the use of taxonomies of terms that the researchers from the two disciplines can share and understand.

Practical recommendations for achieving successful communication in multidisciplinary contexts given by previous studies include a series of simple strategies, for example, giving opportunities for researchers to spend time together to help them establish a sense of communicative competence, creating good relationship and building cultural understanding between team members, discussing language differences, and creating a language understood by all members and let the researchers discussed the language in an early stage of collaboration (Beck, Meinecke, Matsuyama, & Lee, 2017; Bracken & Oughton, 2006; Lang 2003; Lustig et al., 2015; Monteiro & Keating, 2009; Mumuni, Kaliannan, & O’Reilly, 2016; Thompson, 2009). Research team members could also share their reports to bridge the gap between disciplines which help address differences in research methods and styles. In other words, researchers may need time to familiarize themselves with language, terms, concepts, and methods used in other disciplines as well as to create relationship and understanding between all members.

The purpose of this article is to present one of the useful strategies which was used in multidisciplinary communication, the use of a briefing document that provides background on the research project for all members. The document was written by researchers in applied linguistics to give content and explanation on the psychological concepts for researchers from a computer science discipline. In brief, the context of this article is the multidisciplinary research project in which background and knowledge from three disciplines are engaged. The project has a relatively short timeline. Research members are from two universities which are far from each other. The researchers have different levels of experience and expertise. Three disciplines involved in this article have unique language. They also have a large gap in research traditions

and nature. Therefore, the shared language which should be comprehensible to all of them is needed since it will help them finish the project within the timeline. Details of context of this multidisciplinary project is provided in the next section.

Context of the study

This article presents the use of a briefing document that the researchers from applied linguistics (AL) used as the medium to communicate with the researchers from computer sciences (CS). The document was used for communication in a replication study of Watson Todd and Pojanapunya (2009) which will investigate Thai students’ attitudes towards native and non- native speaker teachers of English (NESTs and NNESTs). The replication study will not only use a questionnaire which usually reflects explicit attitudes, but will also apply the research method and a computer program from psychology to measure implicit attitudes.

An Implicit Association Test (IAT) can be used to measure implicit attitudes or the attitudes outside of conscious awareness and control (Greenwald, Banaji, & Nosek, 2011). It was founded by three researchers – Tony Greenwald (University of Washington), Mahzarin Banaji (Harvard University), and Brian Nosek (University of Virginia). The IAT is currently run by a non-profit organization with an international collaboration of researchers, the Project Implicit. The main goal of the test is to reveal hidden biases in collecting data in terms of thoughts and attitudes. The Project Implicit website which provides many topics of IATs can be found at https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/.

In brief, this article describes the collaboration between AL and CS researchers when they develop the IAT website which will be used to measure implicit attitudes towards NEST and NNEST teachers of English (the NEST – NNEST IAT) for the replication study. The study concerns three major disciplines: applied linguistics, psychology, and computer sciences. The research team includes two researchers from applied linguistics (AL researchers), and three computer scientists (CS researchers), one of which is the teacher and the others are fourth year students. The main researchers in applied linguistics employ the psychological program (IAT) that requires programming knowledge from computer scientists to produce the NEST-NNEST IAT. While the AL researchers take a role as the input providers and the creators of the shared

language in the briefing document, the CS researchers play a role as the IAT developers and the users of the briefing document.

Content, components and operation of the Implicit Association Test (IAT)

In this project, the AL researchers are the input providers. So, they are required to explain background information of the IAT including content, components, and its operation to the CS researchers. This section describes important information that the AL researchers need to share with the CS researchers.

The IAT is the online test of implicit attitudes towards a range of issues related to social concerns. On the Project Implicit website, some topics of IATs include Gender-Science IAT (which often reveals an association between liberal arts and females and between science and males), Gender-Career IAT (which often reveals an association between family and females and between career and males), Age IAT (which reveals automatic preference for young over old people), and Weight IAT (which reveals automatic preference for fat over thin people) (Greenwald, Banaji, & Nosek, 2011).

This current study has designed a content-specific IAT on NESTs and NNESTs. On the computer screen, users will be asked to categorise words that they see into pairs of categories for NESTs, NNESTs, positive, and negative adjectives presented on the top-left and top-right corners of the screen by pressing two response keys on a computer keyboard. The users have to do the task as quickly as possible since the response time they use on the task will be calculated and interpreted to reflect preferences for NESTs or NNESTs. The key concept is that people make a response quicker when closely related items share the same response key.

The NEST-NNEST IAT comprises two main sections. First, a questionnaire on NESTs and NNESTs is used to measure explicit attitudes. Second, the IAT interactive section is used to measure implicit attitudes. In this second section, there are seven main parts of the interactive tasks. Users need to classify the names referring to NESTs or NNESTs, e.g. Michael, Julia, Chokchai, and Sunisa into the NEST or the NNEST categories which are presented on the top- right or the top-left corners of the computer screen. Also, they need to classify positive and

negative adjectives, e.g. active, enjoyable, passive, and cheerless into the Good and the Bad categories as quickly as possible. In another part of the IAT, the categories of the NEST-NNEST names and of the Positive-Negative adjectives present together on the screen and share the same response key, for example, NESTs and Good present together on the top-left corner and share the same response key (indicating ‘I like native speaking teachers’) and NNEST and Bad share the same key on the top-right corner (indicating ‘I don’t like Thai teachers’). In all seven parts of the IAT, the procedure is repeated with switches in the classification of these four main categories (NESTs, NNESTs, Good, and Bad) to cover interpretations of positive or negative attitudes towards NESTs or NNESTs. If the user can classify the words when NESTs and Good share the same key quicker than NNESTs and Good, the results suggest that the user has unconscious preference for NESTs. If the response times for the NESTs and Good pair and the NNEST and Good pair are similar, the results suggest that the user has no preference for NESTs or NNESTs (also see Watson Todd & Pojanapunya, 2009).

In summary, the information that AL researchers need to explain to the CS researchers is that the website includes two main sections: the questionnaire and the IAT. In section 1, the questionnaire contains multiple choice questions which only one answer can be chosen and rating scales which can be responded by moving a slide bar. In section 2, the IAT section, CS researchers are required to write the program that randomly selects the names of NESTs or NNESTs and positive or negative adjectives to present on the computer screen with the switches in the classifications in seven parts of the IAT. Some interactive features required by the website and the IAT operations are textboxes, conditional checkboxes, hyperlinks, multiple choice questions that each question requires a single answer, slide bars for rating scales, and interactive features of IAT which present random words referring to NEST or NNEST names and positive or negative attitudes.

The AL researchers need to provide sufficient details to the CS researchers to enable them to develop the website and the IAT. Since this project has a short timeline, the AL researchers used a briefing document to inform all the requirements instead of giving long explanations or spending time with the CS researchers while developing the IAT.

Communicative strategies used in the study

Although the purpose of this article is to present the use of the briefing documentation, other common communication channels were also beneficial to the collaboration. The following sections discuss the use of some channels of communication which are particularly useful for specific purposes, and then the use of the briefing document.

The use of common communicative channels

Although a briefing document is the main tool for communication in this study, other common channels are also important parts of successful communication that help us achieve the research goal. The channels we used in the project included face-to-face meetings, virtual meetings (skype), emails, phone calls, and a text messaging application (Line). These channels were used in this study in different procedures for different purposes. This section summarizes usefulness of these channels as follows.

- Face-to-face meetings were held twice in this study. We had the first meeting at the beginning of the collaboration. The purpose of this meeting was to provide opportunity for all members to meet and introduce themselves. Furthermore, the AL researchers also took this opportunity to give the overview of the task and distribute the briefing document to CS researchers. Therefore, in this meeting, we could also ensure our shared understanding about the task and the shared language used in the briefing document. Then, the second meeting was held when the IAT website was finished. The purpose of this second meeting was to present and discuss the completed website whether changes or corrections are needed.

- Virtual meetings (through Skype) and phone calls were useful when some clarifications about any aspect of the task were required. Little difference in the use of these channels in this study was that we usually used skype when we needed visual resources, e.g. the screen captures of the website as the supporting information for the discussion. On the other hand, phone calls worked well for other simple clarifications about the program.

- Electronic mails were used specifically for sending the documents and revised documents to all members, i.e. the briefing document and its revisions according to comments and clarifications from our discussions through the other channels.

- A text messaging application (a group chat on Line) was usually used in the testing and revising phase. This channel was particularly useful when each individual member had some specific tasks to do at the same time and the progress completed by one of them could affect what the others should do. The purpose of using a Line application was mainly for updating work progress completed by individual members.

The uses of these channels of communications and their usefulness for the research collaboration were summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 The uses of channels of communication for different purposes in different stages No. Channels of Purposes Stages Supporting communica materials tion 1 Face-to- Meet in person face meetings 1.1 1st meeting Introduce members Creating shared Briefing understanding document Give overview of the task Crete understanding and negotiate meanings of the language we used in the document 1.2 2nd meeting Demonstrate the website (which can be Revising Completed seen offline) website Discuss for revision 2 Skype Clarify content and operation of the IAT Any stage that Briefing clarifications are document, the required website 3 Phone calls Clarify minor points of content and Any stage that - operation of the IAT clarifications are required 4 Emails Send documents - Briefing document and the revision 5 Line Interact and update work progress Testing and Screen captures application completed by individuals revising the of the program, program the briefing document

The use of a briefing document

A comprehensive briefing document is an effective medium for communication in this study. The document provides content, components, and details of operations of the IAT website. It also provides guidelines and requirements as described in the previous sections for the CS researchers. As can be seen in Table 1, although the research team communicated and interacted

through different channels of communication, the briefing document was involved in many stages.

In the document, semiotic resources (e.g. color-codes, typing style and formatting) were used to present details of the IAT website to the CS researchers. Instead of writing long explanations for all requirements, the AL researchers used the shared codes to transfer the specialised knowledge content, show the program interface (the wireframe), and guide the navigations and links.

The briefing document can be simply created as a Word document. The idea of using the document with shared codes originally came up based on my own experience of working with a programmer when I designed an interactive self-access language learning material a few years ago (see Pojanapunya, 2012). Three simple stages to create a briefing document are presented below.

1. Make a list of all components of a program and requirements on the technical options. 2. Create codes to represent the technical options (using color-codes, typing style and formatting) with short descriptions of the codes. 3. Type the program content in a Word document, with the first page presenting the codes and the descriptions.

Components of the IAT website, technical options, and the codes used in the briefing document in this current study are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2 Components of the IAT website, technical options, and the codes used in the briefing document No. Components Technical options Codes 1 Introductory webpages Textbox Text box Hyperlink Underlined texts in Blue 2 Questionnaire section Checkbox Texts in Black = content, and texts in Green = notes and Multiple choice requests for CS researchers Slide bar (rating scale) 3 IAT section Wireframe Texts in Black = content (as a wireframe), and texts in Green Interactive features = notes and requests for CS Output display researchers

The first page of the document is the briefing page where all codes representing the technical options and the descriptions are provided (see Figure 1).

Figure 1 The briefing page

Based on the briefing page, the CS researchers were informed that content of the program that must be presented on the computer screen are in Black. Green texts were the messages given by the AL researchers to the CS researchers and these texts will not be presented on the completed IAT website. Red texts were used in the revised briefing document to highlight changes need to be made to the website. Next, the underlined text in Blue was the request for hyperlinks and text

in a blue box was the request for text boxes. Other studies may apply this strategy by adding or designing the codes according to requirements of a particular research project.

Figure 2 shows a page of the briefing document that provides information of the first webpage [Page 1] of the IAT website for the CS researchers. The figure shows content (texts in Black), the revised content (texts in Red), a request to the CS researchers (a message in Green), and the hyperlink presented in the textbox (the underlined texts in Blue in the text box).

Figure 2 Content with requests An example of one page of the interactive IAT section (the wireframe) is presented in Figure 3. The user sees the NEST name, ‘อาจารย์ไมเคิล’ (Ajarn Michael) in the middle of the screen that he or she needs to sort this word into one of the two categories presented on the top-

left and the top-right corners. Texts in Green is the instruction for the CS researchers which will not be presented on the screen of the actual website.

Figure 3 A wireframe for IAT program

The document is also simple to use. In this project, the document was distributed to all research members in the first meeting at the beginning of the collaboration. The language used, components and structure of the document were informed to all members by the AL researcher who created the document. It was also used as a reference document for sharing information about the IAT website and discussing the language used in the document. After the meeting, revisions of the content of the briefing document were made according to comments from the meeting. Then, the CS researchers used the revised document as a manual to create the IAT website. The idea of using a briefing document for communication might also be applied to other collaborative studies. They can design codes and visual resources to be used in a briefing document based on content and requirements of a particular website or program. The document should be distributed to all members at the beginning of the collaboration.

Conclusion A lesson learned from the collaboration in the multidisciplinary research

As one of the members of the research team, I have realized that the language which is comprehensive to all members is the key to effective communication, and communication is the key to successful collaboration between researchers from diverse disciplines. The briefing document which is the main tool of communication used in this study helps transform group- or pair-work (which might not necessarily have to be done in group or pairs) into individual work. So, the AL and the CS researchers in this project did not have to sit together while creating the IAT website. Each researcher who has his/her own roles can work individually on his/her own pace with the briefing document as a reference.

Because the successful communication influences success on multidisciplinary research, the shared language and the briefing document presented in this article might also be useful and beneficial to other similar projects, especially the projects in which computer science or information technology persons are involved. The briefing document can be used as a manual for a program developer. In this study, it can also be used as a reference document for the AL researchers for checking and testing the completed IAT website, whether or not the website was developed according to all requirements given in the briefing document (as also suggested by Pojanapunya, 2012). Other researchers can consider implementing these communication strategies and tools in the design of their multidisciplinary research for effective communication.

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Pre-reading Strategies and the Academic Performance of Students in Science at Rachinee Burana School, Nakhonpathom, Thailand

Luz Bulawin Darantinao

Rachinee Burana School / Philippine Christian University – St. Roberts TNE Program E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The pre-reading strategies and the academic performance of the students in Science was a study conducted to 82 grade 9 students of Rachinee Burana School. This study is a quantitative research which utilizes the mixture of descriptive and correlational method. The study sought answers as to the students’ awareness level on the use of pre-reading strategies and its significant relationship to the students’ academic performance in Science. Results showed that students indeed use pre-reading strategies when they read/study Science texts, however the level of awareness is low. The one-way ANOVA result showed that pre-reading strategies have significant difference when grouped as to perusal, reiterating and wrap up with a t-value of 3.07, while the t-test results showed no significant difference between profile of respondents and the pre-reading strategies used and between the academic performance of the students and the type of class smart / regular class). However, there was a significant difference between performance of students and pre-reading strategies used specifically on the perusal category with an r value of 0.581 and a T-value of 6.385. For the categories reiterating and wrap up, results showed that pre reading strategies under these two categories have no significant relationship with academic performance of students. It is highly recommended that the use pre reading strategies must be considered by teachers in planning their lessons.

Keywords: pre-reading strategies, academic performance, smart class, regular class, EM

Introduction

Reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive meaning. Reading is a means of language acquisition of communication, and sharing information and ideas.

Hamer (2007) stated in his book that reading is useful for language acquisition. Likewise Grabe and Stoller (2010) once quoted,” Reading is also one of the most inevitable medium for independent learning.

Reading strategies are tools employed to improve reading ability of readers and these strategies are vital skills for readers. Amer et.al.(2010) revealed that the effective use of reading strategies is recognized as an important means to enhance reading comprehension.

Similarly, readers who are consciously aware of various reading strategies are able to employ and learn to choose the appropriate strategies to construct meanings from the texts they are engaged in reading (Amer et.al, 2010).

In Thailand, in particular, researches have shown that though English language is now widely taught as a foreign language in the national Thai curriculum, still most Thai students English proficiency is low compared with their counterparts in other ASEAN countries like; Malaysia, Philippines and Singapore as per TOEFL and TOEIC are concerned (TOEIC Test Taker Report 2013)

Several studies conducted with Thai students at high school levels revealed that Thai students were considered at the low levels of English proficiency and had difficulties in reading English. (Chawwang, 2008).

As a teacher of Science I would like to assist students in improving their scientific ability through reading English Science texts.

Instruction of strategies may aim to enhance students’ active involvement in reading activities instead of the dependence on their teacher. Therefore, apart from promoting reading

comprehension, reading strategies may then become a key factor that will increase students’ motivation to read extensively based on their knowledge of strategies (Ciaran and Chamot, 2005).

Strengthened understanding about the kinds of reading strategies that are most associated with successful reading will enable educators to more effectively instruct less proficient readers in the process to use the strategies that will positively affect reading comprehension (Cantrell and Carter,2009). According to Demiroz (2010), “Reading is also one of the most inevitable medium for independent learning.”

Extensive research has been conducted to examine the effects of reading strategy instruction on reading improvement (Ernesto Macaro and Erler, 2000 and Zhang, 2008). The results confirmed that reading strategy can be taught, and once students’ metacognitive knowledge about reading strategies and strategy used are developed, they will become better.

According to the study of Kenny, et.al (2006), to study Math is not just numbers. Students need to figure out the problem in order to come up with the correct solution. However how can a teacher expect students to do perfectly in Math tests when they do not even understand what they are reading. Worst is, they aren’t capable of reading.

Dees (2010) identified seven pre-reading strategies that help enhance reading ability and comprehension of students. The students read the titles and subtitles of the chapter or reading texts, looks closely at pictures, graphs, captions presented either in the power point or course book/textbook, notes bold and italicized words, notes words that are repeated often, reads the first sentence and the last sentence of the text or lesson, writes journal focusing on (KWL) previous Knowledge, what one Wants to know, was Learnt, and makes use of word splash.

Likewise a study was conducted by Yusu (2010) in Kaduna, Nigeria. The study revealed that employment of pre-reading activities might serve as a useful tool in reading particularly for reading teachers in facilitating learner’s reading progress.

A similar study was conducted by Alemi and Ebadi (2010). The authors concluded that the employment of pre reading activities would improve students reading comprehension abilities.

In Iran, readers of English texts greatly employed reading strategies. Moreover, Zare, 2013 explored the use of reading strategies in relation to the success of reading comprehension among EFL learners and found that their achievement of reading comprehension is related to the use of reading strategies.

Park (2010) stated that reading strategies are tools for improving reading comprehension on printed English texts. Results of Park’s study indicated that Korean students use reading strategies with high frequency when they read authentic expository/technical texts in English. The Korean college students’ reading comprehension ability was related to their reading strategies used to some degree.

Another study was conducted in the Philippines by Ombra, et.al (2014) on the reading comprehension skills and performance in science among high school students. The study results showed that the overall students’ performance in reading comprehension and science was indexed at low mastery level. Generally, four out of six reading skills such as understanding vocabulary in context, noting details, predicting outcome and making inference were demonstrated by students although the strength of relationship was considered weak.

Chen and Chen (2015) conducted their study on the use of EFL reading strategies among high school students in Taiwan. The results indicated a high awareness of reading strategy use among EFL high school students.

A study was conducted in Singapore to Chinese students. The study was on Chinese senior high school EFL students’ metacognitive awareness and reading strategy use which was conducted by Zhang (2009). Results showed that the students reported using the three categories of strategies at a high –frequency level. Both the main effect for strategies and the main effect for learners’ proficiency were significant.

Another study was conducted in Thailand by Thongyon (2010). Research participants consisted of 60 Grade IX students at Muslim Wittaya, Phuket. It was found that after the implementation of the two pre reading activities the subjects performed better in the post test, at a significant level of .01. When comparing the results of the two pre reading activities it was found out that the group that experienced guessing meaning from pictures performed better than their counterpart who experienced pre reading questions at a significant level of .05. It was also found that both groups were highly satisfied with the activity they experienced.

Rakchanok (2014) conducted a study on Thai third-year undergraduate students’ frequent use of reading strategies with a focus on reading proficiency and gender. Results revealed that students use problem solving strategies and global reading respectively. Significant variation in the frequency of students’ use of strategies in the three main categories were found according to the level of reading proficiency. On gender, female students used problem solving strategies significantly more frequently than male students.

Similarly, a study was conducted entitled “L2 Reading in Thailand: Vocational College Students’ Application of Reading Strategies to their Reading of English Texts” by Kasemsap and Lee. Results revealed different typologies of reading strategies adopted by lower and higher levels English proficient students, illuminating how they utilized these strategies differently.

Additionally, Oranpattanachai (2010) investigated the employment of reading strategies and the effect of reading proficiency on reading processes by utilizing metacognitive and top-down strategies among Thai pre-engineering EFL readers at a Thai University. The study indicated that both lower and higher level English proficient students at the university level in Thailand used similar categories of reading strategies during their reading processes. However, the frequency and the quality of their strategies among and across students of higher and lower groups were different.

Methodology

Research method

The study was a quantitative questionnaire-based research which utilized the mixture of descriptive method and correlational method. The descriptive part of this research aimed to

gather data on the reading strategies students used when they study Science EMI (English as a Medium of Instruction) and the profile of the respondents. The correlational method attempted to determine the relationship between reading strategies used and students’ academic performance in science. Furthermore, the researcher would like to define further the degree of effectiveness of reading strategies in learning Science EMI. In this study, the researcher used the SORS (Survey of Reading Strategies) questionnaire originally by Shoerey and Mohktari adopted from the study of Doctor Pornpun Oranpattanachai conducted to Thai pre engineering students) to gather necessary data relevant to the study.

The study was conducted in Rachinee Buarana School, Nakhonpathom 56 km southwest of Bangkok, Thailand. The school is an all girls’ high school which offers curriculum from Grade 7 to Grade 12.

Respondents

82 grade 9 students; 34 students from the smart class and 48 from the regular class. Total population sampling was employed in this study because, the researcher perceived that there might be some characteristics of the respondents that could be further defined in the study.

Data Gathering Procedures

The Survey of Reading Strategies adapted from Doctor Orranpattanachai (SORS) questionnaire were distributed to the 82 respondents on the normal class with guidance from the teacher and translation to the native language was also provided to ensure that respondents understand each survey question. A five point Likert scale was also employed to determine the degree of students’ use on the pre-reading strategies. Data collected was interpreted using IBM SPSS statistics 20.

The summative test (Midterm) was given to the students to determine academic performance on the scheduled testing period of the school.

Statistical treatment

The profile of the students was described through frequency and percent. To determine the pre- reading strategies used by the students, the mean was computed and was interpreted using the scale:

Range Description 4.51 – 5.0 Very Often 3.51 = 4.50 Often 2.51 = 3.50 Sometimes 1.51 – 2.50 Seldom 1.0 - 1.50 Never

Results and discussion

Profile of respondents

Table 1 presents the frequencies and percentages in terms of the profile of respondents. Majority of the respondents were aged 15 years and most of the parents have an annual income of 100,000 to 299,000 Thai Baht. Furthermore, majority of the students study Science for only I hour.

Pre-reading strategies

Perusal

Table 2 showed that 5 strategies were sometimes used by the students and three strategies were often used by the students while strategy A4 is the strategy students seldom used. Overall results for perusal showed a description result of “sometimes”. These results further showed that the students lack awareness on the reading strategies.

On reiterating pre reading strategies

For the reiterating category, data showed that majority of the fourteen listed pre reading strategies had a mean between 2.5 to 3.5 with a description of “sometimes”, while B9 (Guess the meaning of unknown word in the text) was often used by the students whole B4 strategy was seldom used . (Make use of grammatical structures to get at meaning).

On wrap up pre reading strategies

Results revealed that five of the six listed strategies were sometimes used by the students while 1 strategy is often used by the students. Results further showed that students indeed used pre reading strategies but at a moderate awareness.

In summary, results indicated a moderate awareness on the pre reading strategies among grade 9 students. Students used pre reading strategies unconsciously as their autonomous learning effort in reading Science texts in English.

ANOVA result between the pre reading strategies

ANOVA results between pre reading strategies as to Perusal, Reiterating and Wrap-up showed that students sometimes use pre reading strategies. The results of the ANOVA further showed no significant difference between the pre reading strategies students used when grouped as to perusal, reiterating and wrap up and the null hypothesis is accepted.

Pre-reading strategies and profile

Table 6 showed the result of ANOVA between the pre-reading strategies used by age group. Significant values for the 3 categories of the pre reading strategies were higher than 0.05. Therefore, there is no significant difference between pre reading strategies and age of students.

Annual income

Table 7 presents the result of ANOVA between pre reading strategies used by students and parents’ annual income. The significant values for the 3 categories of pre reading strategies were 0.61, .335 and .654 for perusal, reiterating and wrap up respectively. Significant values are higher than 0.05, with a no significant difference between pre-reading strategies and parents’ annual income. Results of the ANOVA further implied that the employment of pre reading strategies is not limited to any specific annual income bracket.

Number of hours

Table 8 shows the result of t-test between pre reading strategies used by students and the number of hours to study English. Both groups have a t-value of 3665 and a significant value of .000. A significant difference between perusal and number of hours students study Science using English as a medium of instruction is considered. More students who study only for I hour used the perusal strategies compared to the students who study for 2 hours. Likewise, there was no significant difference between reiterating and the number of hours to study Science. Both the smart class and the regular class did not employ reiterating strategies that much. For the wrap up there is a significant difference between wrap up pre-reading strategies and the number of hours students study Science using English as a medium of instruction. Data further revealed that the respondents indeed employed perusal and wrap up pre reading strategies when they study Science.

Type of class

Table 9 shows the result of t-test between pre reading strategies and type of class. Results revealed a no significant difference between the pre reading strategies by type of class. Overall results of reading strategies and profile of respondents have been quite parallel with the study of Park (2010).

Academic performance of students

Table 10 presents the academic performance of the respondents. The results revealed that the number of hours students study Science in English indeed help students perform equally with the students from the regular class who only study Science for one hour but are considered the best performing class in grade 9 in Rachinee Burana School.

Academic performance and type of class

Table 11 presents the t-test result between academic performances of students by type of class. Date revealed a no significant difference on academic performance between the two classes. Both classes excellently performed in their study of Science using English as a medium of instruction.

Academic performance and pre-reading strategies

Table 12 showed the Pearson r Result between academic performance and pre reading strategies. Data revealed a significant value of 0.22 lower than 0.05. Indeed, employing pre reading strategies can help students improve reading ability and comprehension and thus, improve academic performance as well.

Conclusions and recommendations

1. Majority of the Grade IX students are 15 years old, with parents’ annual income of 100,000 -299,000 THB, and study in the regular class for only an hour per week.

2. The students often use the perusal strategy of forming a mental picture of what is read, making a survey of the text before reading it, and trying to get the main idea, but seldom use

predicting what will come next, the reiterating strategy of guessing the meaning of unknown words in the text, making use of grammatical structures to get at meanings and wrap up strategy of writing down the meaning of unknown words that appear in the dictionary in the text read.

3. Perusal, reiterating and wrap up pre-reading strategies are similarly employed by students when they read or study science text books. 4. The use of perusal, reiterating and wrap-up pre-reading strategies is not determined by their age and annual income of parents but is determined by the number of hours spent in studying English texts.

5. The students from the regular and the smart classes are performing excellently in their academics.

6. There is no significant difference between the academic performance of students in the smart and regular classes. 7. Employing pre reading strategies can enhance students’ academic performance.

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Dynamics Power of Language in Clinching a Crown in a Beauty Pageant

Kevin Darwin Crisostomo Balayan

De La Salle University – Dasmariñas, Philippines E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction

Beauty pageant is a competition that, traditionally, ranks the candidates based on their physical attributes though some of these pageants changed the qualifications or standards and include personality, talent, and intelligence by answering questions given by the jury. The qualifications for the delegates in the “Big Four International Beauty Pageant” have not changed a lot for it usually requires being unmarried. Same with pageants and contests for men, external appearance like having a great physique is important. (Tinio, 2003).

According to Capili (2003), beauty contests and pageant organizers can modify the rules including the age limit of the participants. It may also include being unmarried, being an amateur or non-professional, and someone that can be an advocate of the organization’s objectives. Organizers may also decide what the candidates will wear, including swimwear, wherein the candidate will be ranked as well.

Jeturian (2003) added that beauty pageants and contests range from barangay and town level to international. There are competitions for young women or children that is usually focused on beauty, long gown, sports attire, talent, and interviews. On the contrary, beauty pageants for women of legal age are judged by their make-up, hair style, long gown, swimwear, and interview. Winners of beauty pageants and contests are called beauty queens. The term “clapper” is usually used for the delegates who did not win.

Winners are given awards and prizes that usually include the title, tiara or crown, scepter, cash, and much more. However, some candidates are judged by how fluent they speak, wearing and

ramp modeling of swimwear, and talent. Other pageants and contests grant scholarships to the winners. (Mabuhay to Beauty! Profiles of Beauties and Essays on Pageants”, 2003)

Beauty pageants and basketball are the favorite leisure of Filipinos. The primary organizations in the Philippines that is in charge of sending delegates to international beauty pageants are the following: Binibining Pilipinas, Miss World Philippines, Miss Philippines Earth, and Mutya ng Pilipinas. The winners of these organizations become the delegates of the Philippines to international and prestigious beauty pageants like Miss Universe, Miss World, Miss Earth, Miss International.

The skill of the candidates is not just based with their external appearance but it can be seen and reflected with how they will be able to answer the question given to them. One of the keys in the success of the delegates is being comfortable with the language they use.

The language one uses reveals the identity of his origins. It is the channel used by the people in a community to understand each other. Language is essential and it is an integral part of a community to be able to communicate, connect, and be one with another. Language is very important because if we do not have it, how will a candidate of a beauty pageant be able to convey their thoughts and feelings or their message.

Constantino, a linguist, stated that language is considered a vehicle to convey feeling; it is also an instrument to hide and reveal the truth.

According to Whitehead, an educator of Eglish Philosopy: Language is the totality of the ideology of the society or community that created it. Every language contains the customs, and the way of thinking of the race who created it. It is the reflection of one’s race and their identity.

Language is the reflection of the nation and binds its people towards unity. This came from Manuel Quezon, known as the Father of of Filipino Language (Cabrera, 2009).

Language is tied with culture. It serves as an instrument in having an identity. Language is used in channeling culture, and culture shapes how language works in a defined society or community

– the people, and language is the linguistic symbol of the people who speak it that binds them all together. (Empaynado, 2012)

It is the duty of every Filipino to value and cherish our own language. The Filipino language is the remaining spirit of our patriotism and unity that we need to give importance to.

According to Commissioner Wilfrido Villacorta (sa Catacataca, et al., 2001), Filipino is an “existing national language” and its nucleus are the Filipinos. The formalization needs to be executed in an educational system. It, being not formalized does not mean that it is not prevailing. It is lingua franca.”

In 1987 in the declaration of Filipino as the National Language, it was believed that the Filipino language is a “true, natural, and dynamic language that is used and understood predominantly by Filipinos in the country who belonged to ethno linguistic groups. (Catacataca, Espiritu, & Villafuerte, 2001)

As stated by Hayakawa, language has three uses: 1. It gives information about people, things, and happenings. 2. It commands. 3.

According to Edward Sapir, language is a natural and humane way of delivering thoughts, feelings, and aspirations.

According to Hill (in Tumangan, et al., 2000) and Gleason (in Tumangan, et al., 2000), language is changing. It is dynamic. It can never deny change.

English is one of the most used languages in the world. It is the basic language used in different fields. Approximately 25% of the world’s population knows the language and can speak and understand it. According to studies, there are 52 countries with English as the official language. So it can be said too that it is one of the widely used language and can be considered the current lingua franca of diplomacy.

In more than a century, the great role of the English language is notable in the linguistic history of the Philippines. When the American took over the Philippines in 1898, they immediately built

schools wherein American soldiers served as the teachers and used English as the medium of instruction in teaching.

Every language used by each country that joins beauty pageants is magnificent. They are free to express what they want to say with their own language. Despite its beauty, the proper use of language in interaction and communication has to be considered.

The researchers were interested in the subject to explore and discover the perspective of different individuals with same interest and enough knowledge with beauty pageants and contests as well as selected candidates who had experiences in joining local, national, and even international pageants. The researchers were concerned about the state of condition of our language in the field of beauty pageants.

The researchers respectfully emphasized the different theories that supported this research. It discusses the use of language spoken by Filipino candidates, and is concerned with why it is the language used in interacting and communicating. The views of selected beauty queen respondents were also taken into consideration.

Behaviorism Theory, though this theory does not directly concerns linguistics, had a great impact in learning a first and a second language. Behaviorism theory states that a child is born with learning abilities a nd that their behavior and habits are shaped by controlling their environment. The intellectual abilities of a child is enriched and developed with appropriate sanctions. Skinner (1968), a key behaviorist, emphasized intellectual development by motivating and encouraging and strengthening any good behavior. According to behaviorists, learning a language is the product of imitation, and repeated exercises until it is mastered and has a positive feedback.

The theory of Innatism in learning is based on the belief that the child was born with "natural talent" in language learning. Chomsky (1975) explains that language skills are part of the childbirth and are naturally cultivated as children engage in interaction with his environment. According to Chomsky, children are biologically programmed for language learning and that this language is cultivating other human biological functions.

Based on the Cognitive theory, language learning is a dynamic process in which the language learners needs to think and make the new information useful or meaningful and that the rules should be applied to produce a new sentence. According to cognitivists, making mistakes is a sign of learning and experimentation and is not immediately corrected. It lawasy focuses on the idea that the informations are linked with the learners existing ideas and previous knowledge.

Cognitive theory and innatism theory have many common aspects. Both theories hold the concept that humans are born with the ability to leqarn language (Page & Pinnel, 1979). Innativists believe that children do not need any support for they will naturally learn or acquire language. On the other hand, Cognitivists require instruction and learning environment to facilitate language learning.

According to the article Tinig ng Plaridel with the title “Major-major at pamily: ang sariling wika sa kasalukuyan” by Monica Joy Cantilero

With language, we already have a strong appreciation with English while we are ashamed of our own. We also have an inferiority complex with whites; the culture, language, and products of Americans are appealing and advanced while we considered ours as underdeveloped and lousy.

2010 Miss Philippines Universe Venus Raj’s answer “major-major…” reverberated. In the radio I was listening to this morning, her anwer was considered a joke that spread like wild fire. In the television, Raj’s reaction in her controversial answer was put into headlines. It was even used as a title in a website of a newspaper. (“A ‘major,major’ win” from Inquirer. Net)

We cannot also forget the sad experience of 2008 Miss Philippines World Janina San Miguel who became a biting joke when she was not able to answer the host’s question. It ca be recalled that she said “pamily” instead of “family” and at the end of her answer, she mentioned “Sorry guys because this was really my first pageant ever because I’m only 17 years old and (laughs) I, I did not expect that I came from, I came from one of the top 10…”

If Melanie Marquez and Ruffa Guttierez told San Miguel to get courses in English, 1969 Miss Philippines – Universe Gloria Diaz suggested having an interpreter like 2010 Miss Universe -

Mexico (though fluent in English) based on Raj’s experience. According to her, the problem is that the candidates often think answers in Filipino and whe. translated in English, the answers is lacking.

While in the GMA News Online portal, the winners of Binibining Pilipina 2015 were asked, “ Should Filipina Beauty Queens continue to speak in English when answering questions during pageants?”

“The beauty queens gave their opinions, “Maybe it’s about time to let the world hear what Filipino language is.” – Binibining Pilipinas Supranational 2015 Rogelie Catacutan. “English has always been the medium used by Filipina beauty queens when they go to international pageants.” Binibining Pilipinas – Universe 2015 Pia Wurtzbach.

For her, it is an advantage for Filipinas to express themselves in English. Pia added, “Mayabe it is for us to show that we know how to speak in English and since the questions in international pageants are English, I think it is more appropriate to answer in English.”

For Miss Philippines International 2015 Christi McGarry, “I believe that what matters most in the end is the message and not really the medium. It does’nt matter what language you speak, it is not a requirement for Miss Universe or any other pageant. If you can deliver it in your language like Filipino, it’s best to say it that way.”

In another article which was published on Januray 13, 2017 by GMA News Online entitled “Ariella Arida on bashing Maxine’s English: Hoping of Speaking Our own Language”.

“Hoping that there will come a time to speak our own language. Then everyone in the world – in the universe – will hear our native language.” – Ariella Arida Miss Universe 2013 – 3rd Runner Up

She also stated that she thought that she can speak in Filipino during her time even with with all the negative feedbacks that she might receive but, still, it wasnot her deciswion to make. “Still, it’s not our decision even if we want to. There are people who decide for us.” - Ariella Arida.

Arida still believes that someday, our delegates will be able to use our native languae=ge in answering the final question in a beauty pageant. “There are over 170 languages in the

Philippines and I believe that the Miss Universe stage is a good platform for the world to hear at least one of these languages.” - Arida.

Statement of the problem

1. Determine the perception of the delegates/ have been a delegate of the country with the current situation the Filipino language in the field of beauty pageants. 2. Enumerate the main reasons why Filipino language is not being patronized as a medium in answering questions in beauty pageants. 3. Compare how Latinas (Latin American Girls) and Filipino delegates use language. 4. Discuss the situation of the Filipino language in the Big 4 Beauty Pageant in the last ten years.

Significance of the study

This research is conducted for the benefit of the following: (a) students - will determine the current linguistic situation of Filipino in this field; (b) teachers – will be provided information about the current linguistic situation of Filipino; and (c) society – each and every one will be aware of the truth and the reality of the current linguistic situation of Filipino in the field of beauty pageants.

The scope of this study was limited with the Perceptions on Filipino Language used in Beauty Pageants. The researchers use a heuristic method (survey) in gathering data. The respondents are people who have an in-depth knowledge regarding beauty pageants and people who have been a candidate in local, national, and international beauty pageant

Methodology

This study used a qualitative research design. The researcher aimed to know, discover and give importance to the current state of the Filipino language in the field of beauty pageants both locally and internationally. The researchers used descriptive data to acquire exact details from beauty queens and pageant enthusiasts.

Choosing the descriptive data is an important process in getting the quality of data. The design was chosen to effectively carry out the research since the researchers wanted to obtain important data from the words uttered by the respondents from an “in-depth interview” and “focus-group

discussion”. Information’s were examined thoroughly to get the necessary information needed for this research.

Part of the design is the construction of questions relevant to the issue. The researchers used it as guide questions for both the “in-depth interview” and “focus-group discussion”. The researchers used the same questions to determine if the answers of the participants in the interviews will vary.

The research had a total of 25 respondents only. Five (5) respondents for the “in-depth interview”. Twenty (20) participants were chosen for the “focus-group discussion”. Though the participants were only twenty five (25), it did not limit the data gathered since the focus of the research was not dependent on the number of the respondents but by the information coming from them.

The participants of the study were divided into two groups: (1) Five informants, who had been a candidate, for the “in-depth interview”. (2) Twenty participants for the “focus-group discussion” were chosen excluding the five participants from the in-depth interview. A phenomenological study suggests five (5) to twenty-five (25) respondents only (Raagas, 2010). These 25 respondents have a deep knowledge about beauty pageants including beauty queens, trainers, and individuals who have profound interests in the field of beauty pageants.

The researchers produced a questionnaire for interviewing selected informants. After the questionnaires have been completed, it has been checked for the interview. Second, the researchers made a letter asking permission from the informants through email.

The next step was to identify the informants by purposive sampling technique. This is a type of procedure which does not require the fundamental theory or range of participants. The researcher determines only who the designated participants who will provide their information, knowledge, and experience that will help in the ongoing study. (Shepard, 2006) Every informant is contacted by researchers using modern technology to obtain information for such studies.

After obtaining the required data from the interview, the researchers recorded the information in an organized way to clearly identify the answers. Researchers have analyzed and investigated the responses of informants by grouping their responses. Additionally, the researchers reviewed the similarities and differences of the informants' answers.

Finally, the researchers thoroughly analyzed the gathered information from the informants. The researchers also included their views and assessments. The analysis was made in the summary, conclusion, and recommendations.

Results

The respondents answered the questions according to their experiences and knowledge about beauty pageants. The researchers formed the team by finding information from the people they know, and asking their contact numbers. They are the ones who have enough knowledge about the topic. The respondents and participants were beauty queens who had experiences in joining local, national, and international pageants, founders of one of the biggest beauty pageant portal in the country which is Missosology Philippines, and selected members from well-known facebook groups of beauty pageants in the country.

The participants of the study were divided into two groups: (1) Five informants, who had been a candidate of local, national, and international beauty pageants, for the “in-depth interview”. (2) Twenty participants for the “focus-group discussion” were chosen excluding the five participants from the in-depth interview. For qualitative study questions, all the data are individually organized by "in-depth interview" and "focus-group discussion."

Interviews were conducted through facebook chat/messenger, facebook video call, and other social media to easily answer the prepared questions. Before the interview, letters asking for permission were sent through email. During the actual interview, respondents were given a chance to ask questions and read the questionnaire. In the “in-depth interview” part, answers of the informants were based solely on their personal thoughts. The “focus-group discussion” part was used to find out if there were similarities with the answers of the respondents from the “in- depth interview”. With these, the researchers were able to find out if the answers from both

interviews were the same and connected with each other. They presented their knowledge and experiences in a detailed manner.

It has been proven that even in local and national contest in our country, it is preferable to use English because one of its most important points is to attract or impress the organizers, owners, sponsors, jury, and other competitors.

Based on the answers of the participants, speaking in English helps you express yourself freely without the tendency of mistranslations just like what happened to Miss Universe Philippines 2016 – Maxine Medina, who could be considered to be the first Filipina to expressed her answer using the native tongue though with the help of an interpreter still tried to answer in English since the interpreter was not able to properly translate the questions in Filipino.

Speaking in English in national beauty pageants helps the candidates to improve their communication skills for when they win, they will be the delegate of our country to international beauty contests and they will be prepared to communicate in a foreign country.

For most, whoever you are, even if you are not a candidate, if you know how to speak in English, you are considered an intellectual person. This is one of the beliefs in the world today. Often times, it becomes the basis of intelligence if you are fluent in speaking in English.

English language becomes a criterion in most beauty pageants. Whether we admit it or not, Filipinos are naturally smart but you can be more impressive if you know how to fluently converse, interact, and communicate in English

Latinas speaking in their native language in international pageants are their own choice. It is their strategy to have an ample time to think of the answer while the question is interpreted.

It can be observed with the way Latinas answer questions that they do not come unprepared in using the English language. It can be seen in how that they can interact and communicate with other candidates form other regions and countries. They use the English language in interacting

and communicating but not in answering the pageant questions for they use their native language which is Spanish.

In totality, based on the result, if we are going to observe the outcome of the winners from the past ten years in the considered Big 4 International beauty pageants, there is a great number of winners who did not answer the final question in their native language but in English.

Discussion

The objective of this phenomenological study is to understand, sort, and document the current situation of the Filipino language in the field of beauty pageants based on the responses of the participants from different beauty contests considered as beauty queens, trainers, and members of well-known facebook groups of beauty pageants. The researchers collected important information and data to make this study, fair, credible, and realistic. (Morris, 2004)

Before the researchers started the interview, there was a thorough discussion between the researchers and the participants of this study. It was explained to the participants the procedure of the study. The participants were given a chance to have a better understanding of the study and to let them asked questions regarding it. The participants were consist of experienced beauty queens from local, national, and international pageants like Miss Earth 2013, Miss Philippines Earth 2013, Miss Tourism Philippines 2016, Miss Millenial 2017, Binibining Muntinlupa 2017 (Miss Muntinlupa 2017) , at Binibining Muntinlupa 2016 (Miss Muntinlupa 2016). There were members of Missosology Philippines, a well-known website of beauty pageants and beauty contests. There were trainors from a renowned “beauty camp” in the Philippines, the Kagandahang Flores, and other participants who have a fair share of their interests in the field of beauty pageants who are members of the popular facebook group Pageant Talk Overload Original at Pageant Talk Overload Reloaded.

Based on the research conducted, the dominant answers explain that even if the candidates are capable of answering the final question using the Filipino language, they still choose to answer in English for the reason that they want to show that they can keep pace with others who know how to fluently speak in English. It also shows that candidates who answer the final question in English impress the jury. Candidates seldom answer in Filipino because it is difficult for them to

construct sentences purely in Filipino. Using the English language is also a basic qualification and requirement in joining national beauty pageants.

According to Archibald A. Hill in his paper What is Language? Language is the basic and most prominent form of human symbolic activity. These symbols are made up of speech-generated sounds and are organized into classes and patterns that create a complex and symmetrical structure. These symbols have arbitrary meaning and controlled by the society.

According to Constantino, a linguist, language is a vehicle in expressing ones feelings, an instrument in keeping and revealing the truth.

According to Whitehead, an educator and English philosopher: Language is the totality of the ideology of the society who created it. Each language contains the customary idea of the race who created it. it is the reflection of one’s identity and race.

The answer who dominated the second question on why English language is the preferred language in answering the final questions even in local/national pageant is, first, it is the best way for the candidates to express their answer. Based Through the English language, they can easily express themselves and based from the answers of the participants, English is much easier than Filipino.

Using the English language makes a candidate look and sound like an intellectual person. It is one of the factors in winning the crown. It is also a preparation for those who wanted to join international contests. It their way of showing how well-prepared they are to be an international ambassador of the organization like the previous delegates of the Philippines who use the English language in the different international beauty pageants and was successfully crowned.

The third question is about Latinas answering the final questions using their native language though they know how to speak in English. Based on the response of the participants of the study, it is the right of the Latinas to use their native language. A candidate is not forced to use a language that is not natural to her that is why they are permitted to use their own language.

It is also a good strategy for the Latinas to use interpreter so that the interpreter can improve the answer. It will also give them ample time to deeply think about their answer. It is an advantage for them. Latinas only used English in conversations and in the history of beauty pageants, they seldom use the language. In answering final questions, they still prefer to use their native language – Spanish. In using their native language, they can express their appreciation and enrich their culture.

For past ten years in the four well-known beauty pageants in the world. Based on the analyzed data, English is mainly used in answering the final question. In Miss Universe, most Latinas, who use their native language, were crowned. The English language were often used in Miss Earth during the past ten years since most of the crowned beauty queens belong to a country were English is part of the school’s curriculum. Being able to speak in English is also a requirement in winning the title for a crowned Miss Earth must be able to speak fluently in English to influence and share the objectives and advocacy of the said pageant. With Miss World and Miss International, winners used English in the final question.

Probably, the use of English language prevails in various levels of beauty pageants because of colonialisation. English is said to be the universal language. Filipinos have started studying English from nursery until college. Some teachers even translate Filipino words in English for the students to easily understand it. We can say that Filipinos are more knowledgeable in speaking in English.

The candidates could be trained in using the English language but if they are more comfortable in using Filipino, then they can use it. With this, they can express their selves easily and confidently in answering. We just need to remember that it is the right of the candidates to choose the language they are comfortable in expressing their ideas.

Anyone is free to choose the language she will be using in a competition like beauty pageants. It does not degrade the essence of being a beauty queen. Just like what Miss Gloria Diaz said, “Speaking in Filipino does not lessen the essence of being a beauty queen. It does not even lessen the state of your living”.

Many agree with the suggestion of letting the candidates use their own language in beauty pageants. It is a great opportunity for the trainers to lead in the development of using one’s own language. Persuade them to use the language they are comfortable using. It is more effective than scarifying the beauty of the message of our candidates with regards to global issues. More than anyone else, enriching our language must start with us.

We should not be ashamed of our own language, our country, our identity. Let us promote our language, our culture.

For all of us, it is not a sin to embrace, patronized, and be amazed, with other languages but we must always remember to keep in our minds and in our hearts to enrich the Filipino language.

Despite the fact that English is often used in beauty pageants, we must always remember that it is not an excuse in using our own language. Our candidates can still answer in Filipino so that the Filipinos can easily understand their fellow Filipinos. We need to learn foreign language but does not mean that we are going to neglect our own language.

References

Books: Ampil, Roberto de Lara. et.al. Akademikong Filipino sa Kominukasyong Global, UST Punlishing House, 2010

Barronda, Andrew John C. Komunikasyon at Pananaliksik sa Wika at Kulturang Filipino, JFS Publishing Services, 2016

Cohen, Colleen, Beverly Stroeltje and Richard Wilk, Beauty Queen on the Global Stage. New York: Routledge, 1996

Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth. New York: William Morrow and Co. Inc., 1991.

Women’s Role In Philippine History. 2nd Edition. Quezon City: University Center for Studies, U.P. Diliman, 1996

Magazines: Carandang, Annabelle M. “The Beauty Contest Thing,” Philippine Values Digest, Vol. 3. No. 2. Manila: Values and Technologies Management Center, 1988

Foronda, Marcelino Jr. A. ed. “The Early National Beauties,” Philippine Panorama, Vol. 22. No. 50. Manila: Bulletin Publishing Corp., 12 December, 1993.

Japitana, Norma. Ed. “A Peek Into the World of Beauty Pageants,” Philippine Panorama, Vol. 15. No. 3. Manila Bulletin Publishing Corp., 22 June 1986

A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Selected Speeches of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte: A Corpus-based Approach

Remart Padua Dumlao

Unisearch, Chulalongkorn University E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The Critical Discourse Analysis is often applied to analyze political discourse including the public speech, in which the speaker wins favorite response from the audience. And analyzing discourse can shed light on language as social semiotic system, discursive representation of the identities and operations of ideology and power.

The purpose of this study is twofold. Firstly, it aims to unveil the linguistics features of pronouns, social actors, and the modality types employed in President Duterte’s speeches. Secondly, the study was conducted to further explore how President Duterte’s representation or identity was discursively constructed in his political speeches. The original manuscripts of the speeches were downloaded from the official Philippine Government website at .This study is assisted of corpus tool, Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework, the notion of pronoun analysis, social actors, and the modality system of Hallidayan Systemic Functional Linguistics, and the themes of linguistics feature in association with socio-political context. An inter-coder reliability check was done.

Finding indicates that pronouns, social actors, and modality types expressed different functions within specific political situation. Thus, the deployment of “I” appears to be predominantly among other selected pronouns and social actors such as “we”, “government”, “people”, and “military”. Secondly, regarding the degrees of modalization (probability and usuality) and modulation (obligation and inclination), the findings reveal that probability type of modality predominantly employed with “I”. Finally, the analysis shows that President Duterte’s pronouncement reportedly employed pronouns, social actors, and a modality system to suggest

his administration was creating positive change in the political situation that triggered Filipino thinking to support and accept his political platforms.

Keywords: critical discourse analysis, discursive identities, pronouns, modality

Introduction

Politics is an avenue of politicians to showcase their political, economic, and social ideas into practice. This has to grab the “pro-one” of the mass and to their ideology, political discourse dialectically articulated which can be a vehicle towards achieving that ultimate end of their political race. In this political race, language has a vital role, for every political doing is planned, prepared, embed, influenced, and played by language. This present paper analyzes discourse of political speaking delivered on the important events of the state, wherein, the President himself delivers speeches, anchored in his political platform. And analyzing President Duterte’s’ discourse that can shed light on language as social semiotic system, his discursive representation of the identities and operations of his ideology and power as the head of the state.

Background of the study

Numerous studies in political discourse have been analyzed, such as Barack Obama speeches (Wang, 2010), George Bush and Barack Obama’s political speeches (Viberg 2011; Biria & Mohammadi, 2012; Sarfo & Krampa, 2013) Prime Minister‘s speech on Harful Aerial vehicles (Ahmed, 2014). Almost all these studies have been concerned with investigating the underling ideologies and persuasion on how they persuade the peoples’ mind. Further, these studies have revealed the underlying ideologies of the certain state or republic leaders. For instance, Wang (2010) studied the political discourses of former Obama’s speeches, by which, the result shown that Obama used direct and indirect speeches from the Bible which helps him to with the sympathy and supporting of audience.

By contrast to the situation of the Philippine president, Duterte has been known by his ‘taboo words’ that were always inserted in all of his speeches, which could have reduced Duterte’s trust and satisfactory rating. However, a recent Pulse Asia survey has shown President Rodrigo Duterte retaining “big majority” approval and trust ratings. According to Pulse Asia survey (Sep-20, 2017) 80 percent expressed trust and approval of Duterte out of 1,200 respondents. This

was compared to 81 percent trust and 82 percent approval in June of the same year, with the difference still within the 3-point error margin. The SWS survey said net public satisfaction with Duterte plunged 18 points to +48 from +66 in June, while his net trust rating fell 15 points to +60 from +75. The SWS survey was conducted at a time when the administration drew heavy criticism for its war on drugs following teen deaths in questionable police operations. Despite the criticism of his fierce war on drugs and allegations of hidden wealth, he remained too popular and his speeches are highly attended and applauded. This suggest that the Filipino people may have found some motivating information embedded in his speeches and therefore interesting to investigate.

Therefore, this research study is geared towards a two-fold objective:

1. It aims to unveil the linguistics features of pronouns, social actors, and the modality types employed in President Duterte’s speeches in relation with contextual factors. 2. Further explore how President Duterte’s representation or identity was discursively constructed in his political speeches.

To answer these objectives, corpus-assisted method was utilized to identify the concordance and absolute frequency of selected pronouns namely, ‘I’ and ‘We’ and the chosen social actors such as. ‘ Military’, ‘ Government’, and ‘ People’, thus it leads the analyses of interpersonal meaning of the modality system based on values and degrees of modality types, namely modalization ( probability and usuality) and modulation ( obligation and inclination) based on the analytical framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics ( Thompson, 2014; Halliday & Mattheissen, 2004 &2014).The paper begins with the brief overview of Critical Discourse Analyses (CDA), followed analytical frameworks of critical study of discourse, next by methodology adopted in the present study, and then analyses of the study. Finally, the discursive representation of the identities of President Duterte viewed a through investigation of the personal pronouns, social actors, and modality system was displayed after the conclusion.

Critical discourse analysis

Primary goal of CDA is to perceive language use as social practice. The users of language, for instance, do not function in isolation, but in a set of social, cultural, and psychological context. CDA accept this social context and studies the connection between textual structures and brings this social context into account and associates textual structure and function in interaction within the society. Analysis requires deep understanding of the context since it is complicated in the sense that multi-level one and most of the time, it gives the obvious lack of direct between the text structure and social functions, especially when it comes to inducing and saving the differences in power relations. Opaqueness was frequently and willingly left due to complex mechanism of discursive practice and their social functions to the context, especially when the ipso facto occurs to compose and save differences in power relations.

Political discourse and identities

Political discourse is an activity within political arena and it functions only on political context structure (van Dijk , 1993) and it “integrates a whole palette of meanings” (Titscher et al., 2000, p.42) . According to Fairclough (1989) the term refers to “the whole process of interaction of which a text is just a part” (Fairclough, 1989, p.24). As pervasive ways of experiencing the world, discourses refer to expressing oneself using words such as political speeches. Discourses can be used to unveil the identities of certain politicians on how she/he assert power and knowledge. For instance, politicians express their ideological content in text or spoken as do the linguistics form of it. That is, selection or choice of a linguistic form may not live process for individual speaker, but discourse will be a reproduction of that previously learned discourse. Having said, as it was mentioned, PDA is one of the most representative sub branches of CDA, which consecutively employs its techniques of analysis. The most crucial point why CDA was chosen is its linguistic affinity.

Conceptual framework

Critical Discourse Analyses (CDA) is an interdisplinary analytical tool used in mainstream humanities and social sciences research based on a combination of social theories and background of knowledge of social context (Chaiyasat & Sudajit-apa, 2017, p. 19). CDA’s

approach to the study of language is to view language tool of revealing principle and ideologies. Further CDA was employed as a tool for discourse analyses based on Hallidayan Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), a socio cultural theory of language investigation (Hallidayan, 1994; Halliday & Hasan, 1989). According to this theory, language only exist in context. Context is comprised of cultural and social aspects that influence how certain language is constructed to make semiotic system ( Eggins, 2004).

In this study, Fairclough’s (2010) Critical Discourse Analysis is used as the theoretical background of this study. Specifically, this paper employs the three-dimensional framework for critical study of the selected speeches of President Duterte from June 2016- May 2018 as follow:

- Textual dimension: this consists of observing the linguistic characteristics and organization of the text itself - Discursive dimension: this level ‘involves process of text production, distribution, and consumption, and the nature of these processes varies between different types of discourse according to social factors.’ (p. 78) - Societal dimension: the ‘social practice’ dimension attempts to contend with the broader implications of the discursive event and ‘how that shapes the nature of the discursive practice, and the constitutive/constructive effects o discourse’ (p. 4).

Figure 1 Fairclough’s dimensions of discourse

3. Analytical frameworks of critical study of discourse

3.1 Pronoun and social actor analysis Wales (1996) refer to a personal pronoun as a alter ego of noun. Pronouns can be employed to target or refer something thereby avoiding redundancy. In political speeches, politicians are often

used pronoun as a form of address, either to refer to the speaker or to the participants. In addition, the use of pronouns goes beyond the boundaries of substitution of a noun, pronouns can have used for self-emphasis, self responsibility, inclusiveness, solidarity, persuading audience, among others. Armies (2010) mentioned that the pronouns that politicians use is to refer themselves of their audience can be essential part of the message.

The pronoun “I”, “we”, and “us” are used to pervasively in the speech that others. “I” is used to express personal feeling, personal responsibility, or self reference, or it can be employ as position of politicians as individual. On the other hand, “we” can be used to create shared responsibility and group cohesion, it means that the speaker and the audience belong to same team, have the same mission/ objectives, or even showing a solidarity. Moreover, along the three selected pronouns as a social actors were chosen based on the primary mandates of his administration such as ‘People’ referring to pro-people program, ‘ Military’ pertaining to his ‘ war on drugs scheme’ concerning on the illegal drug problems in the country , and “ Government” referring to his clean and anti-corrupion administration were analyzed by grouping into themes.

3.2 Modality system in framework of Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)

The use of modality is to express interpersonal functions of words into the receiver. So Halliday (1971) mentioned that modality denotes to the middle range between positive and negative. In this view, modality is terms which denotes to the speaker’s attitude or opinion about the truth of a proposition expressed within the sentence. Further, upon examining the outs of modality. Halliday and Matteissen (2014 ) propose the modality types which was termed as modalization and modulation. Thompson’s (2014) presented the two types of modality which was patterned by Hallidayan Systematic Functional Linguistics ( H-SFL).

Figure 2 Types of modality and sub-components (adopted from Thompson, 2014, p. 71)

7.3 Degree of modulation and modalization

The degrees of modalization and modulations were categorized according to speaker’s attitude or opinion about truth of a proposition expressed within the sentence. Halliday and Mattheissen (2014) subdivided into three phrases, such as high, median and low. To investigate the degrees of modalization and modulation based on the views of CDA modality values based on SFL of Halliday and Mattheissen (2004) was adapted.

Table 1 Degrees of modalization (Halliday & Mattheissen, 2004)

Types of Degrees of Modalization Modalization High Median Low Probability Certainly, definitely, Probably, will be, wont Possibly, perhaps, must, cant maybe, hardly, may, can, needn’t Usuality Always , never Usually Sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rarely

Table 2 Degrees of modulations (Halliday & Mattheissen ,2004)

Types of Degrees of Modulations Modalization High Median Low Obligation Must, required to, have Should, shall, supposed Can, could, may, to, out to, cant to, shouldn’t might, allowed to, needn’t Inclination Determine to, need to Keen, will, would, Willing can want to, wont, wouldn’t

8. Research methodology

8.1 Data collection The data of this study is based on the selected speeches of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte. The original manuscripts were downloaded from the official Philippine website, particularly at Presidential Communication Office at www.pcoo.gov.ph. The total number of speeches downloaded were 10 manuscripts from June 2016-May 2018.

8.2 Corpus-assisted methodology

To evaluate the measurement of the corpus, the concordance software AntConc Windows 64-bit (3.5.7) 2014 of Laurence Anthony was used in this present study.

8.3 Inter-coder reliability check

The reliability and consistency of the selection for modality degrees and types based on SFL was re-evaluated by various experts, such as Statisticians, discourse analysists, and linguists at a public university in the Philippines.

8.4 Research Design and data analysis

In carrying out the analysis of the study, Fairclough’s (2010) three-dimensional model for CDA was followed, database was stored and assisted by concordance software of Anthony Laurence which is the AntConc. AntConc was used to determine the selected pronouns and social actors, and assist the manual coding systems anchored on the concept of modality system in the framework of SFL for the initial process of textual identification. Speaking on the state of production, the excerpt appearing in this present study are tale directly from the original

manuscripts of the selected speeches of President Duterte which were downloaded from the Philippine government website at www.pcoo.gov.ph, a website of the Presidential Communication Office (PCO).

Further, on the view of text interpretation, pronoun analyses were used to analyze the pronoun choices. Moreover, the selected social actors and their fully-expanded sentences were critically, comprehensively, and manually selected into three themes such as denoting complementary self- image, soliciting public understanding and supports, and demonstrating active cooperation for the national administration. Thus, the modality degrees and types were analyzed and manually coded through the notion of modality system of Systematic Functional Linguistics (SFL).

Finally, on the explanation of the relationship between discourse and its social context, I then investigated the personal pronouns, social actors and relevant themes, and the modality system through the lenses of CDA-SFL relation in association to the social context of politics particularly on how Filipino thinks about the policies being impose in the government. In order to reveal the discursive construction of the identities of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte, I then adopted Bramley’s (2001) cited by Chaiyasat and Sudajit-apa (2017) model analysis of being a good politicians. Lastly, Sriwimon’s (2015) was also used to summarize the discursive representations of roles allocation, thus revealing how President Rodrigo Roa Duterte representation was discursively constructed in his selected speeches.

9. Data analysis and discussion

9.1 Pronoun and social actor analysis

In the pronoun and social actor analysis, tabulated initially and investigated the use of the pronoun I in the selected speeches of President Rodrigo Duterte. From the output of the corpus tool, it was found out that “I” greatly outnumbered the other four pronouns and social actors. Thus, the “I” appeared 1527 times with a ranking of 5 in the 10 speeches, whilst “We” appeared 393 times, ‘, ‘people’190 times, government’ 140 times and ‘military’ 53 times.

Table 3 The overall frequencies of the wordlist of selected pronouns and social actors in the selected speeches of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte

Pronouns and social Actors Selected Speeches President Rodrigo Roa Duterte’s Selected Political Speeches Frequency Rank I 1527 5 We 393 17 People 190 59 Government 140 62 Military 91 242

9.1.1 Analysis of the pronoun ‘ I’

One of the most predominant pronoun use by Duterte in the selected speeches is the pronoun ‘I’. Though as at some instances, through the linguistic feature of the pronoun ‘I’, the issue of subjectivity is what might make some politicians avoid using ‘I’ (Pennycook 1993:3). Surprisingly the pronoun ‘I’ is the most evident in terms of Duterte’s usage on personal pronouns in his speeches. Nevertheless, the pronoun ‘I’ which is termed for its subjectivity is also a way to show a sense of personal involvement. For the following, the researchers examined how the pronoun ‘ I’ is used on Duterte’s speeches in the following extracts.

I address myself to the people of the Philippines, I admit because we had to do it.

The pronoun ‘I’ was used in the above lines shows the personal commitment of Duterte, being the President. As Bramley (2001:27) states ‘I’ might also be used to show commitment to the audience and personal involvement in issues. The advantage of using ‘I’ is that it shows personal involvement, which is especially useful when positive news is delivered. The disadvantage is that it is obvious whom to put the blame on when something goes wrong. Despite this, Duterte on his political discourse is seen of openness in accountability and responsibility as a consequence of his decision as the President. For many instances, Duterte is seen of telling “I am putting on stake my position if I am wrong” which only shows his firmness in making decisions and utterances.

I also appeal to the Supreme Court to seriously consider the national interest I always ask the audience, the Filipino people, it is our country.

Duterte adheres in the idea of democracy that a decision for the country should not only be based on its president rather he address both government bodies and the Filipino for his ideas. As such, it is a way of Duterte in showing compassion with the audience (Bramley, 2001). The idea of establishing a sense of belongingness is vital in a leader for his/her members. Thus, ‘I’ can also be used to create a ‘relationship’ with the audience, because using “‘I’ the speech seem as if it is on a more personal level.

I also warned government officials and employees that I will never tolerate corruption in my administration I am a stickler for the principle of separation between church and state.

The pronoun ‘I’ is not used as a substitute for the speaker’s name; it is the way for him to refer to himself. In the above lines, it can be concluded that he tried to assert his authority as the president. Though, at some point, it shows him subjectivity of inserting his personal opinions, he sets his authority as the speaker in behalf of the Philippine government. Hence it is explained that in that particular discourse, ‘I’ gives the speaker a personal voice that distances him from others (Bramley 2001: 27).

…….but I am confident that we can succeed because we have the full support of the PNP in our efforts to maintain law I am here because I love my country and I love the people of the Philippines.

The way a politician talks about his assertiveness should not be frequent since it will cause pressure and dictatorship among his members. It is also a good way to show how a leader cares about his people. In these particular discourses, Duterte has managed to balance his position as the president and his accountability of caring the mass. The pronoun I in his speech is to come across as good and responsible, to describe himself in a positive way and highlight personal qualities. Examples of personal qualities that politicians want to express include being someone with principles, moral, power and who is not afraid to take action when necessary (Bramley 2001: 28).

9.1.2 Analysis of the inclusive ‘We’

As politics do not only revolve among the politicians but also involves the whole community and the institution or organization they represent, it is very important for a political discourse to revolve not only in the speaker but most especially of his/her audience. ‘We’ is also used sometimes by politicians to avoid speaking about themselves as individuals, and instead suggest that others are involved, perhaps to lead negative attention away from the speaker in question. By using the pronoun we, the speaker includes others in the utterance, creating a group with a clear identity, making others responsible for potential issues as well (Bramley 2001: 76ff). The following extracts is explained of how Duterte uses the pronoun we in his speeches.

We are still to recover emotionally from the loss of our loved ones, and materially from the loss of our homes and our income sources we are concerned with and the future that we should be prepared for

The abovementioned extracts manifest the inclusion of Duterte on the occurrences and issues that the Filipino society are in. By taking into account the shared accountability and responsibility of him being the Philippine President. Eventually he was able to create an empathy among his listeners as he includes himself as part of that society. The inclusive ‘we’, which can be used to refer to the speaker and the listener/viewer. When Duterte uses ‘we’, instead of them, he reminds the audience that he too is a parent, and the he can relate to the fears of other parents. This creates a togetherness, and a feeling of sharing problems. Using we in this context makes him seem like a good politician, because it is a way to express that he cares about the people in the nation and that he is involved (Karapetjana 2011, p. 3).

With unity and cooperation, we can build truly robust nation where opportunities for growth abound and where citizens enjoy a prosperous and comfortable life I have every confidence that we, together as a force, will embrace the changes that are necessary for [our] continued development

Evidently, Duterte is using again the empathic power of ‘we’ as it was used in the two previous extracts, however from the above extracts, it can be inferred that the use of pronoun ‘we’ does not only limit to empathy rather it is already calling for an action and for unity. We can be used to create unity and cohesiveness by saying “we can build” and “we together as a force”. By saying ‘we’, the President creates unity within the Filipino people. The inclusive ‘we’, that refers

to both the speaker and the listener or listeners and by using the pronoun ‘we’, the speaker includes others in the utterance, creating a group with a clear identity (Karapetjana 2011:3).

Analysis of the exclusive ‘We’

The pronoun ‘we’ does not always mean “everybody” who are listening. At some instances, ‘We’ is used to convey the image of one political party as a team, and therefore a shared responsibility. In the following extracts, it is obvious that the pronoun ‘we’ is used for Duterte, speaking in behalf of his administrative officers who are working under a particular political ideology.

We will increase the number of residential treatment and rehabilitation facilities in all regions of the country. We will create an Inter-Agency Committee on Illegal Drugs that will integrate efforts and strengthen the partnership of all stakeholders.

Anti-drug campaign being the flagship of Duterte during his electoral advocacy up to the present, it is indeed the use ‘we’ as he is referring to his subordinates like PDEA (Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency) and AFP (Armed Forces of the Philippines). The use of ‘we’ here excludes those government agencies who specifically not working on any drug-related campaigns. It is clear, that Duterte is drawing a line between those who are responsible and legit in working under his campaign. Arguably, Duterte as the primary advocate of his schemes, when mentioning about this, he tried to avoid using the pronoun ‘I’. Thus, it could mean that he tried to avoid instead he uses we in order to convey his ideas. The advantage of using the pronoun we in political speeches is that it helps share responsibility (Beard 2000:45).

9.1.3 Analysis of the social actors: People, government, and military

Arriving to the analysis of the social actors, sentences were extracted from the speeches and were critically analyzed to how the different words worked and used under Duterte’s political speeches which refer to the discursive representation of the identities of President Duterte. These three social actors were categorized into three themes of discursive representation of identities, comprising (1) those denoting complimentary self-image. (2) soliciting public understanding and supports, and (3) those demonstrating active cooperation for the national administration.

Denoting complimentary self-image

Each social actor plays a role in elevating the good and positive self-image of Duterte in his political regime. In the absence of any one of it can result to unbalance administration thus losing their support is not a good sign for his project implementations. This is why the researchers focus on how the following discourses were used particularly on how Duterte uses to elevate his positive image to his audiences.

As a matter of fact, I kill criminals because I love them. I kill drug people because they destroy my country. What we want is genuinely to reduce the vulnerabilities of our people, build resiliency and empower individuals, and families and communities. But I assure you wala ito sa script [It wasn’t included in script) I assure you, this will be a clean government. o you have a lean national government but more powerful I will never, never allow any military man or police to go to jail unjustly for performing his duties. In the area of environment, the military is directed to intensify Makinig kayo, sigig tawa diyan [ You listen, those who are laughing there] its support role against illegal logging, illegal mining.

The people centralized the speeches of Duterte as it emerged with highest frequency among the social actors. Moreover, the term people here is used to refer the ordinary Filipino people who are by definition apart from the term government and military. It can be seen how Duterte pays attention to the welfare of his people by strengthening his will of protecting them from criminals. He commits himself of preserving the Filipino family culture at the same time decreasing their weaknesses. Logically, he has made himself here as a family-oriented leader and that being said that it is the basic unit of the society.

Meanwhile, taking the fact that it has been only two years since he assumed his presidency, the term government were used as an assurance of a clean and powerful government. It can be inferred that the government as the representation of his administrative identity should be committed and founded strongly to eventually protect the people. Thus, reassuring the people of this type of government allows them to feel being guarded and strengthened under his leadership.

Lastly, is evident how Duterte has been like the people protective to his military troops. It has been documented that Duterte during the Marawi Crisis, back up his troops as he went in the battle field and uttered “I am here because my soldiers are here and I came here to die also” (SONA 2017). This is a great way of a leader showing his full support not only to those people being protected but also to those military/ soldiers protecting the nation.

Soliciting public understanding and support

In politics, sympathy alone is not enough for the implementation of government plans hence the support and cooperation of the public/ people is indeed vital in its success. It is why at some instances, in his political speeches, though sounding authoritative, Duterte is still asking for support in the three social actors.

These reforms are designed to be pro-poor, especially when the people understand how the revenues will be spent. it was simple as that. I will appreciate deeply if we all in government attend to this urgent need. It is my hope that this recognition will further invigorate our police officers and military personnel to perform their duties with utmost dedication, excellence, loyalty and love of country

Obviously, Duterte aiming for a clean and powerful government through his administrative plans and projects, the support of the three social actors still pays his concern. It not in an authoritative way that he convinces public whether they are his alliance or opposition to give understanding and cooperation to his plans of lasting change in the country. Attending to the people, he explained his pro-poor projects can only be fully realized if they just understand its positive outcomes. Despite of his personality of dictating people, he managed to reach out these people again in sympathetic way that he himself is pro-people. The government, on the other hand, is addressed not like the people of reaching out hence it is more on reminding the people in the government to attend and play their role justly and responsibly. Indeed, it can be noted back how Duterte promised his people of a clean and powerful environment thus in this way of asserting his co-workers in the government could be his idea of achieving this kind of government. Finally, it is understood how Duterte encourages the military and police to perform by possessing a well-rounded public service personality.

Concluding it, the three social actors playing generally as the public is addressed in different ways by Duterte but are all towards the same goal and that is the full-realization and implantation of his administrative projects for the change in the country.

Demonstrating active cooperation for national administration

In the following extracts, President Duterte invokes the government and military to work with principle and passion for the welfare of the public. Distinctively, it is also seen how Duterte shows his support to the soldiers and police risking their lives for the nation. Aside from this, the Filipino people through their support and commitment to the government projects can be globally competitive individuals. Lastly, it seen how the three social actors plays differently but converge in a unanimous goal which is President Duterte’s idea of change.

And the Filipino, disciplined, informed, involved, shall rise from the rubbles of sorrow and pain. So that all the mirrors in the world will reflect the face of a passion that has changed this land. As president, I am reiterating my unwavering support and commitment to the soldiers of our Armed Forces and the members of our police force, those who are on the ground and in the battlefields and those who are risking their lives for our country and our democracy We are workers of government and we are mandated to serve the public. Then you have to be courteous and protect the money of the people

9.1.5 Summary of pronoun and social actor analysis, and relevant themes

Discussed with result and data analysis, the pronoun ‘I’ among the pronouns and social actors has the largest frequency in the selected political speech of Duterte. The findings suggest that, the use of pronoun ‘I’ is used by Duterte to show commitment to the audience and personal involvement in issues of the country, particularly asserting his own opinion thus revealing his sense of authority. Despite these, President Duterte also used the pronoun ‘I’ to share his ideas in behalf of the Filipino people. It can therefore concluded that President Rodrigo Duterte internalize his discourses by asserting his own ideology but still respecting the concept of democracy to which is the involvement of every Filipino citizen.

9. 2 Modality analysis

In this section, the interpersonal meaning of modality systems on the values and degrees of modality types were adopted such as modalization (probability and usuality) and modulation (obligation and inclination) anchored on the analytical framework of Systematic Functional Linguistics (Halliday and Mattheissen 2004, 2014; Thompson 2014). Upon computing the modality types, it was found out that usuality modals was not used thus, the analysis was not pursued for further interpretation. Finally, the three modal types such as probability, obligation and inclination were taken into account for analysis and interpretation in this study.

9.2.1 Probability

Table 4 The frequency of probability expressions used found in the selected Political Speeches of Philippine President Rodrigo Roa Duterte

Degrees I We People Government Military Total Modality Degrees High 11 19.30% 14 17.5% 0 0% 1 100% 0 0% 26 18.70% Median 20 35.09% 50 62.5% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 70 50.36% Low 26 45.61% 16 20% 0 0% 0 0% 1 100% 43 30.36% Total 57 100% 80 100% 0 0% 1 100% 1 100% 139 100% The table reveals that the pronoun ‘we’ occurs most frequently under the probability modals. It occurs 80 times throughout the selected political speeches and more than half (51.25%) collocates with median probability expression ‘will be’ whilst this is followed by the pronoun ‘I’ with 57 occurrences, with surprisingly very least for ‘government’ and ‘military’ with 1 and ‘people’ of 0 occurrence. The modal ‘will’ is used to indicate a future possibility, express capability, to show desire, preference choice or consent, determination or insistence. Mostly, the use of the pronoun we collocated with the modal ‘will ‘is in exclusive form. It is inferred that Duterte is speaking in behalf of his administration regarding their future plan of actions in the government. As discussed in the previous analysis, the use of the pronoun ‘we’ indicates a shared responsibility between the speaker and the institution or organization he is representing with. On the other hand, the modal ‘will’ here is used to show a future possibility and since it is in median, it is probably that the percentage of its possibility is more than or equal to 50% . Logically, the programs presented by the Duterte administration will likely to be happened and implemented as he shows a more than 50 % probability in his discourse.

Figure 5 The figure shows the concordance of the pronoun ‘We’ and ‘Will’ using the AntConc 3.5.2. Windows 2018.

9.2.2 Obligation

Table 5 The frequency of obligation expressions used found in the selected Political Speeches of Philippine President Rodrigo Roa Duterte Degrees I We People Government Military Total Modality Degrees High 24 44.44% 27 42.19% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 51 43.22% Median 1 1.85% 19 29.69% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 20 17% Low 29 53.70% 18 28.13% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 47 39.83% Total 54 100% 64 100% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 118 100%

Unlike the table 4, the difference in the modality used under obligation expression between the pronouns I and We is not relatively far. Herein, ‘We’ occurs more than 10 with 64 times occurrence than the pronoun ‘I’ with 54 times occurrence whilst the ‘people’, ‘government’ and ‘military’ never collocates with the modals under obligation. The pronoun ‘We’ collocates evenly with the modal ‘shall’ on median and ‘can’ on the low. Comparatively, the modal ‘shall’ and ‘can’ differs in degree of meaning when use in the context of Duterte’s discourse. Here, shall is used to indicate to say that something certainly will or must happen, or that you are determined that something will happen (Cambridge Dictionary) while can is used to indicate a capability that you can and will do something (Cambridge Dictionary). Therefore, the use of pronoun ‘we’ and ‘shall’ (we shall) here is perceive to show a stronger conviction and obligation to be

implemented when it comes to the plans of actions presented below than the plans of actions presented with the collocation of ‘we’ and ‘can’ (we can). Furthermore, this is explained by the degree of obligation where ‘shall’ is in median while ‘can’ is in low.

Figure 6 The figure shows the concordance of the pronoun ‘We’ and the obligation modal ‘Shall’ using the AntConc 3.5.2. Windows 2018

Figure 7 The figure shows the concordance of the pronoun ‘We’ and the obligation modal ‘Can’ using the AntConc 3.5.2. Windows 2018

On the other hand, the pronoun “I” is also analyzed here since it is explained in the previous data and analysis of pronoun I to which it shows the representation of Duterte himself. It also explained that through his use of I, shows his shared responsibility and concern to the issues of the country. The occurrence of the collocation ‘I can’ is dominated the low in the obligation expression with 22 out of 29 (75.86 %). Similarly in this context, the use of modal ‘can’ is to indicate a capability that you can and will do something (Cambridge Dictionary). Using the

collocation, I can, it can therefore concluded that the following plan of actions in which Duterte excluding the government will do shows a low degree of obligation. Thus, this implies that he cannot guarantee that these plans of actions will likely to happen or not.

Figure 8 The figure shows the concordance of the pronoun ‘I’ and the obligation modal ‘can’ using the AntConc 3.5.2. Windows 2018

Meanwhile, the collocation of ‘I have to’ also shows more than a half (58.33%) occurrence in the high degree of the obligation expressions. The expression ‘have to’ is used to indicate that something is need to or be forced to and synonymous with the term must showing a high degree of obligation. In the particular plans of actions, it can be seen the strong obligation of Duterte in implementing his primary plans like the drug-campaign and eradication of criminals in the country. It is also evident how he strongly committed in protecting the people of the country. Thus, this only reveals how Duterte is pro-people and is very firm when it comes to the welfare and safety of his people.

Figure 9 The figure shows the concordance of the pronoun ‘I’ and the obligation modal ‘have to’ using the AntConc 3.5.2. Windows 2018

9.2.3 Inclination

Table 1.3 The frequency of inclination expressions used found in the selected Political Speeches of Philippine President Rodrigo Roa Duterte

Degrees I We People Government Military Total Modality Degrees High 0 0% 5 19.23% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 5 2.29% Median 156 85.25% 6 23.08% 1 100% 8 100% 0 0% 171 78.44% Low 27 14.75% 15 57.69% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 42 19.27% Total 183 100% 26 100% 1 100% 8 100% 0 0% 218 100%

Evidently, the pronoun ‘I’ outnumbered the other pronoun and social actors with 183 times occurrence whilst ‘We’ occurs 26 times, ‘government’ with 8 times, ‘people’ once and ‘military ‘is none. Taking the 85.24 % (156 out of 183) is the median with the 67.79 % of this 156 is the collocation of ‘I will’. The modal will is used to express desire, choice, willingness, consent, determination, insistence, persistence or willfulness (Merriam-Webster). Like the probability which shows a future possibility, inclination also does, however the difference is inclination includes the feeling of wanting to do something (Merriam-Webster). Thus, taking a look at the collocation of ‘I’ and ‘will’ in the following sentences, it shows the plan of actions Duterte committed to implement with a desire and willingness. With an equal or more than 50%

inclination, the people could expect the following plans of actions most likely to happen and be implemented.

Figure 10 The figure shows the concordance of the pronoun ‘I’ and the inclination modal ‘will’ using the AntConc 3.5.2. Windows 2018

9.2.4 Summary of modality analysis

In analysis of this paper, it should be noted the significance of modal auxiliary verbs of probability (139 occurrences), obligation (118 occurrences) and inclination (218 occurrences). In contrast, the modal auxiliary verbs of probability (139 occurrences) and usuality (O occurrences) in the category of modalization are rarely utilized.

Thus, the usage of the modal auxiliary verbs such as ‘will’, ‘shall’, ‘can’, and ‘have to’ which are all under the category of probability, obligation and inclination plays a big role in analyzing the plans of actions particularly to each is treated and likely to be implemented whether it is a shared responsibility (through the use of exclusive pronoun ‘we’) or representing Duterte (through the use of pronoun ‘I’) as the head of the nation.

10. Conclusion

Having said, the theoretical underpinnings framework of Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis has been the eye of the study. This study aims to contribute to critical discourse study of political aspect by employing the notion of pronoun and social actor for creating the thematic analyses and the modality based system anchored on Hallidayan Systematic Functional Linguistics. In this process, it analyses the selected speeches of President Duterte as the head of the Republic. As aforementioned, the target point of analysis of this paper is to examine the pronouns, social actors and modality system used to reveal the discursive construction of political identities conveyed in specific context discourse. A brief summary of the discursive representation of the political identities of President Duterte can be noticed in the following table. The original manuscripts of Duterte’s speeches were taken directly form the Philippine Government Website at www.pcoo.gov.ph. The selected pronouns and social actors are specifically pointed out in bold face type and modal auxiliary verbs are also italicized in each excerpt.

Table 7 Discursive representation of the identities of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte viewed from a thorough examination of personal pronouns, social actors, and modality system as demonstrated in the following table along with samples of linguistic features.

Discursive representation of the identities Sample linguistic features President Rodrigo Roa Duterte Showing passion and commitment I will commit an act that will expose me to public condemnation or legal prosecution if you harm the children in whose hands the future of this Republic is entrusted.

The government will intensify its protection program so it can use its resources, expertise to make a dent in the country’s poverty level.

We have to embrace the vision of a prosperous Philippines, we have to start putting value to our people and well-being because the success of every Filipino pursue it to life, liberty and happiness directly mirrors the fulfilment of our aspiration as a Filipino. Being compassionate to people The people of need help and we need to help them rise and move forward.

Asserting Authority You do anarchy, I will order the soldiers and police to shoot you. Even if I have to bury thousands of Filipinos.

Despite a recent gains in improving the peace and order situation in the country there is still so much to be desired and if we are completely eradicate the menace of illegal drugs, criminality and corruption, we must do it. Being emphatic to issues of the country In our bid to accelerate human capital development, we should ensure lifelong opportunities by enhancing quality of and accessed to education and training programs.

The government, equipped with legal authority, and you, with the moral ascendancy over the sectors you represent, you can do so much and hopefully eradicate this social scourge that plagues as no end. Demonstrating conviction for cooperation With unity and cooperation, we can build truly robust nation where opportunities for growth abound and for citizens enjoy a prosperous and comfortable life. Showing pro-people and pro-country This government will give its full support to personality our uniform personnel by enhancing their capabilities, modernizing their equipment promoting their welfare and take care of their families.

Invoking principles and passion in work We must have the courage and will to change ourselves.

It is observed from the summaries, that the discursive representation of the identities of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte as the head of the nation elevated his complimentary image through the selected speeches he delivered. In summary, the use of pronoun ‘I’ is used by Duterte to show commitment to the audience and personal involvement in issues of the country, particularly asserting his own opinion thus revealing his sense of authority. Despite these, President Duterte also used the pronoun ‘I’ to share his ideas in behalf of the Filipino people. It can therefore be concluded that President Rodrigo Duterte internalize his discourses by asserting his own ideology but still respecting the concept of democracy. Meanwhile, it is also evident

how Duterte shows his pro-people program in which in the analysis of the social actors namely, people, government and military, it is shown that people is the center of his plans of action. The government and military, on the other hand, were also tasked to work with principle and passion as he set himself as the ideal leader throughout the full realization of his plans.

Therefore, it can be concluded that through his discursive representation of the identities as critically examined from his selected political speeches, he was able to create a positive self- image to the Filipino people thus receiving a high satisfactory rate. Through these political discourse, the smooth implementation of his set programs is created together with the support of the government, people and military.

References

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An Investigation of Thai Student’s Perception on Interactional Strategies in General English Course at the University Level

Panadda Pratoomrat, Kulaporn Hiranburana

English Language Teaching, Graduate School of Human Sciences Assumption University, Bangkok, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]; E-mail: [email protected]

Interaction is one of the communication skills in language classroom. Students’ perception on the use of the appropriate interactional strategies will provide the opportunity for language communication and learning. This research aimed to investigate (1) the perception of Thai university students on interactional strategies in the English classroom and (2) problems found in their learning English. The participants were twenty-nine non-English major, first-year students studying a general English course. Two research instruments were employed: a questionnaire of sixteen items with a five-point Likert scale and a group interview of six volunteer students. The data were collected at the end of the second semester of the 2016 academic year. The findings revealed that the students quite agreed that interactional strategies i.e. repair, topic management, turn- taking and overlap and interruption were used in their classroom respectively to help them communicate effectively. Some students, however, confided that they could communicate at a moderate level. The problems in the classroom interaction were reviewed as related to the topic management. Moreover, the language fluency and lack of language practice were addressed as a major barrier to classroom interaction. The results from this preliminary study suggested some guidelines for designing interactive activities in the English classroom, in particular, speaking courses which require interactional competence.

Keywords: interactional strategies, perception and problems, general English course

1. Introduction

Nowadays, English spreads rapidly around the globe. A number of education schemes have been set a head on developing ELT in connection to English for globalization (Galloway, 2013). Several issues have been raised regarding the level of proficiency and fluency of Thai

undergraduates, including those who have graduated from universities. Among the problems mentioned are a lack of communication skills and also interactional skills. Many Thai university students fail to engage completely in interaction (Buranapatana, 2006) or lack the confidence to use their skills to interact with other people in a natural talk (Ngowananchai, 2013). This may results in misunderstanding or inability to construct a discourse in order to interact with interlocutors which related to classroom interaction. It is important that students achieve interactional skills so that they are able to work in groups and engage in group discussion (Walsh, 2011). With regards to second language or foreign language learning, few studies investigate students’ perception of interactional strategies and their interaction problems in Thai settings. A large number of previous studies emphasize communication strategies and learning strategies (Nakatani, 2010) and Oxford et al., (2004). Some have investigated communication strategies with different components such as interaction with frequency of use (Chuanchaisit, & Prapphal, 2009 and Wannaruk, 2003). Nevertheless, most of the Thai studies appeared to focus only on one or two strategies, such as turn-taking, or repair but not many on overlap and interruption and topic management. Additionally, as regards four strategies; turn-taking, repair, overlap and interruption and topic management, numerous previous studies looked hardly on oral interaction strategy which has turned to be the problematic issue of research about interactional strategies because the outcomes may not cover all interactional competence and communication situations in natural settings. Students’ response would be crucial with the intention to be able to focus on the investigation of the four strategies that accurately clarify the results in relation to their perceptions of classroom interaction. Such studies, however, so far are hardly available in English learning classroom in the Thai university context.

The objectives of this study, therefore, are as follows: to investigate the perception of Thai students regarding the interactional strategies and problems found in student-student interaction in General English courses at the university level. The focus of this paper is to report the results of the pilot study conducted as a preliminary to the main study.

2. Theoretical framework

In this section, there are three main focuses which the researcher intends to explore and review Classroom Interaction; Interactional strategy; Classroom Interactional Competence. Moreover, the related studies are also included in each focus as well.

It is important that classroom participants should try to communicate by using different strategies such as turn-taking, repair, overlap and interruption, and topic management. To clarify, turn- taking is the process by teacher-student deciding in their conversation who will speak next. Repair means a way of dealing with problems in speaking, understanding, and hearing in terms of meaning or message. Overlap and Interruption as good ‘listenership’: the interactant signals to a speaker that (he/she) has been understood.

Topic management means the coherence of a piece of spoken interaction.

Classroom interaction

Classroom Interaction (CI) is particularly important in the aspect of the teaching and learning process because it gives students the opportunity to develop oral fluency in English (Suryati, Chen, & Archer; 2013) and also in social and academically (Beyazkurk & Kesner, 2005 cited in Cheruiyot, 2015). CI normally occurs in a second or foreign language class classroom interaction involves teachers’ instruction, students’ whole class, pair or group work, and teacher-student communication in assignment.

In this study, the term “classroom interaction” includes everything that happens in the classroom that involves communication and is defined broadly refer to “… not only to those exchanges involving authentic communication but to every oral exchange that occurs in the classroom, including those that arise in the course of formal drilling” (Ellis, 1990, p.12).

Classroom interactional competence

Walsh (2011) defines CLC as ‘Teachers’ and learners’ ability to use interaction as a tool for mediating and assisting learning’ (p: 158). In this study CIC is defined as ‘Teachers’ and learners’ ability to use interaction as a tool for mediating and assisting learning’ and ‘learners’

and learners’ ability to use interaction as a tool for conversation and language learning (Pratoomrat, 2016).

Walsh (2012) studied a group of adult international students English language course at a UK university, focusing on a fluency-focused speaking activity. Based on Walsh’s conceptual framework of CIC, four components are crucial interactional resources in student-student: turn- taking, repair, overlap and interruption, and topic management. The result of Walsh’s study shows the interactional resources employed and their impact on the overall flow and coherence of the discussion.

From the perceptions of classroom interaction and classroom English language learning, this study was designed to answer the following research questions:

1. What is the students’ perception on interactional strategies in the classroom? 2. What problems do the students have in oral interaction in English that takes place in the classroom?

In terms of conceptual framework, this study was grounded CIC framework of Walsh (2011) and other works on conversationalists (Stenstrom (1994:68), Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, (1974), Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks (1977), Schegloff & Sacks (1973). These findings can provide information for teachers willing to develop relevance teaching activities, in a culturally responsive manner.

3. Methodology

3.1 Participants

The participants included Thai undergraduate students at the university in Thailand. A purposive sampling method was employed to select the participants who met the requirement of students’ competence of TOEIC score during 405 – 600 placed at the CEFR “ B1” level in English. This group of students enrolled in General English course with a 3-credit compulsory in the second semester of the academic year 2016.

3.2 Research Instruments

A questionnaire was used as an instrument were developed based on the review of related studies, and evaluated by three experts in the fields of language and communication. The purpose of this pilot study was to investigate the perception of Thai students regarding the interactional strategies on four components: turn-taking, repair, overlap and interruption, and topic management. Thirty sets of a questionnaire consisting sixteen items with a five-point Likert scale concerning students’ perception on interactional strategies in the classroom were distributed to the students but twenty-nine returned. This was because one of the students dropped off the course. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient reliability value of questionnaire was .561. Therefore, the researcher deleted unclear items and unrelated items before resending them. The reliability value of the questions was .791, indicating that the questions were reliable and appropriate for the study.

The group interview was set up by six volunteer students who had time and they were willing to answer the questions. The interview questions were used to gather information regarding the learning practices in General English Courses. The thirteen interview questions elicit students’ oral interactional problems in their classrooms in four area of turn-taking, repair, overlap and interruption, and topic management. The researcher revised unclear items and modified some questions to avoid misunderstanding.

3.3 Data collection procedure

The questionnaires were collected at the end of the semester. The group interviews were conducted in Thai (six students) at the end of the second group discussion activities. All of the interviews were conducted after class session. It the reflection of they just have done in class.

3.4 Data analysis

The questionnaire data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics include the number of participants (N), mean (M), and percentages. The interview transcription was carefully

transcribed and the contended was analyzed to find the problems of classroom interaction in English.

4. Findings

Students’ perception on classroom interaction strategies in Table 1 reveals the fact that most of the interactional strategies were used in oral interactional in the classroom setting.

Table 1 Students’ perception on classroom interactional strategies N=29 Amount (%) SD Level  Strongly Agree Quite Quite Disagree . NO. Interactional Strategies agree agree disagree (5) (4) (3) (2) (1) 1. Classroom interaction is 7 16 4 2 - 3.97 .823 agree useful in L2 teaching and (24.14%) (55.17%) (13.79%) (6.90%) learning. 2. L2 teachers should not allow 3 11 12 3 - 3.48 .829 agree students to use first language (10.34%) (37.93%) (41.38%) (10.34%) (L1) in the classroom to maximize interactional in L2. 3. Classroom interaction 8 10 11 - - 3.89 .817 agree depends on teaching (27.59%) (34.48%) (37.93%) materials and techniques. 4. Group/pair work activities 7 17 3 1 1 3.97 .906 agree facilitate interaction in L2. (24.14%) (58.62%) (10.34%) (3.45%) (3.45%) 5. Developing spoken English 3 17 8 - 1 3.72 .797 agree depends greatly in classroom (10.34%) (58.62%) (27.59%) (3.45%) interaction in L2. 6. Turn-taking 5 12 6 6 - 3.55 1.021 agree I use fillers; such as well, you (17.24%) (41.38%) (20.69%) (20.69%) know, okay um, or, uh when I do not know what to say. 7. If I face some language - 5 13 8 3 2.69 .891 quite difficulties, I will leave a (17.24%) (44.83%) (27.59%) (10.34%) agree message unfinished. 8. I stop while speaking in order to 3 7 13 5 1 3.21 .978 quite think of words that I will use in (10.34%) (24.14%) (44.83%) (17.24%) (3.45%) agree the conversation. 9. Repair 13 14 2 - - 4.38 .622 Strongly When the message is not clear, I (44.83%) (48.29%) (6.90%) agree ask the other person to clarify directly. 10. I correct myself when I notice 11 11 7 - - 4.14 .789 agree that I have made a mistake. (37.93%) (37.93%) (24.14%)

11. I correct other person them 4 5 16 3 1 3.28 .960 quite when they say something (13.79%) (17.24%) (55.17%) (10.34%) (3.45%) agree wrong, right away. 12. When other person says 4 9 14 2 - 3.52 .829 agree something wrong during the (13.79%) (31.03%) (48.28%) (6.90%) discussion, I point out their mistake after the conversation. 13. Overlap and interruption 1 4 9 7 8 2.41 1.150 quite I speak while the other person (3.45%) (13.79%) (31.03%) (24.14%) (27.59%) agree hasn’t finished speaking yet. 14. I make sound while another 2 10 10 4 3 3.14 1.093 quite person is speaking to show that (6.90%) (34.48%) (34.48%) (13.79%) (10.34%) agree I am listening. 15. Topic management I encourage myself to use 8 13 6 2 - 3.93 .884 agree English even though I make (27.59%) (44.83%) (20.69%) (6.90%) mistake.

16. I think in Thai when I want to 5 8 14 1 1 3.52 .949 agree construct the English sentence. (17.24%) (27.59%) (48.28%) (3.45%) (3.45%) 3.55 .445 agree Overall of Interactional Strategy

The students in this study, who completed the questionnaire, agreed that overall of classroom interaction strategy has been instrumental for teaching and learning (  = 3.55). As regards interactional strategies use in the classroom, based on average scores of students respond to classroom interaction is useful in L2 teaching and learning and group/pair work activities facilitate interaction in L2 ( = 3.97). In terms of repair, the results show that students have strongly agreed ( = 4.38). Regarding topic management, the findings reveal that the students’ agreed ( = 3.93). In relation to turn-taking, the students’ perception ( = 3.55). With regards to overlap and interruption, the findings show the students perception at = 3.14.

The findings reveal that the students’ perception in using interactional strategies 55.17% of the students agreed that classroom interaction is useful in L2 teaching and learning. 41.38% of the students quite agreed that L2 teachers should not allow students to use first language (L1) in the classroom to maximize interactional in L2. 37.93% of the students perceives that classroom interaction depends on teaching materials and techniques. 58.62% of the students that agreed

group/pair work activities facilitate interaction in L2 and developing spoken English depends greatly in classroom interaction in L2. In terms of repair, the students agreed that they opt for repair when the message is not clear at 48.29%. The students agreed to ask the other person to clarify directly at 55.17%. Students correct themselves when they notice that they have made a mistake 37.93% and 48.28% of the students agreed to point out their mistake after the conversation and when other person says something wrong during the discussion. Regarding topic management, 44.83% of the students agreed that encourage themselves to use English even though they make mistake. Student thinks in Thai when they want to construct the English sentence is at 48.28%. In relation to turn-taking, 41.38% of respondents agreed that use fillers; such as well, you know, okay um, or, uh when they do not know what to say. 44.83% of students quite agreed that face some language difficulties, they will leave a message unfinished and stop while speaking in order to think of words that they will use in the conversation. With regards to overlap and interruption, 31.03% of students agreed that speak while the other person hasn’t finished speaking yet. 34.48% of the students agreed that make sound while another person is speaking to show that they are listening.

According to the data from the semi-structured interviews, the six students identified various problems. Students were asked:

Do you like student-student interaction? Why?

Most of students quite agreed that group or pair work activities facilitate interaction in L2.

“We can discuss everything with comfortable than teacher –student interaction. Get more ideas from friends, improve speaking skill.” (S1)

Few of students strongly disagreed for student-student interaction in the form of group or pair work because they say it does not encourage equal participation.

“Actually not, the group is too big for me. And my group is come from 2 majors, one from the Khmer major, I really pity about him (laugh) because I think he’s lonely. I believe that when we can be ourselves in comfortable environment.” (S3)

Do you understand, what is turn-taking in the classroom? How?

Some students understand the turn-taking while they are in the discussion.

“I think, turn-taking is an action when someone is speaking and other speak continue them, turn- taking is the skill of knowing how to start and finish the conversation.” (S1) “Good. Because you will get more opinion & ideas from yours friends.” (S4)

Most of students do not understand the turn-taking they do not know how to take turn, hold turn or pass turn while they are in a group discussion.

“Not quite sure, maybe about turn of the speaker that switch person to talk.”(S2) “Not much. Sometimes I just don’t want to talk a thing.” (S3)

Do you say anything after your friends say something wrong during interaction? Why?

A great number of students would say something after their friends say unclean because they would like to explain and solve the problem.

“Let them speak first and then tell my opinion and solve this problem together.” (S1) “If they are my close friends I will correct the word right there.” (S3) “If the word is very super serious mistake, I’ll tell my friend after he or she finish, and explant why it wrong. But if there’re a little mistake, I’ll say the correct word right away.” (S2) “Tell them.” (S4)

Is it possible to make all the friends participate in the speaking activities? Why?

What would you do to make friend to talk or discuss in the group?

Half of students think that it possible to make them talk.

“In technique, yes. In real life, I not think so because some friends are just don’t like to speak English. Try to talk.” (S2)

“I think it’s hard, but we have to get them participate in group. We may call their name.” (S4) Another of student thinks it difficult to make friend talk during the discussion

“I will say my opinion first, then asking my friend “you think so? Or what do you think?” (S1) “Yes Because they are my friends.” (S3) In the classroom, if you do not interact in the classroom, it is because: (e.g. you are not talkative, the topic is not interesting or you fear to make mistake) Please, explain.

Most of students had difficulty in managing the topic.

“Sometimes I don’t know meaning of the topic or I’m shy and fear to make a mistake.” (S1) “The topic is not interesting, don't get enough sleep from last night.” (S3) “Sometimes just sleepy. Boring topic, unclose friend.” (S5) The problems in the interactional in the classroom were the topic management, students don’t have enough background knowledge and the topic is not interesting. Moreover, the fluency in language use and the necessity of language proficiency for their oral interactional in the classroom need to be practice.

5. Discussion and application

Since the findings revealed resources of CIC which are used by the Thai university students, this may indicate that these resources can help students succeed at a higher language ability level. In practice, the teacher can apply the strategies used in CIC to elicit students’ responses relating to their use of oral interaction. It might be more effective if teachers realize which resource of CIC students tend to use before planning lessons, selecting materials, and designing methods of teaching.

From the interviews with students a number of issues can be put forward. First, using group discussion would facilitate interactional strategies in GE classroom and assist students for the

interactional competence. Second, many GE students lack knowledge of the topic discussion and skills in applying topic management interaction strategies. They have received little training in student-student interaction especially how to take turns. Third, students have difficulty in making friends talking during group discussion. There were few tasks provided for student- student interaction. Fourth, students can apply the interactional skill to communicate with foreigners. Fluency in English is very significant in learning language. These findings of the pilot study will be explored and examined in more detail in the main study.

This paper mainly provides information about how students use strategies in oral interaction. The results have numerous implications for language learning as educators can be aware of and learn how students use CICs. Moreover, the study provides further insights into the roles of the various resources of CIC in improving the language ability of Thai university students.

References

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Cheruiyot, DK. (2015). Classroom Verbal Interaction Patterns in Relation to Student Performance in Physics in Baringo Central Sub-county, Kenya. (Master Thesis). Kenyatta University. Retrieved July, 21, 2018, from http://ir- library.ku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/14245/Classroom%20verbal%20 interaction%20patterns%20in%20relation.pdf;sequence=1

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Galloway, N. (2013). Global Englishes and English Language Teaching (ELT) e Bridging the gap between theory and practice in a Japanese context. ScienceDirectSystem, 41 (2013) 786- 803. Retrieved on November 3, 2105 from http://fulltext.study/preview/pdf/373242.pdf

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Introspection into the Formulation Processes of the Writing of Cover Letter Writing: An Application to English Language Teaching at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

Parichart Kluensuwan

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The study examined processes involved in the writing of the English cover letter, with respect to the formulation of students with an elementary level of English Language proficiency. The participants were the four pairs of the students who enrolled in the course English for Job Applications.

Think-aloud protocol through introspection while the students were writing the English cover letter, and students written work were the two main instruments used in the study. The quantitative analysis of the data revealed that during the formulation the students were cognitively involved in seven types of global processes, namely, brainstorm, generation, expansion, English language concern, translation, meta-cognition, and Interaction with research.

There were other four local processes that the students used as a tool in order to achieve the purpose of each of the global processes, namely, code-switch, modification, repetition, and reread.

Implications include the development of students’ ability regarding the use of key words and lexical phrases instead of constructing new sentences, use of L1 in classroom as well as the adjustment of activities and materials to improve the students’ retrieval of chunks of expressions commonly used in English cover letters.

Background

Little is known about the processes involved and the problems the students are face with while writing a cover letter, especially when they are trying to convert ideas into proper language. The information obtained can be used for the development of the learning material and the teaching and learning of the course English for Job Applications.

Literature reviews

Nipawan Puthasonkran (2013) examined the deficiency in the English resume writing of the students of Sipatum University. The aim is to explore the difficulties that the students are faced with while writing and their solutions. 222 participants were tested for their English writing ability. It was found that the writing difficulties were related to grammatical structures, expressions, communication of ideas, incomplete sentences, subject-verb agreement, word order, and cohesion.

Swain and Lapkin (2000) examined the use of L1 and L2 in the process of writing or speaking,

Dictogloss and Jigsaw. There were 68 of Grade 8 students taking part in the project. Half of the students perform the jigsaw, and the other half, Dictogloss. It was found that the students’ use of

L1 was for different purposes, i.e. to understand the story from the listening text (dictogloss), to find relevant vocabulary, and grammatical structures (Jigsaw). It was concluded that the students used L1 for both the language lack and to assist other cognitive thinking processes. Swain and

Lapkin (2000) concluded that without the use of L1, the students might not be able to finish the assigned tasks.

From the researchers’ experience as an ELT teacher, RMUTT students apparently use translation of either L1 to L2, or L2 to L1, for their English language learning. Their written work, however, quite often, cannot effectively communicate the ideas that the writers would like to express. The use of introspection study into the students’ formulation can reveal the difficulties the students are faced with, and hence, appropriate teaching and learning activities can be built up upon.

Methodology

In this section, participants and the coding scheme were explained into more detail.

1. Participants

They are the last year students of the faculty of Business Administration, taken the course English for Job Applications’. Only 8 students were taken for this in-depth qualitative and quantitative study.

2. Coding Scheme This coding scheme identifies five types of within-task processes and two types of extra-task processes as shown in the table below. Explanation of the categories in this scheme is described underneath.

Within-task processes Extra-task processes Brain storming (B) Meta-cognition (M) Generation (G) Interaction with the researcher Expansion (E) (IR) Explicit language concern (EL) Translation (T)

 Brainstorming (B): 'Brainstorming' is a segment that contains at least two ideas for inclusion in the written text, which are unsequenced and disorganised.  Generation (G): 'Generation' is defined as a segment containing an idea for a new sentence. The idea must be new and not have been previously mentioned, with the purpose of being converted into a proper English sentence or parts thereof

 Expansion (E): 'Expansion' is defined as a segment which contains new ideas or ideas which have never been mentioned before though, unlike 'generation', is added to repetitions or partial repetitions of the idea in a prior segment. Similar to 'generation', these new ideas are mentioned in order to be written down.  Translation (T): 'Translation' is used to refer to a segment in which students take an idea or parts thereof, which was produced in Thai and intentionally replace it with the English equivalent. In this study, 'translation' is defined as being at the macro level, i.e. translation from Thai to English. It does not include reverse translation, which is defined as being carried out at the micro level. 'Translation' must be beyond the length of just one word.

 Explicit language concern (EL): 'Explicit language concern' is a segment in which students reflect aloud on language use either for the grammatical structures or vocabulary selections. Explicit language concern can affect the content in the sense that it can cause the speaker to abandon an idea and to use another idea, often due to their lack of language to express the intended idea.  Meta-cognition (M): 'Meta-cognition' refers to a segment where students direct, or take control over, the writing process through planning and evaluation as well as showing concern for ideas, organisation and other aspects of the writing. 'Meta-cognition' is indicated by meta language use such as 'I will start by'.  Interacting with the researcher (IR): 'Interaction with the researcher' is a segment where students interact with the researcher. The interaction can be initiated either by the researcher or by students.

Findings The current study aims to explore the processes involved in the formulation of the writing of a cover letter of elementary EFL learners, namely, B, M, G, E, EL, and T. The other four instrumental processes are rp, rr, mo, and cs. This section reports how the students employed these processes while writing a cover letter through. Figure 1 below shows the total number of each global process employed by all the four pairs.

Types and number of processes involved in formulation of the writing of a cover letter

25 21 21 20 17 17 15 11 10 8 5 5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B M G E EL T IR

Figure 1 Global processes employed by the four pairs in percentage

As we can see from Figure 1, one of the main activities that the students were involved with was idea creation i.e. G and E, which accounted for about 34% of all the processes they employed. The graph also shows that the idea in each sentence was generated bit by bit as E (21%) is used at a much higher level than G (11%). It should also be pointed out that the ideas were mainly generated and expanded in Thai.

Apart from idea production, the students were also involved with trying to convert these ideas or parts of them into English language through the processes of EL (21%) and T (17%). These two processes altogether accounted for 38%, which is more than the idea production (34%).

Interestingly, M was used by 17%, at the same level of T. This may be related to the fact that this group of students were at the elementary level of English language proficiency. This will bring to the discussion afterwards.

Figure 2 next, displayed all the global processes each pair of students were involved with during their writing.

1. Suwatchanee and Supatra 2. Tippawan and Rungruedee 30 25 30 26 23 23

20 16 17 16 20 13 13 9 10 10 8 3 2 0 0 0 B M G E EL T B M G E EL T IR 3. Karntip and Nidarut IR4. Chompunuch and 30 27 30 Raewadee27 26 25 25 23 20 20 20 15 15 15 12 9 9 10 8 10 5 3 3 0 0 B M G E EL T IR

Figure 2 Global processes employed by individual pairs in percentage

From examining how an individual pair employed the EL and T, it was found that all the four pairs were mainly involved with EL more than T. There was not much difference in the employment of EL and T for all the three pairs (1%-6%) except for the pairs of Tipawan's where the difference was at 10%.

The pairs of Suwachanee's and Karntip's performed another similar event. Their use of M was ranked as the first and the second (25% and 26% respectively). On the contrary, the pairs of

Tipawan's and Chompunuch's employed M to a less level (13 % and 9% respectively).

It should be pointed out that the employment of EL, T, and M must be related to the students’ level of English proficiency as well as how they tried to cope with the cognitively demanding written work they were performing.

Surprisingly, Chompunuch’s pair appeared to be involved with IR extensively (27%) while the other three pairs, Suwatchanee’s, Tipawan’s, and Karntip’s used the IR at a much lower level

(0%-3% respectively). This might be due to the students’ own preference or the effect of the TA, the main instrument used in this study.

B was used at a rather low level (3%) for both Suwatchanee’s and Chompunuch’s pairs while for

Karntip’s and Tippawan’s, B was used at a higher level (8% to 9%).

Students’ English language proficiency, personal preferences, as well as the effects of the use of

Think-aloud while the students were writing a cover letter may contribute to how students formulated the ideas in their cover letter.

2. Attempts to recall vocabulary and longer chunks of language

The data from the students’ thinking – aloud transcripts revealed that during the formulation, the students were intensively engaged with language aspects, especially recalls of vocabulary and parts of the sentences or expressions. This can lead to the modification, abandon, and generation of ideas or parts of them. Some of the ideas were written down in Thai. These incidences are illustrated underneath.

Extract 1

สุพัตรา: //(4.1 Gt) แลว้ กไ็ อเ้ นี๊ยะความสามารถอนั น้ีไงใชก้ บั ตา แหน่งนี่ได/(้ 4.2 ELt [rp]) จะเขียนอยา่ งไรละ่ เวน้ ไวเ้ขียน ภาษาไทยเขียนภาษาไทยไวก้ ่อน/ (หัวเราะ)

สุวัจนี: /(4.4 Et) ฉนั สามารถเอาความสามารถที่ฉนั มีใชก้ บั ตา แหน่งที่จะสมคั รได ้ สุพัตรา: (หัวเราะ) /(4.5 Tt) นน่ั แหละ่ แต่แปลไมถ่ ูก/ สุวัจนี: /(4.6 Gt) ควรจะพิจารณาฉนั เป็นอยา่ งดี สุพัตรา: /(4.7 ELt) ความสามารถ สุวัจนี: /(4.8 Gt[rp]) ใช่ฉนั อาจจะทา อะไรนะเขาเรียกวา่ อะไรนะทา ประโยชน์ใหก้ บั บริษทั คุณได/้ /(4.9 ELt) มันเขียนตรงท้ายยังไงเนี๊ยะ/ สุพัตรา: /(4.10 T[t-e) นี่ไงนี่กจ็ บแลว้ แต่แปลไมไ่ ด//้ (Suwatchanee/ Supatra: E. 4)

In Extract 4.1 the pair of Suwanchanees and Supatras generated three ideas (1) I can make use of my knowledge to the position, (2) Please consider me for the position, and (3) I can be beneficial to your company. For the first idea, they unsuccessfully attempted to find an English word for

‘ability. They skipped to the second idea and tried to find an English word for‘beneficial’.

Similarly, they quickly canceled the idea and said they did not know how to convert the idea into proper language. Overall the pair attempted to construct their individual sentences to express the ideas that they lacked the vocabulary. It turned out that none of the ideas were eventually written down in English sentences. The same incident also occurred with another pair of students, Tipawan and Ruengruedee, as shown in the extract shown underneath.i’.

Extract 2 ทิพวัลย์: // (9.1 Gt) เหมือนกบั วา่ แลว้ หวงั วา่ จะไดร้ ่วมงานกบั คุณ/ รุ่งฤดี: /(9.2 ELt[cs-rp) หวัง ทิพวัลย์: and หวงั วา่ ไงอือ รุ่งฤดี: and เหรอ ทิพวัลย์: อือหวงั วา่ รุ่งฤดี: ภาษาอังกฤษ ทิพวัลย์: หวังภาษาอังกฤษหวัง รุ่งฤดี: หวงั วา่ จะไดร้ ่วมงาน . . . กบั คุณ/ (9.3 Mt[rp]) จะจบแล้วจะจบแล้ว ทิพวัลย์: (laugh) รุ่งฤดี: หยุดรอแล้ว// (E 9: Tipawan and Ruengruedee)

From the extract mentioned above, the pair of Tipawan and Ruengruedee tried to convert the idea looking forward to or hope for joining the work’. However, the students got stuck due to their lack of key vocabulary i.e. ‘looking forward to’, or ‘hope for’. The fact that the pair could not

retrieve or constructed the sentence, words or expressions or parts of them, no sentence was eventually written down in this episode.

Extract 3

กานต์ทิพย์: // (1.1 ELt [rp-mo])-เมื่อก้ีเราบอกวา่ อะไรบอกวา่ คาดวา่ จะจบในปีน้ี/ นิดารัตน์: (1.2 T(t-e) [rp-mo])เมื่อก้ีบอกวา่ คาดวา่ จะจบในเดือนน้ีปีน้ีน่ะ . . . กานต์ทิพย์: คิดไม่ออก/ นิดารัตน์: (หัวเราะ)/ กานต์ทิพย์: โอย้ แต่นึกเป็นภาษาไทยนะจะเอายงั ไง/ นิดารัตน์: (หัวเราะ) กานต์ทิพย์: จบในจบในแล้วเราจะพูดถึงจบในปี นิดารัตน์: หัวเราะ กานต์ทิพย์: (1.3 Et) ธญั บุรีไดเ้ กียรตินิยมไหม?/ นิดารัตน์: (1.4 ELt)ไม่เอาของหนูไดไ้ หม กานต์ทิพย์: ตอนแรกวา่ จะเอาหนงั สือมาแลว้ // (E1: Karntip/ Nidarut) Similarly, Extract 3 from the pair of Karntip and Nidarut who demonstrated that the students did not know the sentence to express the idea will graduate next year. Then they started generating new idea of honor. Eventually these two ideas were not written down.

The conclusion drawn here is that attempts were mainly paid to recalling key words, followed by constructing sentences from the retrieved words. This may be related to the students’level of language proficiency that could have prevented the pair from succeeding in recalling long chunks of expressions. Technique to assist the students for memorizing long chunks should, therefore, be useful.

3. Laborious formulation

The formulation process of this particular group of students can be considered as laborious and highly cognitively demanding. This can be explained through:

3.1 Total number of segments in comparison with the total written sentences

3.2 Occurrences of long episodes

3.1 Total number of segments in comparison with the total written sentences

There were quite a number of global processes operated in comparison with the total amount of sentences written down at the end of an episode. This can be used to exemplify that the formulation process of the students in this study was rather laborious. This is illustrated in the following diagram.

400 354 300

200 121 Total segments 94 64 75 100 Total sentences 7 5 6 9 27 0

Suwatchanee Tippawan Karntip Chompunuch Total

Figure 3 Total number of segments in comparison with the total written sentences

Figure 3 above shows the total number of all segments occurring in comparison with the total number of sentences written down by each pair of students. In average the students were involving with 13 cognitive processes or segments in order to produce only one sentence, some of which, were not completed sentences. Many of which are grammatically wrong and the students were aware of this during the formulation. In addition, when considering the fact that there were other local processes employed together with these cognitively demanding processes, the students’ formulation, hence, could be regarded as very laborious.

3.2 Occurrences of long episodes

It happened that all the four pairs tended to produce rathrlong episodes in order to formulate the generated ideas. The following extracts described these features:

Extract 4 สุพัตรา: (6.1 Gt[rp-cs]) ฉนั ขอบคุณที่ไดอ้ า่ นอ่ะThank you/ (6.2 Et) แบบว่าขอบคุณที่เสียเวลาอา่ นจดหมายเราอะ่ / สุวัจจนี: เรียนมาใช่เลย สุพัตรา: ใช่เลยอนั เนี่ยใช่จา ได/(้ 6.3 EL [rr-cs])แต่เขียนยงั ไงละ่ สุวัจจนี: Thank you ขอบคุณ/ สุพัตรา: 6.4 Et)ขอบคุณหัวหน้าที่สละเวลาไง/ สุวัจจนี (6.5 ELt[rp-mo-cs] Time เวลาสละเวลาภาษาอังกฤษเขียนยังไง สุพัตรา: ที่สละเวลามาอา่ น สุวัจจนี: สละเวลาเขียนยังไง สุพัตรา: เสียเวลาอา่ น สุวัจจนี: Time Time/ สุพัตรา: (6.6 Gt] และฉนั หวงั วา่ จะไดร้ ับการตอบกลบั /(6.7 ELt[rr-cs])) อา่ นไดแ้ ปลไดแ้ ต่เขียนไม่ถกู เรียบเรียงไม่ถกู สุวัจจนี: เรียนจบครอสรู้วา่ คืออะไรแต่เขียนไม่ถกู สุพัตรา: ไม่ถนดั เขียนเป็นประโยคจะจบแลว้ แต่เขียนเป็นภาษาองั กฤษไม่ได/(้ 6.7 ELขอบคุณที่Thank You สุวัจจนี: Thank You สุพัตรา: 6.7 Et[rp-cs) Thank You ไงแลว้ กลงชื่อเราไง็ sincerely ฉันสามารถนาความรู้ / สุวัจจนี: Thank you time/

(E6: Suwachanee/ Supatra) In Episode 6, the pair of Suwachanee and Supatra employed seven functional processes and eleven local processes but only the expression Thank you was written down. Yet, two ideas were generated but eventually abandoned, though. These ideas were Thank you for spending the time reading my application letter, and I look forward to hearing from you soon’

In the following extract the pair of Tippawan and Ruengruedee produced the sentence: I graduate with Bechaler (Bachelors) Degree from RMUTT of B.A. in Business Computer.

Extract 5 ทิพวัลย์: (3.1 Mt) เราเก่งงานตอ่ ไปเรากต็ อ้ งพูดถึงการศึกษาแลว้ ละ่ / รุ่งฤดี: (3.2 Gt[cs]) ฉันจบมาจาก / ทิพวัลย์: (3.3 T(t-e) I graduate / รุ่งฤดี: (3.4 EL [rp-cs])graduate graduate G-R ทิพวัลย์: ท่องไวแ้ ลว้ รุ่งฤดี: G-R-S-U ทิพวัลย์: G-R-S-U D-U รุ่งฤดี: DU Graduage ทิพวัลย์: A-D รึเปลา่ / รุ่งฤดี: (3.5 Mt)ไวค้ อ่ ยวา่ กนั / (3.6 EL[rp-cs]) Graduae with / ทิพวัลย์: with

รุ่งฤดี: with ทิพวัลย์: a ของเราอะ่ Bechaler Degre B-A-C-H-L-E-R / รุ่งฤดี: (3.7 EL[cs]) E-R เหรอ ทิพวัลย์: Degree รุ่งฤดี: ใช่เหรอ ทิพวัลย์: ไมร่ ู้จา ไมไ่ ดล้ ืมอะ่ รุ่งฤดี: นี่มันมันD แลว้ ก็G . . .Degre ทิพวัลย์: เขียนไว้ รุ่งฤดี: R-E / ทิพวัลย์: (3.8 Ee[rr]) Graduage I graduage with a Bacheler degree from from / รุ่งฤดี: (3.9 Et) From ทิพวัลย์: ราชมงคล/ รุ่งฤดี: (3.10 ELt) R-A- RMUTT ทิพวัลย์: (laugh) รุ่งฤดี: of Technology and/ (3.11(Mt[rp]) ครบแล้วครบแล้ว/ ทิพวัลย์: (langh) รุ่งฤดี: (3.12 M[cs-rp]) สาขาBA เอ๊ยเอา ทิพวัลย์: major ใช่รึเปลา่ รุ่งฤดี: ใช่ไหมใช่ ทิพวัลย์: Major มนั เป็นอนั น้ีรึเปลา่ นา้ ตา แหน่งงาน รุ่งฤดี: Business computer คืออะไรนะ/ ทิพวัลย์: (3.13 Bt) เราตอ้ งบอกสาขาก่อนบอกมหาวทิ ยาลยั ก่อน/ (3.14 M [cs-rp-mo]) อนั น้ีเราทา แบบไหน รุ่งฤดี: ไมไ่ มต่ ามที่อาจารยส์ อนอุย๊ บอกมหาวทิ ยาลยั ก่อน ทิพวัลย์: คณะ รุ่งฤดี: คณะแล้วบอกคณะบอกสาขาRMUTT of เหรอลองเดี๋ยวถา้ ไมถ่ ูกอาจารย ์ กบ็ อกเองแหลง่ / ทิพวัลย์: (3.16 E[cs]) Business อะไรนะ รุ่งฤดี: B-A ทิพวัลย์: (3.17 EL[cs-rp]) B-A อะ่ อืม รุ่งฤดี: Business ทิพวัลย์: in รึเปลา่ คา วา่ in รุ่งฤดี: in Business computer ถูกป๊ะ/ ทิพวัลย์: B รุ่งฤดี: B B เอ้อB-U ทิพวัลย์: Business of business จา ตวั ยอ่ รุ่งฤดี: หนูกจ็ า แตต่ วั ยอ่ ทิพวัลย์: Business Computer รุ่งฤดี: Business N-Double –D รึเปลา่ // (E3: Tippawan/ Ruengruedee)

From the Extract 5 above, taken from Episode 3 of Tippawan and Ruengruedee. This is considered a very long episode as there were altogether seventeen segments or cognitive processes, and sixteen sub-processes employed in order to formulate the idea, I graduate with

Bechaler (Bachelor) Degree from RMUTT of B.A.in Business Computer’. The script of the TA reveals that the students are faced with problems related to idea arrangement, grammatical structures, the lack of relevant vocabulary, and its spelling.

Similarly this also happens in the TA of the other two pairs of students, (Karntip and Nidarut, as well as in of Chompunutch and Raewadee).

The fact that there are quite a number of global processes involved as well as the frequent use of local processes in most of the global processes occurring. This can be used to specify that the formulation process of the students is laborious.

4. Use of L1

The current research revealed that all the four pairs of students used L1 at least in their translation and code-switches. From Figure 1 Global Processes Employed by the four Pairs, it was found that the students mainly used both code switch (cs) and Translation (T), both from Thai to English (T(t-e)), and from English to Thai (T(e-t)) during the formulation. In average translation was used 17%, ranked the third, after the students’ attention to ideas (G and E), and language use (EL). (Noted that M was also used at the same level). Students appeared to use L1, either in the form of code-switch

(cs), and Translation (T) to ease their cognitively demanding formulation.

Extract 6 สุวัจนี: (1.1 Ge[rp-cs]). . . I… I… I… I มนั กต็ อ้ ง I amซิฉัน สุพัตรา: (1.2 Et[cs-rp] I am จบI am จบ/ (1.3 T(t-e)) จบยังไง/ สุวัจนี: (1.4 Et[cs] am จบการศึกษา graduated/ สุพัตรา: (1.5 EL[cs-rp]) ใช่g-r-a-dแลว้ อะไรตอ่ ล่ะ สุวัจนี: g-r-a-d เขียนอะไรจา ไมไ่ ดแ้ ลว้ เหรอเอาดิกชนั นารีไดไ้ หมคะ่ I am จบแล้วยังไง สุพัตรา: นน่ั ไงจบการศึกษาg-r-aอะไรต่อล่ะ สุวัจนี: g-r-a-dเขียนไงล่ะgraduate น่ะอายอาจารยเ์ขาเขียนยงั ไงคะอาจารย ์ ถ้าเขียนเป็นภาษาไทยได้เขียนแล้วละ/ จบการศึกษาจาก/ (1.6 Et[cs-rr-rp]) I am graduate. . . สุพัตรา: ธัญบุรีเลยได้ไหม?ให้เขียนด้วย

สุวัจนี: I am จบมาจากไหน สุพัตรา: ธัญบุรี/ สุวัจนี: (1.7 M[rp]) ตอ้ งใส่สาขาก่อนสาขาคอมพิวเตอร์/ (1.8 Ee [cs]คอมพิวเตอร์รึเปล่าin Business computer/ สุพัตรา: (1.9 Et[rp-cs]) in Business computer แลว้ ลองทา ไมเ่ ป๊ ะfrom สุวัจนี: จากราชมงคล University of Rajamangala Rajamangala กต็ อ้ งเขียนแบบน้ีนี่University of … รึเปล่า/ (E1: Suwachanee/ Supatra)

Extract 6 above is from E1 of: Suwachanee’s and Supatra’s TA. The sentence written down from this episode is, ‘I am graduated in Business computer from Rajamangala University of

Technology Thanyaburi. The pair generated the first part of the idea ‘I am . . .’ in English before switching to Thai (จบ) or graduated. This switch to Thai before repeating it several times may have helped the students’ retrieval of the word graduated. Later, towards the end of the segment, the switch from Thai to English for the repetition of the word ‘graduate’, without knowing how the word is spelt, must have been done in order to obtain the spelling of the same word, graduated’. Then in (E1.9 the students repeat the English phrase ‘in Business computer. She said

‘แล้ว’( already done) in Thai, perhaps, this helped summarized all the ideas that had already been formulated in this episode. This may have helped the students get a better hold of the whole sentence carried out so far.

Extract 7 รุ่งฤดี . . . (4.2 Ge) . . .I will/ (4.3EL[cs]) รึเปล่า/ (4.4 Ee[cs-mo])ต้องเขียน skill ก่อนแลว้ คอ่ ยเพ่ิมแบบ I will ทิพวัลย์: I am/ รุ่งฤดี: (4.5 Ee [rp-cs]) E-X- Excellent/ (4.6 EL[cs-rp]) Excellent รึเปล่าคะ? x-x-x อะไรนี่ล่ะคะ่ Excellent เขียนไง ล่ะ ทิพวัลย์: เอ้อ E-X-L-L อะไรสกั อยา่ งนี่แหล่ะคะ่ รุ่งฤดี: N Ex Excellent / ทิพวัลย์: (4.7 Ee[cs-rp]) N. . . I am excellent to a software ที่เป็นภาษาภาษาที่เราได้มา . . . / (E4:Tippawan/ Ruengruedee) In Extract 7 shown above, the sentence written down is I am excellent to software C#, Python, Java, HTML, Analyst, Fatabast. After the pair generated the first part of the text, ‘I will’ in

English, they switched to Thai to and expanded the idea skill directly in English and used Thai to control over the process as in 4.3 and 4.4, 4.6 and 4,7.

The students switched from Thai to English when they made change to the idea I will to ‘I am, and expanded the idea, excellent. They repeated the word excellent several times in order to obtain its correct spelling. Finally, the pair expanded the idea to a software directly in English and switched to Thai to add the rest of the idea software ที่เป็นภาษาภาษาที่เราได้มา.

It seems that the students switched to English at the words or phrases that they knew well or fluent at, which were ‘I will, I am, skill, excellent to a software’. Whereas, the switch to Thai was mainly employed as a means to control over the whole formulation of the episode.

Obviously, the students in the current study appeared to translate the ideas literally without considering the grammatical structure of the translated English sentences. This is shown in the following example:

‘ฉันสามารถจะฟัง. . . ขา่ วดีหรือการติดตอ่ กลบั I hope will to hear sound great เหมือนพูดเลยcontact connect from you คะ่ ’ (E6: Chompunuch/ Raewadee) Extract 8 สุพัตรา: (7.1 Gt [cs]) You คุณสามารถสามารถภาษาอังกฤษ: (7.2 ELt [mo]) เขียนยังไง สุวัจจนี: ความสามารถ สุพัตรา: สามารถนาความรู้ / : (7.3 T (t-e)[cs]) You knowledge: แปลทีละคา แปลท้งั ประโยคไมไ่ ด ้ สุวัจจนี: คิดไมอ่ อกแลว้ สุพัตรา: มนั ตอ้ งมีอีกแตล่ ืมแปลไมอ่ อก เขา้ ใจรูปแบบของจดหมายแตเ่ ขียนประโยคไมไ่ ด ้ สุวัจจนี: แปลเป็นคา ไมด่ ูรูปประโยค// (E 7:Suwachanee/ Supatra)

From the extract written above, the pairs attempted to translate the idea you can use English word. Then they modified the idea to you can apply your knowledge. The pair said they had to translate from Thai to English word-by-word. A series of their formulation is shown below:

The result of word by word translation of the idea You can apply your knowledge’ from Thai to English is You knowledge. This incidence also occurred in Tipawan and Ruenruedee’s case, as shown next.

Extract 9 ทิพวัลย์: (5.1 Gt) ในตา แหน่งแลว้ เขาจะสมั ภาษณ์ทนั ที/ รุ่งฤดี: (5.2 T (t-e[cs])) now เหรอ/ทิพวัลย์: (5.3ELT)ไม่ไมน่ ่าใชค้ า น้ี (E5: Tipawan/Ruengruedee)

In the extract shown above, the pair of students translated the idea now’word by word for the idea, Then there will be an interview immediately after that’. The word ‘now’ cannot replace

‘immediately’ in this context. However, the students were not aware of this.

5. Use of lexical phrases

The data from the think-aloud transcripts revealed that this group of students employed some of the lexical phrases they possessed in their writing. Examples of these lexical phrases were as the following:

‘I am’, ‘in business computer’, ‘Microsoft Office’, ‘computer skills’, computer programming’, ‘Dream Weaver’,

‘thank you’, ‘I am graduated’ (Suwachanee, Supatra)

‘I am’, ‘I would’, I ‘need’, ‘I will’, ‘for the job’, ‘business computer’, ‘thank you’ ‘I graduate’

(Tipawan and Rungruedee ).

‘I graduate’, ‘business computer’, ‘I am’, ‘I have’, ‘computer skill’, ‘photo shop’, ‘Microsoft Office’, ‘language skill’, ‘Tell me more’, ‘English skill’, ‘I am creative’, ‘team work’

(Karntip, Nidarut)

‘I am graduated from’, ‘I am graduated in major’, business computer’, ‘I read business computer from’, ‘I graduated business computer from’, ‘I able to use’, ‘such as’, ‘I would like’, ‘I am excellent’,, ‘I am good at’, ‘software system’, ‘I believe’, ‘want me to join with’, ‘You can contact me’, I hope I will to hear’, Bachelor’s Degree’ (Chompunuch and Raewadee)

Some pairs of students seem to possess more lexical phrases than others. Note that some of these lexical phrases are not accurate, regarding the grammatical structure such as ‘I graduated business computer from’, ‘I read business computer from’, ‘I graduated business computer from’,

‘I able to use’. The students may have obtained some of these chunks from the lesson studied in the English for Job Application course. These phrases were such as ‘I graduate’, ‘I graduated

Business Computer’, ‘I am excellent at English’ ‘computer skill, and ‘I able to use’. Others may have been obtained from other occasions such as ‘I am’, ‘Tell Me More’, ‘computer programming’, Dream Weaver’, and ‘ thank you’.

It should be noticed that Chompunuch and Raewadee apparently had produced more and longer phrases than the other three pairs. These phrases were such as the following:

‘I am graduated from’, ‘I am graduated in major’ ‘I read business computer from’, ‘I graduated business computer from’, ‘I able to use’, ‘I am excellent at English’, ‘I am good at’, ‘my project is’, ‘want me to join with’, ‘You can contact me by mobile’, I hope I will to hear’, Bachelor’s

Degree’.

This may have been related to their English language proficiency, and the practice they did from the lesson studied in the course ‘English for Job Applications’.

It is likely that of the four pairs, the pair of Chompunuch and Raewadee was more fluent than the others.

Discussion

Formulation of a cover letter writing turned out to be quite laborious due to the students’ lack of relevant keywords and vocabulary. Grammatical structures was one of the students’ main concerns in this study. The students also used L1 during their formulation, either in the form of translation of L1 to L2, translation of L2 to L1, and code switch. The discussion involves three main areas: Limited key vocabulary and lexical phrases, use of L1, and English language writing.

1. Limit key vocabulary and lexical phrases

The students’ formulation appeared to be laborious. This may stemmed from the students’ lack of key vocabulary of a lexical phrase to be used for their writing a cover letter. The students in the current study appeared to write around the bush (Utarntada, 2006). One of the main reasons was that they lack relevant key words for their writing.

It seems to the researcher that the students did not try hard to memorize the words or expressions. This may be due to the convenience of online dictionary and translation facility, available upon students’ mobile phone. This can lead to students’ attitude change. In the past, as language learners, we need to try to memorize vocabulary. But with the online dictionary and translation, students may not need to memorize the new words or expressions studied in class. This includes both the meaning, and the spelling. This can affect the retention of the vocabulary newly learnt

(Arissara, 2014: 9).

To cope with this change, more exercises and tests on vocabulary and lexical phrases should be conducted regularly by the teachers. A glossary of vocabulary and expressions should also be added. A game on vocabulary and expressions would be a good start for a new lesson and a revision for the words and expressions already studied.,

2. Use of L1

Translation of an idea generated in Thai into English was found a major process involved in students formulation. This translation ranged from a word level to a text level. . As can be seen

from the TA that the students switched from Thai to English to find possible English keywords that were compatible to the idea generated in Thai, or the words that were able to be used as a platform to build up a sentence or the rest of the idea from. Therefore it was not a surprise that the students in this study kept generating, modifying, or discarding ideas until they found ones that matched their resource. Even then, they still could not write exactly what they had want English language wtiy inged to express

3. Development of English writing

It was found that for all the four pairs of students in the current study can be considered possessing elementary level of English language proficiency, However, the case studies revealed that they were all different in the way they formulated their writing. They had their own ways in trying to tackle the problems occurring during their formulation. Sometimes, they might have used the same strategies, others might have used some other effective strategies. According to

Nipawan (2013) the teachers should let the students expose to different kinds of writing so the students can find their own ways to develop their writing. The teachers should also encourage the students to share, not only the ideas but the strategies they successfully applied to solve the problems i.e. exposure to different kinds of strategies. The students, then, are in the position to try out different strategies to find the ones that are most suitable for each of the students.

Conclusion

As the students’ level of English proficiency is at an elementary level, the teaching and learning should allow the students to make use of their L1, and the teachers can make use of both their English language and L1. The teachers should also try to find ways to manage the students’ use of literal translation. Suggested ways and activities are also discussed. It turned out that these basic students appeared to possess some lexical phrases, especially ‘I am’. Similarly, the students should be encouraged to bring it for use in an effective manner. Activities have already been

discussed. Finally, the students lack relevant key word to be used in their writing. Suggested activities to help booster students’ vocabulary and expressions for writing a cover letter.

References

นิภาวรรณ พุทธสงกรานต์ (2556) ข้อบกพร่องในการเขียนภาษาอังกฤษของนักศึกษามหาวิทยาลัยศรีปทุม (English Writing Deficiencies of Sipatum University Students) กรุงเทพฯ :ศรีปทุมปริทัศน์ (1-51) ศศิวิมลคงเมืองและจิตรลดาบุรพรัตน์, Teeraporn, H. (2013) การพฒั นาความสามารถดา้ นภาองั กฤษของนกั ศึกษาช้นั ปีที่ 1 มหาวทิ ยาลยั เชียงใหม ่ (Investigation the English language Competencies of the 1st year students at Chiangmai university Workplace : feedback from the Industry. Journals Elsewhere 29 (3) : 68-82. Butzkamm, W. (2003). ‘We only Learn Language Once. The Role of the Mother Tongue in Foreign Classroom: Death of Dogma’. Language LearningJournal. No. 28, 29-39.

Cohen, A.D. (1998) Mental Translation Strategies in adult foreign language literacy. BAAL 31st Annual Meeting. 10-12 September. Manchester: University of Manchester. December : 23-28. Ericsson, K.A. and Simon. H.A. (1987) Verbal Report on Thinking in C. Faerch and G. kasper (Eds). Introspection in Second Language Research. Klevedon: Multilingua Matters : pp. 24-53. Feedback on Writing. Thai Tesol Bulletin. 14 59-66. Kluensuwan, P. Ketkaew, Y., buatone, K., Lertworattikul, p. (2014) English for Job Applications. Bangkok : Triple Ed Group, 22-29 Leeds, B (2003) how to Teach EFL / ESL writing :A basic guide for Thai teachers. (PASAA Ling, M. (2001). How Can Genre Via Process Approaches Support the Teaching of EFL Writing. Ljungberg, A. (2011) Compensation strategies in English as a foreign language: A study of strategy use in immediate receptive situations. Independent thesis Basic level. Karlstad University, Faculty of Arts and Education, Department of Education. Malouff, J.M., Rooke, S.E., and Schutte, N.S. (2016) Simple Strategies Academics can Use to Help Students Improve Their Writing Skills. Retrieved on 18 November 2016 https://www.une.edu.au/ shape revision. System, 24 (1), 107-116.

Porte, G. (1996). When writing fails: How academic context and past learning experiences

Swain, M and Lapkin, S. (2000) Task-based Second language learning: The uses of the first Thai Tesol Bulletin. 14 (2) : 53-58 Wray, A. (2013). Formulaic Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Utarntada, S. (2006). Practical English Translation. Bangkok Intellectuals. www.manpower thailand.com.Retrieve on 26 October, 2014. www.STOU.ac.th/Schools/sla/english.Retrieved on 25 October 2014. www.journals .elsewhere.com .Retrieved on 25 October 2014. from the Industry Vol. 29 Issue 3.

Project-Based Learning upon Storytelling for Thai Students: Under Independent Study Supervision

Nattinan Congpueng, Apitchaya Pliewma, Maleerat Keawyou, Kulasatree Hosuwan, Sulaganya Punyayodhin

Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

The study aimed to present the Project-Based Learning (PBL) activity of 4th year students majoring in English for Communication in an Independent Study Course. The study was an attempt to encourage the students to create an English fable based on animal characters from Thai stories and to use the fable for storytelling to aid in English language classes. The samples were chosen by purposive sampling techniques based on three Elementary schools in Pathum Thani province –Innovative Demonstration School of RMUTT, Ketpapha School and Chumchon Bungba School. The instruments were the approved English creative fable, VDO script and three exercises of vocabulary, True or False exercises, and re-arranging the story as the feedback after studying the criteria analysis and the evaluation by the Supervisor and the teachers from three elementary schools. The period time of the independent Study course was from November 2017 to February 2018.

The study revealed that the 4th year students could create fables and exercises and make an acting show from the fable with the teacher and students within the limited time. The findings showed that most Elementary students were able to learn more English language from the creative fable, the video presentation and the role-play. It could be concluded that the 4th year students capability, their creation and problem-solving respectively under the Project-Based Learning method even in a four-month semester might be challenging for teachers and students.

Keywords: project-based learning, storytelling, independent study

I. Introduction

Thailand recognizes the importance of English language and indicates that Thai people need to improve their English language skills because of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) effect. Workers and Thai people with better English skills might help to improve the Thai education system and make the country more competitive (Sutharos Busskorn, et. al., 2014). Learning a language is considered the key subject that plays a vital role as a gate keeping device in a language education system (Prasongporn Pornpimon, 2013, p 1). Storytelling is one of our oldest art forms. It stimulates the imagination and builds a sense of community between tellers and listeners. This is a tool to connect the relationship between listeners and a narrator. The activity causes passive enjoyment and it is fun for the listener. It will help the listener to imagine an idea and even the moral of the story (The Native Woman’s Association of Canada (NWAC), 2013). In the classroom experience of storytelling of English fables in school, Campbell Terry et. al. (2015) presented Prathom 3 students how to tell the story and detailed the samples over a one week period to show fluency in speaking and reading and see the development of speech through storytelling. The study aimed to present the Project-Based Learning (PBL) activity of the 4th year students majoring in English for Communication in an Independent Study course.

II. Literature review—related studies

According to Brandon Goodman (2010), teachers who act as coaches and involve their students in Project-Based Learning activities find their own role changing. They discover that their primary tasks are to guide, coach and mentor their students, including: how to ask questions and how to develop hypotheses and strategies for locating information where they eventually become co-learners. For developing learning skills, projects, such as effective online projects, encourage students to work on a problem in depth. Students also engage in learning what is needed to solve a problem or complete a project, rather than the teacher making the decision in a predetermined curriculum. Prakaichart Kwankaew, Patchara Vanichvasin and Sutitep Siripipattanakoon (2016) revealed that students’ creative characteristics before using Project-Based Learning were marked at a low level, but after using PjBL, their creative characteristics were marked at a fair level. From this, it could be concluded that students’ creative characteristics increased after using the project.

Wajuppa Tossa (2013) described using storytelling activities in classrooms even at the university level through a three-year long storytelling research project using dialects and folktales. Marut Pichetvit (2014) described that stories, folklores, local literatures and fables are cultural heritage pieces that exhibit local identities. Children’s literature can be in different forms which should be suitable for them. In addition, fable culture will help the children’s imagination, creativity and learning development in areas such as nature and the environments, and even natural conservation.

III. Objectives The study was an attempt to encourage the students to create an English fable based on animal characters in Thai stories and to use the fable as a learning aid in English language classes.

IV. Population and samples The students of Prathom three (Grade 3) are the group that can learn more English by storytelling since they already have a fundamental knowledge of English for at least 2 years. According to Campbell Terry et.al. (2015), the classroom experiences of the Prathom 3 students were introduced to how to tell the story through reading the text out loud and a storytelling demonstration, followed by daily activities that involved listening, speaking, reading and writing skills culminating in dramatic storytelling performances. The population was the students of Prathom 3 in Pathum Thani. The sample groups were chosen by purposive sampling technique based on three elementary schools in Pathum Thani province. The Innovative Demonstration School of RMUTT at Thanyaburi District was the key place for the trial and the acting VDO presentation. Ketpapha School in the Lum Lookka District and Chumchon Bungba School in the Nongsua District were the trial schools.

V. Methodology There were two sections for the study design presented as follows;  IS Course 1. IS orientation and introduction 2. Proposing the topic 3. Drafting a proposal 4. Outlining Literature review

5. Piloting the instruments + submitting Chapter 1 Introduction 6. Collecting data + submitting Chapter 3 Methodology 7. Analyzing data + submitting Chapter 4 Findings 8. Submitting Chapter 1 Introduction, Chapter 2 Literature Review & Chapter 5 Conclusion and Discussion 9. Submitting the final draft 10. IS Oral Presentation The steps above describe the IS course design informing about the study. We had the IS orientation and the course introduction. Next, the students proposed the topic and made the proposal draft. The supervisors brainstormed and re-edited. After that, the students drew the outline for the literature review. They did the pilot study with the instruments and submitted the Chapter 1 Introduction. The instruments were corrected, checked and re-edited. While the students were collecting data, they submitted Chapter 3 Methodology. The supervisor corrected, re-edited and submitted all the feedback. The students analyzed all data and submitted Chapter 4 Findings at the same time. The supervisor and the students summarized the analyzed data and the results. They submitted the Chapter 1 Introduction, Chapter 2 Literature review and Chapter 5 Conclusion and Discussion in a draft. They submitted the final draft and prepared for IS Oral presentation. They presented their Independent Study and got the recommendation from the supervisor and the committees. They re-edited and submitted the full paper.

 IS project 1. IS orientation and introduction 2. Proposing the topic 3. Drafting a proposal 4. Outlining Literature review 5. Piloting the instruments + submitting Chapter 1 Introduction 6. Collecting data + submitting Chapter 3 Methodology 7. Analyzing data + submitting Chapter 4 Findings 8. Submitting Chapter 1 Introduction, Chapter 2 Literature review & Chapter 5 Conclusion and Discussion 9. Submitting the final draft 10. IS Oral Presentation The steps above describe the research design of the study. They first brainstormed to create the topic of the study which involved creating a fable for the students of Prathom 3 classes. The English fable was the learning aid. Then they approved the fable and did the preliminary test for

the vocabulary activity, and edited the final draft fable. They created and designed three exercises. They practiced acting for the VDO show by Prathom 3 students from the Innovative Demonstration School of RMUTT. They presented the fable and collected the data. They plotted the results and submitted the Chapters. Lastly, they submitted the final draft and prepared for the presentation. The IS Oral Presentation with the committees’ comments and recommendations were the final step.

 Research instruments and the trial period The instruments are as follows;

1) an approved English creative fable – The Elephants’ Family with 350 words,

2) VDO script – The Elephants’ Family by Prathom 3 students from the Innovative Demonstration School, Thanyaburi District,

3) three exercises as feedback and the evaluation,

- vocabulary exercises – the students need to add the missing letter (s),

- True or False – the students need to notice the fable and answer the sentences as true or false,

- re – arrange the story – the students need to re – arrange the story in chronological order from the fable,

4) the correction and data analysis - the exercises will be checked, corrected and evaluated,

5) how to analyze the data and the trial period,

- present the numbers of students in three schools, the numbers of males and females, and the total amount

- the vocabulary exercise where the students fill in the correct vocabulary word for each item

- the true or false exercise where the students can answer which one is true or false according to their comprehension

- the rearrange the story activity where the students rearrange the chronological order of the fable

- the trial period from November 2017 to February 2018 according to the duration of the semester

VI. Findings

The results of the study are presented in two parts as major results and minor results. The students were asked to do all the steps of the source outline as the data given in each part as shown in Methodology.

 Major results The students planned with brainstorming, created and submitted the works thoroughly even in the limited time given. Moreover, they did as follows;

1) created a fable - The Elephants’ Family – which was corrected by the supervisor and the teachers from three schools as the case study

2) created all exercises under supervision of the supervisor and all teachers from three schools

3) played and recorded the roles from the fable

4) broadcasted the fable at three schools, corrected the participants’ comprehension according to the exercises

5) submitted a full research paper and presented their study even in the limited time given

 Minor results The total of all students from three schools; the Innovative Demonstration of RMUTT School, Ketpapha School and Chumchon Bungba School was 98 (male = 51, female = 47).

Table 1 The Numbers of Students of All Schools

Name of schools Male Female Total Innovative Demonstration of RMUTT School 11 15 26

Ketpapha School 21 16 37 Chumchon Bungba School 19 16 35 Total 51 47 98

The three activities in the exercises were: Vocabulary, True or False and Rearrange the story. There were 20 total items in all exercises according to the table below.

Table 2 Three exercises

Exercise Items Points Vocabulary 10 10 True or False 5 5 Rearrange the story 5 5

The tables below show the results of the three schools’ scores for only the correct answers in each item of the vocabulary exercise, true or false exercise and rearrange the story. The study focused on project-based learning using storytelling. Therefore, the students and the supervisor considered the results and the scores of the minor results as insignificant.

Table 3 Vocabulary exercise of Innovative Demonstration of RMUTT School Students

Words The Corrected Points Total Male Female 1. SEE 7 11 18 2. BAD 3 4 7 3. HELP 6 11 17 4. LAZY 3 9 12 5. POND 7 7 14 6. OTHER 1 1 2 7. GROUND 1 2 3 8. FORGET 4 7 11 9. BANANA 9 10 19 10. ELEPHANT 6 7 13

Table 4 Vocabulary exercise of Ketpapha school Students

Word the Corrected Points Total Male Female 1. SEE 12 13 25 2. BAD 12 14 26 3. HELP 14 9 23 4. LAZY 10 11 21 5. POND 14 10 24 6. OTHER 16 13 29 7. GROUND 3 0 3 8. FORGET 9 12 21 9. BANANA 7 8 15 10. ELEPHANT 6 2 8

Table 5 Vocabulary exercise of Chumchon Bungba School Students

The Corrected Points Word Total Male Female 1. SEE 18 16 34 2. BAD 19 16 35 3. HELP 13 13 26 4. LAZY 19 16 35 5. POND 19 16 35 6. OTHER 9 9 18 7. GROUND 6 7 13 8. FORGET 4 6 10 9. BANANA 16 15 31 10. ELEPHANT 0 0 0

Table 6 True or False Exercise of Innovative Demonstration of RMUTT School Students

The Corrected Points Items Total Male Female 1 11 15 26 2 10 15 25 3 10 15 25 4 10 13 23 5 7 8 15

Table 7 True or False Exercise of Ketpapha School Students

The Corrected Points Items Total Male Female 1 20 15 35 2 12 13 25 3 21 16 37 4 20 16 36 5 17 15 32

Table 8 True or False Exercise of Chumchon Bungba School Students

The Corrected Points Items Total Male Female 1 18 16 34 2 18 16 34 3 19 16 35 4 19 16 35 5 16 14 30

Table 9 Re-arrange the story of three schools

Male Female Students' student's student's Male Female Total number School number number on student student student on all on all all correction correction correction Innovative Demonstration 11 15 26 3 3 6 of RMUTT school Ketpapha 21 16 37 0 1 1 school Chumchon 19 16 35 7 8 15 Bungba school

VII. General recommendation

Storytelling can be a significant learning technique. For using storytelling technique, the students under supervision should thoroughly study the technique and theory of storytelling. They could be further studied to learn how to create stories and fables that are interesting and suitable teaching aids.

It could be concluded that the 4th year students’ abilities under the Project-Based Learning method in their Independent Study course might be hindered as a result of the limited time (one four-month semester).

References

Campbell Terry, et al. (2015). Storytelling for Fluency and Flair. Retrieved January 8, 2018, Website: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/trtr.1384/abstract.

Goodman, Brandon. (2010). Project-Based Learning. Educational Psychology. J. Slivers, Ph.D.

Kwankaew, Prakaichat, Vanichvasin, Patchara, Siripipattanakoon, Sutitep. (2016). Development of Creative Characteristics using Project-Based Learning (PjBL) for High Vocational Students of Program in Secretarial. Journal of Southern Technology. Volume 1 January – June, 2016. The 1st Year.

Marut Pichetvit. (2014). The Design of Picture Books for Children from Tales of Amphawa Fireflies. Retrieved January 12, 2018, Website: http://waset.org/publications/9998648/the-design-of-picture-books-for-children-from- tales-of-amphawa-fireflies.

Prasongporn, P. Ph.D. (2013). English Education at Primary Level in Thailand. Retrieved January 8, 2018, Website:https://www.nier.go.jp/06_jigyou/symposium/i_sympo27/pdf/E03.pdf.

Sutharos, B. et.all. (2014). English as a foreign language learning motivationalfactors as perceived by fourth year of bachelor degree English for communication faculty of liberal arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. Bachelor degree, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi.

The Native Women’s Association of Canada (NWAC). (n.d.). Storytelling: Amber’s Story. Retrieved January 8, 2018, Website: https://www.nwac.ca/wpcontent/uploads/2015/05/NWAC_Story_Telling_Amber_ Redman.pdf.

Tossa, Wajuppa. (2013). Storytelling, a means to revitalize a disappearing language and culture in Northeast Thailand (ISAN). Retrieved January 8, 2018, Website: http://gnh- movement.org/papers/tossa.pdf.

Appendix

The Elephant’s Family An elephant and his family lived in the forest. Their names are Chai-the father, Yo-the mother, Ho-the elder brother and Hew-the little brother. Ho and Hew take a shower in a pond and they go to the bush to find bananas. Hew is looking at a school of fish in the pond. He goes to swim and play with the fish. He forgets to help Ho. Hew is quite a bad boy and plans to steal the bananas from Ho, but a herd of bees see him. They are going to tell Ho about Hew’s plan.

Bees : “Hey! Your brother plans to steal your bananas”

P’Ho : “Really! Thank you for telling me”

Hew goes back home. Hew sees his Dad and Mom giving toys to Ho. Hew is angry with his Dad and Mom. Then ho goes into the bush. On the way, Hew meets a group of pigs who are eating fruits. Hew shouts at the pigs.

Pig : “Are you crazy?”

Hew : “I’m unhappy”

Hew chases the pigs into the bush. Hew feels better and he would like to go back home. On the way, he finds an ant’s nest on the ground. The ants see Hew and ask him for help.

Ant : “Could you help me please? There was heavy wind and rain yesterday. It made our nest fall down to the ground. We cannot pick it up.”

Hew : “Why should I help you?”

Hew uses the trunk to throw the ant’s nest. Suddenly, the ants start biting him. Hew is in pain.

Ant : “Hahaha, you think you are big, you can do like this with other people, right?”

Hew goes back home and tells everything to Dad and Mom.

Dad : “If you are not lazy, you will get toys from us”

Finally, Hew helps Ho to find bananas every day. Hew gets toys from Dad and Mom every day as well.

This story teaches us that:

- We must be responsible for our duties, and do good things. - You will be praised for being a good boy or girl.

Exercise 1: Vocabulary

1) .S ___ E

2) .B ___ D

3) .H E ___ P

4) .L A Z ___

5) .P ___ N D

6) .O T ___ E R

7) .G ___ O U ___ D

8) .F ___ R G ___T

9) .B A ___ A N ___

10).E L ___ P H ______T

Exercise 2: True or False

____ 1. P’Ho and N’ Hew go to find bananas.

____ 2. N’Hew doesn’t help the ants.

____ 3. N’Hew is playing with a frog in the pond.

____ 4. Dad and Mom give a flower to P’Ho.

____ 5. At 6 a.m. every morning P’Ho and N’Hew take a shower in a pond.

Exercise 3: Re-arrange the story

____ 1. N’Hew is looking at the school of fish and playing with them.

____ 2. At 6 a.m. every morning P’Ho and N’ Hew take a shower in a pond.

____ 3. N’Hew finds the ant’s nest on the ground.

____ 4. N’Hew is chasing pigs into the bush.

____ 5. The bees are going to tell P’Ho about N’Hew’s plan.

Mother Tongue Interference in Students’ Speaking

Weerapa Pongpanich

Rangsit University, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

We cannot argue that English is the most powerful language in the world. It makes the world go around. It is also the mother tongue of millions people. After attending ASEAN community,

English therefore plays a greater role in Thailand and is considered as a communication tool across the borders. The differences between their mother tongue and English, however, exert interference and cause errors which happen in students’ speeches. Although the students come up in their minds with lots of brilliant ideas, but their native language still affects their speeches. In this study, 75 students taking Intermediate English Listening and Speaking course at Rangsit

University were purposively selected and their speeches were analyzed to address certain errors caused by the interference of their mother tongue. Some participants were also interviewed to obtain other in-depth information.

The results showed that fragment was found 26.02% and hence the most prominent error which appeared in students’ speeches while the least common error made by students was the incorrect use of tense which occurred in 0.34%. The results of this study can be used to improve English lessons to avoid errors which may occur in the students’ speeches in the future. Some teachers can develop the course after reading this study.

Keywords: mother tongue interference, error analysis, students’ speaking

1. Introduction

English has become increasingly essential in the modern world. Not only is it the mother tongue for over 375 million people, but English also serves as the official language for international and business correspondence (Gohill, 2013, p.9), particularly in fields like news, business, entertainment, sports, science, and health care.

In Thailand, English is considered a foreign language used predominantly in education and tourism. Khamkhien (2010) states that English has been a required subject in secondary school since 1895. In 2001, the ministry of education divided the level of English learning into 4 levels, starting in kindergarten. The new curriculum focuses on lifelong learning and emphasizes childhood acquisition (p.185).

Speaking English is not easy for Thai students. Foley (cited in Khamkhien, p.185) said the students haven’t passed the criteria supplied by the Ministry of Education due to limitations in the curriculum and teaching strategies focused on grammatical rules. The survey from the

Ministry of Education in 1997 and 1998 found that the results of students’ evaluation were subpar across all four skills (Wiriyachitra, 2001 cited in Khamkhien, 2010).

2. Research procedure, research instruments and research methodology

This research consisted of two methods: qualitative and quantitative. These approaches were used in to investigate the errors which appeared in the students’ English speech. The causes of the errors arose from tendencies in the mother tongue, Thai. This unit provides information about the research participants, data collection procedures, instruments, and data analysis.

The population in this study was 238 students enrolled in ENL 122, titled English for

Intermediate Listening and Speaking, in the first semester of the academic year of 2017 at

Rangsit University. The students were from various faculties, but all had passed a minimum of two English courses at Rangsit University. Seventy- five students were selected to be purposive samplings to investigate errors in this study. They were divided into 2 sections, labeled 02 and

05. The English abilities of the sampled students varied between low, average, and high, based on observation of previous assignments.

Table 1 The total number of the students

2.1 Research instrument

The instrument used to assess the students’ speech was a short, prepared English speech. 75 students were assigned record a video clip of them speaking under the topic “self-introduction for a job interview”. The length of the speech was a minimum of ten sentences.

This study uses a predominantly qualitative framework to answer the following questions:

1. What is the most frequent Thai interference appearing in the students’ speech?

2. Why does the L1 interference appear in the students’ speech?

There were six steps in collecting the data. The information is shown as follows:

1. The researcher finalized the topic under the investigation.

2. The data was gathered during ENL122 class time.

3. The researcher explained the instructions to the participants. After the explanation,

the speeches and videos were recorded. This was an individual work. All videos

were sent to the researcher via a phone application.

4. After that, the researcher collected the data by assigning the participants to speak and

record the video under the topic “Self- introduction for a job interview” on 3rd

October, 2017. The recordings were to be finished during the class hour, which was

not more than 80 minutes. The students could record their speech as many times as

they wished, choosing the best one before submitting the video.

5. After collection of all the data, the speeches were transcribed and analyzed according

to 10 sub categories according to linguistic structure.

6. Five participants were randomly selected to interview for in-depth information.

2.2 Data collection

1. The data was collected in the first semester of the academic year 2017.

2. The samplings were 75 students enrolled in ENL 122, or Intermediate English

Listening and Speaking.

3. The researcher assigned the topic “self-introduction for a job interview” two days before the class.

4. Each student was required to record the video and send it to the researcher via a phone application.

5. The speeches were to be no less than ten minutes.

6. The data was collected on 3rd October, 2017 during their class time.

7. The total time for each class was 80 minutes.

8. The students were able to record and edit their video several times until they found it satisfactory, within the limitations of the class runtime.

2.3 Data analysis

2.3.1 This research analyzed the students’ speeches in order to identify and categorize interference errors into 10 sub-categories according to linguistic structure: misuse of tense, determiners, diction, misuse of prepositions, singular and plural nouns, subject-verb agreement, word order, connectors and conjunctions, misuse of pronouns, and fragments.

2.3.2 After categorized the data, five participants were randomly called for an interview. Because the researcher wanted to know the reasons behind the errors, the interviewees were prompted with two questions:

2.3.2.1 What do you mean by this sentence? Please explain.

2.3.2.2 Why do you use the word/ sentence? Please explain.

2.4 Ethical consideration

The process of this research was approved by the university ethical committee prior to the experiment. All participants were informed of the objectives and procedures of this research before giving written informed consent. Participation was voluntary, confidential, and anonymous. Participants could withdraw at any time throughout the whole semester.

3. Results

The findings of the research are shown in this chapter. The data was analyzed according to the frequency of mother tongue interferences. The results will be shown as follows:

Table 2 Overall errors

The table shows 292 errors commonly associated with mother tongue interference.

Table 2 shows the errors ordered from the most to the least: fragments (26.02%), determiners

(25%), word choice and collocation (22.6%), singular and plural nouns (11.30%), subject verb agreements (5.47%), misuse of prepositions (3.08%), misuse of pronouns (2.74%), word order

and connectors and conjunctions are in equal number (1.71%), misuse of tense (0.34%) appeared in the least number.

To summarize, the finding reveals that mother tongue interference is the main reason why Thai students make errors in speaking. The differences between Thai and English structures were the cause of the errors made in Thai students’ speeches. The students tended to apply the grammatical rules of L1 into their L2 speech. The many rules and exceptions of English grammar make perfectly grammatical sentences difficult. Thai students who do not use English everyday will face problems in using English.

4. Conclusion and discussion

4.1 Conclusion

English’s heavy presences in the internet and press, as well as its essential role in tourism and sports, make English an important language for Thais, especially given Thailand’s association with ASEAN. Most Thai students are not able to speak English fluently, even if they all know the rules. This research assessed the errors that arise in students’ speech because of interferences from their mother tongue.

The results expose that that the most frequent type of interference that students made was forming incomplete sentences. Habits and structures from speaking Thai clearly interfered in the students’ English use as they attempted to combine the rules of the two languages. Despite their intention to employ the correct rules, native rules and tendencies inhibited their English fluency.

For that reason, numerous errors appeared in their speech, their mother tongue interfering with the acquisition of their target language, English.

4.2 Discussion

All the participants are learning English as a foreign language primarily through classroom instruction, though their individual objectives in using English may vary (Sesnan, 1997, Boey,

1975). Students do not commonly use English in their everyday life, a pattern of use that leaves their speech prone to error. According to results in previous lessons, errors arise from their own assumptions and unclear or inconsistent teaching methods (Dulay, et al., 1982). All errors affect the students’ both syntactic and semantic levels (Lekova, 2010, p.323). As mentioned before, the main cause of error arise from (1) the pattern of their native language transferred into English

(Al- Harbi, 2010, pp.144-146). (2) The students grasp the grammatic rules but misapply them.

They do not have the opportunity to practical, everyday use (Corder, 1981). (3) The students mix

Thai structure together with English structure. They combine both the similarities and differences of the rules; as a result, meaning and structure are misused.

Table 3 below shows the differences between two language structures. This is an implementation of all errors which arise from this research. It offers explanations as to where the mistakes originated from.

Table 3 The comparison between Thai and English structure

Table 3 (cont.) The comparison between Thai and English structure

As seen in the table, mother tongue affects how students acquire knowledge. The rules of L1 linguistics bear on students’ perceptions (Ellis, 1994, p.30). At the same time, students tend to pass the form, meaning or even culture of their L1 into their L2 when trying to use their L2. As a result, L1 habits are also transferred into their target language (Beebe& Selinger, as cited in

Nemati& Taghizdech, 2006).

In conclusion, it is clearly seen that mother tongue interference affects the English usage of L2 students. If they are not familiar with using English, mother tongue transfers to their L2. As said

by Sesnan (2011, p.340) these interferences impact second language acquisition and the quality of a second language product. The results, as presented in table 2 and 3, also show that the errors appear in the students’ L2 productions frequently despite years of instruction. Students’ lack of opportunity for daily, practical use of English hampers their development. They use English only during the class time or to deal with media such as games, songs, and movies. For this reason they are not able to use English correctly in daily situations (Sesnan, 1997, Yule, 2006, Boey,

1975). Another reason can be attributed to poor instruction. Some teachers may have just instructed them in the rules without providing opportunities for practice or feedback, leaving the students unaware of their limitations and progress.

5. Acknowledgements

After an intensive period of almost a year, today is the day: writing this note of thanks is the finishing touch on my research. It has been a period of intense learning for me, not only in the scientific arena, but also on a personal level. Writing this research has had a big impact on me. I would like to reflect on the people who have supported and helped me so much throughout this period.

I would first like to thank my colleagues from Rangsit University for their wonderful collaboration. You supported me greatly and were always willing to help me. I want to thank you for your excellent cooperation and for all of the opportunities I was given to conduct my research.

In addition, I would like to thank my tutors, Dr.Voranij Vasuratna, for her valuable guidance.

You definitely provided me with the tools that I needed to choose the right direction and successfully complete my research.

Last but not least, I would also like to thank my parents for their wise counsel and sympathetic ear. You are always there for me. Finally, there are my friends. We were not only able to support each other by deliberating over our problems and findings, but also happily by talking about things other than just our papers.

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Using Path of Accomplishment to Encourage Students in Studying English

Aree Thongrit

Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The research aimed to use Path of Accomplishment to encourage students to pay more attention in studying English. The study was both qualitative and quantitative. The sample of the study, selected by purposive sampling from five groups taught by the researcher, were 202 first-year students who enrolled in the English for Communication course in the second semester of academic year 2014.

Questionnaires and an interview designed by the researcher were used as tools for collecting data which later were analyzed by mean and standard deviation.

The findings revealed that the students were satisfied towards implementing the Path of Accomplishment in teaching in the preparation stage and were also concerned about their achievement. Moreover, the students found that this motivated them to study harder.

Keywords: path of accomplishment, students, English

Introduction

Rapid change has brought about the demands of modern technologies, mechanisms and complexity to society and our way of life. New inventions and knowledge were unavoidably transferred through languages of which one of them is English. Thailand has to adopt drastic measures to improve the existing basic education to follow contemporary events such as advances in technology, learning other languages, and competence in English as a tool in communication, research, and career development (Wonglekha, 2010). This was primarily the tenet behind the vision of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) regional economic

integration by 2015. The AEC will transform ASEAN into a region with free movement of goods, services, investment, skilled labor, and freer flow of capital (ASEAN Secretariat, 2014). For this, members of ASEAN have ceaselessly attempted to reform and direct supporting policies; with the better speaking countries such as Singapore, Malaysia and the Philippines having an advantage over a country like Thailand.

Thai students spend twelve years studying English in primary and secondary schools, but the results are unsatisfactory. There have been attempts to improve the situation; the Ministry of Education presented an “English Speaking Year 2012” program to promote English speaking among Thai students and others to prepare them for the establishment of the ASEAN Community in 2015 aimed to get Thai citizens ready to be a part of the community because English language is a major medium of the member countries. This program would initiate in schools and include academic activities for teachers and students with opportunities to speak English and build up their confidence in using it. (Bangkok Post article online. 2011). Moreover, the government has provided a large budget to the Ministry of Education (Bureau of the Budget, 2018) in order to promote the improvement of the situation. A large portion of the budget was invested in teacher training as Wiriyachitra (2002) stated that “the Thailand Education Reform implemented between 1996 and 2007 emphasized teacher development, and teachers would be offered continuous training with some form of training such as attending seminars, workshops, or conferences every two years”.

Upon examining the English-language classes, many researchers pointed out that factors contributing to the success of English- language teaching and learning were teachers, students and opportunities for student exposure to English outside classes. In addition, Watson, Todd (2016) added that what makes an effective language classroom concerning articles from English Language Teaching Journal (ELTJ) fall into four categories; classroom practice, the language to be taught in classrooms, a focus on the teacher, and a focus on students. He also mentioned that in the 2000s, the focus on classroom practice was joined by a focus on the teacher, but more recently these have been replaced by a dominant focus on students.

Even with a past focus primarily on improving teachers’ potential and classroom activities, the students still have limited ability to master English. An important aspect to consider is “the rapid change of technology of the modern world” which led to new phases of economics, politics and social systems and brought about severe social, cultural, moral and ethical problems for all. This was partially due to a trend of material oriented to spiritual according to the Religious Affairs Department (2007). Vasee, (1992) also stated that Thai society was confronted with endless conflict and social moral collapse following a previous way of life of people lacking morallity in more subtle ways. Moreover, Buddhadasapikku, 2006 claimed in ‘ The Buddhist Economy’ that no one knows the causes of the problems tied to lost morals. If people lose moral, whatever they do will be distorted. The way of educating the young generation is unavoidably getting stuck in this crisis. To teach students to achieve their goal in education should provide them with knowledge and moral. “Iddhipada” or “path of accomplishment” is a Buddhist philosophy, known as key factors to successful learning. With the path of accomplishment students learn happily and naturally since it is intrinsic motivation. Iddhipada or path of accomplishment is comprised of four aspects which identify four mental factors, namely, desire- to-do ‘chanda’, mindfulness ‘chitta’, effort ‘viriya’ and investigation ‘vimamsa’. The desire-to- do is the primary requirement to accomplish any goal in our lives. Therefore, a successful learner should know how to maintain a continuous desire regarding the subject matter and the learning process. Mindfulness stands for a learner being conscious during a learning session. Regardless of other mental factors, mindfulness is of great importance for a learning session. In fact, it is evident that the purpose of other mental factors such as desire and effort fade away when the learner has no ability to be conscious. Effort stands for the ceaseless application of energy to finish work to achieve a goal. In a learning session, the student should work with balanced effort to complete the work. Investigation ability is another mental factor of great importance to ensure a successful learning session. If students do not possess Chanda, they do not even know that it is necessary to acquire such zeal. They are people who admit and plead inability and defeat. The same is true in the cases of virya, citta, and vimamsa. Payutto (1999) described the effect of path of accomplishment as a vital part of study for both students and adults since it always brings joyfulness, effort, intention and investigation. If they have path of accomplishment, fulfilling their successful study is not far to reach. On the other hand, people without desire to do and content to learn will be confronted with laziness, carelessness, and mindlessness which cause in obedience and failure in the future life.

Methodology A. Research tools

1. Questionnaires 2. The 5 scale-questionnaires were made relating to path of accomplishment are as follows:

Frequency Path of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 5

Chanda

1. Study voluntarily

2. Be satisfied with study fully to get a knowledge and a success expectation not only a grade 3. Always ready to learn new things

Viriya

1. Feel challenged to solve difficult problems to fulfill the goal

2. Try your best to study

3. Develop learning skills proficiently with diligence, endurance and attention Chitta

1. Realize the importance of study for future life

2. Pay attention to study or task at hand regarding the success

3. Determine to study strongly to fulfill the goal

Vimamsa

1. Adjust the way of study if not appropriate

2. Ready to adjust to new techniques for the effective study process

3. Plan self-study effectively

2. An interview The students were interviewed with the following questions: 1. Are you satisfied with using the path of accomplishment in learning? 2. Are you satisfied with the study result after the application of the path of accomplishment? 3. Do you agree with using the path of accomplishment in studying naturally?

B. Participants 1. The sample of the study responding to the questionnaires, selected by purposive sampling from the five groups taught by the researcher, was 202 first-year students who enrolled English for Communicative course in the second semester of academic year 2014.

2. For the interview, 25 students with different levels of achievement from the five groups (six each) were selected. They were classified in three proficiency levels: 2 slow, 2 moderate, and 2 high proficient learners as measured by their English grade from the previous semester of the English 1 course. Low proficiency level refers to those whose grade was C and lower, C+ - B represented moderate proficiency level, and above B+ was defined as high proficiency level.

C. Data collection Two copies of questionnaires were distributed to 202 students at the beginning of the semester when the researcher met each class for the first time. After the orientation and explanation of the objective of doing the research, the students were free to participate or reject the study. Fortunately, all of them were willing to take part; the concept of the path of accomplishment in the questionnaire was discussed clearly and one was completed and handed in at the end of the first class. The others were told to attach the questionnaire to the inside cover of the course book. The details of questionnaires were being talked about every time the learners come to

class about 5 minutes until the last class and at the end of the semester, the questionnaires were done and collected.

Six students with different level of achievement were selected from each group. All were interviewed at the end of the semester after the grade was announced.

D. Data analysis procedure The data collected from the questionnaires in this study were later analyzed in terms of mean and standard deviation, while the responses to the interview were categorized descriptively under the items.

To interpret the mean score for students’ attention level of using items relating to the path of accomplishment, the researcher adopted the interpreting procedure designed by Best (1981) as shown below.

Interpretation of mean score of attention levels

Scale Mean Range Attention Level Score Range 5 strongly agree very high 4.5 - 5.00 4 agree high 3.5 - 4.49 3 moderate average 2.5 – 3.49 2 disagree low 1.5 – 2.49 1 strongly disagree very low 1.00 – 1.49

The mean score for each item indicated the level of students’ attention in using each item; the higher score indicated that students use high attention, while the lower score indicated low attention.

Results and discussion

Table 1 The difference of mean score of students degree in using chanda before and after applying the path of accomplishment in studying.

Frequency

Chanda Before Application After Application Mean SD. level Mean SD. level 1.Study voluntarily 4.34 .658 high 4.53 .574 high 2.Be satisfied with study fully to gain knowledge 4.07 .638 high 4.45 .630 high and a success expectation not only a grade 3.Always ready to learn new things 4.01 .729 high 4.38 .674 high

Table 2 The difference of mean score of students’ degree in using viriya before and after applying path of accomplishment in studying.

Frequency

Viriya Before Application After Application Mean SD. level Mean SD. level 1.Feel challenged to solve difficult problems 3.70 .747 high 4.21 .770 high to fulfill the goal 2.Try your best to study 3.79 .683 high 4.14 .642 high 3.Develop learning skills proficiently with 3.67 .707 high 4.05 .700 high diligence, endurance and attention

Table 3 The difference of mean score of students degree in using chitta before and after applying path of accomplishment in studying.

Frequency

Citta Before Application After Application Mean SD. level Mean SD. level

1.Realize the importance of study for future life 3.96 .797 high 4.36 .671 high 2.Pay attention to study or task at hand regarding 3.77 .660 high 4.21 .666 high the success 3.Determine to study strongly to fulfill the goal 3.79 .676 high 4.11 .732 high

Table 4 The difference of mean score of students degree in using vimamsa before and after applying path of accomplishment in studying.

Frequency

Vimamsa Before Application After Application Mean SD. level Mean SD. level 1.Adjust the way of study if not appropriate 3.76 .748 high 4.15 .718 high 2.Ready to adjust new techniques for effective study 3.81 .711 high 4.14 .708 high process 3.Plan self-study effectively 3.65 .778 high 4.07 .719 high

Responses to the interview 1. Are you satisfied with using the path of accomplishment in learning? Most of the slow learners were satisfied with using path of accomplishment on some lesson; on the other hand, all of the moderate and quick learners were satisfied with using path of accomplishment in studying. 2. Are you satisfied with the study result after the application of path of accomplishment? More than half of slow learners were satisfied with the result. Only some of them felt unsatisfied . The rest were satisfied if using this for a long time. Almost all of the moderate learners were satisfied with the result. The rest said their satisfaction was 70 - 90 percent. All of the quick learners were satisfied with the result of the study.

3. Do you agree with using the path of accomplishment in studying naturally? All of interviewed students with different levels of achievement revealed that using the path of accomplishment in studying Communicative English is a natural way to learn.

Conclusion It was found that after the application of the path of accomplishment: (1) Students paid more attention in eager- to - do in all aspects relating to chanda. The highest attention was paid on study voluntarily (4.34: 4.53), followed by be satisfied with study fully to get a knowledge and a success expectation not only for a grade (4.07: 4.55), finally always ready to learn new things (4.01: 4.38). Students paid very high attention on the first two items, the other is at high level.

(2) Students paid more attention to mindfulness in all aspects relating to viriya. Before applying, the highest attention was paid to ‘try your best to study’ ( 3.79), followed by feeling challenged to solve difficult problems to fulfill the goal (3.70), and finally develop leaning skills proficiently with diligent endurance and attention (3.67). After application a high level of attention was paid to ‘feel challenged to solve difficult problems to fulfill the goal, try your best to study, and develop learning skills proficiently with diligence, endurance and attention’ respectively (4.21, 4.14, 4.05).

(3) Students paid the highest level of attention to the importance of studying for the future life both before and after the application (3.96: 4.36). Before the application, they paid attention on determine to study strongly to fulfill the goal and pay attention to study or task at hand regarding the success as 3.79, and 3.77 while after the application their attention on both items were 4.11, and 4.21.

(4) Students paid high attention to all aspects relating to vimamsa. Before applying, the highest attention was paid on ready to adjust new techniques for effective study processes (3.81), followed by adjustments to the ways of studying if not appropriate (3.76), finally they planned self-study effectively (3.65). After the application, the greatest attention was paid adjusting the ways of studying if not appropriate, being ready to use new techniques for an effective study process and planning for self-study was last (4.15, 4.14, 4.07).

The results showed that students paid more attention in applying all aspects of path of accomplishment in studying than before the application. After the application two items of chanda were very high, the rest were obviously seen higher than before. Moreover, using the path of accomplishment can encourage students’ interests and it’s a natural way in studying English. In addition, this makes students study voluntarily because they can create intrinsic motivation.

From a westerner’s point of view, Thais do and think as having a sense of fun or ‘sanuk’ and lacking motivation without it. As a result they switch off when studying in English class, making them fail in studying. However, Adamson (2003) says “those who have integrated sanuk into their activities may then be viewed as having “intrinsic’ motivation”. Therefore, Using the path of accomplishment can solve problems with English language teaching and learning in Thailand since those who have path of accomplishment are equipped with intrinsic motivation. With the path of accomplish students learn for the true benefit and with spiritual effort. This will reduce education costs in teaching and studying, including teacher training, as it is not necessary to spend a lot of budget on generating interest to make a boring subject interesting as Malay (2011) says that the teacher can introduce extra information that can add interest to a boring text; but there is no attempt to explore ways texts can be dealt with through imaginative student tasks.

Recommendation 1. Implementing the path of accomplishment in the learning process can be successful for small classes or with volunteers.

2. To be effective, the path of accomplishment should be used for more than one course as it will be the traits of learners which can lead them to successful activities in the future.

References

Adamson,J (2003). Challenging beliefs in teach development: potential influences of Theravada Budhism upon Thais learning English. Asian EFL Journal, September 2003. Retrieved from: http://www.asian-elfl-journal.comsept 03 sub2.JS.pdf ASEAN Secretariat. (2014). ASEAN economic community 2014. Retrieved from http://www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community. Best, J.W. (1981). Research in Education. New Jersey :Prentice– Hall. Buddhadasapikku. (2006). Economics of Buddhism. Bangkok: Thammasapa. Bureau of the Budget. (2018). Budget 2018. Retrieved from: http://www.bb.go.th/budget_book/ e-Book2560/FILEROOM/CABILIBRARY60/DRAWER01/GENERAL/DATA0000/ 00000501.PDF Malay,Al (2011). Squaring the circle—reconciling materials as constraint with material as empowerment in B. Tomlinson(ed.). Materials Development and Language Teaching (second edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ministry of Education. (2012). National Education Act, BE 2552 (Amendment No. 2). Bangkok: The Teachers' Council of LatPhrao. Phra Dhammapitaka (P.A. Payutto). (1999). Education and Human Resource Development. 2nd ed. Bangkok: Buddhist Foundation. Religious Affairs Department. (2007). Moral and Ethical Development Plan Related to Sufficiency Economy Philosophy. Bangkok: Religious Affairs Department. Sujajanant, Jintana. (2015, May 12). Self-Directed Learning. Retrieved from: http://ejournal.edu.cmu.ac.th/data/2013-07-04-044138-86-16012553102943.pdf Uthumporn, Nongyao and Permpoon, Wassana. (2009). Development of a Learning Package intergratedthe Four Path of accomplishment for Enhancing Moral for Students at DhonburiRajabhat University. Bangkok: DhonburiRajabhat University. Vasee, Praves. (1992). Democracy. Bangkok: Moh-chao-Ban Publishing House. Watson Todd, Richard. (2016). “Commonalities and Diversity in Effect Teaching.” In The 1stRtInternational Conference on English Language Teaching (RtICELT) 2016 ProceedingsPathumtani, Thailand, May 14, 2016, p.17-26. Pathumtani: Faculty of Liberal Arts, Technology Rajamangala University of Thanyaburi.

Wiriyachitra, Al (29002). English-language teaching and learning in Thailand in this decade. Thai TESOL. Focus, 15(1), 4-9. Wongkekha, F.(2010). Education driven mechanism towards ASEAN community. Daily News (2010, March 2) Retrieved from http://social.obec.go.th/node/81

Implementing a Genre-based Approach: Modifications on the Teaching and Learning Cycle

Tawatchai Chaisiri

Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

A genre-based approach has played an important role in ESL/EFL contexts, especially in the field of teaching writing across the globe. The approach, however, has not been practically and widely applied to English language teaching practices in Thailand, particularly in higher education. This paper highlights research-based factors of applying the genre-based approach in a writing classroom at the tertiary level, by modifying the teaching stages of the SFL genre-based approach to suit student learning and classroom contexts. Twenty-eight students were taught in a four-month semester in accordance with genre pedagogy by using the stages of teaching that were modified throughout the course to suit the classroom teaching and learning activities. As a classroom research study, the collected data included student writing, an open-ended questionnaire, and teacher’s field notes, to record students’ ability in writing as well as their attitudes toward the teaching and learning activities. The data were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively based on teasing out themes as per theoretical and practical teaching principles. Practical elements pertinent to the concept of genre and communicative strategies that foster students’ writing ability were discussed. The findings reveal insights into and knowledge of implications on how to improve the teaching of writing in the Thai university context and in similar EFL contexts in the region.

Keywords: genre-based approach, teaching and learning cycle, joint construction, attitudes toward GBA

Introduction

A genre-based approach is a general term for any teaching methodology derived from genre pedagogy. The word “genre” can be used to refer to such literary works as drama, novel, sonnet, verse, etc. However, in linguistics, genre is a term that is known for its linguistic theories in more complex meanings, and different scholars in the field define the term “genre” differently, even though the rough meaning refers to types of texts (Bhatia, 1991; Paltridge, 2007). In the existing linguistic theories, genre pedagogy is derived from three traditions comprising the North American New Rhetoric (NR), English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) (Hyon, 1996). In this paper, a genre-based approach (GBA hereafter) refers to the one that has been developed from SFL, in which its applications have largely impacted primary and secondary school teaching and learning in Australia, in the teaching of English in the school curriculum in Great Britain (Paltridge, 2000), and in other countries such as Singapore (Lin, 2006a), Vietnam (Dang, 2002), and Bahrain (Bax, 2006).

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) genre pedagogy has been developed from a functional model of language theorized by renowned linguist M.A.K. Halliday (1973; 1978). Halliday’s theory of language proposes that language varies according to the context in which it is used. According to SFL, a text functions in two levels of context: the context of situation and the context of culture (Custance, 2007). In the context of situation, known as ‘register’, there are three variables which are categorized into three elements comprising ‘field’, ‘tenor’, and ‘mode’. Field involves the topic, content, or activity that is going on; tenor refers to the relationship between participants (e.g. speaker and listener, writer and reader); and mode is the channel of communication, e.g. spoken or written language (see Figure 1). At the level of cultural context, Martin and others (Christie, 1991; Derewianka, 1990; Hammond, 1987; Martin, 1984; Martin & Rothery, 1980, 1981, 1986) modified the model by adding ‘genre’ as another layer which is embedded in the cultural context. The concept of genre is also applied to explain any situational and cultural context in the real-world of social action or behavior.

Figure 1 A functional model of language (M. A. K. Halliday & Martin, 1993)

Genre pedagogy, widely known and used mainly as an approach to teaching writing, is informed by the notion of scaffolding proposed by Bruner (1978). Bruner contends that scaffolding involves “the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some tasks so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring” (Bruner, 1978, p. 19). The teaching methodology of GBA comprises four key stages of teaching the overall process which is known as the teaching and learning cycle: Building Knowledge of the Field, Modelling, Joint Construction, and Independent Construction (Derewianka, 1990; Hammond, 1987; Paltridge, 2001). Later, the stages were modified and adapted to particular contexts and even divided into a number of different stages, e.g. five stages with the added, final stage of “Comparing” (Koay, 2017), while the rest of the stages remain the same.

Building Knowledge of the Field, which is also known as Context Exploration (Derewianka, 1990; Koay, 2017), is the first stage of the GBA teaching and learning cycle. In this stage, students will be introduced to a variety of activities which aim for them to gain fundamental knowledge of the situational and cultural context. In other words, students will learn about why the text is created, what the text is about, to whom the text is intended, what the structure of the

text it is, what important language features of the text are used, etc. For ESL/EFL students, whose mother tongue is not English, knowledge about the language features can be taught in this stage so that the students can prepare themselves to imitate the same genre of text when they start writing (Dirgeyasa, 2016). Students are given model texts and they are asked to analyze the models so they can gain deeper knowledge of how the texts are constructed. Joint construction or joint negotiation (Callaghan & Rothery, 1988) is the stage when students are provided with support from the teacher and peers before they write on their own individually which is in the last stage of independent construction, or individual application (Lin, 2006b).

A genre-based approach (GBA) is widely and successfully applied to the teaching of writing in plenty of ESL/EFL contexts around the globe (Burns, 2001; Chaisiri, 2010; Cheng, 2008; Efendy, 2006; Kongpetch, 2003). However, in Thailand, little research focuses on this aspect of the teaching and learning cycle, especially the detailed processes of writing which directly affect students’ attitudes toward their learning of how to write and their ability in writing a well- organized essay. A few existing pieces of research involve using a GBA in teaching other skills, i.e. listening, speaking and reading (Ketmuni, 2008; Krisnachinda, 2006). GBA research into writing, so far, has sought the potentiality of applying a GBA in Thai contextual classrooms or in many case studies (e.g., Kongpetch, 2006; Krisnachinda, 2006). This research aimed to modify the teaching and learning process in an essay-writing classroom to holistically take into consideration students’ attitudes toward the teaching and learning cycle. The research questions were the following:

1. What are the problems of English major students in writing? 2. How can the genre-based approach be modified to help students learn to write in the stages of the teaching and learning cycle? 3. How do students perceive when implementing the stages of the teaching and learning cycle in the classroom?

Research method

Population and subjects

This study conforms to a case study with integration of participatory action research in that English major students were asked to participate voluntarily as participants in this study. They played an important role in giving information, feedback and opinions on how to modify the teaching and learning cycle stages, while the teacher acted as both a researcher and teacher of the class. The participants or subjects of the study comprised 28 third-year English for Communication students who were enrolled in an Essay Writing course in Semester 1 of Academic Year 2015, at the Faculty of Liberal Arts, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. In the semester, there were four groups of students taking the writing course. As a consequence, the researcher used a simple random sampling method to choose one group of the four, and the chosen group gave consent to participate in this research investigation.

Research design

In this study, the essay writing class was taught throughout 13 weeks by the teacher researcher. The students in the class studied five types of essays (see Table 1). The course content was based on the course description of the study program, English for Communication (revised in 2011), which was to be taught three consecutive hours per week in the 17-week semester. However, for the purpose of this research only 13 weeks were used. Data were collected using various types of data collection methods comprising pre-test and post-test essay writing, class observation notes, individual interviews, focus group interviews, student writing artifacts, and open-ended questionnaires.

Table 1 Teaching schedule

Modifications made in the Weeks Content Remarks teaching and learning cycle stages

1-2 Pre-test, - - The writing process was Writing process taught to foreground the stages of teaching so that students would be familiar with the teaching and learning process.

3-4 Process essays - The whole class wrote together - The students wrote with the teacher acting as a individually in the last scribe. stage. - Pair work was used in Joint Construction. 5-6 Division and - Group work was used in Joint - The students wrote classification Construction. individually in the last essays stage.

7-8 Cause-effect - Pair work was used in Joint - The group was divided into essays Construction with the first half two smaller groups. One of the group. group was assigned pair- - Individual work was used with work writing; the other the other half of the group. group worked individually. - The students wrote individually in the last stage.

Modifications made in the Weeks Content Remarks teaching and learning cycle stages

9-10 Comparison- - The whole class wrote - The students wrote contrast essays together with the teacher individually in the last acting as a scribe. stage. - Group work was used in Joint Construction. 11-12 Problem-solution - Pair work was used in Joint - The students wrote essays Construction. individually in the last stage. 13 Post-test - -

Data were collected during the one-semester course of teaching and learning, the process of which can be illustrated as the following (Figure 2):

Figure 2 The study process

The data generation process started with a writing pre-test which was assigned to the student participants. The purpose of the test was to assess the students’ ability in essay writing in the first class of the course so the teacher could analyze the students’ knowledge and ability in essay writing. The teacher researcher would know the students’ prior knowledge and skills in essay writing. The class was taught as planned. After each class, the students were asked to give ideas on how to improve the teaching so that the teacher could adjust his teaching process as well as materials to suit the students’ needs. During the class, the teacher-researcher acted as both the instructor and observer, teaching and observing the class at the same time. The teacher- researcher also kept a journal to reflect on his teaching for further improvement in teaching. After the class, the teacher organized a focus group interview the purpose of which was to consolidate what had been observed and to ask for student suggestions for teaching improvement, as well as to monitor students’ attitudes toward the activities carried out in class. Students’ writing artifacts were also collected by the teacher and the students were asked to compile their own writing in the form of a portfolio. Each student was assigned the task of making a portfolio. In other words, all student assignments or pieces of writing were collected and gathered by both the teacher and students themselves. At the end of the course, a writing post-test was given to the students. The purpose of the test was to assess students’ writing ability after they had studied in the GBA course throughout the semester.

The data collected were analyzed qualitatively in response to the research questions. Content analysis was used to tease out themes. The findings will be presented in relation to students’ attitudes toward the modified stages of the GBA teaching, and implications for the teaching of writing in the Thai University context will be proposed.

The teaching design

The teaching and learning processes were the basis of the teaching and learning cycle of the SFL GBA, consisting of the four stages of teaching:

1. Building knowledge of the field 2. Modelling 3. Joint construction 4. Independent construction

In the building knowledge of the field stage, the students were prepared for the learning process regarding knowledge about what and how to write. In the first classes, the students were equipped with writing processes, including brainstorming techniques (e.g. listing, clustering, freewriting), drafting, revising and editing, the stages of which resemble those from the process approach. When the students were familiar with the writing process, a particular type of text was taught using the four stages of the teaching and learning cycle.

Referring to the course description of the Essay Writing course, process essays, division and classification essays, cause and effect essays, comparison and contrast essays, and problem- solution essays were taught respectively throughout the semester, beginning with students exploring situational and cultural contexts of a process essay type first. In other words, the following questions were asked: What is the purpose of the kind of texts? Who is the text intended for? What are the generic structures of the text? What are the language features of the text? What tenses are used? etc. After the students had made sense of the type of text, they moved to the second stage of the teaching and learning cycle, modelling.

In the modelling stage, the students were presented with model texts, which were examples of an essay type. The students were asked to analyze the purpose of the model essays, the structure of the texts, and their language features, including tenses, a range of vocabulary and phrases, transitional words, and so on. The students were asked to work in groups of 4 or 5, brainstorming ideas in response to the questions being asked. Then, they gave presentations on the results of their analysis to the whole class, and compared their findings, and checked their answers with the teacher’s suggestions and explanations. The students were occasionally asked to work in pairs for particular text types to give variation to the teaching technique, before they tried analyzing the text individually. This stage of teaching also provides students with support from the teacher and their peers when they try analyzing the text for the first time.

The third stage of joint construction could be tailor-made to suit student learning with students’ suggestions and opinions to shape up class activities. Three different forms of joint construction activities were applied in the teaching: teacher-students joint construction, group writing and pair writing. Teacher-students joint construction is the process where the teacher acts as a scribe and

students help contribute to the text with the teacher and peer support to mutually create the whole text. In this study, the teacher-as-scribe activity was used first, and it was followed by either group writing, pair writing or both. Students were asked for their opinions to fine-tune the approach throughout the semester.

The teacher-as-scribe activity was intended to have students explicitly experience the way a more proficient writer writes while the students contributed to the essay they were helping to construct. The teacher started with how to brainstorm ideas for the essay outline, and then asked the students to contribute. The teacher recast student’s contributions if inappropriate regarding grammar, lexis, coherence and the like. The teacher himself thought aloud so that the students could see what was happening and why the text was constructed in a particular way.

Apart from the teacher acting as a scribe, he also asked the students to work in groups of 4-5 and help each other to construct the text. The students shared ideas and helped construct the whole text or essay in groups. Otherwise, they were assigned a different paragraph, and then the whole text was created by assembling all the paragraphs together. Alternatively, the joint construction could be a combination of these three techniques. For example, after the teacher-as-scribe activity constructed an introductory paragraph, the students were asked to work in groups to take responsibility of a particular paragraph, and then all of the paragraphs are reassembled to make a whole essay. Group writing could be substituted for pair writing. Whatever technique was applied in this stage of teaching, revising or improving the draft was crucial and could not be neglected. The revising and editing process has to be scaffolded like other stages so that students can be able to perform it individually in the final stage.

In the independent construction stage, students write their own text individually. This was carried out after the students had finished with the previous stages and were likely to have the ability to successfully write an essay on their own. This stage began with individual students selecting a topic for an essay. They planned their writing by brainstorming ideas and arranged their thesis statement, topic sentences, and supporting details. The students then wrote in class. After the drafting process, they were asked to revise their writing using suggested guidelines provided by the teacher. Peer editing was also included in this stage; students were paired up and exchanged their work as part of an editing task. The teacher walked around the classroom

monitoring the activities going on and providing support where possible. Common mistakes and errors were identified and corrected in class as a whole. The teacher gave students his written feedback so that they could improve their text and rewrite another draft. This activity conformed to the teacher-students conference activity, which is part of the process approach.

All in all, for each type of essay, the four stages of the teaching and learning cycle were applied and the students as research participants provided feedback and suggestions to modify the approach.

Findings and discussion

Based on the research questions, general problems about the students’ English ability, modifications of the teaching and learning cycle stages, and students’ attitudes toward the GBA are presented as follows:

Problems with writing

From the pre-test writing, it is found that the students had difficulties in writing which relate to their English proficiency. They are twofold in terms of generic structure and language features of their written texts.

Knowledge about the structure of an essay played an important role in this part since most of the students were not able to write their essays according to the generic structure of an essay, which comprises at least an introduction, a body paragraph, and a conclusion. Furthermore, their ability to arrange ideas in paragraphs was problematic. They wrote without a topic sentence to guide the main idea of the paragraph, transitions were not used properly, and supporting sentences were not well-organized to introduce ideas, compounded by grammatical errors that occurred throughout the piece of writing.

The students also lacked knowledge about language features that were to be used in writing a particular type of essay. The results of this study also revealed that the students had difficulties using language features in relation to sentence structure (e.g. fragments, comma splices, and run- ons), tenses, articles, word choice, and punctuation. Examples of student pretest writing are

shown in Figures 3 and 4. From the first example, Student 09 (ST 09) struggled to write the essay according to the essay structure as well as the language feature, while the second piece of writing belonging to ST 10 shows problematic issues of language features. The two essays were written in the pretest session to address the question: Why did you choose to study in the English for Communication program?

Figure 3 Example of pretest student writing (ST 09)

Figure 4 Example of pretest student writing (ST 10)

Modifications made when implementing the GBA

After teaching the four stages of writing with a focus on the joint construction process, the data suggested that the pattern of activities could be arranged in different ways depending on readiness of the teacher, instructional materials, and the teaching and learning context. Students’ writing pieces were of good quality in that they could generate ideas, plan their writing, create a draft, and revise and redraft their writing efficiently. The products were derived from different patterns of activities and techniques in the joint construction stage. As students’ opinions were valued in the teaching and learning cycle, the joint construction stage was made to help the students learn to write in three different forms of activities, which comprised teacher-students joint construction, group writing, and pair writing.

During the teaching process, the stage that could be changed or modified from time to time was joint construction. The student participants suggested changes to the teaching as follows:

Teacher acting as a scribe

The purpose of teaching in this stage was to demonstrate what the writer does when he or she writes. The process was similar to the think aloud technique in that the teacher asked the class to contribute to text that they were jointly constructing together on the board in front of the class. Many times the teacher rephrased students’ words so that they fit the essay being written. For example, when ST 05 said, “Some restaurants we will look many queues waiting for seats in those restaurants.” The teacher, then, rephrased the statement: “In some restaurants, we can see many long queues waiting for seats.” At this stage, the students would learn how the text was constructed, what the writer was thinking, and how to put these ideas into words.

From the teacher’s field notes, this form of teaching benefited the students who were participating, while some other students stayed quiet and were reluctant to participate in contributing to the text. One reason was they were not confident enough to say their words or sentences (Individual interview ST 03). Some students mentioned that they could see those who were not interested to participate; they just kept sitting there or did something else, instead of learning (Questionnaire e.g. STs 1, 9, 10, 12, 15). To address these issues, the teacher had to pay more attention to those who were not participating. Encouraging them to contribute by calling out their name could help boost their motivation and participation.

Writing in pairs

When implementing this activity, students worked with a partner to write an essay together. For each pair, one student had to act as a scribe writing the essay and the other student helped with providing ideas and suggestions for writing. They had to negotiate about what to write. They might also exchange their roles if they liked, since writing an essay together allowed more time for negotiation. Most of the pair-work writing was carried out in class, so the teacher had

a chance to walk around and provide feedback or assistance in terms of planning, drafting, revising, and editing. However, the teacher’s feedback was limited because of the time constraint.

Writing in groups

As a part of the joint construction stage, the students were divided into groups of 4-5 with one student acting as a scribe. The rest of the group members discussed ideas and concluded what they were going to write. In most cases, the scribe of each group was a student whose writing performance was better than the others. Therefore, for another round of group writing, the teacher had to pay much attention to the scribe selection process. Before writing, the teacher had to check if the scribe was ready and ensured that the group did not have the same scribe as the previous class.

It can be noted that the group writing activities helped the students learn from one another in groups. One student expressed his opinion in the focus group: “I’ve learned a lot from the group work writing. I knew what my friends were thinking about the topic and they also said the words in English. I never knew those words before” (e.g. ST 11). However, to this aspect of teaching, weak students seemed to be safe in the environment that their friends helped with the writing task and they themselves did not have to be very responsible for the group work. This is not the case when they write individually, but the problem is that they lack the ability to write on their own.

Students’ attitudes toward the modified GBA

From student respondents according to the questionnaire and focus group discussion, the data revealed students’ attitudes toward the three different forms of activities as follows:

Teacher-students joint construction

The students paid much attention to the importance of the teacher-students joint construction. They mentioned teacher support and peer assistance in the process of brainstorming, especially when they were trying to contribute to the text being written. In Figure 5, twenty-five students said that the lesson was easy to understand with the teacher acting as a scribe (93%, N = 27). This type of activity also indicated student mistakes and errors (48%) since the teacher recast their contribution before he wrote the text. By doing so, students learned how to express themselves in English in a more understandable manner and in the form of writing. Nevertheless, three students (11%) proposed that there were some students not participating in the activity. This occurrence tends to happen in classrooms in general no matter which subject it is for. It is the teacher who has to be cautious and alert in persuading as many students as possible to become engaged with the lesson. The teacher may occasionally call out those who seem to lag behind the lesson in order to stimulate them to learn. After all, all of the students indicated that the teacher-as-scribe activity was useful and helped them learn with a positive attitude (100%).

Teacher-students joint construction (N=27) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Figure 5 Students’ perceptions of teacher-student writing in the joint construction activity

Pair-work joint construction

The pair writing activity (see Figure 6) was acknowledged as encouraging students to work collaboratively with peer support (96%, N = 28) in constructing the text, which resulted in less time needed to finish the task (14%), while they said the opportunity to share ideas as well as

teacher support was lessened (4%). However, they said they had a positive attitude toward the teaching technique of pair writing (100%). The students mentioned the sharing of ideas and teacher support aspects as minimal because they probably contrasted pair writing with teacher- as-scribe writing. To this end, it is rather obvious that the teacher role was reduced and the responsibility was on the writing partner to a much larger extent.

Pair work joint construction (N=28) 30

0 sharing ideas teacher peer support task finished positive support quicker attitude

Figure 6 Students’ opinions of pair writing as a joint construction activity

Group-work joint construction

Figure 7 shows what the student respondents mentioned in regard to the joint construction technique of group writing. Twenty-eight students responded to the questionnaire, with 25 of them (89%, N = 28) regarding the activity as assisting them with a chance of sharing ideas with the group members on what they were going to write. This aspect is subject to collaborative learning, which is also in line with the social constructivist paradigm (Richards, 2001; Smith, 2001). Some of the students proposed that group writing promoted creative thinking (25%), while they thought teacher support was reduced (7%) in this teaching technique. Other students (7%) also said that a few students did not participate enough in the group work activity. Although the teacher’s role seems to be lessened in this kind of activity, the teacher has to walk around the class and make sure each group member does not have any difficulty, or he has to provide support when needed. Additionally, each group member has to be responsible for a particular duty so that nobody is left with nothing to do in the time provided.

Group work joint construction (N=28) 30

Figure 7 Students’ opinions of group writing in the joint construction activity

30 Teacher-students 25 joint construction 20 (N=27) 15 Group work joint 10 construction (N=28) 5 Pair work joint 0 construction (N=28)

Figure 8 A comparison of the three types of joint construction activities

In sum, Figure 8 shows a comparison of students’ opinions of the three forms of joint construction activities. The students tended to favor the activity in which the teacher acted as a scribe, saying this form activity helped them learn to write with the teacher and peer support. They also highlighted teacher support with correcting their contributions before he wrote in the whole text. By this, the students could be informed of their mistakes or errors they just made. Although group writing and pair writing had a similar level of attitude, the students mentioned the superior advantage of group writing and sharing ideas with friends over that of pair writing.

The sharing ideas aspect might happen when the students carried out the task with their friends that promoted creative thinking. This is aligned with Shahini and Riazi (2010)’s work which contends that interaction encourages creative thinking.

Conclusion and implications

The results of this study suggest that when implementing the GBA in an essay writing classroom, students were likely to have a positive attitude toward the teaching and learning cycle since their background and learning styles were supportive to group work activities (Chaisiri, 2011). Thus, emphasis should be put on activities in the teaching and learning stage of joint construction in which students have a chance to work in groups. As the results of the study suggest, students favored the activity in which the teacher acted as a scribe, group writing and pair writing, respectively; the teacher-as-scribe activity seemed to be superior to the others. However, in reality, those forms of activities complement one another. That is, after the activity with the teacher acting as a scribe has been carried out, group writing should follow, and pair writing can also be arranged to strengthen students’ writing ability. These activities are supportive to students’ learning, which is persistent to the notion of scaffolding (Gibbons, 2007). By doing so, students gain knowledge and skills of genre writing and subsequently develop the capability to construct their own text independently (Paltridge, 2004).

For the sequence of instruction, if possible, the teacher-as-scribe activity should be arranged at the start of the joint construction stage so that students will have an opportunity to make sense of what the writer does when he actually writes. This resembles the stage of modeling in the teaching and learning cycle in which students can see an example of a genre under study. In other words, students are scaffolded by the teacher and their peers before they can write on their own. However, students’ participation by contributing their own words to the mutual text seems to be problematic if managed inappropriately, e.g. some might dominate others, while some do not contribute to the text at all. Furthermore, the mutually written text is not exactly the one a particular student needs to have, because the teacher has to recast various students’ contribution to make one complete text. Also, it is subject to the teacher’s own English proficiency when he rewords or corrects students’ mistakes before he does the writing (Chaisiri,

2011). These reasons give rise to the need for complementary activities of group writing and pair writing.

Activities in teaching and learning how to write should vary. In the joint construction stage, the teacher may act as a scribe for the first class session, planning the writing and work through with students writing an introductory paragraph. A particular group of 4-5 students might be assigned a different body paragraph before all the paragraphs are assembled to make a complete text or essay. When students are familiar with the writing process, pair writing might not be necessary. Alternatively, after the teacher-as-scribe activity has been applied, pair writing could be followed since pair writing seems to provide students with greater probability in writing participation, although a range of ideas may be restricted when compared to the group writing activity.

In addition to the teacher’s decision on teaching and learning activities is the students’ active participation. If students could take part and make choices in their own learning activities, they would probably find them encouraging. Consequently, students would be engaged in the teaching and learning activities, and this accounts for students’ learning motivation.

Overall, the teaching and learning context and the students themselves are critically important and directly influence the teacher’s decision for classroom activities. If the teacher is proficient in the language and has considerable experience and expertise in teaching, he or she probably has a large proportion of teacher-as-scribe activities, while less experienced teachers may find group writing and pair writing less applicable and practical in their own teaching contexts. It is the teacher who decides and designs the teaching.

References

Bax, S. (2006). The role of genre in language syllabus design: the case of Bahrain. International Journal of Education Development, 26(3), 315-328. Bhatia, V. K. (1991). A genre-based approach to ESP materials. World Englishes, 10(2), 153- 166. Bruner, J. S. (1978). The role of dialogue in language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R. Jarvella, & W. Levelt (Eds.), The child's conception of language. New York: Springer-Verlag. Burns, A. (2001). Genre-based approaches to writing and beginning adult ESL learners. In C. N. Candlin & N. Mercer (Eds.), English language teaching in its social context (pp. 200- 207). New York: Routledge. Callaghan, M., & Rothery, J. (1988). Teaching factual writing: a genre based approach. Marrickville, N.S.W.: DSP Literacy Project, Metropolitan East Region. Chaisiri, T. (2010). Implementing a genre pedagogy to the teaching of writing in a university context in Thailand. Language Education in Asia, 1(1), 181-199. Chaisiri, T. (2011). Teaching writing in a Thai university context: considerations for introducing a genre-based approach. (DEd Doctoral thesis), University of South Australia. Cheng, A. (2008). Analyzing genre exemplars in preparation for writing: the case of an L2 graduate student in the ESP genre-based instructional framework of academic literacy. Applied Linguistics, 29(1), 50-71. doi:10.1093/applin/amm021 Christie, F. (1991). Teaching writing in the junior primary school: establishing some directions. Australian Journal of Reading, 14(2), 145-149. Custance, B. (2007). A functional model of language Teaching ESL students in mainstream classroom: language in learning across the curriculum readings (2nd ed., pp. 38–42). South Australia: The State of South Australia, Department of Education and Children's Services. Dang, T. K. A. (2002). Applying a genre-based approach in teaching the writing of the English discussion genre to Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level. (Master of Education MEd), University of Melbourne. Derewianka, B. (1990). Exploring how texts work. New South Wales: Primary English Teaching Association. Dirgeyasa, W. I. (2016). Genre-based approach: what and how to teach and to learn writing. English Language Teaching, 9(9), 45-51. doi:10.5539/elt.v9n9p45 Efendy, Y. (2006). The implementation of genre-based approach in an EFL context. Gibbons, P. (2007). Scaffolding language and learning Teaching ESL students in mainstream classroom: language in learning across the curriculum readings (2nd ed., pp. 25-37). South Australia: The State of South Australia, Department of Education and Children's Services. Halliday, M. A. K. (1973). Explorations in the functions of language. London: Arnold. Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: the social interpretation of language and meaning. London: Edward Arnold. Halliday, M. A. K., & Martin, J. R. (1993). Writing science: literacy and discursive power. London: Falmer Press. Hammond, J. (1987). An overview of the genre-based approach to the teaching of writing in Australia. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 10(2), 163-181.

Hyon, S. (1996). Genre in three traditions: implications for ESL. TESOL Quarterly, 30(4), 693- 722. Ketmuni, M. (2008). The use of genre-based approach to develop English reading comprehension of the undergraduate students at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. (M.A. Master of Arts Degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language), Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok. Koay, J. (2017). What is the genre-based approach to writing? Retrieved from http://www.edumaxi.com/what-is-the-genre-based-approach-to-writing/ Kongpetch, S. (2003). The implications of the genre-based approach on the teaching of English writing at the Department of Foreign Languages, Khon Kaen University in north-east Thailand. (PhD doctoral thesis), University of Technology, Sydney, Sydney. Kongpetch, S. (2006). Using a genre-based approach to teach writing to Thai students: a case study. Prospect, 21(2), 3-33. Krisnachinda, S. (2006). A case study of a genre-based approach to teaching writing in a tertiary context in Thailand. (DEd Doctoral thesis), The University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Lin, B. (2006a). Genre-based teaching and Vygotskian principles in EFL: the case of a university writing course. Asian EFL Journal, 8(3), 226-248. Lin, B. (2006b). Vygotskian principles in a genre-based approach to teaching writing. Nagoya University of Commerce and Business Journal of Language, Culture and Communication (NUCB JLCC), 8(3), 69-83. Martin, J. R. (1984). Language, register and genre. In F. Christie (Ed.), Language studies: children’s writing: reader (pp. 21-30). Geelong, Victoria: Deankin University Press. Martin, J. R., & Rothery, J. (1980). Writing project: report no. 1: working papers in linguistics: Linguistics Department, University of Sydney. Martin, J. R., & Rothery, J. (1981). Writing project: report no. 2: working papers in linguistics: Linguistics Department, University of Sydney. Martin, J. R., & Rothery, J. (1986). What a functional approach to the writing task can show about 'good writing'. In B. Couture (Ed.), Functional approaches to writing. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Paltridge, B. (2000). Genre knowledge and the language learning classroom. EA Journal, 18(2), 52-69. Paltridge, B. (2001). Genre and the language learning classroom. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Paltridge, B. (2004, 28-23 October 2004). Approaches to teaching second language writing. Paper presented at the English Australia Conference 2004: English in Australia: what's on the menu?, Adelaide, South Australia. Paltridge, B. (2007). Approaches to genre in ELT. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (Vol. 15, pp. 931-943): Springer US. Richards, J. C. (2001). Planning goals and learning outcomes Curriculum development in language teaching (pp. 113-118). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shahini, G., & Riazi, A. M. (2010). A PBLT approach to teaching ESL speaking, writing, and thinking skills. ELT Journal, 1-10. doi:10.1093/elt/ccq045 Smith, J. (2001). Modeling the social construction of knowledge in ELT teacher education. ELT Journal, 55(3), 221-227. doi:10.1093/elt/55.3.221

Problems in Learning English for Communication 1 Course at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

Suarsaraha Suwannathep

Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Since English for Communication 1 Course is required as one of the compulsory subjects in Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi; every first-year student has to enroll in this newly developed subject which has been offered to students from 2015.

The objectives of this study were to 1) study freshmen’s problems in learning English for Communication 1 Course, and 2) survey and analyze freshmen’s problems in learning English for Communication 1 Course. The sample consisted of 359 students who registered in this subject in the first semester of 2015. The instruments was comprised of a questionnaire edited by three scholars. The researcher collected and analyzed the data using statistics which include frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation.

The findings were 1) most of the students were from high school 88.14%, 2) the students had problems in both writing and speaking. In conclusion, students’ educational background and students’ motivation in English learning affected students’ problems in learning the English for Communication 1 Course. It is recommended that the findings of this research should be used as fundamental information for English teachers to help improve RMUTT students learning English.

Keywords: problems in ELT learning, students, compulsory course

Background

English is widely used as a tool in communication nowadays. The official language of the United Nations, European Unioin, and ASEAN is English. It implies that not only the officers use English, but also the people use it in daily life, tourism, and education. Because of the importance of English above, Thai students should study it. Thai students have learnt English since they were in primary school. The average year of Thai students in English learning is over 10 years. However, Thai students cannot use it in communication, and Thai students’ ability in English is nearly the last rank of the ASEAN countries. Therefore, English teaching and learning problems should be solved. As a result, problems in learning English for Communication 1 Course at Rajanangala University of Technology Thanyaburi are of interest in the teaching and learning of English arena.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study were as follows:

1. To study freshmen’s problems in learning English for Communication 1 Course.

2. To survey and analyze freshmen’s problems in learning English for

Communication 1 Course.

Significance of the Study

This research will be beneficial as follows:

1. It can be used as a guideline to solve students’ problems in learning English.

2. It can encourage researchers to do research following the same research model.

3. It encourages teachers and administrators to improve education policy in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages.

Scope of the Study

The study involved 359 first-year students taking English for Communication 1 Course in the first semester of the academic year 2015 at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi as participants in the study.

Definition of Terms

1. Problems in ELT learning refers to any problems in English language teaching and learning.

2. Students is 359 first-year students taking English for Communication 1 Course in the first semester of the academic year 2015 at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi.

3. Compulsory course refers to fundamental course that every student must enroll in because it’s a university rule.

In summary, it is necessary that students require a good English ability so that they will be equipped for their future career or further study. This research aimed to study problems in learning English for Communication 1 Course at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi.

Literature review

The review of the related literature is divided into three sections: skills used in learning English for Communication 1 course, English Teaching and Learning in Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, and previous studies concerning problems in learning English.

1. Skills used in learning English

In this section, skills used in learning English is presented in order to form background information which is useful to detect students’ language development.

There are two types of skills used in learning English: receptive and productive skill. Receptive skill is defined as languages which can be understood when they occur in the context of reading and listening. Productive skill is described as words, or messages that students can directly produce in speaking and writing. In foreign learning and teaching, students need receptive skill more than productive skill. This is because learners who study foreign language usually have limited numbers of vocabulary. When they do not understand words, they cannot produce these words correctly. In summary, skills used in learning English is divided into receptive and productive skill. In terms of receptive skill, it is divided into listening and reading. In addition,

productive skill is divided into speaking and writing. This involves English skills, all of which contribute to communication.

2. English teaching and learning in Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi

Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi has long established. There are ten faculties and one college. In 2017 and 2016, there were 25,192 and 24,265 students respectively. Every student has to enroll 3 English subjects as compulsory courses: English for communication 1, English for Communication 2, and English Conversation. In this research, English for Communication 1 course is studied, and students are required to study English in four skills as presented in the following:

English for Communication 1 Course Description:

Vocabulary, expressions and language patterns for giving personal information, routines and interests; short conversations in various situations; writing short statements; and listening to and reading short and simple texts.

In addition, there are some researches conducted by English lecturers at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi:

Chaisiri (2015) studied 26 students’ English writing ability. The study sample were third-year English for Communication major students. The methodology used in this research was a genre- based approach. Moreover, pe-test, post-test, questionnaire, focus group interview, and a check- list for student writing assessment were used as the instruments. The results revealed that students were able to write effective essays in English by using genre-based approach teaching model.

Suwannathep (2017) studied the effects of the writing process by 263 participants who were first year students. The instruments used in this research were pretest and posttest essays. Furthermore, VocabProfile, a software program, was used to find students’ lexical development. Then, a t-test was a statistical method used in this study. The research results revealed that students’ overall ability before and after using the writing process as a method of teaching were significantly different at the level of .01.

Thongrit (2016) implemented path of accomplishment in teaching grammar. The sample of the study were 202 first year students. Achievement tests and questionnaires were used as tools. Moreover, t-test and standard deviation were used as statistical method. The findings were the students’ satisfaction towards implementing path of accomplishment in teaching grammar was high, and the efficiency in learning grammar by using path of accomplish was significantly different at the 0.05 level.

Lekdamroungsak (2015) studied bilingual vocabulary size test of English for Thai learners. The participants were 100 education students. Moreover, the data were analyzed to find the reliability, the difficult index, and the discrimination index of the test. The research results revealed that the test reliability was acceptable, the difficult index of the test was at 0.37, and the discrimination index needed to be revised.

Janklai (2014) studied English pronunciation errors. The participants were 60 students who enrolled English Conversation course. A Pronunciation test and questionnaires were used as tools. The result revealed that none of participants could totally contributed 100 words listed in the pronunciation test. The participants had difficulties in pronouncing final consonants (t/d/p. Most participants had a positive attitude towards English learning.

3. Previous studies concerning problems in learning English

There are several related studies concerning problems in learning English. Many researchers have presented these studies’ results as follows:

Udomkietsakul (2015) studied problems in English teaching and learning in public universities, Phathumthani Province. The research revealed that there were four main factors concerning difficulties in English teaching and learning: teachers, learners, curriculum, and materials used in teaching.

Pongpanich (2011) studied students’ problems in English speaking. The participants were Management major’ students at Kasetsart University. The research results revealed that students

were lack of confident in English speaking because they knew limited vocabularies, and didn’t use it in daily lives.

Prilek (2011) studied factors effect English students’ speaking. The samples were second year English major students, Faculty of Education, Rajabhat universities in Bangkok. The research results revealed that factors effect English students’ speaking were the way to study English, frequent habit of practicing English, and students’ grades.

Jaeni (2010) studied English students’ problems in reading. The participants were first year English major students, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Yala Rajabhat University. The research results revealed that students didn’t have ability in difficult word guess, and catch the main ideas. Moreover, students’ attitude in reading effects students’ ability in reading.

Chayarathi (2009) studied problems and students needs in English learning. The samples were undergraduate students at Jombeng Rajabhat University. The result reveals that there were five problems in English learning consisting of curriculum, teachers, learners, evaluation, and students’ ability in using English.

Wiriyachitra (2002) studied the role of English and the problems of English teaching in Thailand. The difficulties in English language teaching were heavy teaching loads, too many students in a class, and inadequately equipped classrooms. In addition, there were difficulties for learners consisted of lack of chance to use English in daily lives, being to shy to speak English in class, and lack of responsibilities in English learning.

Methodology

In this section, the participants, instrument, and data analysis are presented.

1. The participants The participants of this study were 359 first-year students who enrolled in the English for Communication 1 Course in the first semester of the academic year 2015 at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi.

2. Instrument The instrument used in this study was a Thai questionnaire. There were three parts: personal information, problems in English learning, and other problems. Moreover, there were

three experts, Asst. Prof. Dr.Phanida Somprajob, Assc. Prof. Dr.Nitaya Suksaeresup, and Dr. Rujirat Runghaupha, checked and edited the instrument.

3. Data analysis To analyze students’ problems in English learning, questionnaires were analyzed for means, standard deviations, and t-test.

Findings

In this section, the findings of the study are presented according to the objectives of the study stated in section one.

Personal information

In this section, students’ background was revealed that most students were from High school 89.14`% whereas another group of students were from Vocational college.

Table 1 Education Level

Education Level Person Percentage Education Level High School 320 89.14 Vocation College 38 10.58 No answer 1 0.28 Total 359 100

In addition, students’ former grades were at 2.51 to 3.00, and 2.01 to 2.50. Moreover, 217 students thought that English is useful for their workplaces. Then, 182 students didn’t like English structure, so they didn’t like to study English.

Problems in learning English for Communication 1 course

In this section, students couldn’t write English leave letter, commuted English in classrooms, and introduced themselves in English.

Table 2 Problems in learning English for Communication 1 Course

Problems in learning English for Communication 1 Mean SD. course (  ) 1. You have speaking problem while you are studying 3.33 .898 English 2. You cannot introduce yourself in English 2.53 1.115 3. You cannot tell information about your daily routine 3.00 1.018 in English 4. You cannot tell information about your interest in 2.95 .995 English 5. You cannot communicate English in various situations 3.23 .975 6. You have listening problem while you are studying 3.12 1.007 English

Table 2 (Continued)

Problems in learning English for Communication 1 Mean SD. course (  ) 7. You do not understand English conversation in 2.99 .981 classroom 8. You have reading problem while you are studying 2.86 1.049 English 9. You do not understand meaning of words in lessons 3.12 .926 10. You do not interest in learning English because you 2.80 1.084 do not know meaning of words 11. You do not understand comprehensions in lessons 3.14 .925 12. You cannot read English messages 2.68 1.078 13. You have writing problem while you are studying 2.93 1.090 English 14. You cannot write English messages 2.78 1.103 15. You cannot write English sick leave letters 3.38 .986 16. You cannot commute English with foreigners 3.16 .999 17. Teacher assigned a lot of works 2.81 1.018 18. The content is difficult 2.84 .971 19. You do not review lessons outside classroom 3.13 .939 20. You do not have any opportunities in practicing 2.79 1.081 English outside classroom Problems in learning English for communication 1 course 2.98 .773

Other problems in learning English for Communication 1 course

In this section, 36 students answered this item. Other problems in learning English for Communication 1 course were learners’ problem, lazy, English listening, and English reading.

Conclusion and discussion

This section is divided into two parts: conclusion and discussion.

1. Conclusion Three hundred and fifty-nine students’ questionnaires were analyzed. Firstly, personal information was revealed that most students were from high school, three hundred and twenty students. The students’ former grades were 3.00-2.51. Moreover, most students agreed that English is useful for their future career. In contrast, one hundred and eighty two students didn’t like English grammar. They thought English is difficult. Furthermore, one hundred and fifty eight students agreed that listening to English songs improved English learning. Secondly, problems in learning English for communication 1 was presented. Students mentioned that they couldn’t write sick leave letters, speak English in classrooms, commute in various situations, know English idioms, review English lessons outside classrooms, tell daily activities, and introduce themselves in English. Lastly, other problems in learning English for Communication 1 course were presented. Thirty six students answered this item. They stated that learners’ problems, lazy, problems in English speaking and listening caused them to have difficulties in learning English.

2. Discussion Regarding students’ questionnaires, the results revealed that students didn’t like to study English because they didn’t like to study English grammar, and agreed that it was difficult. Pongpanich (2011) studied English speaking problems. The participants were undergraduate students at Kasertsart University. The research results revealed that students were not confident in English speaking because they had limited vocabularies. Any way, students agreed that English is useful for their future career. They improved their English by listening to English songs. Moreover, they chose that whenever they encountered difficult words, they should ask English teachers. Thus, teachers should encourage students to concentrate on receptive skills, reading and listening, so that they will automically produce and use words in speaking and writing, productive skills.

References

Bert, John W. (1981). Research in Education. 5th ed. EglewoodCliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc,

Byne, Donn. (1995). Teaching Oral English. Harlow:Longman Group.

Bygate, M. (1988). Speaking. Oxford : Oxford University Press.

Crystal David. (2001). English as a global language.Cabbridge: Cambridge University press.

Jacobs, H., Zinkgraf, S., Wormuth, D., Hartfiel, V. & Hughey, J. (1981). Testing ESL composition. Rowley: Newbury House.

Johnson, Keith. (1982). Caommunication Syllabus Design and Methodology. Pergamon.

Prailek (2011). Factors effect students’ speaking. Faculty of Education. Saunsunantha Rajabhat University.

Rivers.W.M. (1972). Teaching foreign language skills. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.

Rubin,J. &Thomson, I. (1994). How to be a more successful a language learner. USA : Heinle.

Suwannathep (2017) The Effects of the Writing Process: A Study of Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi Students’ Writing Development. Advanced Journal of Technical and Vocational Education, 1(2), 46-51.

Fossilization in Early Childhood Language Acquisition

Rotsukhon Songkhong1 , Lawrence Honkiss Platon2

1Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand 2Swinakarinwirot University, Thailand E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

Fossilization in adult learners has proven to exist for most Thai adult learners (Honkiss, 2009 and Honkiss & Hemchua, 2013). Apart from this, researchers mainly focus on finding the root cause of fossilization after puberty or after the Critical Period. Hence, there are very few research concerning the situation and circumstances that is happening to language learner prior to the Critical Period of language acquisition, and even more extensive, prior to their first year of age.

This research aimed to prove the critical period of sound acquisition of young learners, toddlers specifically, and identify the retention level of the acquired sounds. The participants of this research were three American-Thai toddlers, three Filipino-Thai toddlers and three Chinese-Thai toddlers. This study was a longitudinal study that lasted for three years. Evaluations were conducted once in every year to monitor their progress. A 7-point scale Level of Familiarity scale was used in order to provide interpretation for the correct responses of the participants. The selection of the participants was based on voluntary basis.

The analysis revealed that a) there were no significant variations in terms of sound recognition and b) the retention levels of the sounds acquired from one-language input to three-language were all the similar in retention level (6-mostly familiar and 7-completly familiar). This concludes that regardless of what types language, toddlers naturally recognize new sounds with ease. The plasticity of their brain was incredibly receptive with the sounds specifically when intentionally uttered by a human being towards them. On the other hand, the sounds acquired during the critical period maybe hypothesized as a period permanent sound priming and hence, sounds that were not primed may be difficult to prime at all—and it leads to early fossilization.

This study has tremendous impact on how linguist interpreted the Critical Period of language acquisition and how essential human interaction for early childhood language acquisition.

Keywords: fossilization, sound acquisition, critical period

Introduction

It is always a marvel for most people and researchers the ease and rapidity of children to acquire their first language or even their second language. In contrast to adult learners, Birdsong (1992) claimed that it is common and typical for adult learners not to acquire fully the target language.

Moreover, it is also widely observed that even parents of immigrant families who are dwelled in the language communities for decades find great difficulty reaching native-like fluency than those of their children. These parents, although can communicate with great extent using the target language, have varying success in terms of accent, word choice and grammatical features. The mark of non-native output or idiosyncratic English is still present. Following this, Schwartz & Sprouse (1996) proposes that adult development to acquire the target language often reached permanent error stage or “fossilizes” and no amount of teaching can defossilized it. The concept of fossilization was first put forth by Selinker (1972) in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), which he defined as:

“Linguistic items, rules, and subsystems which speakers of a particular native language will tend to keep in their interlanguage relative to a particular language, no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the target language (p.215).”

Although studies related to fossilization produce only prima facie evidence as contrasted with a wide range of studies in language acquisition but the study on fossilization in language learning is as important as study in acquisition in language learning and it should be treated with the same urgency. This study mainly focusses on the microscopic view of fossilization by looking on the specific time of language acquisition-the sound acquisition. The failure of adult learners and the success of young learner to acquire the language begs an important question: When is the right

time to start learning a language? Many researchers often refer to the Critical Period Hypothesis (Johnson & Newport, 1989) as the basis. No one dispute the hypothesis that the earlier a learner starts, the better outcome although there are learners who started learning the target language prior to the critical period but still unable to attained native-like fluency. Apart from this, no one also questions how early is considered as the earliest to start acquiring a language except Kuhl (2011). She conducted a revolutionary research on the subject by applying the latest innovation in neuro science to measure how listening experience alter the brain structures of the participants—infants. She found out the critical period for sound acquisition for a normal infant was between 9 months to 11 months. Hence, this period of sound acquisition is of stupendous important because this is an early indicators and infant’s success to acquire a second language and second, to at least redefine the Critical Period Hypothesis on which most researcher use as a bench mark. In this study however, the researchers aimed to extend the study of Kuhl (2011) and determine the whether the sounds acquired during the critical period can be considered as permanently primed and readily available for retrieval. Moreover, it is also the objectives of this research to revisit, if not to redefine, the scale commonly accepted as critical period and second is to reconfirm the findings of Kuhl (2011) by applying in Thai-multilingual context. Specifically, this study aimed to find out the following:

1. to identify the variation in terms of sound recognition on the different language input

2. to determine the retention level of the sounds acquired after the intervention during critical period of sound acquisition of toddlers in Thai multi-lingual context

Methodology

This research was a longitudinal study with a total duration of 3 years for the data collection stage. It started in August 2012 until August 2015. The research techniques used was both referential and sequential mixed method design based on the study of Kuhl (2012) on the transition of being a culture bound listeners (adult learners) and citizens of the worlds (young learners). There were three American-Thai (AT) toddlers, three Filipino-Thai (FT) toddlers and three Chinese Thai (CT) toddlers participated in this study. The participants were all born on the same year but in different months.

Procedures

Phase 1: Phonics discrimination training

The first phase of this study applied the phonics discrimination procedures commonly used for language intervention Kuhl (2011). Participants were trained to discriminate the changing of vowel sounds until they are fully competent to respond accordingly. All participants (9 out of 9) responded similarly after 4 sessions. All of them were able to properly categorized the sound after these sessions.

Phase 2: Sound input intervention

The sound intervention was conducted for 16 sessions (2 times a week for two months) for an hour every session for each language input. The starting day of intervention session was computed based on the date of birth of the participants. Each session started after the participants turned 9 months and lasted when they were 11 months old. There were three languages involve in this study: Japanese, Arabic and French. Three participants of had 1-language input, 2-languge inputs and 3-languge inputs respectively. The researchers along with a Language Input Teachers (LIT) visited the residence of the participants and run the sessions during the critical period of sound acquisition claimed by Kuhl (2012). However, this intervention was modified in a sense that the researchers added sound distractors from another teachers during the session. While the language input teachers was conducting a training (directly at the line of sight of the toddlers), Sound Distractors (SD) from another teacher (out of line of sight and hidden in a box) was also conducted in a form of reading a story book intended for 3 years old (See Fig. 1). The intention of this modification was to know if the participants can acquire sounds by merely hearing those without proper attention and human interaction

SD LA LIT

AT 1

Figure 1 Room setting during intervention

The following are the language inputs and the language distractors during the critical period of sound acquisition:

AT1 –Japanese (Distractor language: Filipino)

AT2 –Japanese and Arabic (Distractor language: Filipino)

AT3 –Japanese, Arabic and French (Distractor language: Filipino)

FT1–Japanese (Distractor language: Chinese)

FT2–Japanese and Arabic (Distractor language: Chinese)

FT3–Japanese, Arabic and French (Distractor language: Chinese)

CT1–Japanese (Distractor language: English)

CT2–Japanese and Arabic (Distractor language: English)

CT3–Japanese, Arabic and French (Distractor language: English)

Phase 3: Post assessment

The post assessment was similar to the assessment during phonics discrimination training. Participants were asked to determine the changing of sounds that was distinct to each language input as compared to their bilingual mother-tongue. The post assessment was the divided into 3 periods. The first period was immediately after the sound input intervention, the second was exactly a year after the sound input intervention and the last period was exactly two years after the sound input intervention. It was also agreed that during the entire duration of the study, participants will not be engaged in any related language learning courses in order to validate the retention of the sound inputs during the critical period.

Results and discussion

SOUND RECOGNITION SCORES

70 11 Months 65 24 months Percent Correct Percent 60 36 months 55 AT1 AT2 AT3 FT1 FT2 FT3 CT1 CT2 CT3 Participant Code

Figure 2 Summary of sound recognition scores

On the variation

As shown in Fig. 2, all participants, in terms of sound recognition, have varying scores on the different language input. It varies but they were not significantly apart from each other and they were on the acceptability level (<60%). On the contrary, participants FT1 and FT2 showed an increased percentage of correctness. Participants under CT category had a highest score in general scores (푥 = 73%) while the AT category had slightly the lowest in general (푥 = 67%).

The FT category, moreover, had most diverse scores with no pattern traces from the first assessment until the last. FT1 got the highest score on the last assessment (74%) while FT2 got the lowest score on the same assessment. In general, five out of nine participants showed a systematic average decline of 3% from the 11th month to the 36th month.

Based on this results, it can be concluded that there was a slight variation in terms of participants’ performance but it was very slight leading it to be considered as insignificant. Supporting Bruer (2008), infants are superior language learners compare to adults. They naturally acquired the distributional properties of the phonetic units of the language presented to them (Kuhl, Williams, Lacerda, Stevens, & Lindblom, 1992) and remember those almost automatically. Ladefoged (2001) proposed that each language is composed of around 40 distinct elements or phonemes which provides diversion in meaning from cat to mat. However, phonemes are actually non-identical sounds or phonetic units but may function similarly in one language. For example, Thai-learning infants have to group the phonetic units of r and l in a single phonetic category (Thai l). In some cases, the phonetic units of n in English is recognized as l phonetic category e.g. Ball  Bon (pronounced in Thai). Moreover, Thai is a tonal language (5 tones) and hence, Thai infants are more acquainted with various tonal sounds than other western counterparts. It would be very difficult for westerner to distinguish the tone of words for new (Maai) and wood (Mai). Filipino-learning infants on the other hand have to group the phonetic units of f and p in a single phonetic category (Filipino P). It would seem laborious for adult to distinguish different phonetic variants but this study suggest that it is quite an opposite for the infants. For infants, they seemed to have a storehouse of sounds and they unconsciously categorized appropriate grouping based on their language community whereas adult learners might need conscious categorization of sound in order to acquire a foreign-looking sound. It is safe to say that regardless of any language sound input, as far as human interaction is concerned, toddlers do store those sounds and automatically characterized them into 40 odd phonemic categories as a foundation of their mother-tongue language.

On the error count and retention level

In terms of error count, the researchers of this study counted and tallied the errors made by the participants and found no significant relationship among them. This assumption was supported

by statistical analysis as shown in Table 1. The findings showed that there is no significant difference among the errors committed by the participants from the 11th month and on the 24th month. Only the 11th and the 24th month were considered because toddlers might already have characterized distinct sound elements or phonemes from the LIT and their mother-tongue language. Mistakes were committed randomly and the main cause of errors was not because the participants did not recognize or remember the sounds but because of the attention given to the Language Input Teachers. The language input form the distractors did not appear in any of the registered sounds. These findings supported the claim of Doupe & Kuhl (2008) that toddlers computational and communicative ability can be enabled by social interaction. Toddlers acted spontaneously and even during the tasks were given. Toddlers were not in the proper mode or attention when the errors were committed. In fact, the researchers could not have categorized them as errors because after few repetitions of task, toddlers were able to answer them correctly. But for the sake of error count, certain taxonomy and rubric were implemented, hence, wrongly answered task or delayed response for a certain period of time will be considered as error. They do know the instruction but they seemed to forget when the actual task was given because they simply want to do something else, hence, they could not respond accordingly. It can be concluded that the errors committed are just mistakes or slips and those can be corrected because the initial sound was already encoded and it is still available for easy retrieval.

Table 1 Kruskal-Wallis test comparing the number of Errors from the participants during the 11th month and 24th month

N Mean (Participants) Rank

11th month 9 63. 1 24th month 9 65. 3 Total 18 Chi-Square 4. 99 Df 3 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) . 013

Note: There is no significant difference among the errors from the 11th month and 24th month, H=2. 27 (2, N=18), p>. 05.

Referring back to Figure 2, the overall average correctness is 67% from the first assessment to the last assessment. Meaning to say, the retrieval of information of toddlers is on the acceptability level and the sounds acquired after the intervention during critical period of sound acquisition of toddlers in Thai multi-lingual context was already primed. It can be safely assumed that more than half of the sound inputs were available for easy retrieval, hence, it is critical to consider that sound input during critical period maybe permanently acquired and in the same manner, the unheard sound maybe permanently be impossible to acquire. These findings open new perspective in the field of fossilization. As Newport (1990) claims that infants have superior learning ability to acquire simplified language and therefore a wrongly simplified language was also an easy task to acquire. Meaning, as early as infant some linguistic features are already taking place into permanent position following the concept of neural commitment (Kuhl, 2004; Zhang, Kuhl, Imada, Kotani, & Tohkura, 2005; Zhang et al., 2009) and this positioning restrain other linguistic features to take its place, hence, placing them to systematic alienation leading to fossilization.

Conclusion and recommendation

1. As far as the variation is concerned, the sound input did vary but very slight. Meaning, the sounds that the toddlers heard, when they were fully focused, were encoded accordingly. Sound of language, regardless of what kind of language and as long as toddlers are paying enough attention to the language input medium (human being), it will be registered and will be initially primed. It is therefore recommended that there must be a systematic sound intervention program for toddlers and the sounds (language) must be properly scheduled at the time toddlers are most awake. It can be immediately after they wake up after long sleep, while eating and while playing. During eating time and paying time, parents and guardians may use one language at a time. For example, eating time and playing time in the morning can be Chinese and eating time and playing time in the afternoon can be their mother tongue. In the case of mono-lingual parents, it is recommended to allot specific time tutorial not over than 40-45 mins at a time. An hour session in this study shows that the last in the list of lexical features were not recognized by toddlers and it indicates that their attention drastically drops after 40-45 mins. Hence,

it is recommended that the intervention should be short per time but at least 2 to 3 times a day.

2. In terms of error count, errors do happen because it was not registered in the first input and hearing them again would appear to be hearing them at the first time, hence, inability to recognize was inevitable. The main issue was to ensure that toddlers actually heard the sound while paying close attention rather than counting the errors made without ensuring that it was properly encoded. For this reason, it is recommended that a) selected language input should be repeated several times until toddlers respond accordingly before adding any sound input and b) using realia combined with proper contextualization (going to the zoo when the input is related to animals, beach when the input is related to sea life and so on). It is also very important to review the last part of each session before starting new sessions in order to have lesson continuity.

3. With regards to retention level, the two primary issues were the quantity and quality of input. Not all sounds heard were considered listened sounds. In this case, only the quality inputted sounds or the target sounds were registered. The distractor sounds left no traces of registration. This implies that toddlers do naturally acquire sound input not mainly by hearing then but by social interaction. The distractors during the sessions was hidden and on the sound input was heard in contrast to LIT that has social interaction with toddlers. It is therefore concluded that social interactions and sociocultural contexts, in greater extent, have significant influence in toddlers’ opportunity to learn a language. Toddlers must therefore be exposed to target language through human interaction and must be exposed to extensive language experience in context in order to pave way for the plasticity of the brain to acquire language.

4. With regards to fossilization, the results of this study indicates that toddlers’ critical period for sound acquisition is of prime importance. Toddlers do naturally store sounds and automatically primed those. Therefore, unprimed sounds during the critical period might need extra effort to acquire and the older the learners are, the more effort is required. It is safe to say that as early as 11-month old, toddlers begin to acquire sounds and also alienate other sounds. It is almost impossible to hear all sounds of the languages

in the world but it is not impossible to hear at least 5 main working languages (commonly used) in the world. Investing time, money and effort to our children to hear as many sounds as possible during this critical stage means equipping them to acquire other languages later in life.

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