Notes

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN NOTES

BSP British Sessional Papen CJ House of Commons Journals GLRO Greater Record Office U House of Lords Journals PCM Paving Commission Minutes PRO Public Record Office TM 'Ihlstee Minutes VM Vestry Minutes WCM Watch Committee Minutes The location of parish and other local records can be found in the Bibliography. Unless otheiWise indicated, place of publication is London.

1 INTRODUCITON

1. A Williams, The Police of Paris 1718-1789 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), pp. 8-9. 2. Quoted in Sir Leon Radzinowicz, A History of the English Criminal Law from 1750 (New York: Macmillan, 1948-86), vol. III, p. 2. Hereafter cited as Radzi­ nowicz, Hutory. 3. Henry, Lord Brougham, Works (Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1873), vol. XI, p. 324. 4. For a more extensive discussion of the historiography of London's police, see my 'The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London, 1721J-1830,' (unpublished Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1991), pp. 3-14. Hereafter cited as my 'Night Watch.' 5. J.M. Beattie, Crime and the Courts in England, 1660--1800 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), p. 72; J. Styles, 'The Emergence of the Police - Explaining Police Reform in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century England', British Journal of Criminology, 27 (1987), p. 17, 18; D.J.V. Jones, 'The New Police, Crime and People in England and Wales, 1829-1888', 'lhmsactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 33 (1983), p. 158. See also S.H. Palmer, Police and Protest in England and Irelond (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); R. Paley, ''~ Imperfect, Inadequate and Wretched System?": Policing London Before Peel', Criminol Justice History, X (1989), pp. 95-130; Douglas Hay and Francis Snyder (eds), Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850 (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1989); Lee Davison et al., (eds), Stilling the Grumbling Hive: The Response to Social and Economic Problems in England, 1689-1750 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1992); and R.B. Shoe­ maker, Prosecution and Punishment: Petty Crime and the Low in London and Rural , c. 1660-1725 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991 ).

167 168 Notes

6. For the seventeenth century, see K. Wrightson, '1\vo Concepts of Order: Justices, Constables, and Jurymen in Seventeenth-Century England', in J. Brewer and J. Styles (eds), An Ungovernable People: The English and their Law in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (Hutchinson, 1978), pp. 21-46; J.A. Sharpe, 'Enforcing the Law in the Seventeenth-Century English Village', in V.A.C. Gatrell, B. Lenman and G. Parker, Crime and the Law: The Social History of Crime in Western Europe since 1500 (Europa Publications, 1980), pp. 97-119 and JA. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modem England, 1550-1750 (Longman, 1984), esp. Chap. 4; J. Kent, The English Vdlage Constable, 1580-1642 (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1986); N. Landau, The Justices of the Peace, 1679-1760 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984); M. De Lacy, Prison Reform in Lancashire, 1700-1850: A Study in Local Administration (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986). The field of urban studies has also contributed important studies of local politics and administration. See N. Rogers, Whigs and Cities: Popultu Politics in the Age of Walpole and Pitt (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1989); PJ. Corfield, The Impact of English Towns, 1700-1800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982); P. Borsay, (ed.), The Eighteenth-Century Town (Longman, 1990). 7. C. Ernsley, 'Detection and Prevention: The Old English Police and the New, 1750-1900', Historical Social Research, 37 (1986), p. 71. 8. J. Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 1688-1783 (Unwin Hyman, 1989); J. Innes, 'Parliament and the Shaping of Eighteenth­ Century Social Policy', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 40 (1990), pp. 63-92 and 'The Domestic Face of the Military-Fiscal State', in An Imperial State at War: Britoin from 1689 to 1815, L. Stone (ed.) (Routledge, 1994), pp. 96-127; M. Braddick, 'State Formation and Social Change in Early Modem England: A Problem Stated and Approaches Suggested', Social His­ tory, 16 (1991), pp. 1-17; D. Eastwood, Governing Rural England: Thlditian and Thlnsformation in Local Government 1780-1840 (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1994); J.R. Kent, 'The Centre and the Localities: State Formation and Parish Government in England, circa 1640-1740', The Historical Journal, 38 (1995), pp. 363-404. 9. Kent, 'Centre and Localities,' p. 403. 10. For the debate about this topic see 0. MacDonagh, 'The Nineteenth-century Revolution in Government: A Reappraisal', The HistoricalJoumal1 (1958), pp. 53-67; H. Parris, 'The Nineteenth-century Revolution in Government: A Reap­ praisal Reappraised', The Historical Joumal3 (1960), pp. 17-37; J. Hart, 'Nine­ teenth-century Social Reform: A Thry Interpretation of History', Past and Present 38 (1965), pp. 39-61; and V. Cromwell, 'Interpretations of Nineteenth-century Administration: An Analysis', ViCtorian Studies, 9 (1966), pp. 245-55. 11. In this work, 'professional' is used to mean paid, full-time work, with clearly prescribed, written rules of prescribed duties, subordinate to a legally recog­ nized authority. Barbara Weinberger has argued that it was not until the early twentieth century, with emergence of a police culture within police forces, that we can speak of policemen as fully 'professional' in a sociological sense. While I find her argument largely persuasive for the period she discusses, she also argues that one key 'distinguishing feature and aspect of police professionalisa­ tion' was the requirement that the Metropolitan Police wear uniforms. As will be shown below, distinguishing dress and markings for law enforcement officers did not originate with the Metropolitan Police. B. Weinberger, 'Are the Police Professionals? An Historical Account of the British Police Institu­ tion', in Policing Western Europe: Politics, Professionalism, and Public Order, Notes 169

1850--1940, C. Emsley and B. Weinberger (eds) (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), pp. 74-89. 12. The term 'Charlies' was first applied only to the watchmen of the City of London, who were established as a night police during the reign of Charles II. See T.A. Critchley, A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966 (Constable, 1970), p. 30. By the 1820s, the term referred to all parish night watchmen. 13. Kent, 'Centre and Localities', p. 403. 14. Braddick, 'State Formation and Social Change', p. 7. 15. J. Brewer, The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State, 168~1783 (Unwin Hyman, 1989).

2 WESTMINSTER, 1720-39

1. The pArishes were: St Anne, Soho; St Paul, Covent Garden; St Martin-in-the­ Fields; St Qement Danes; St Margaret; St John; St James, Piccadilly; St George, Hanover Square; and St Mary-le-Strand. The extra-parochial areas were the Precinct of the Savoy, Westminster Abbey, the palaces of St James and Whitehall, and the Privy Gardens. The one Liberty was the . 2. G. Rude, Hanoverian London, 1714-1808 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), pp. 10-14, 40-42. 3. Rogers, Whig;s and Cities, pp. 174-8. 4. Rude, Hanoverian London, pp. 50-62. 5. M.D. George, London Life in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Capricorn Books, 1965), p. 83. 6. Rogers, Whig;s and Cities, pp. 174-8. 7. S. Webb and B. Webb, English Local Government: The Parish and the County (Hamden, cr: Archon Books, 1907, rept. 1963), p. 4. Hereafter cited as Webb and Webb, Parish and County. 8. In some of the crowded parishes of the East End, this could mean there were literally thousands of vestrymen. Parish administration was thus usually more cumbersome. Rude, Hanoverian London, pp. 131-2. 9. Report of the From the 9th November 1900 to the 31st March 1902 (Havison and Sons, 1902), pp. 13-17. Hereafter cited as West­ minster City Council Report. See also Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 204-5. 10. For specific examples, see below when individual parishes are discussed; see also Rogers, Whigs and Cities, pp. 188-9. For an example within the City of London, see P. Earle, The Making of the English Middle Class: Business, Society and Family Life in London, 1660-1730 (Methuen, 1989), pp. 244-50, 268. 11. S. Webb and B. Webb, English Local Government: The Manor and the Borough (Hamden, cr: Archon Books, 1908, rept. 1963), vol. I, pp. 216-17. Hereafter cited as Webb and Webb, Manor and Borough. 12. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. 13. The records of at least three other courts leet have survived in the metropolitan area, besides the Westminster Court of Burgesses: the Liberty of St John of Jerusalem in Oerkenwell and Dulwich and Walworth Manors in Surrey. These courts continued to appoint constables into the 1830s and 40s. See St John, Qerkenwell, Liberty of St John of Jerusalem, Peace Officer's Book; Dulwich 170 Notes

Manor, Court Leet and Court Baron Proceedings; Walworth Manor, Court Leet Book. 14. See, for example, Landau, Justices of the Peace, pp. 247-8 and Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 27-8. 15. Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 27-9; Critchley, History of Police, pp. 6-7. 16. See, for example, St John , Liberty of St John of Jerusalem, Peace Officer's Book. For additional discussion of alternate titles for keepers of the King's peace, see Webb and Webb, Parish and County, p. 27n. 17. Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 18-19; Kent, The English VIllage Constable, p. 305. 18. R.G. The Compleate Constable (1710), pp. 9-10. 19. See, fm: example, Christchurch, Spitalfields, VM, 14 March 1806. 20. See Kent, The English VIllage Constable, pp. 305-7. 21. Critchley, History of Police, pp. 6-7. 22. J. Ritson, The Office of Constable (1791), pp. 11, 18n. See also my 'St Mary­ lebone: Local Police Reform in London, 1755-1829,' The Historian, 51 (1989), pp. 455-6. 23. J.J. Tobias, Crime and Police in England 1700-1900 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1979), p. 30. 24. See my 'St. Marylebone,' p. 452. 25. Tobias, Crime and Police, pp. 32-3. 26. Webb and Webb, Manor and Borough, p. 214. See also Rude, Hanoverian London, p. 127. 27. Scavengers were garbage collectors. 28. Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 25 Aug. 1720. See typescript intro­ duction by Nicholas Webb and Alison Kenney of the Westminster City Archives minutes of the Court of Burgesses for the origins, development, and duties of the Court. For the numbers of the watch, see a printed copy of the 'Orders, Rules, and Ordinances' for the watch issued 13 Feb. 1719/20 at the front of the Minutes volume covering 1726-30. 29. Webb and Webb, Manor and Borough, vol. I, pp. 214, 224. See also, for example, Applebee's Week.(y loU1711Jl, 30 July 1720, p. 1811, which listed the additions to the Westminster Bench and then 'these following, with most of the abovenamed Gentlemen, are added to the Commission of the Peace for the County of Middlesex ... .' 30. See, StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 26 Dec. 1728; Robert Shoemaker identifies John Ellis, Esq., of Pall Mall, as both vestryman and justice for Piccadilly. See Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, pp. 326, note h and StJames, Picca­ dilly, VM, 24 Aug. 1719. 31. Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, pp. 265-70. 32. CJ, vol. XIX, p. 233. All dates have been left in Old Style, except I mark the year as beginning on 1 January. 33. CJ, vol. XIX, p. 233. 34. U, vol. XXI, pp. 303-4. 35. All references to the 1720 Nightly Watch Bill, unless otherwise noted, come from the draft of the Bill in the House of Lords Record Office. 36. See MS. petitions in the House of Lords Record Office. See also U, vol. XXI, pp. 311, 313, 315, 316. 37. CJ, vol. XIX, pp. 233, 250, 255, 258, 276, 311, and 326. 38. Quoted in Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, p. 239. Notes 171

39. Of the 50 who signed the petition, only 17 could be said to be active supporters for the reformation of manners while nine were against the campaign; the rest did not apparently take sides. Of the 34 justices Robert Shoemaker knows were active reformers, only 14 signed this petition. R. Shoemaker, letter to the author, 24 Dec. 1993. See also Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, Ch. 10. I am grateful for Professor Shoemaker's assistance on this question. 40. U, vol. XXI, p. 335. 41. Kent, 'Centre and Localities', pp. 367-73; Eastwood, Governing Rural England, pp. 133-65. 42. Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 295-7. 43. Webb and Webb, Parish and County, p. 299. 44. Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, p. 335. 45. Joanna Innes has persuasively shown the process by which local and central government interacted to create social policy legislation concerning criminal punishments and the poor law. See Innes, 'Parliament and the Shaping of Eighteenth-century English Social Policy', pp. 63-92. The classic example of local concerns leading to changes in national law is the Black Act of 1725, when over 50 capital offences were added to the statute book because of an upsurge in poaching in Windsor, Hampshire, and Richmond. See E.P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975). The Municipal Corporations Act of 1835 allowed, but did not require, local governments to form watch committees and set up profes­ sional police forces. See Critchley, History of Police, pp. 62-3 and J. Hart, 'Reform of the Borough Police, 1835-1856', English Historical Review, 70 (1955), pp. 411-27. 46. The Compleate Conswble, p. 7. 47. T. Brown, The Midnight Spy, or A Vrew of the Transactions of London and Westminster, From the Hours of Ten in the Evening, till Five in the Morning (London, 1766), p. 40. For the Country rhetoric, see H.T. Dickinson, The Politics of the People in Eighteenth-Century Britain (New York: St Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 199-200. 48. Dickinson, Politics of the People, pp. 164-5. 49. For the City of London Police, see D. Rumbelow, I Spy Blue: The Police and Crime in the City of London from Elizabeth I to VICtoria (Macmillan, 1971) and the forthcoming Stanford University doctoral dissertation by Andrew Harris. 50. Webb and Webb, Manor and Borough, vol. I, pp. 224-5. 51. Applebee's Weekly Jouma~ 3 Sept. 1720, p. 1840. 52. Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 24 Sept. 1724. 53. See, for example, Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 18 Nov. 1725. Forty-five ratepayers were threatened with fines for non-payment of watch rates in 1728, 113 were summoned in 1730. After threatening 94 people in 1731, the Burgesses appear to have given up. In 1730, they examined the delinquent accounts 11 times; by 1731 they did so only three times and by 1734, only three non-payers were faced with possible fines and the court only bothered to inquire once. For fines for neglect of duty, see, Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 11 March 1727. 54. Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 20 Dec. 1726. 55. Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 8 June, 1727. 56. Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 5 Nov. 1728. 57. Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 31 May 1733. 58. CJ, vol. XXII, p. 272-3. For the full text of the letter, see Westminster Court of Burgesses, Minutes, 5 Nov. 1728. 172 Notes

59. CJ, vol. XXII, p. 273. 60. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 11 March 1733134; StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 9 March 1733134; CJ, vol. XXII, pp. 27~, 278. 61. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 6 Feb. 1734/35. 62. StJames, Picadilly, VM, 12 Feb. 1734/35. 63. St George, Hanover Square, VM, 25 Feb. 1734/35. 64. StJohn the Evangelist, Westminster, VM, 17 and 26 Feb. 1734/35. StJohn's wu formed out of St Margaret's u a separate parish in 1724, but for purposes of civil government, it was still united with St Margaret's. The functions of local government were carried out by a joint vestry representing both parishes. See Westminster City Council Report, p. 9. 65. CJ, vol XXII, p. 396. 66. CJ, vol. XXII, pp. 419-20. 67. CJ, vol. XXII, p. 420. 68. CJ, vol. XXII, pp. 435-6. 69. CJ, vol. XXII, pp. 451, 466, 469, 473, 475, 493; U, vol. XXIV, pp. 523, 527-9, 557. Lord l}'rconnel chaired the committee that examined the bill when it received its second reading. 70. St Martin-in-the-Fields, VM, 9 Jan. 1735/36. See also St Margaret, Westmin­ ster, VM, 14 Feb. 1735/36 and St Anne, Soho, VM, 24 Feb. 1735/36. 71. CJ, vol. XXII, pp. 543, 565, 588-9, 594, 651, 704. 72. See 9 George II. c.8 (St Martin). See also 8 George II. c.15 (St James and StGeorge), 9 George II. c.13 (StPaul), 9George II. c.14 (StAnne), 9 George II. c.17 (St Margaret and StJohn) and Westminster City Council Report, pp. 33-6. 73. See 9 George II. c.8, 8 George II. c.15, 9 George II. c.13, 9 George II. c.14, 9 George II. c.17 and Westminster City Council Report, pp. 33-6. 74. The London Daily Post and General Advertiser, no. 118, 20 March 1734/35, p. 2. 75. See Beattie, Crime and the Courts, Chap. 5 and D. Hay, 'War, Dearth and Theft in the Eighteenth Century: The Record of the English Courts', Past and Present 95 (1982), pp. 117-60. 76. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp.206-8, 216. See also Sharpe, Crime in Early Modem England, pp. 111-14. 77. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 216, Sharpe, Crime in Early Modern Eng/llnd, pp. 111-13; G. Howson, Thief-Taker GeneraL· The Rise and FaU ofJonathan Wdd (Hutchinson, 1970). 78. EA Wrigley, ~ Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650-1750', Past and Present, 37 (1967), p. 47; P. King, 'Decision-Makers and Decision-Making in the English Criminal Law, 1750-1800', The Historical Jouma/21 (1984), pp. 34-42. See also Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 244-5. 79. The London Daily Post and General Advertiser, no. 118, 20 March 1734135, p. 2. 80. For a fuUer account of the gin craze, see George, London Life, pp. 27-43. See also Rude, Hanoverian London, pp. 90-93 and P. Oark, 'The "Mother Gin" Controversy in the Early Eighteenth Century', Transactions of the Royal Histor­ ical Society, 5th ser., 38 (1988), p. 83. 81. Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, pp. 289-310. 82. R.B. Shoemaker, 'The London "Mob" in the Early Eighteenth Century', Journal of British Studies 26 (July 1987), pp. 273-304; Rogers, Whigs and Cities, esp. ch. 10. 83. Rogers, Whigs and Cities, p. 388. 84. George, London Life, pp. 82-3; CJ, vol. XXII, p. 902. Notes 173

85. Rude, London, pp. 10-12 86. CJ, vol. XXIII, pp. ~21. For a fuller account of the passage of these two acts, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 67-75. 87. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 2 June 1735 and St George, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. In most parishes, the watchhouse keeper was also allowed to live in the watchhouse. 88. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 2 June 1735 and StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. See also StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 4 Nov. 1735. 89. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 2 June 1735. 90. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 2 June 1735. See also StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. 91. See S. Webb and B. Webb, The History of Liquor Licensing (Hamden, Cf: Archon Books, 1903, reprint ed. 1963), Chap. 2. See also George, London Life, pp. 27-42. 92. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 2 June 1735. 93. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 2 June 1735. See 1 Geo. I c. 37. 94. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 2 June 1735. 95. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 26 Jan. 1736. 96. 9 Geo. II c.98. 97. 9 Geo. II c.98. 98. 9 Geo. II c.98; StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 11 June 1735; StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 18 Feb., 22 April1736. 99. The statutes named the dividing date as 30 March. See 8 Geo. II c. 8 and StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. 100. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. See also StJames, Piccadilly, VM, same date. 101. St George, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. 102. St George, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. Swallow Street was where Lower Regent Street is today but without Nash's curve. 103. The Daily Gazetteer, no. 639, 13 July 1737. 104. See 9 Geo. II c.8, the Act for St Martin-in-the- Fields. 105. Ritson, Office of Constable, pp. 34-9. 106. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1735. 107. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 13 Jan. 1736. 108. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 26 Jan. 1736. 109. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 4 Nov. 1735, 26 Jan. 1736,2 and 9 Feb. 1736, 22 April1736, 21 May 1736, 2 June 1736. 110. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 13 March 1736. 111. StJames, Piccadilly, VM; 2, 11 and 20 June 1735; 14 Aug. 1735; 20 Sep. 1735; 12 Dec. 1735; 26 and 31 Jan.1736; 7 Feb. 1736; 13 March 1736, 13 April1736, 2 June 1736. 112. StJames, Piccadilly, VM; 2, 10 and 11 June 1735; StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM; 2 and 10 June 1735. 113. St George, Hanover Square, VM, 13 Jan. 1736. 114. Shoemaker, Prosecutions and Punishments, pp. 27(}-.72. 115. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 218.

3 AN EXPANDING WATCH

1. Quoted in Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 219. 174 Notes

2. N. Rogers, 'Confronting the Crime Wave: The Debate over Social Reform and Regulation, 1749-1753', in Stilling the Grumbling Hive, ed. L. Davison, et al., p. 81; see also Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 520. 3. Quoted in Radzinowicz, History, vol. I, p. 415. 4. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 202-5. 5. Annual Register, 1772, pp. 144-5. 6. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 207-8, 235. For population increase, see E.A. Wrigley and R.S. Schofield, The Population History of Engkmd, 1541-1871 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 166-74, 265-9. For inter­ nal migration, see E.A Wrigley, 'A Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650-1750', Past and Present 37 (1967), pp. 44-70. 7. Rogers, 'Confronting the Crime Wave,' pp. 78-81. 8. P. King, 'Newspaper Reporting, Prosecution Practice and Perceptions of Urban Crime: the Colchester Crime Wave of 1765', Continuity and Change 2 (3), 1987, pp. 423-54. 9. The standard work on Wilkes and his supporters is G. Rude, Wilkes and Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). See also I.R. Christie, Wilkes, wyv;ll and Reform (Macmillan, 1962); and J. Brewer, Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George 111 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976) and his 'The Wilkites and the Law, 1763-74: A Study of Radical Notions of Governance', in J. Brewer and J. Styles (eds), An Ungovernable People: the English and their Law in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1980), pp. 85-171; and I. Gilmour, &ot, Risings, and Revolution: Governance and Vwlence in 18th Century England (Hutchinson, 1992), Chap. 15. 10. See Brewer, 'The Wilkites and the Law', p. 164. 11. A good summary of these events is in Rude, Hanoverian London, pp. 191-201. 12. G. Rude, The Crowd in History 1730-1848, revised ed. (Lawrence and Wishart, 1981), p. 66. 13. N. Rogers, 'Aristocratic Clientage, 'Il'ade and Independency: Popular Politics in Pre-Radical Westminster', Past and Present 61 (1973), p. 105 and by the same author, JWJigs and Cities. 14. Rude, The Crowd in History, pp. 59-61. This contrasts to an earlier view of the mob as the dregs of society. 15. See, for example, C. Reith, The Police Idea: Its History and Evolution in England in the Eighteenth Century and After (Oxford University Press, 1938), p. 43. 16. The Riot Act (1 Geo. I c.5) made it a capital offence for any 12 or more people to remain together if they did not disperse within one hour, once the act was read out loud. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 22-3. See also Sharpe, Crime in Early Modem England, p.28 and Brewer, 'The Wilkites and the Law,' pp. 164-6. 17. See, for example, W. Cobbett and T.C. Hansard (eds), Parliamentary History of England, vol. XVII, cols. 228-9, when the House of Commons enquired into 'the Riots and Thmults in the Avenues leading to the House' on 25 March 1770. The officials who testified were either magistrates or constables, with the most pointed questions about crowd control being addressed to the magis­ trates. Hereafter cited as ParL Hist. 18. Rude, Wilkes and Liberty; E.P. Thompson, 'The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century', Past and Present 70 (1971), pp. 76-136; and J. Bohstedt, 'The Moral Economy and the Discipline of Historical Context', Journal of Social History 26 (1992), pp. 265-84. 19. Quoted in Gilmour, &ot, Risings and Revolution, p.70. Notes 175

20. Brewer, 'The Wilkites and the Law', p. 148. 21. Dickinson, The Politics of the People, p. 156. Dickinson provides an excellent synthesis of current scholarship on this issue. 22. Quoted in M.S. Pike, The Principles of Policing (Macmillan, 1985), pp. 70--71. 23. Landau, The Justices of the Peace, pp. 35~. See also Wrightson, '1\vo Con­ cepts of Order', in Brewer and Styles, (eds),An Ungovernable People, pp. 21-46 and Kent, The English VIllage Constable. 24. See, for example, Kent, The English Village Constable, pp. 307-11 and Landau, Justices of the Peace, pp. 360--62. 25. Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, pp. 225-37 and Chap. 10. 26. Rude, Wrlkes and Liberty, pp. 178-84 and W. Shelton, English Hunger and Industrial Disorders (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973), pp. 172-5, 180. 27. Charles Reith, however, has portrayed local law enforcement as a failure because of such riots, the Wilkite riots in particular: ~part from their various inherent individual defects, a glance will show that the chief tactical weakness of their alinement [sic] was the almost total absence, if a military simile is excusable, of front-line contact with the enemy. Against the pressure of sus­ tained attack by the forces of crime and mob disorder, there were available only a useless and incompetent handful of skirmishers consisting of the constables and night watchmen.' Reith, The Police Idea, p. 21. For Reith's view of Wilkes and the riots of the 1760s, see pp. 35-53. 28. S. Welch,~ Letter upon the Subject of Robberies, Wrote in the Year 1753', in A Proposal to Render Effectual a Plan, to Remove the Nuisance· of Comrrwn Prostitutes from the Streets of the Metropolis (1758), p. 48. 29. Rude, Hanoverian London, p. 11. 30. George, London Life, p. 65. 31. Rude, Hanoverian London, p. 11. See also George, London Life, pp. 64-5. 32. Rude, Hanoverian London, pp. 10--12; George, London Life, pp. 64, 84. 33. Rude, Hanoverian London, pp. 10--12. See Rude', Wrlkes and Liberty, pp. 4-5. 34. Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, pp. 273-310. 35. Earle, Making of English Middle Class, pp. 240--42. 36. For a statistical analysis that shows the trend towards increased social segrega­ tion in London in the later eighteenth century, see L.S. Schwarz, 'Social Oass and Social Geography: The Middle Oasses in London at the End of the Eighteenth Century', in The Eighteenth-Century Town, ed. Borsay, pp. 315-37. 37. London Parishes (1824), pp. 142-54. 38. The 11 parishes were St Anne, Umehouse; St Dunstan, Stepney; St George-in­ the-East; StJames, Oerkenwell; StJohn, Wapping; St Leonard, ; St Mary, Islington; St Mary, Whitechapel; St Matthew, Bethnal Green; and St Paul, Shadwell. This does not include hamlets like Poplar, Ratcliffe and which were separate units of local government and had their own vestries. 39. Webb and Webb, The Parish and the County, pp. 79-91. For an especially riotous meeting in Bethnal Green, see St Matthew, Bethnal Green, VM, 6 Feb. 1823. 40. Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 228-9n. 41. London Parishes, pp. 115-40. 42. The Daily Gazetteer, no. 723, 28 Oct. 1737. 43. For details on the passage of these acts, see my 'Night Watch', p. 125. 44. CJ, vol. XXVII, pp. 346-7. 176 Notes

45. CJ, vol. XXV, p. 752. Similar complaints were made about paving and scaven- ging rates for Bethnal Green; see CJ, vol. XXVI, p. 149. 46. CJ, vol. XXV, p. 752. 47. CJ, vol. XXV. p. 752. 48. The Webbs' most complete examples of corrupt and inadequate parish govern­ ment do not come from the 1750s but the first decades of the nineteenth centmy, into the 1830s. See Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 76-103. 49. I agree with Joanna Innes, who describes the Webbs' conclusions as 'too pessimistic;' See her 'Parliament and the Shaping of Eighteenth-Centmy Eng­ lish Social Policy', p. 73. 50. W. Albert, The 'IUmpike Road System in England 1663-1840 (Cambridge: Cam­ bridge University Press, 1972), pp. 43-9, 201-23. See also E. Pawson, 1hlnsport and Ecqnomy: The 'IUmpike Roads of Eighteenth Century Britain (New York: Academic Press, 19TI), pp. 341-~JO. 51. CJ, vol. XXVII, p. 305. 52. CJ, vol. XXVII, p. 348. 53. See my 'Night Watch', pp. 128-30. 54. StMary Abbots, Kensington, VM, 21 Nov. 1794. 55. The parish began officially allowing the hiring of substitute constables in 1796. The full-time paid ~istant Constable' was first hired in 1816 at an annual salary of £40. See StMary Abbots, Kensington, VM, 28 March 1796; 15 April 1816. For more on the Kensington Thmpike, see F.M. Gladstone and A. Barker, Nolting Hill in Bygone Days (Anne Bengley, 1969), p. 54 and Kensington Central Library, Local History Collection, E.J. Ffooks, 'Kensington Thrnpike lhist', typescript of essay presented for the University of London Extension Diploma, 1957. In Chelsea, the Governors of Chelsea Hospital provided patrols on the road to London and some watchmen for the parish. See Reports from Committees of the House of Commons, vol. XIII. Finance Reports, XXIII to XXXVI, 1798- 1803 (1803), 34th Report, Appendix C.3, 'Royal Hospital at Chelsea:-Extracts from the Minutes of the Board', p. 614. 56. The turnpike had been a source of considerable conflict in the parish between ' "the gentlemen of the vestry" ' and the '"townsmen"' for quite some time. It is possible that Bone's refusal to take the charge was continuation of this dispute. SeeR. Paley (ed.), Justice in Eighteenth-Century : The Justicing Notebook ofHenry Norris and the Hackney Petty Sessions Book (London Record Society, 1991), p. ix. 57. The select vestry paid for some watchmen and patrols on the main roads out of unappropriated funds. GLRO, P79/JN1/142, St John, Hackney, Select VM, 22 Oct. 1739, 1 Sept. 1740, 24 April, 1753, 25 Sept. 1762. 58. St John, Hackney, Minutes of Parish Meetings, 13 Aug. 1763. 59. St John, Hackney, Minutes of Parish Meetings, 22 Aug. 1763; TM, 26 March 1764. See GLRO, P79/JN1/142, StJohn, Hackney, Select VM, 17 Oct. 1763. 60. KG. Grytzell, : Population Changes 1801-1901 (Lund, Swe­ den: C.W.K Gleerup, 1969), table 1:3 and Chapter II, Section 6; George, London Life, pp. 329, 414. 61. T. Pennant, Some Account of London, 5th ed. (1813), pp. 74-5. See also F. Sheppard, London 1808-1870: The Infernal Wen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 161. 62. DJ. Johnson, Southwark and the City (Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. 64-8, 332-3. See also the Rev. J. Entick, A New and Accurate History and Survey of Notes 177

London, Westminster, Southwark, and P!IJces Adjacent (Edward and Charles Dilly, 1766), vol. IV, pp. 374, 385-7. 63. Johnson, Southwark, pp. 43, 140-45. Southwark sent its own MPs to the House of Commons and was thus not included in the City in regard to parliamentary elections. See Sir L. Namier and J. ;Brooke, The History of Parliament: The House of Commons 1754-1790 (Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1964), vol. I, pp. 387-8. 64. Johnson, Southwark, pp. 25lHi1. 65. Quoted in Johnson, Southwark, p. 242. 66. For the system of wardmote, see Rude, Hanoverian London, p. 124, and Webb and Webb, Manor and Borough, vol. II, pp. 581-6. 67. CJ, vol. XXX, p. 454. It is possible that these local worthies in Southwark were inspired by the Westminster Paving Commission, which had taken respons­ ibility for paving of the streets in the previous year. This received significant attention in the London press in the summer and autumn of 1765. See, for example, The Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser, 4 July 1765, letter to the printer signed 'Publicus'; 9 Sept. 1765, letter to the printer signed 'L.M.' and 6 Feb. 1766, letter to the printer signed 'Moderator'. See also Rude, Hanoverian London, pp.l36-7. 68. CJ, vol. XXX, pp. 454, 466, 611. 69. CJ, vol. XXX, pp. 743, 798, 820. 70. The City officers were the Bailiff of Southwark (a City official), the Justice of the Bridge Yard, and the comptroller of the Bridge Yard. 71. The parishes of the West End, especially St George, Hanover Square, and St Marylebone, were particularly fond of packing in titles and Members of Parliament. See, for example, St George, Hanover Square, VM, 1 March 1819. 72. Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 11~15; Walworth Manor, Court Leet Proceedings, 1747-1788; Johnson, Southwark, pp. 120, 174, 303. 73. Another example is the five East End parishes that obtained one Act to establish a night watch in each in 1756. 74. See 4 Geo. III c. 54. It is interesting to note that the watchmen employed by this trust were given powers of arrest but they then had to take anyone apprehended 'as soon as conveniently may be into the Custody of a Constable or other Peace Officer... .' The Act then explicitly stated that it was the constable's duty to see that the prisoner was taken before a magis­ trate. 75. CJ, vol. XXX, pp. 540,590, 700. 76. CJ, vol. XXXVI, pp. 59, 284, 455. 77. A motion to apply for a watch act was voted down unanimously in January 1751; in 1764, the vote was unanimously for a bill. St Oement Danes, VM, 15 Jan. 1750/51, 11 Nov. 1764. 78. For a more extended account of St Marylebone's watch system, see my 'St Marylebone', pp. 446-66. 79. CJ, vol. XXXIII, pp. 135, 152, 156, 282, 292, 358; vol. XXXIv, pp. 410, 435-6, 548, 615. 80. Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, pp. 307-10. 81. See 14 March 1766. 82. Hart, 'The Reform of the Borough Police', pp. 414-15. 83. CJ, col. XXXV, p. 544. 84. See, for example, 9 Geo. III c. 89, which created a turnpike from Blackfriars Bridge to Newington Butts. See Pawson, Transport and Economy, p. 354. 178 Notes

85. CJ, vol. XL, p. 616. 86. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 218-22. 87. Pawson, Transport and Economy, pp. 254-5.

4 COLLABORATION, 1750-74

1. For the historiography, see C. Emsley, The English Police: A Political and Social History (New York: StMartin's Press, 1991). 2. J. Styles, 'Sir John Fielding and the Problem of Criminal Investigation in Eighteenth-Century England', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 33 (1983), p. 149. 3. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 521. 4. For the complete membership, see CJ, vol. XXVI, pp. 27, 39, 155, and 158. There has been some discussion about the extent to which Henry Fielding was involved in the work of this committee. See, for example, Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, p. 420. Malvin R. Zirker, Jr argues strongly that Fielding's role in the criminal law reform (as opposed to police reform) has been overrated. He states: 'In the first place both the Committee's resolutions and Fielding's pamphlet [An Enquiry in the Causes of the Late Increase in Robbers] express views which, taken individually, were commonplaces of the time, and it is rash to ascribe an influence to Fielding for ideas that had been widespread for a hundred years or more before he wrote. Second, it is presumptuous to assume that a Committee which included such notable legislators and reformers as Pitt, Charles Townshend, Lyttleton, Sir Dudley Ryder and General Oglethorpe should look to a Bow Street magistrate for guidance in a matter which its members were competent to handle themselves.' See Zirker, 'Fielding and Reform in the 1750's', Studies in English Literature 7 (1967), p. 462. For a similar view see H. Armory, 'Henry Fielding and the Criminal Legislation of 1751-52', Philological Quarterly 50 (1971), p. 189. 5. The initial resolutions were reported to the House of Commons on 1 April 1751, with additions made on 23 April and 13 June. See CJ, vol. XXVI, pp. 159-M, 190, 289. 6. For fuller detail, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 109-18. 7. CJ, vol. XXVI, pp. 219, 236, 266, 268, 270, 283, 286, 289. See also Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 522. 8. CJ, vol. XXVII, p. 327; StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 26 Jan. 1754, 27 Jan. 1755 and St Anne, Soho, VM, 20 Nov. 1755 and 20 April1756. 9. 29 Geo.II c.25; CJ, vol. XXVII, pp. 587-8. See also House of Commons Sessional Papers of the Eighteenth Century, ed. S. Lambert, (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1975), vol. 10, p. 57. 10. St Margaret and StJohn, Westminster, Joint VM, 27 Feb. 1756. 11. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 54. 12. Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, pp. 32Cr-32; J. Langbein, 'Shaping the Eighteenth­ Century Trial: A View from the Ryder Sources', University of Chicago Law Review 50 (1983), pp. 110-14; and R. Paley, 'Thief-takers in London in the Age of the McDaniel Gang, c. 1745-1754', in Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1859, ed. Hay and Snyder, pp. 301-41. 13. H. Fielding, An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase of Robbers, Etc. (1751 ), p. 116. Notes 179

14. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 49-54; Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 65; Styles, 'Sir John Fielding and the Problem of Criminal Investigation', pp. 127-49. 15. H. Fielding, An Enquiry, pp. 116, 130, 144, 15U2. 16. J. Fielding, An Account of the Origin and Effects of a Police Set on Foot by His Grace the Duke of Newcastle in the ~ar 1753, upon a Plan presented to his Grace by the late Henry Fielding, Esq. (1758), p. 40. 17. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 13, 5~. Sir W. Mildmay, The Police of France: or, An Account of the Laws and Regulations Established in that Kingdom for the Preservation of the Peace, and the Preventing of &bberies (1763). 18. Quoted in Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 60. 19. See a letter from Fielding to Charles Jenkinson dated 16 Dec. 1761 in The Jenkinson Papers, 1760-1766, ed. N.S. Jucker (Macmillan, 1949), pp. 233-5. 20. St George, Hanover Square, acknowledged to be a well protected parish, spent £1431 annually on a night watch force of 61 watchmen and four patrols. See Reporl of the Committee Who Were Appointed to Enquire into the State of the Nightly Watch within the City and Liberty of Westminster (1772), p. 5. Hereafter cited as 1m Westminster Committee Reporl. 21. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 62. 22. CJ, vol. XXXII, pp. 784, 798. 23. For high constables, see Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 489-502 and Styles, 'Sir John Fielding and the Problem of Criminal Investigation', pp. 143-3. 24. CJ, vol. XXXII, pp. 878-81. 25. CJ, vol. XXXII, p. 879. 26. CJ, vol. XXXIII, pp. 879-80. 27. CJ, vol. XXXIII, pp. 879-80. 28. CJ, vol. XXXIII, p. 879. 29. Pari. Hist., vol. XVI, cols. 929-43. The reaction of these members of the House of Commons to Fielding's assertion that ballad singers were a source of crime supports V.A.C. Gatrell's recent analysis of ballads about hanging as part of a shared culture of the gallows, connecting both plebeian and patrician audi­ ences. Only later in the eighteenth century do the 'respectable' distance them­ selves from the language, imagery, and the reality depicted in street ballads. One could say that the middle and upper classes eventually come to share Sir John's perspective. See VA.C. Gatrell, The Hanging Tree: Execution and the English People 1770-1868 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 111-48. 30. CJ, vol. XXXII, pp. 883, 908, 982. For the provisions of the bill, see Radzino- wicz, History, vol. III, pp. 71-3. 31. Rogers, 'Pre-Radical Westminster', pp. 70-106, see especially pp. 78-9. 32. Rude, WU/ces and Liberty, pp. 80-81, 179-80. 33. Brewer, 'The Wilkites and the Law', pp. 164-6. 34. Namier and Brooke ( eds), The House ofCommons 1754-1790, vol. III, pp. 632-4. 35. See my 'St. Marylebone', pp. 454-7. 36. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 13 Feb., 19 Feb. 1772. An area that needs further investigation is the role that vestry clerks played as conduits or perhaps gate­ keepers of information for vestrymen. This would shed additional light on decision-making at the local level and the channels of communication between parishes and between local and central government. 37. See, for example, St Anne, Soho, VM, 24 Feb. 1772, which seems to imply that the provisions of the bill were largely the work of St James, in conjunction with other parishes. The vestry agrees to support the bill. See also St Margaret and StJohn, Westminster, Joint VM, 24 Feb. 1772 and St Oement Danes, VM, 4 May 1772; both parishes opposed the bill. Although they do not state their 180 Notes

reasons, one must suspect that the cost of an improved night watch would not sit well with these less affluent parishes. 38. CJ, vol. XXXIII, pp. 447, 75~, 788, 791, 953. 39. St Paul and StJames, Piccadilly, also paid their men an intermediate rate in the spring and autumn months. In St George, Hanover Square, the watchmen and patrols were apparently paid one shilling a week all year round. St Mary-le­ Strand and St Martin paid an average of just over a shilling a week year round. 1m Westminster Committee Report, pp. 4-6. 40. Saffron Hill hired 13 watchmen year round, assisted by an additional two patrols in the four winter months. The watchmen's weekly salaries ranged from 1s. to 1s.2d., depending on the season per night; winter patrols were paid 10s.6d. a week. In the tiny , a single watchman stood guard and received 1s.2d. a night in winter and 10d. in summer. 1772 Westmin­ ster Committee Report, pp. 4-6. 41. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 1 May, 3 June, 1771. For amounts spent in other parishes, see my 'Night Watch', p. 201 and 1772 Westminster Comminee Report, pp. 4-6. 42. For a discussion of some of the historiographical debates surrounding this committee, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 202-5. 43. 1m Westminster Comminee Report, pp. 6-7. 44. The exceptions were the united parishes of St Giles and St George, Blooms­ bury, and St Mary-le-Strand. 45. CJ, vol XXXIV; pp. 130, 141, 171. 46. Sir Charles Whitworth, The Draught of an Intended Act, for the Bener Regulation of the Nightly Watch and Beadles within the City and Liberty of Westminster, and Parts adjacent (1773), pp. iii-iv. 47. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, p. iv. On the roles and status of vestry clerks, see Webb and Webb, Parish and County, p. 35, 124-9. 48. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, pp. v-vi. 49. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, pp. 4-7, 15-16. 50. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, pp. 18-22, 24-5. For additional detail, see my forthcoming 'Sir John Fielding, Sir Charles Whitworth, and the 1774 Westminster Night Watch Act', Criminal Justice History. 51. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, pp. 25-6. 52. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, pp. 26-33. 53. See, for example, St Marylebone, VM, 7 Jan. 1m, when two patrols were disciplined. 54. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 20 April1772, 1 May 1772. 55. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, pp. 52-5. 56. Rate collectors would be paid on a percentage basis, at a rate 'not exceeding Six Pence in the Pound of the clear Monies collected'. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, pp. 40-44. 57. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, p. 37. 58. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modem England, p. 77. See also Wrightson, '1\vo Concepts of Order', p. 24 and Kent, The English VIllage Constable, pp. 282-311. 59. Whitworth, Draught of an Intended Act, pp. 31-4. 60. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 26 Jan., 3 Feb. 1774. 61. StGeorge, Hanover Square, VM, 3 Feb. 1774. 62. H.B. Simpson, 'The Office of Constable', English Historical Review 10 (1895), p. 636. 63. CJ, vol. XXXI, pp. 432, 543; St George, Hanover Square, VM, 4 April 1774. For another example, see St Anne, Soho, VM, 1 March 1773 and 21 Dec. 1773. Notes 181

64. St George, Hanover Square, VM, 2 May 1774. 65. 14 Geo. III c.90, s. 1927. 66. CJ, vol. XXXIV, pp. 540, 766, 788, 801, 814. 67. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 18 June 1774. 68. The Act is 14 Geo. III c.90. T.A. Critchley has argued that the committee 'did not, however, seek to correct its [the Statute of Winchester's) impropriety or to replace it by something more attuned to the times. The only outcome of the inquiry was an Act of 1774 designed to regulate the nightly watch of Westminster, which, however, had little effect.' I would disagree- the Statute of Winchester had already been superseded and the 1774 act was attuned to the times. It is also clear from local records that the act was implemented. See, for example, St Oement Danes, Minutes of the Governors of the Nightly Watch, 19 Sept. and 10 Oct. 1774. 1b what extent it made an improve­ ment in crime prevention and detection is more difficult to tell. Qearly, the vestries of Westminster, after years of dealing with the issue, thought it would.

5 NEW MEANS TO OLD ENDS

1. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 223, 582-3, and Chap. 5. See also Hay, 'War, Dearth and Theft', pp. 117-60. 2. M. Madan, Tlwughts on Executive Justice (1785), pp. 4-5. 3. See Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 199; Emsley, Crime and Society in England, pp. 18-27. 4. Quoted in Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 137; See pp. 132-9; for long-term trends, see T.R. Gurr, 'Historical 'frends in Violent Crime: A Critical Review of the Evidence', Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research 3 (1981), pp. 295-353 and L. Stone, 'Interpersonal Violence in English Society, 1300-1980', Past and Present 101 (1983), pp. 23-33. 5. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 223. 6. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 563-9. 7. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 298-309 and 568-73. See also letters about overcrowded jails in PRO, H.O. 42/1-3. 8. Wrigley and Schofield, Popull.ltion History, pp. 166-74, 265-9. 9. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 215-16; see esp. fig. 5.4 and table 5.1. 10. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 208. See also Hay, 'War, Dearth and Theft', pp. 128-35. 11. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 216. 12. For example, Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 89-137 and Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 85-116. 13. E.C. Black, The Association: British Extraparliamentary Political Organization 1769-1793 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963), pp. 132-4. 14. StJohn, Hackney, TM, 10 June 1780. 15. Rude, The Crowd in History, pp. 58-9. See also Black, The Association, Chap. IV; Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, Chap. 4; N. Rogers, 'The Gordon Riots Revisited', Historical Papers (Canada), (1988), pp. 16-34. 16. Shoemaker, 'The London "Mob" in the Early Eighteenth Century', pp. 286-7. See also Rude, The Crowd in History, pp. 59-64. For more on crowds and their manipulation in London politics, see L. Sutherland, 'The City of London in Eighteenth-Century Politics', in R. Pares and A.J.P. Th.ylor (eds), 182 Notes

Essays Presented to Sir Lewis Namier (Macmillan, 1956), pp. 49-74; and N. Rogers, 'Popular Protest in Early Hanoverian London', Past and Present 79 (1978), pp. 71}.-100. See also Gilmour, Riots, Risings, and Revolution, Chap. 16. 17. Pari. Hist., vol. XXI, cols. 1317, 1319. For more on the reactions to the Gordon riots, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 237-42. 18. T. Hayter, The Anny and the Crowd in Mid-Georgilln England (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978); JA. Houlding, Fit for Service: The 1Taining of the British Anny, 1715-1795 (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1981), esp. pp. 61}.-74. 19. See my 'Night Watch', pp. 238-42. 20. Lord Shelburne said the Westminster bench was 'filled by men, base to the last degree, and capable of every mean act, derogating and opposite to the justice of the laws .. .'. Pari. Hist., vol. XXI, cols. 592, 68a-81. 21. See E. Royle and J. Walvin, English Radicals and Reformers 1760-1848 (Brighton: The Harvester Press, 1982); see also Christie, Wilkes, Ujlvill, and Reform; Black, The Association; and J. Norris, Shelburn and Reform (New York: St Martin's Press, 1963). 22. J. Ehrman, The Younger Pitt: The "H!an of Acclaim (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1969), esp. Chaps. X and XI. For reform and public finance, see J.E.D. Binney, British Public Finance and Administration 1774-92 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958). 23. R.R. Nelson, The Home Office, 1782-1801 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1969); Simon Devereaux, 'Convicts and the State: The Administration of Criminal Justice in Great Britain during the Reign of Ge{)rge III' (unpub­ lished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1997), pp. 34-120. I am grate­ ful to Dr Devereaux for supplying me with a copy of his work. 24. Nelson, The Home Office, pp. 4a-42. See also Sir N. Chester, The English Administrative System 17~1870 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981). 25. Ehrman, The ~unger Pitt: The "H!an of Acclaim, p. 286. 26. Brewer, 'The Wilkites and the Law', p. 142. 27. Brewer, 'The Wilkites and the Law', p. 137. 28. J. Torrance, 'Social Class and Bureaucratic Innovation: The Commissioners for Examining the Public Accounts 178a-1787', Past and Present 78 (1978), p. 80. 29. S. Webb and B. Webb, English Local Government: Statutory Authorities for Special Purposes (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1922, reprt. 1963), p. 431. 30. W. Hume, Bentham and Bureaucracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981),pp.134-7, 140;seealso G. Himmelfarb, TheldeaofPoverty: England in the Early Industria/Age (New York: Vintage Books, 1983), pp. 78-83. 31. W. Shakespeare, Much Ado About Nothing, act 3, scene 3, lines 35-36 in The Complete Worla, ed. A. Harbage {Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1969). 32. Daily Univenal Register, 8 Jan. 1785, p. 1. Emphasis original. 33. Liberty of the Rolls, Minutes of Inhabitants' Meetings, 13 Dec. 1785. 34. St Marylebone, VM, 3 Nov. 1772, 9 Jan. 1773; WCM, 7 Jan. 1775 and my 'Night Watch', pp. 252-3. 35. Rules, Orden, and Regulations for the Better Management of the Nightly Watch, and Beadles, in the Parish of StJames, Westminster (1796); StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 11 Feb., 2 June 1796. The vestry paid ldeson a £50 gratuity for efforts on behalf of an improved night watch. See StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 9 June 1796. Ideson played a key role in development and passage of the 1774 Westminster Night Watch Act. See Chap. 4 above. For additional examples, see my 'Night Watch', p. 254. 36. St Leonard, Shoreditch, Four Rates TM, 2 Dec. 1790. Notes 183

37. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 8 March 1803. 38. St Anne, Soho, VM, 7 Sept. 1791. 39. St Andrew, Holbom, and St George-in-the-Martyr, WCM, 2 Feb. 1807, 3 March 1807, 30 March 1807. 40. St Giles-in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, VM, 16 May 1807. 41. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 11 Oct. 1796, 20 Sept. 1800. 42: Guildhall Library, Beadles' verses, from W. Gosling, St Anne, Soho, 1819. 43. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 11 Oct. 1796. 44. The streets named were Pall Mall, St James's Street, Haymarket, Princes Street, St Alban's, and Marylebone Street. 45. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 9 May, 26 Sept. 1800. 46. StMarylebone, VM, 8Dec.1787,17 Jan.1795; see also my 'Night Watch,' p. 258. 47. St Marylebone, WCM, 1 Nov. 1783. 48. Hackney, Thmpike TM, 11 Dec. 1793. For another example of a similar rule, see Rules, Orders, and Regulations for the Better Management of the Nightly Watch, and Beadles, in the Parish of StJames, Westminster, p. 27. 49. St Andrew, Holbom, and St George-the-Martyr, WCM, 30 March 1807; see also my 'Night Watch', p. 261. 50. St Marylebone, WCM, 8 Dec. 1781. 51. Clink Uberty, PCM, 27 Sept. 1786. For additional examples, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 262-3. 52. Ritson, Office of Constable, pp. iii-iv, 4. 53. Christchurch, Spitalfields, VM, 14 March 1806, 14 March 1807. 54. StJohn, aerkenwell, Peace Officers Book, Uberty of StJohn of Jerusalem, 19 April 1789. The records do not indicate how many gentlemen took advantage of the vestry's offer. 55. Webb and Webb, Parish and County, p. 69. It should be noted that their quotation referring to deputy constables is from 1700. 56. 11 April1785, p. 2. 57. Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, p. 278. 58. St Marylebone, VM, 3 Nov. 1772, 9 Jan. 1773, 22 April1797. 59. Walworth Manor, Court Leet Proceedings, 8 Nov. 1773. 60. Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, p. 278. 61. Philips, 'Law Enforcement in England, 178(}.-1830', p. 160. 62. See, for example, Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, p. 279. See also vol. III, pp. 81-2. 63. See St Marylebone, WCM, 7 Jan. 1775 and St James, Piccadilly, Rules and Regulations, 1796. 64. See, for example, StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 20 Nov. 1799, 27 Jan. 1800; and St Marylebone, WCM, 8 Dec. 1781. 65. St Marylebone, WCM, 27 Feb. 1790, 6 March 1790. 66. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 12 June 1790,26 Jan. 1793; St Marylebone, WCM, 14 April1792, 9 June 1792, 6 Oct. 1792, 27 Oct. 1792, 23 Feb. 1793. 67. St Marylebone, WCM, 8 May 1784, 27 Jan. 1776, 11 April1778; VM, 22 April 1826. 68. 35 Geo. III c. 73 s. 31. By 1823, the Vestry was paying 13 annuities to retired watch employees. See St Marylebone, VM, 28 June 1823. For an example in a neighbouring parish, see St George, Hanover Square, VM, 22 May and 20 June, 1786. 69. Quoted in Radzinowicz, History, vol. I, p. 254. J.M. Beattie has pointed out that this was 'a better description of present practice than it was sound history ... .'. See Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 586. 184 Notes

70. Madan, Thoughts on Executive Justice, pp. 11-12. 71. Radzinowicz, History, Vol. I, pp. 277--86. See also C. Phillipson, Three Criminal Law Reformers: Beccaria, Bentham, Romilly (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1923, reprint 1970), Part I; Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 555-6. For Beccaria's influence on Bentham, see J. Dinwiddy, Bentham (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 2-3, 50, 80. 72. See Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 568-73; M. Ignatieff, A Just Measure of Pain: The Penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution, 1750-1850 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978), pp. 47-79; for a critique of Ignatieff, see DeLacy, Prison Reform in Lancashire, 1700-1850, pp. 15-19. See also Hume, Bentham and Bureaucracy, Chap. 5; Sir W. Holdsworth, 'Bentham's Place in English Legal History', California Law Review, 28 (1940), pp. 566--86; B. Rodman, 'Benthatn and the Paradox of Penal Reform', Journal of the History of Ideas, 29 (1968), pp. 197-210; R.A. Cooper, 'Jeremy Bentham, Elizabeth Fry, and English Prison Reform', Journal of the History of Ideas, 42 (1981), pp. 675-90. 73. Simon Devereaux has made an important recent contribution to this debate in his 'Convicts and the State'. See also my 'Night Watch', pp. 274-5. 74. N. Hampson, The Enlightenment (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1968), pp. 38-9; see also W. Stafford, Socialism, Rtldicalism and Nostalgia: Social Criticism in Britain, 1775-1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 32-46. 75. J. Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, ed. W. Harrison (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1948), p. 289. 76. See M. Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), p. 9. 77. Gatrell, The Hanging Tree, pp. 225-7. 78. Quoted in Phillipson, Three Criminal Law Reformers, p. 295. See also Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation, p. 261. 79. J. Hanway, Defects of Police (1775), p. xi. 80. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 530. 81. Brewer, 'The Wilkites and the Law', p. 136. 82. Devereaux, 'Convicts and the State', pp. 170--80; Emsley, Crime and Society, p. 219. 83. Shoemaker, Prosecution and Punishment, pp. 238-72; E. Bristow, Vzce and Vzgilance: Purity Movements in Britain since 1700 (Rowman and Macmillan, 1977), pp. 2-3, 11-20. 84. Quoted in J. Pollock, Wilberforce (New York: St Martin's Press, 1977), p. 61. See also Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 488-90. 85. M.J.D. Roberts, 'The Society for the Suppression of Vice and its Early Critics, 1802-1812', The Historical Journal 26 (1983), pp. 161-3. 86. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 603. See also Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 141-65. 87. Pollock, Wilberforce, pp. 137--8. 88. Quoted in Pollock, Wilberforce, p. 62. 89. A. Shubert, 'Private Initiative in Law Enforcement: Associations for the Pro­ secution of Felons, 1744-1856', in V. Bailey (ed.), Policing and Punishment (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1981), pp. 31-2. For more on victims as prosecutors, see P. King, 'Decision-Makers and Decision-Making in the English Criminal Law, 1750-1800', The Historical Journal 27 (1984), pp. 25-58. 90. Emsley, Crime and Society, p. 145 and Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 48-50. Notes 185

91. D. Philips, 'Good Men to Associate and Bad Men to Conspire: Associations for the Prosecution of Felons in England, 1760--1860', and P.J.R. King, 'Prosecu­ tion Associations and their Impact in Eighteenth-Centwy Essex', both in Hay and Snyder (eds), Policing and Prosecution, pp. 113-210. 92. For Hanway as a philanthropist, see D.T. Andrew, Philanthropy and Police: London Charity in the Eighteenth Centwy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), esp. Chaps. 3 and 4. 93. Hanway, Defects of Police, pp. 72-9, 84-93, 212-17. 94. Sir W. Blizard, Desultory Reflections on Police: With an Essay on the Means of Preventing Crimes and Amending Criminals (1785). 95. E. Sayer, Observations on the Police or Civil Government of Westminster, Wuh a Proposal for Reform (1784). 96. Hanway, Defects of Police, pp. 238-9; Blizard, Desultory Reflections, p. 82. 97. Outlines of a Plan for Patroling and Watching the City of London, Borough of Southwark, and their Environs (1786), p. 8. 98. Outlines of a Plan, p. 9. 99. Outlines of a Plan, p. 7. 100. Outlines of a Plan, pp. 18-21. 101. Hanway, Defects ofPolice, p. 238. A similar suggestion sent to the Home Office in 1782, but with more emphasis on the use of professional magistrates. See PRO, H.O. 42/1/, W. Robinson to the Home Secretary, 1782. 102. Hanway, Defects of Police, p. 238. 103. Outlines ofa Plan, p. 10. See also Blizard, Desultory Reflections, Letter Vllb and p. 76. 104. Styles looks in particular at the use of newspaper advertising, handbills, and other printed information. J. Styles, 'Print and Policing: Crime Advertising in Eighteenth-Centwy Provincial England', in Hay and Snyder (eds), Policing and Prosecution, pp. 55-111; see esp. pp. 88-95. 105. G. Barrett, An Essay Towards Establishing a System of Police on Constitutional Principles (H. Reynell, 1786), pp. 14-19. For other examples, see Blizard, Desultory Reflections, p. 82; Outlines of a Plan, p. 15. 106. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 109 and Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 89. 107. BSP, House of Commons, vol. XV, Draft of 1785 Police Bill, pp. 20--22. Here- after cited as 1785 Police BiU. 108. 1785 Police BiU, pp. 14-15. 109. See Hume, Bentham and Bureaucracy, p. 34. 110. Pari. Hist., vol. XXV, cols. 888-9. 111. Devereaux, 'Convicts and the State,' p. 201. 112. Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 90--91. 113. The Daily Universal Register, 1 July 1785, p. 2. 114. For more on the French police and how they were perceived by the English, see Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, Appendix 8. 115. The Daily Universal Register, 1 July 1785, p. 2. 116. ParL Hist., vol. XV, cols. 900--13. See esp. speeches by Alderman Townshend, Lord Beauchamp, Sir Joseph Mawbey (MP for Southwark) and Alderman Newnham. 117. Gentleman's Magazine, June 1785, p. 485. 118. Quoted in Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 91. 119. Pari. Hist., vol. XXV, col. 889. 120. ParL HisL, vol. XXV, col. 906-7. 121. Quoted in Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 91. For other accounts of the bill's defeat, see Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 575-7; Radz- 186 Notes

inowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 108-23 and Philips, 'Law Enforcement in England, 1780-1830', pp. 165-8; and Devereaux, 'Convicts and the State', pp. 190-279. 122. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 123; Critchley, History of Police, p. 37. Palmer contrasts what he calls the 'success' of the Dublin Police Act of 1786, modelled on Reeves 1785 Police Bill, with the 'failure' of the latter. See his Police and Protest, pp. 84-104, esp. pp. 84, 89-92. 123. Paley, 'Policing Before Peel', p. 109. 124. For a fuller treatment of the Thames River Police, see Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, pp. 349-404. 125. Quoted in Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, p. 363. 126. Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, pp. 363-72. 127. Radzinowicz, History, pp. 385-88. See also Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 144-5. 128. Radzin~wicz, History, vol. II, p. 385. 129. Simon Devereaux notes the same sort of shift in government's attitude and activity regarding criminal punishments and rightly notes the extent to which many saw policing and punishment as points on the same continuum in reac­ tions to crime. Police reform was not necessarily a substitute for punishment or vice versa, especially for committed reformers like Patrick Colquhoun. See Devereaux, 'Convicts and the State', pp. 459-60. 130. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 614. 131. Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation, p. 261. 132. See Map 1.1 for the spread of night watch systems. 133. CJ, vol. XU, pp. 272, 312, 542, 901, 912, 939. Oink Commissioners divided themselves into four groups, each group serving in rotation for a month. Clink Liberty, PCM, 11 April 1787. The Commissioners also appear to have had an unusual interest in hygiene. Watchmen were ordered 'to have a clean Shirt, be clean shaved and have clean Hands and Faces every Sunday Night under the Penalty of Six Pence'. Clink Liberty, PCM, 20 June, 10 Oct. 1787; 4 Nov. 1788. 134. CJ, vol. LX, pp. 592, 641, 1043, 1054, 1067-8. 135. CJ,voi.LVll,pp. 11,29, 103,128,159,201,231,246,309-10,394,403,549,577, 618, 643. 136. CJ, vol. LXI, pp. 340-41, 355, 529. 137. CJ, vol. XL, pp. 616, 1010, 1047, 1122. 138. St Marylebone, WCM; 29 Jan. 1785, 5, 12, and 19 Feb. 1785; 16 April1785. For other examples, see St George, Hanover Square, VM, 2 June 1786, 1 June 1787; St Anne, Soho, VM, 7 Sept. 1791. 139. St Luke, Old Street, TM, 23 Sept. 1790. 140. See, for example, the hours set for Westminster in the 1774 Westminster Night Watch Act, see above, Chap. 5. 141. St Marylebone, WCM, 29 March 1783, 26 April1783. 142. For additional examples, my 'Night Watch', p. 310. 143. Outlines of a Plan, p. 7. 144. St Marylebone, WCM, 8 Jan. 1785. 145. St Marylebone, WCM, 19 Feb. 1785. 146. St Marylebone, WCM, 26 Jan. 1792. For details of this committee, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 311-13. 147. St Marylebone, WCM, 22 Oct. 1791, 20 Jan. 1792, 4 Feb. 1792, 24 Sept. 1792. 148. These magistrates were B. Kennett, Thomas Walker, John Willock, R. Johnson, and Michael Downs. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 7 Dec. 1793. 149. StJames, Piccadilly, YM, 7 June 1794. 150. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 22 Sept. 1794. 151. StJames, Piccadilly, YM; 7, 11 and 17 June 1794; 22 Sept. 1794; 31 Dec. 1794. Notes 187

152. St Marylebone, WCM, 15 June 1793. 153. Oink Liberty, PCM, 20 June 1787. 154. St Anne, Soho, VM, 7 Sept. 1791. 155. St Anne, Soho, VM, 7 Sept. 1791. 156. St Marylebone, WCM, 9 June, 24 Sept. 1792. 157. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 3 May 1794. 158. St George, Hanover Square, VM, 7 Feb. 1785. 159. St Leonard, Shoreditch, Four Rates TM, 11 Dec. 1794. For additional exam­ ples, see my 'Night Watch', p. 317. 160. Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, pp. 57-133, 305-6; Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 50-59. 161. St Anne, Soho, VM, 3 Nov. 1791. 162. Clink Liberty, PCM, 27 Dec. 1786. 163. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 18 Oct. 1791. 164. For some parishes which offered rewards to the general public, see my 'Night Watch', p. 322. 165. St Marylebone, WCM, 8 May 1784, 14 Jan. 1786. 166. St Andrew, Holborn, and St George-the-Martyr, WCM, 3 March 1807. 167. St Marylebone, WCM, 6 Dec. 1794. For other examples, see StGeorge, Han­ over Square, VM, 10 June 1784, Clink Liberty, PCM, 7 Oct. 1789; St Andrew, Holborn, and St George-the-Martyr, WCM, 3 March 1807; St Leonard, Shore­ ditch, Four Rates TM, 16 July 1801. 168. Hume Bentham and Bureaucracy, p. 158. 169. St Marylebone, WCM, 6 Dec. 1794,7 Feb. 1795. The sergeants and watchmen blamed some robberies on 'the Neglectful manner in which the Lamps of this Parish are lighted.. .'. 170. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 71.

6 Tiffi WAR YEARS, 1793-1815

1. For an excellent recent synthesis of current scholarship on this era, see Dick­ inson, Politics of the People, esp. Chaps. 7 and 9. 2. C. Emsley, British Society and the French Wars, 1793-1815 (Macmillan, 1979); E.P. Thompson The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1963); A. Goodwin, The Friends of Liberty: the English Democratic Movement in the Age of the French Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979) and J.A. Hone, For the Cause of 11-uth: &dicalism in London 1796-1821 (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1982). For more bibliography, see D. G. Wright, Popular &dicalism: the Working Class Experience, 1780-1880 (New York: Longman, 1988). 3. H.T. Dickinson, Liberty and Property: Political1deology in Eighteenth-Century Britain (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1977), p. 272. See also T.P. Schofield, 'Conservative Political Thought in Britain in Response to the French Revolu­ tion,' The Historical Journal 29 (1986}, pp. 601-22. 4. Dickinson, Liberty and Property, pp. 310-12. 5. Dickinson, Liberty and Property, pp. 265-;9. An exception might be made in this regard for Thomas Spence and his plan 'for property redistribution. 6. For a fuller treatment of this legislation, see R. Paley, 'The Middlesex Justices Act of 1792: Its Origins and Effects' (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, 188 Notes

University of Reading, May 1983) and her 'Policing London before Peel', esp. pp.109-11. 7. PRO, H.O. 42/1, suggestions from W. Robinson of Featherstone St.; and H.O. 42/S/330, D. Wilmot to Lord Sydney, 22 Nov. 1784. 8. Paley, 'Policing London before Peel', p. 108. 9. N. Rogers, 'Policing the Poor in Eighteenth-Centwy London: the Vagrancy Laws and their Administration', Social History (Canada), 24 (1991), p. 144. 10. Brewer, 'The Wilkites and the Law', p. 136. 11. C. Hill, 'The Norman Yoke', in his Puritanism and Revolution: Studies in lntetpretatian of the English Revolution of the 17th Century (New York: Schocken Books, 1958), pp. S0-122. 12 Radzinowicz, History, vol. II, pp. SOS-11. 13. St Luke, Old Street, TM, 9 Aug. 1798. 14. See, for example, the establishment of the Dismounted Horse Patrol in 1821, below, Chap. 8. 15. Hone, For the Cause of 'Iiuth, pp. 66-82 and C. Emsley, 'The Home Office and its Sources of Information and Investigation 1791-1801', English Historical Review, 94 (1979), pp. 53Uil. 16. Black, The Association, Chap. VII. See also A Mitchell, 'The Association Movement of 1792-93', The Historical Joumal4 (1961), pp. 56-77; D. Ginter, 'The Loyalist Association Movement of 1792-93 and British Pubic Opinion', The Historical Joumal9 (1966), pp. 179-90; R Dozier, For King, Constitution, and Country: English Loyalists and the French Revolution (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1983). 17. Mitchell, 'The Association Movement', pp. 62, 65. See also J. Ehrman, The Younger Pitt: the Reluctant 'JTansition (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1983), pp. 229-33. 18. Mitchell, 'The Association Movement', pp. 58, 71. 19. J.R. Western, 'The Volunteer Movement as an Anti-Revolutionary Force, 1793-1801', English Historical Review 4 (1956), p. 605. 20. Western, 'The Volunteer Movement', p. 608. 21. St George-in-the-East, VM, 6 May 1798. For additional examples, see St George, Hanover Square, VM, 20 May 1794; St Anne, Soho, VM, 23 May, 1796; St Luke, Chelsea, VM, 22 June 1797; and Paddington, VM, 3 Aug. and 22 Sept., 1803. 22. Western, 'The Volunteer Movement', p. 607. See also R. Glover, Britain at Bay: Defence against Bonaparte, 1803-14 (New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1973). 23. Rude, Hanoverian London, pp. 245-6. 24. St Leonard, Shoreditch, Parish Meeting Minutes, 28 Oct., 17 Nov. 1803. 25. J. Bohstedt, Riats and Community Politics in England and Wales 1790-1810 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), pp. 49-51. 26. J. Stevenson, 'The London 'Crimp' Riots of 1794', International Review of Social History, 16 (1971), pp. 40-45. 27. Stevenson, 'London "Crimp" Riots', pp. SS-6. 28. J.D. Cookson, 'The English Volunteer Movement of the French Wars, 1793- 1815: Some Contexts', The Historical Journal, 32 (1989), pp. 886-7. 29. MJ.D. Roberts, 'The Society for the Suppression of Vice and its Early Critics, 1802-1812', The Historicalloumal26 (1983), p. 159. Hereafter cited as Roberts, 'Society'. See also Bristow, VICe and VIgilance, pp. 40-43 and M.J.D. Roberts, 'Making Victorian Morals? The Society for the Suppression of Vice and its Notes 189

Critics, 1802-1886', Historical Studies 21 (1984), p. 160. Hereafter cited as . Roberts, 'Victorian Morals?'. 30. Roberts, 'Society', pp. 160-61. 31. Roberts, 'Society', p. 164; Roberts, 'Victorian Morals?', p. 159. 32. Roberts, 'Society', p. 164. 33. StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 17 Jan. 1805. 34. Quoted in Roberts, 'Society', p. 168. 35. Roberts, 'Society', p. 170. 36. Quoted in Roberts, 'Society', p. 171. Smith's review appeared in the Edinburgh Review in 1809. 37. Roberts, 'Society', pp. 171-3; Roberts, 'Victorian Morals?', pp. 163-7. See also Bristow, VICe and Vzgilance, pp. 32-125. 38. The most famous female Loyalist was Hannah More. See Dozier, For King, Constitution, and Country, pp. 92-5. 39. 7th ed. (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1806, rept. 1969.) Initially published anonymously in 1795, Colquhoun put his name to the last three of seven editions. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 221n. 40. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 247. 41. See Colquhoun, »eatise, pp. 214-17. 42. See Colquhoun, »eatise, pp. 536--66. 43. Colquhoun, »eatise, pp. 351-80, 567-601. 44. Colquhoun, 11-eatise, 'Preface', no page number provided. 45. For Dr Johnson's definition, see Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 2. See also Hanway, Defects of Police, p. 93. 46. Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 118-19. 47. Colquhoun, »eatise, pp. 414-15. 48. Colquhoun, »eatise, pp. 412-13. 49. Colquhoun, »eatise, pp. 406-20. 50. Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 296-311. See, for example, 'Police and Prisons', Reports from Committees of the House of Commons, vol. XIII, Finance Reports, XXIII to XXXVI (1803), esp. pp. 344-59. 51. Philips, 'Law Enforcement in England 1780-1830', pp. 175-6. Philips describes Colquhoun as a 'moral entrepreneur'. 52. Rogers, 'Policing the Poor', p. 145. 53. Colquhoun, Treatise, pp. 72-3. 54. See, for example, The Tunes; 1 Dec. 1796, p. 3; 4 Oct. 1797, p. 3. 55. See A Citizen of London: But no Magistrate, Observations on a lAte Publica­ tion Intituled 'A »eatise on the Police of the Metropolis by P. Colquhoun, Esq.' (1800), and Sir Richard Phillips, Modem London: Being the History and Present State of the British Metropolis (1805), pp. 146-7, quoted in Radzinowic:z, History, vol. III, pp. 311-12. 56. Colquhoun, »eatise, p. 607. 57. J. Landers, 'Mortality and Metropolis: the Case of London 1675-1825', Popu­ lation Studies 41 (1987), p. 63. See also Wrigley and Schofield, Population History of England, pp. 166-9. 58. Rude, Han011erian London, pp. 4-6. 59. George, London Life, pp. 412-14. 60. The census that year counted 1139000 residents. B.R. Mitchell, British Histor­ ical Statistics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 30. 61. J. Stevenson, 'Food Riots in England, 1792-1818', in J. Stevenson and R. Quinault (eds), Popular Protest and Public Order (New York: St Martin's Press, 1976), p. 35. 190 Notes

62. Rude, Hanoverian London, pp. 250-52. See also Stevenson, 'Food Riots', pp. 35-7 and W.M. Stem, 'The Bread Crisis in Britain 1795-96', Economica, 31 (1964), pp. 168-87. 63. St Giles-in-the-Fields and StGeorge, Bloomsbury, VM, 23 June 1794, 27 June 1796, 23 June 1800, 22 June 1801, 21 June 1802. For the impact of high food prices on poor relief expenses, see DA. Baugh, 'The Cost of Poor Relief in South-east England 1790-1834', Economic History Review, 2nd series, 28 (1975), pp. 50-68. 64. St Luke, Old Street, TM, 3 Dec. 1795. See also St Leonard, Shoreditch, Four Rates TM, 3 March 1796, 6 July 1797. 65. L.D. Schwarz, 'The Standard of Living in the Long Run: London, 1700-1860', Economic History Review, 2nd series, 38 (1985), pp. 28, 31, 36-41. Watchmen's wages were comparable to those of bricklayers' labourers. 66. See J.R. Western, The English Militia in the Eighteenth Century (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965), pp. 219-24. 67. St Marylebone, Committee of Management Minutes, 23 April 1817, report from Valentine Howell, watchhouse keeper. 68. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 26 Sept. 1800, 14 Oct. 1801, 11 June 1804, 22 Nov. 1804, 26 Sept. 1804. 69. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 9 Nov. 1810. 70. St Giles-in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, VM, 15 Nov. 1806, 5 May 1807 and CJ, vol. LXII, pp. 37, 59, 64, 162, 218, 364. For other examples, see my 'Night Watch', p. 369. 71. St Giles-in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, VM, 5 May 1807, 16 May 1807. 72. St Giles-in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, VM, 16 June 1809. For other examples of wages increases see my 'Night Watch', pp. 370-71. 73. For a fuller account of the murders, see Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, pp. 231- 323. T.A. Critchley and murder mystery writer P.D. James collaborated on an account of this case entitled The Maul and the Pear Tree (New York: Mysterious Press, 1971). 74. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 107, 111. 75. Emsley, Crime and Society, pp. 36-40. 76. Radzinowicz, History, vol. I, p. 198; vol. II, pp. 322-3; For the idea of pageantry and theatre in law, see D. Hay, 'Property, Authority and the Criminal Law', in D. Hay et al., Albion's Fatal Tree (New York: Pantheon Press, 1975), pp. 26-31. 77. Emsley, Crime and Society, pp. 29-30. See esp. Figure 2.1, 'Crime Patterns in the Early Nineteenth Century'. 78. Rude, The Crowd in History, p. 80. 79. 'Stepney Vestry Minutes Extracts 1778-1871', 2 Dec. 1811. I am grateful to Mr Uoyd, local history librarian, Thwer Hamlets Central library, for this reference. 80. GLRO, P80/PAU/11 St Paul, Hammersmith, Minutes of the Committee and General Meetings of the Association for the Prosecution of Thieves and Felons, 12 Dec. 1811, 18 Dec. 1811, 6 Jan. 1812. 81. PRO, H.O. 42!118/f.298, Mellish and Fletcher to Shadwell Police Office, 27 Dec. 1811. See also f. 300, printed copy of resolutions adopted by lhlstees and inhabitants of St Paul, Shadwell, 24 Dec. 1811. 82. St Anne, Soho, VM, 1 Jan. 1812, 8 Jan. 1812; WCM, 5 Feb. 1812. 83. The Times, 14 Jan. 1812, p. 3. 84. See PRO, H.O. 42/118-120. 85. It is possible that the government had no intention of allowing the opposition the opportunity to enquire into the government's use of police magistrates as Notes 191

spy masters on domestic radicals. See Hone, For the Cause of 71-uth, pp. 69-75 and Emsley, 'The Home Office and its Sources of Information and Investiga­ tion', pp. 532-61. 86. W. Cobbett and T.C. Hansard (eds), Cobben's Parliamentary Debates 1803- 1820, vol. XXI, cols. 196-8. Hereafter cited as Cobben's ParL Debates. 87. For a discussion of Romilly's role in the history of criminal law reform, see Radzinowicz, History, vol. I, pp. 313-31, 497-522. 88. Cobben's Pari. Debates, vol. XXI, cols. 198-208. 89. Cobbett's ParL Debates, vol. XXI, cols. 212-13. See also Dickinson, Politics of the People, pp. 226-9. 90. Cobben's ParL Debates, vol. XXI, cols. 210, 213, and 217. 91. Colquhoun, 7Teatise, Chaps. XVI, XVII. 92. 'Report on the Nightly Watch and Police of the Metropolis' in Cobben's Pari. Debates, vol. XXII, cols. 67, 77. 93. BSP, House of Commons, 1812, vol. I, 1812 Night Watch Bill, p. 1041. Hereafter cited as 1812 Night Watch Bill. · 94. 1812 Night Watch Bill, p. 1065. 95. 1812 Night Watch Bill, pp. 1()44....5, 1062. 96. 1812 Night Watch Bill, pp. 1045-6, 1064. 97. Cobbett's ParL Debates, vol. XXIII, cols. 950-51. 98. Philips, 'Law Enforcement in England, 1780-1830', pp. 172-274. 99. The parishes and others in question were: the vestries of St Giles-in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury; Paddington; StJames, Piccadilly; the Uberty of Saffron Hill, Hatton Gardens, and Ely Rents; St Pancras; St James and St John, Oerkenwell; StJohn, Wapping; St Mary, Whitechapel; St George- in-the-East; St Andrew, Holbom, and St George-the-Martyr; St Luke, Old Street, and the Commissioners for Paving and Watching St Pancras west of 'lbttenham Court Road. 100. Devon County Record Office, Sidmouth Correspondence, 1812 OH, 'Night Watch Bill: General Objections of the Agents employed on behalf of several of the Parishes and Places opposing the above Bill', 11 July 1812. It would be interesting to know who else received a copy of this printed material. 101. St Marylebone, VM, 9 June 1812, 13 June 1812, 27 June 1812, 2 July 1812, 18 July 1812. Actually the first notice taken by the St Marylebone vestry of the bill on 9 June was only to state that there was not sufficient reason for them to oppose it. Only eight vestrymen were at that meeting, however, one of whom was Nathaniel Conant, a police magistrate. Conant was one of the two police magistrates sent by the government to help deal with the Luddite riots in 1811-12 and was later made Chief Magistrate at Bow Street. See F.O. Darvall, Populllr Disturbances and Public Order in Regency England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934), pp. 82-3. 102. The parishes that were listed as having tried shifts were StJames, Piccadilly; St Giles and St George, Bloomsbury; and St Andrew, Holbom and St George­ the-Martyr. See Devon County Record Office, Sidmouth Correspondence, 'Night Watch Bill'. 103. Devon County Record Office, Sipmouth Correspondence, C.1812 OH, 'Night Watch Bill'. 104. See my 'Night Watch', pp. 402-3. 105. St Leonard, Shoreditch, Parish Meeting Minutes, 7 July 1812. 106. Devon County Record Office, Sidmouth Correspondence, C.1812 OH, John Wilks to Sidmouth, 11 July 1812. For more on the increased cost of poor relief in particular, see Eastwood, Governing Rural Englond, pp. 134-46. 192 Notes

107. R.G. Thome, The House of Commons, 1790-1820 (Seeker and Warburg, 1986), pp. 353-5. 108. Of the eight men who spoke against the bill in this debate in July, four had been on the Nightly Watch Committee. Cobbett's Parl Debates, vol. XXIII, cols. 950-51. See CJ, vol. LXVII, pp. 33-4 for a list of the members of the commit­ tee, which included all the MPs for the greater London region. One member of the House of Commons who apparently did not speak up on these issues at this point but who one wishes had was Robert Peel. For other petitions against the bill, see Clink Liberty, PCM, 11 July 1812; St Anne, Soho, VM, 8 July 1812; St Mary, , VM, 13 July 1812. 109. John Prince Smith acknowledged : 'The watch that could arrest this man's hand must have the powers of omnipotence, and the attribute of ubiquity'. J.P Smith, An Accqunt of a Successful Experiment for an Effectual Nightly Watch, Recently Made in the Liberty of the Rolls, London (Richard Phillips, 1812), p. 12. 110. Radzinowicz, History, vol. Ill, p. 330. Even Patrick Colquhoun confined himself to suggestions for improving the watch. Radzinowicz explains his failure to push for a more radical 'system' by speculating that Colquhoun was 'probably disheart­ ened by the abandonment of the reform advocated by him.. .'. See p. 332. 111. PRO, H.O. 42/119/ff. 338-9, Colquhoun to Ryder, 14 Jan. 1812. 112. See Beattie, Crime and the Courts, Fig. 5.4, p. 214.

7 NIGHT WATCH TO POUCE, 1811-28

1. Smith, Successful Experiment, pp. 22-3, 59, 71-2. Since Smith is our source, it is possible that he biased his account to support a more Benthamite view of what policing was. 2. Smith, Successful Experiment, p. 30. The first meeting was held 27 December, the second 30 December. This was, of course, in the aftermath of the Ratcliffe Highway murders. 3. Smith, Successful Experiment, pp. 33-4. 4. Smith, Successful Experiment, pp. 44-53. 5. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, pp. 213-35. 6. Cobbett's Pari. Debates, vol. XXI, col. 199. See also Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 226. 7. N. Gash, Aristocracy and People: Britain 1815-1865 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979) pp. 76-7. 8. Beattie, Crime and the Courts, p. 235. 9. Emsley, Crime and Society, p. 29. 10. Thompson, Working Class, Part Three. For a different opinion about the extent to which these fears were realistic, see M.l. Thomis and P. Holt, Threats of Revolution in Britain, 1789-1848 (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1977). 11. Wright, Popular R/Jdicalism, pp. 49-52. 12. Thompson, Worlcing Class, pp. 634-5. See also Royle and Walvin, R/Jdicals and Reformers, pp. 112-13, 118-19. 13. J. Stevenson, 'The Queen Caroline Affair', in London in the Age of Reform, ed. J. Stevenson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1977), pp. 117-48. See also S. Palmer, 'Before the Bobbies: the Caroline Riots, 1821', History Today 21 (1977), pp. 637-44. 14. See, for example, Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 190-91, 293; Critchley, History of Police, p. 47 and Radzinowicz, History, vol. III, p. 348. Notes 193

15. M. Harrison, Crowds and History: Mass Phenomena in English Towns, 1790- 1835 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 32-42. Harrison thus is critical of E.P. Thompson, George Rude and some of their admirers for using crowd and riot synonymously. See esp. pp. 3-31. See also Dickinson, Politics of the People, Chap. 4. 16. Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 166. 17. Liverpool Mercury, 20 July 1821, quoted in Harrison, Crowds and History, p. 170. 18. Harrison, Crowds and History, p. 316. 19. Harrison, Crowds and History, p. 316. 20. Cobbett's Pari. Debates, vol. XXXIII, cols. 888-91. 21. The Times printed extensive excerpts of the testimony given before the Police Committee, including Colquhoun's evidence. See, for example, 2-4 Sept. 1816. · 22. L.B. Allen, Brief Considerations on the Present State of the Police (J. Bretell, 1821), pp. 3-4. 23. BSP, House of Commons, 1818, vol. VIII, Third Report of the Committee to Enquire into the Police of the Metropolis, p. 25. Hereafter cited as 1818 Police Committee Report. 24. 1818 Police Committee Report, pp. 25-7. 25. 1818 Police Committee Report, pp. 25-6. 26. Thompson, Working Class, pp. 644-62; Royle and Walvin, Radicals and Refor­ mers, pp. 112-17. For a view that challenges Thompson, see Thomis and Holt, Threats of Revolution, pp. 42-61. 27. 1818 Police Committee Report, p. 26. 28. For a debate about spies and informers, see Cobbett's Pari. Debates, vol. XXXVII, cols. 820-62. 29. St James, Piccadilly, VM, 10 March, 11 March, 13 March 1815. See also G. Pellew, The Life and Con-espondence of the Right Honourable Henry Adding­ ton, First VIScount Sidmouth (John Murray, 1847), vol. III, pp. 126-7. 30. Devon County Record Office, Sidmouth Correspondence, C. 1815, OA, Hugh Hammersley to Sidmouth, 6 May 1815. 31. St Leonard, Shoreditch, Parish Meeting Minutes, 1 June 1814, 2 March 1815, 22 March 1815. 32. Stevenson, 'The Queen Caroline Affair', p. 129 and Sheppard, London 1808- 1870, p. 306. 33. Quoted in D. Read, Peterloo: the 'Massacre' and its Background (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1958) p. 145. See also R. Walmsley, Peterloo: The Case Reopened (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1969) p. 252. 34. Quoted in A. Mitchell, The Whigs in Opposition 1815-1830 (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1967) p. 126. See also Walmsley, Peterloo, pp. 264-5; Thompson, Worlcing Class, pp. 685-7 and P. Lawson, 'Reassessing Peterloo', History Today, 38 (1988), pp. 24-9. 35. 13 Oct. 1819, col. 676. 36. Devon County Record Office, Sidmouth Correspondence, C.1819 OH, Sid­ mouth to Lord Kenyon, 3 Sept. 1819. 37. See Read, Peterloo, pp. 186-7 and Thompson, Working Class, pp. 699-700. 38. Ginter, 'The Loyalist Association Movement', pp. 179-90; Bohstedt, Riots and Community Politics, pp. 49-51; Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707- 1837 (New Haven, Cf: Yale University Press, 1992) pp. 283-91 and 316-19. 39. Devon County Record Office, Sidmouth Correspondence, C.1819 OH, Sid­ mouth to Canning, 12 Dec. 1819. 40. Quoted in Philips, 'Law Enforcement in England, 1780-1830', p. 183. 194 Notes

41. 'Cheap Government, 1815-1874', inN. Gash, Pillars of Government and Other Essays on State and Society c. 1770-c. 1880 (Edward Arnold, 1986), p. 44. 42. J.E. Cookson, Lord Liverpool's Administration: the Crucial ~ars 1815-1822 (Hamden, Cf: Archon Books, 1975) pp. 21-6, 48-50, 78-80, 216-19. 43. Quoted in A Briggs, 'Middle-class Consciousness in English Politics, 1780- 1846', Past and Present 9 (1956), p. 68. 44. Quoted in E. Halevy,A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century: England in 1815, vol. I, trans. E.I. Watkins and D.A Baker (Ernest Benn, 1960), p. 106 45. N. Gash, Lord Liverpool: The Life and Political Career ofRobert Banks Jenkinson, Second Earl ofLiverpool1770-1828 (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984), p. 126. 46. Sir N. Chester, The English Administrative System 1780-1870 (Oxford: Oaren­ don Pr~. 1981), pp. 123-68. 47. See W.D. Rubenstein, 'The End of "Old Corruption" in Britain, 1780-1860', Past and Present 101 (1983), p. 57. 48. 'Lord Camden's Memorandum for the Duke of Wellington, June 1830', English Historical Documents, 1783-1832, ed. A. Aspinall and EA. Smith (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 301. 49. Gash, Lord Liverpool, p. 132. 50. In 1816, Uverpool wrote to the Prince Regent that 'The Government certainly hangs by a thread... '. The need to recruit more support in the Commons was a continual problem for Uverpool, one not helped by the issue of Catholic Emancipation or the suicide of Castlereagh in 1822. The government's position improved, however, in the 1820s, with the addition of younger men like Robert Peel and William Huskisson. For fuller discussion, see Gash, Lord Liverpool, Chaps. VII-X. 51. Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 165. 52. Devon County Record Office, Sidmouth Papers, 1812 OA. See, for example, Thomas Dornford, a failed wine merchant, to Sidmouth, 4 Dec. 1812 or Frederick Matthew, a 'gentleman of small fortune ... though between 60 & 70 years of age, his strength of mind and body are unimpaired'. See Frederick Matthew to Sidmouth, 11 Nov. 1812. 53. Devon County Record Office, Sidmouth Papers, Sidmouth to Thomas Coutts, Esq., 25 Oct. 1815; same to the Earl of Beauchamp, 20 Dec. 1815.1 See also Emsley, Crime and Society, p. 12. Simon Devereaux sees Sidmouth as also more active than previous Home Secretaries in issues of pardons and punishments. See Devereaux, 'Convicts and the State', pp. 415-20. 54. Gentleman's Magazine, July 1816, p. 79; Nov. 1816, p. 459. 55. Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 171. 56. PRO, HO 65/2, letter from Henry Oive for Sidmouth to the Police Magistrates, 25 Nov. 1820. 57. PRO, HO 59-2/30, 'Summary of respective Reports made by the Magistrates of the different Police Offices on the present State of the Metropolis', 1820. Hereafter cited as 'Summary'. For the complete text of Longley's suggestions, see HO 59-1/30, John Longley to Lord Sidmouth, 12 Dec. 1820. About the reserve force, Longley 'proposed an auxiliary Force ... not to be called out except on particular Emergencies, and to be paid only when so called out. The Inducements to Individuals so to enroll themselves were to consist in some Exemptions, such as from the Militia & Parish Offices .... Your Lordship observes this would double the regular Force with little Increase of Expence ... .' This was the only suggestion that could be interpreted as addres­ sing directly the issue of crowd control. Notes 195

58. PRO, HO 59-2/30, 'Summary'. 59. Emsley, Crime and Society in England, pp. 54-5, 132-3; see also D. Philips, Crime and Authority in VICtorian England (Croom Helm, 1977) and J. Davis, ~ Poor Man's System of Justice: The London Police Courts in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century', The Historical Journal 27 (1984), pp. 309-35. 60. PRO, HO 59-1/30, Shadwell Police Magistrates to the Home Office, 12 Dec. 1820. 61. PRO, H.O. 59-1/30, Longley to Sidmouth, 12 Dec. 1820; H.O. 59-2/30, 'Sum­ mary'. 62. Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 171-2. 63. 2 Geo. IV. c. 118; see also J. Wade, A 'Jreatise on the Police and Crimes of the Metropolis (Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1829, reprint 1972), pp. 68-9 and F. Sheppard, Local Government in St Marylebone 1688-1835 (The Athlone Press, 1958), p. 190. 64. CJ, voL LXXVI, pp. 296, 304. 65. St Marylebone, VM, 5 April 1823. For a full account of White's case from the vestry's point of view, see also VM, 23 Nov. 1822, 30 Nov. 1822, 14 Dec. 1822, 21 Dec. 1822. 66. Palmer, Police and Protest, Chaps. IH!. See also N. Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel (Longmans, 1961), pp. 310-13. 67. PRO, HO 61/1, printed copy of BSP, House of Commons, 1822, voL IV, Select Committee Report on the Police of the Metropolis, p. 9. Hereafter cited as 1822 Select Committee Report on Police. See next chapter for a fuller discussion of Robert Peel's efforts and a comparison of the 1822 and 1828 Select Commit­ tees on the Police. 68. 1822 Select Committee Report on Police, p. 101. 69. 3 Geo. IV. c. 55; see also Wade, Treatise on the Police, p. 69. CJ, voL LXXVII, pp. 379, 390 and 406. 70. Critchley, HIStory of Police, p. 44. 71. Wade, 'Jreatise on the Police, p. 68. 72. St Giles-in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, VM, 16 May 1807, 16 June 1809, 28 Nov. 1820; PRO, HO 61/1, Charles Stable to Lord Sidmouth, 3 May 1821. 73. PRO, HO 61/1, printed copy of the regulations of the beadles in St Giles­ in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, 5 Dec. 1825; John Rawlinson to Henry Hobhouse, 25 March 1826; Rawlinson to Robert Peel, 7 Dec. 1826; copy of letter fro~ Rawlinson to Mr. Greenwell, St Marylebone vestry clerk. See also St Marylebone, VM, 25 March, 1 April 1826. The relationship between Rawlinson and the Marylebone vestry was not always cordial. See St Marylebone, VM, 5 April1823; esp. Appendices Nos. 4,6,7,10 and 11; 8, 15 July 1826. 74. St Marylebone, VM, 16 Dec. 1826, 22 Jan. 1827, 10 Feb. 1827. 75. GLRO, P83/MRY1/657-1 and 2, St Mary, Islington, Draft WCM, 12 Sept. 1826. 76. Wade, 'Jreatise on the Police, p. 362; See also testimony of William Bodkin before 1828 Select Committee: BSP, House of Commons, 1828, vol. VI, Report of the Select Committee on the Police of the Metropolis, p. 71. Hereafter cited as 1828 Select Committee Report on Police. 77. St Luke, Old Street, TM, 20 Dec. 1827, 26 Dec. 1827, 3 Jan. 1828, 7 Feb. 1828. 78. For additional examples of early evening patrols or the use of double shifts, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 450-51. 79. See Cobbett's Pari. Debates, voL XXI, coL 196. 196 Notes

80. J. Pearson, The London Charleys of the 18th Century; or Half-Past 7Welve o'Clock, and a Very Cloudy Sort of a Morning (London: J. King, 1827), p. 3. 81. 1822 Select Committee Report on Police, Appendix No. 1, p. 105. 82. Schwartz, 'The Standard of Living in the Long Run', p. 35. 83. St James, Clerkenwell, PCM, 25 Sept. 1815, 29 Nov. 1822, 13 Sept. 1827; St James, Piccadilly, WCM, Supernumerary List, appended to each volume. For Southwark, see West Division, PCM, 27 Aug. 1822; 7 Jan. 1823, 25 Feb. 1823, 15 April 1823, 13 May 1823, 12 Aug. 1823. For additional examples, see my 'Night Watch', p. 454. 84. StJames, Clerkenwell, PCM, 1 Feb. 1816. For the best recent study of wages in London, see Schwartz, 'The Standard of Living in the Long Run: London, 1700-1860', Appendix I, p. 38. 85. Southwark, West Division, PCM, 19 Dec. 1820; St Marylebone, WCM, 11 April 1778 and VM, 22 April1826. 86. A clause of its local Act passed in 1795 allowed the vestry to grant an annuity of not more than £10 to any watchman or beadle who was either disabled in the line of duty or 'after a Service of Ten Years, be incapable of discharging such duty by bodily infirmities'. 35 Geo. III c. 73, s. 31; St Marylebone, VM, 28 June 1823. 87. St Luke, Old Street, TM, 4 Aug. 1825. For other examples, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 456-7. 88. St Marylebone, WCM, 7 Jan. 1773, 8 Dec. 1787, 17 Jan. 1795; St Marylebone Committee of Manage Minutes, 6 Nov. 1822, 13 Nov. 1822. 89. Southwark, West Division, PCM, 14 Jan. 1817; 11 June 1822, 12 Nov. 1822; Southwark, East Division, PCM, 18 May 1815. 90. As discussed previously, it may be that newspapers devoted more space to crime in peacetime, given the absence of war news. See King, 'Newspaper Reporting, Prosecution Practise, and Perceptions of Urban Crime', p. 426. 91. St Luke, Old Street, TM, 7 April1814; Southwark, West Division, PCM; 9, 23, and 30 May 1820. 92. In the next chapter is a discussion of Peel's reactions to further revelations of corruption among Bow Street Runners and police officers. 93. In the first two years of its existence, the Metropolitan Police hired 4000 men and fired 1989, 80 per cent of them for drunkenness. By 1838, 6000 men had resigned and 3200 had been dismissed. D. Ascoli, The Queen's Peace: The Origins and Development of the Metropolitan Police 1829-1979 (Hamish Hamil­ ton, 1979), p. 89. 94. St James, Piccadilly, Record of Complaints brought before the Watch Commit- tee by the Beadles and Captains of Patrol, 1811-1829. 95. Clink Uberty, PCM, 18 Aug. 1813. 96. Clink Uberty, PCM, 18 Aug. 1813. 97. See 1818 Police Committee Report, pp. 112-20, 128-37, the testimony of James Jones, John Chalesworth and Benjamin Unsey. See also St Leonard, Shore­ ditch Parish Meeting Minutes, 24 and 31 Dec. 1817. 98. Philips, 'Law Enforcement in England, 1780-1830', p. 160. 99. St Marylebone, WCM, 16 April1785, 16 Dec. 1786; VM, 8 May 1813, 23 Nov. 1822. See also Sect. 27 of 3 Geo. IV c. 84. 100. See 6 Geo. IV c. 34, An Act for paving, [etc.] ... watching and improving the Streets and Public Places ... in ... Tothill Fields, section 70. The Act required that all 'Watchmen, Sergeants of the Night, and Patroles' be sworn in as constables. It was passed 10 June 1825. 101. StJames, Clerkenwell, PCM, 27 Sept. 1827, 26 Feb. 1829. 102. Hume, Bentham and Bureaucracy, pp. 158-60. Notes 197

103. Chester, English Administrative System, pp. 142-{)1. Salary scales in lieu of fees were introduced into the 'll"easwy in 1782. 104. Sir G. Stephen, Practical Suggestions for the Improvement of the Police, 2nd ed. (London: Samuel Booth, 1829), pp. 17-18. 105. Davis,~ Poor Man's System of Justice', pp. 309-17. 106. See, for example, PRO, HO 61/1, 1822 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 1-2. 107. St Leonard, Shoreditch, Parish Meeting Minutes, 4 Dec. 1817. 108. St Luke, Old Street, TM, 5 March 1818. For other examples of the use of the word police in reference to parish watch systems, see St John, aerkenwell, Peace Officers' Book, 10 Aplil 1822; St Giles-in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, VM, 29 Nov. 1820; Hackney, TM, 14 April 1828; St Marylebone, VM, 5 April 1823. 109. A Police Magistrate, Remarks on the Present Unconnected State of the Police Authorities in the Metropolis, and a Method Proposed of Rendering them More Effecti~e (T. Hodgson, 1821), p. 5.

8 WHY 1829?

1. For a fuller discussion of the historiography of this topic, see my 'Night Watch', pp. 472-4. 2. In addition to Palmer, Police and Protest, see G. Broeker, Rural Disorder and Police Reform in Ireland, I812-36 (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970). 3. CJ, vol. LXXVII, pp. 108-9; T.C. Hansard, Parliamentary Debates, 2nd series (1820-30), vol. VI, cols. 1165-{). Hereafter cited as Pari. Debates, 2nd series. See also Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 313. 4. PRO, HO 61/1, I822 Select Committee Report on the Police, p. 3. 5. I822 Select Committee Report on the Police, p. 11. 6. Quoted in Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 314. 7. The Times, 14 Oct. 1822, p. 3. See also Critchley, History of Police, pp. 44-5, on the establishment of the day patrol. 8. PRO, H0/60/1, H. Hobhouse to W. Wyatt, Esq. and J. Hardwick, Esq., 2 May 1822. 9. Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, pp. 314-26. 10. British Library, Additional Manuscripts 38195, Peel Papers, f. 122, Robert Peel to Lord Liverpool, 12 Oct. 1822. 11. Radzinowicz, History, vol. I, pp. 567-90 and Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, pp. 326-9. 12. Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, pp. 339-40. 13. Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 342. 14. Quoted in Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 437. 15. For a fuller discussion of the Cabinet shuffie in 1827-28, see Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, Chap. 13. Peel inherited his father's title on the first Sir Robert's death in 1827. 16. British Library, Additional Manuscripts 40395, Peel Papers, ff. 204-5, Peel to Hobhouse, 4 Feb. 1828. Hobhouse had resigned the previous year, when Peel left office. Peel tried to convince him, unsuccessfully, to return in 1828. Hobhouse was replaced by S.M. Phillips. See Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 492. 17. Pari. Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XVIII, cols. 791, 793. 18. Pari. Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XVIII, col. 793. 19. Pari. Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XVIII, cols. 795-8. 198 Notes

20. G. Rude, Criminal and V~etim: Crime and Society in Early Nineteenth-Century England (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1985),.pp. 78-9. 21. Pari. Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XVIII, cols. 799-800. 22. Spring-Rice had been Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department in the Canning government. See Sir L Stephen and SirS. Lee (eds), Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 1921-22), vol. XVIII, pp. 835-7. 23. CJ, vol. LXXXIII, p. 114. See also Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 494. Peel had probably learned from Lord Liverpool about how to manipulate select com­ mittees. See B. Hilton, 'The Political Arts of Lord Liverpool', 11-ansactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 38 (1988), pp. 157-9. 24. BSP, House of Commons, 1828, vol. VI, Report of the Select Committee on the Police, pp. 49~1. Hereafter cited as 1828 Select Committee Report on Police. 25. For Rawlinson's testimony, see 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, p. 61. Nineteen of the witnesses asked favoured centralizing, while only six rejected the idea. 26. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 50-63, 12U, 206-9. 27. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 21-2. 28. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 30-31. For changes in the City police in the 1820s, see Rumbelow, 1 Spy Blue, pp. 104-14. The Report did recommend that the City relinquish any jurisdiction over Southwark. See also Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 495. 29. A Police Magistrate, Remarks on the Present Unconnected State of the Police Authorities in the Metropolis, and a Method Proposed of Rendering Them More Effective (T. Hodson, 1821), p. 7. 30. Stephen, Practical Suggestions for the Improvement of the Police, pp. iii-iv. 31. Published in 1820, it sold 50,000 copies and was reprinted in the 1830s. J.J. Tobias, 'Introduction,' in Wade, Tteatise, p. v. 32. Wade, Tteatise, pp. 70-71. 33. Wade, Tteatise, pp. 90-91. 34. Wade, Tteatise, pp. 92-3. 35. Wade, 11-eatise, p. 94. 36. Wade, Tteatise, p. 95. 37. Wade, Tteatise, p. 98. , 38. A Police Magistrate, Remarks on the Present Unconnected State ofthe Police, p. 7. 39. Stephen, Practical Suggestions, p. 24. 40. These had been the commonplace complaints about parish watch officers in previous years, to the point of being stereotypical by 1828. See, for example, Pearson, The London Charleys. 41. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 7~. 42. See British Ubrary, Additional Manuscripts 40396, Peel Papers, ff. 129-30, Peel to Hobhouse, 7 April 1828. 43. PRO, HO 60/1, S.M. Phillips to Bow Street, 10 April 1828. 44. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 30-31. 45. See Hart, 'Reforming the Borough Police', pp. 411-15. 46. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 90, 94, 209-10, 247-8, 255, 259. 47. Cobbett's Pari. Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XVIII, col. 795. 48. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 131, 132, 136. 49. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, p. 260. For other examples of local officials being asked similar questions, see also pp. 196, 218 and 223. 50. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 21, 31. 51. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, pp. 130-31. 52. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, p. 260. Notes 199

53. Here I disagree with the Webbs, who saw this as occurring at the end of the seventeenth century. See Webb and Webb, Statutory Authorities, p. 364. 54. GLRO/MRC/2, Metropolitan Roads Commission, Minutes, 23 Nov. 1827. The Commission did keep up the street lights on these roads. See 30 Aug. 1827. 55. PRO/H0/60/1, Police Ently Books, 15 Nov. 1827, Phillips to H. Rivaz. 56. PRO/H0/60/1, Police Ently Books, 12 April 1928, Phillipps to W. Benett, Esq. See also 4 Apri11827, Hobhouse to William Jones, Esq.; 31 Oct. 1827, Phillipps to William Baker, Esq.; 19 Dec. 1827, Phillips to William Smith, Esq.; 2 Jan. 1828, Phillipps to Lt. Col. Carmichael; 9 Feb. 1828, Phillipps to Mr. Cronthwaite, Esq. 57. See Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, pp. 320-26. 58. Quoted in Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 492. See also Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 291. 59. British Library, Additional Manuscripts 40397, Peel Papers ff. 324-9, Viscount. Lowther to Peel, 17 Nov. 1828. The men on Lord Lowther's list are: John Austin, St Macylebone vestlyman; John Camik, of Hackney; Mr Sandford, accountant and collector of parish rates; Rev. Mr Carmalt, Putney schoolmaster; Mr Delgas, Chiswick vestly clerk; William Gutterson, Esq., Enfield resident and Middlesex magistrate; Thomas Aveling, Esq., partner in Hanbury and Buxton brewery; Joseph Adams, Wapping merchant; Mr Earnshaw, Islington, St Luke's vestly clerk; Mr Davis, St Leonard, Shoreditch vestly clerk; R. Jones, commissioner of Metropolis Roads; Mr Read, aer­ kenwell 'a busy money making man'; James Lyon, solicitor to the Metropolis Roads Commission; Edward Moses, Esq., magistrate and Mr Wix, magistrate. 60. Peel laid out a summary of his plans in a letter to Hobhouse dated 12 December 1828. See British Library, Additional Manuscripts 40397, Peel Papers, ff. 378-82. 61. Pari. Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XXI, cols 872-3. 62. ParL Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XXI, col. 877. 63. Pari. Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XXI, cols. 867-81, 15 Apri11829. See also Peel to Wellington, 29 May 1829, in C.S. Parker, (ed.), Sir Robert Peel from his Private Papers (John Murray, 1899, reprint 1979), vol. II, pp. 111-12. 64. Parker (ed.), Peel from his Private Papers, vol. II, pp. 112-13. 65. Gash, Mr. Secretary Peel, p. 496. See also Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 293. 66. Eastwood, Governing Rural England, p. 127. 67. Radzinowicz, History, vol. IV, pp. 4, 60; R.E. Zegger, John Cam Hobhouse: A Political Life, 1819-1852 (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1973), pp. 144-5. 68. M.E. Rose, 'Introduction: the poor and the city, 1834-1914' in The Poor and the City: the English Poor Law in its Urban Context, 1834-1914, ed. M.E. Rose (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985), pp. 7-8. See also G.R. Boyer, An Economic History of the English Poor Law 1750-1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 240-41. 69. St Matthew, Bethnal Green, VM, 22 May 1829. 70. Sheppard, Marylebone, pp. 187-203. See also M. Falkus, 'Lighting in the Dark Ages of English Economic History: Town Streets before the Industrial Revolu­ tion', in Trade, Government and Economy, ed. D.C. Coleman and FJ. Fisher (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976), pp. 248-73. 71. Quoted in R.A Soloway, Prelates and People: Ecclesiastical Social Thought in England 1783-1852 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969), pp. 289-90. 200 Notes

See also E.R. N<-nnan, Church and Society in England 1770-1970 (Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1976), pp. 51-4. 72. Soloway, Prelates and People, pp. 290-91; 'The Church Building Act 1818' in The Church of England 1815-1948: A Documentllry History, ed. R.P. Flindall (SPCK, 1972), pp. 16-17; Norman, Church and Society, p. 54. 73. Webb and Webb, Parish and County, p. 265. 74. R. Dobie, History of the United Parishes of St Giles-in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. (Henry Bickers, 1834), pp. 348-9. 75. See St James, Oerkenwell, VM, 25 Nov. 1830, 23 Dec. 1830, 6 Feb. 1830, 23 Feb. 1831. 76. Sheppard, Marylebone, pp. 267, 278. 77. BSP, House of Commons, 1830, vol. IV, Report of Select Committee on Select Vestries,. p. 484, testimony of George Rawlins, clerk to the churchwardens and overseers of the poor at StMartin's. Hereafter cited as 1830 Select Committee Report on Select Hlstries. 78. 1830 Select Committee Report on Select Vestries, pp. 657-60, testimony of James Corder, vestry clerk of St Paul, Covent Garden. 79. Zegger, Hobhouse, p. 148; Sheppard, Marylebone, p. 187-98. 80. Eastwood, Governing Rural England, p. 130 81. · Eastwood, Governing Rural England, p. 131. 82. Zegger, Hobhouse, pp. 141-42. 83. See St Matthew, Bethnal Green, VM, 6 Feb. 1823 and Webb and Webb, Parish and County, pp. 79-90. 84. Report of the Westminster City Council, pp. 17, 35-6. See also St Paul, Covent Garden, VM, 6 June 1828, 25 Sept. 1828 and 1830 Select Committee Report on Select Vestries, pp. 657-60, testimony of James Corder, vestry clerk (and leader of the reform effort) for St Paul, Covent Garden. 85. St Mary, , VM, 20 May 1829, 10 June 1829. 86. Zegger, Hobhouse, pp. 144-6, 152-5. 87. Sheppard, Marylebone, Chap. XVI; Pari. Debates, 2nd Series, vol. XVIII, cols. 1376-9, vol. XXI, cols. 890-905, 1508-9; St James, Qerkenwell, PCM, 19 May 1829, 4 June 1829. See also St James, Piccadilly, VM, 29 Jan. 1829, 12 Feb. 1829, 12 May 1829. 88. Pari. Debates, 2nd series, vol. XVIII, col. 1376. 89. The Times, 3 March 1829, p. 4. 90. Pari. Debates, 2nd series, vol. XVIII, cols. 798-9; vol. XXI, cols. 883-4. Hume was also a close associate of James Mill, and S.E. Finer says his name could be included in a 'Benthamite Roll of Honour'. See Finer, 'The nansmission of Benthamite Ideas 18:ID-50' in Studies in the Growth of Nineteenth-century Government, ed. Gilliam Sutherland (Thtowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1972), p. 14. Ten MPs who sat on Peel's Police Committee also sat on Hob­ house's Select Vestries Committee. See CJ, vol. LXXXIII, p. 114 and vol. LXXXIV, pp. 234, 246. 91. Clink liberty, PCM, 29 April 1829; St Luke, Old Street, TM, 7 May 1829. 92. St Anne, Soho, VM, 8 May 1829. 93. CJ, vol. LXXXIV, p. 311. 94. St John, Hackney, Parish Meeting Minutes, 30 April 1829. The petition was presented to the House of Commons on May 25 and promptly tabled. CJ, vol. LXXXIY, p. 339 Notes 201

9 CHARLIES TO BOBBIES

1. See, for example, Critchley, History of Police, pp. 47-57; Browne, Rise of Scot- land ~rd, pp. 73-90; and Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 294-315. 2. Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 295-6; Browne, Rise of Scotland Yard, pp. 78-9. 3. Gash, Mr Secretary Peel, p. 500. 4. 10 Geo. IV c. 44 s. 4. 5. The 1774 Act specified the ratio of watchmen and patrols to houses in a parish, mandated that there must be patrols as well as watchmen, and set the hours of duty during the seasons of the year. See above, Chap. 4. 6. Parker (ed.), Peel from his Private Papers, vol. II, p. 40. 7. See PRO, MEPO 1/1, 29 July 1929, 21 Aug. 1829, 29 Aug. 1829, 18 Sept. 1829, 7 Dec. 1829, 4 Jan. 1830; MEPO 1/2: 10 Feb. 1830, 12 March 1830. 8. 10 Geo. IV c. 44 s. 19. 9. For comparison, see Map 1.1. 10. The jurisdictions not shown on Map 9.1 but included in the Metropolitan Police District were: Liberty of Saffron Hill, Liberty of the Rolls; Furnival, Lincoln's and Gray's Inns; St Botolph, Bishopsgate; 1Hnity Minories; St Peter ad Vincula lbwer; St Botolph, Aldersgate; St Mary, Newington Butts; St John, Hampstead; Fulham; Hammersmith; Chiswick; Baling; Acton; New Brentford; Barnes; Penge; Oapham; Putney; Streatham; Wandsworth; Hatcham. These places were too small or too distant to fit on this map. 11. Quoted in Browne, Rise of Scotland ~rd. p. 85. 12. Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 296. 13. St Marylebone, VM, 21 July 1832. See also Paley, 'Policing London before Peel', pp. 114-26. 14. Quoted in Browne, Rise of Scotland ~rd. p. 82. See also Radzinowicz, History, vol. IY, p. 162 and Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 297. 15. Browne, Rise of Scotland ~rd, pp. 82-3. 16. E. Chadwick, 'Preventive Police', London Review 1 (1829), p. 274. See also Hume, Bentlulm and Bureaucracy, pp. 96-7. S.E. Finer explains that Chadwick had intended to submit his remarks to the 1828 Select Committee but his clerk lost his papers and the Committee issued its Report before Chadwick found them. See S.E. Finer, The Life and Times of Sir Edwin Chadwick (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1952), p. 30. 17. 10 Geo. IV c. 44. 18. Emsley, Crime and Society, p. 190. See also Critchley, History ofPolice, pp. 160- 61. 19. For this division in modem police forces, seeM. Cain, Society and the Police- man's Role (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973), pp. 208-9. 20. Browne, Rise of Scotland Yard, pp. 82-3. 21. Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 303. 22. Quoted in W. Miller, Cops and Bobbies: Police Authority in New York and London 1830-1870 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1973), p. 12. 23. Quoted in Palmer, Police and Protest, p. 314. 24. Miller, Cops and Bobbies, p. 28. 25. Miller, Cops and Bobbies, pp. 28-9. 26. St Luke, Middlesex, TM, 2 Sept. 1829, 4 Feb. 1830. For another example, see St Leonard, Shoreditch, Four Rates TM, 8 Jan. 1830. 202 Notes

27. Browne, Rise of Scotland Yard, p. 84. See Clink Liberty, PCM, 13 Jan. 1830. For the role Hack played in helping reform the Clink watch, see 9 April 1812 and 3 Nov. 1813. 28. Palmer has found that of the 2892 constables on the force in May 1830, only 562 were still working in April 1833. Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 300-1. 29. See, for example, Critchley, History of Police, pp. 55-6; Palmer, Police and Protest, pp. 303-4. 30. Cain, Society and the Policeman's Role, pp. 69-70. 31. Miller, Cops and Bobbies, p. 104. 32. W.J. Chambliss, Exploring Criminology (New York: Macmillan, 1988), pp. 317-18. 33. See my 'Night Watch', pp. 566-7, 481-509. See also Miller, Cops and Bobbies, pp. 129-39 and R. Swift, 'Urban Policing in Early Victorian England, 1835-86: A Reappraisal', History, 73 (1988), pp. 211-37. 34. Hackney, Parish Meeting Minutes, 30 April 1829, 7 Oct. 1830, 21 Oct. 1830. Hackney was solidly in favour of the Great Reform Bill, see Parish Meeting Minutes, 22 March 1831, 14 May 1831. 35. See St Andrew, Holborn, and St George-the-Martyr, VM, 14 Aug. 1829 and 18 Nov. 1830; St Luke, Old Street, VM, 22 April 1834; PRO, HO 61/2, broadside announcing 'Grand Public Meeting' in St Pancras for 11 Oct. 1830. 36. See St Giles and St George, Bloomsbury, VM, 13 Nov. 1830; PRO, H.O. 61/2, Luke G. Hansard, Esq. to Sir Robert Peel, 15 Nov. 1830; St George, Hanover Square, VM, 7 Feb. 1831 and 25 Jan. 1833. 37. Sheppard, Marylebone, pp. 295-6. 38. Sheppard, Marylebone, pp. 301-4. See also James Williamson Brooke, The Democrats of Marylebone (WJlliam Jones Oeaver, 1839). 39. St Marylebone, VM, 9 June 1832. 40. PRO, H.O. 61/2, Parishioners and Ratepayers of St Marylebone to Viscount Melbourne, 20 Dec. 1832. See also St Marylebone, VM, 21 July, 22 Dec. 1832. Of the parishes I have studied, two others also adopted Hobhouse's Vestry Act in 1832: St George, Hanover Square, and St James, Piccadilly. We see in them a similar pattern. Before the advent of the elected vestry, the only objection to the new police was its cost. Afterwards, petitions were drafted that emphasized the unconstitutionality of the new police. See St George, Hanover Square, VM, 21 Sept. 1832 and 25 Jan. 1833; StJames, Piccadilly, VM, 14 June 1832; 4 April, 3 Sept. 1833. 41. Southwark, East Division, PCM, 4 Feb. 1830, 18 Feb. 1830. 42. See, for example, St Anne, Soho, VM, 3 Nov. 1829; St Luke, Old Street, TM, 11 Feb. 1830; St James, Piccadilly, VM, 3 Nov. 1829. 43. 10 Geo. IV c. 44 s. 22. 44. Pari. Debates, 2nd series, vol. XXI, col. 877. 45. St Marylebone, VM, 21 July 1832. 46. St Marylebone, VM, 7 Oct. 1829. 47. St Marylebone, VM, 21 July 1832. The very first item broached by the delega­ tion that visited Lord Melbourne in December was the expense of the police. See PRO, H.O. 61/2, Memorial of Ratepayers and Parishioners of St Maryle- bone, 20 Dec. 1832. · 48. PRO, H.O. 61/10, Wray to G. Lamb, 11 Oct. 1832. 49. PRO, H.O. 61n, Wray to the Vestry of St Marylebone, 28 Nov. 1832. 50. N. Gash, Aristocracy and People: Britain, 1815-1865 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), p. 145. Notes 203

51. 1828 Select Committee Report on Police, Appendix M, pp. 414-15; PRO, H0/65 11, S.M. Phillips to.Overseers of the Poor, St Nicholas, Deptford. 52. PRO, HO 61/4, Memorial of Churchwardens and Overseers of the Poor for St Nicholas, Deptford to Lord Melbourne, July 1831. 53. See my 'Night Watch', pp. 576-7. 54. PRO, HO 65/11, Phillips to Overseers of the Poor, 7 Oct. 1831, 19 Oct. 1831, 15 Dec. 1830. 55. ParL Debates, 2nd series, vol. XXI, col. 872. 56. BSP, House of Commons, 1834, vol. XVI, Report of the Select Committee on the Police of the Metropolis, pp. 11-12. Hereafter cited as 1834 Select Committee Report on Police. See also PRO, HO 65/11, S.M. Phillips to Overseers of the Poor, St John, Hackney, 14 Jan. 1831. . 57. The others were: Saffron Hill (including Ely Rents); St Sepulchre; St Olave, Southwark; Liberty of the Tower; St Paul, Shadwell; Ratcliffe; St Anne, Limehouse; Mile End, Old Town; Norton Falgate; and the Liberty of Glasshouse Yard. New Brentford was on the outer edge of the police district. 58. ParL Debates, 2nd series, vol. XXI, col. 872. 59. BSP, House of Commons, 1832, col. XXXIII, Revenue and Expenditure of Metropolitan Police, pp. 567-9. 60. PRO, HO 61/8, J. Wray to S.M. Phillips, 25 March 1833. 61. PRO, HO 65/11, William Peel to J.K. Stewart, 1 Sept. 1829; Phillips to Stewart, 19 Oct. 1829; 17 Dec. 1829; Phillips to Stewart, 3 Feb. 1830; 5 Oct. 1830; Phillips to Wray, 1 Feb. 1831; G. Lamb to Stewart, 7 Nov. 1831; Phillips to Stewart, 10 Oct. 1832; H.O. 61/11, Wray to Phillips, 2 Jan. 1834. 62. PRO, HO 65/12, G. Lamb to Overseers, 31 Aug. 1833. The act was 3 & 4 Will. 4c.89. 63. St Marylebone, VM, 21 July 1832. 64. See, for examples: on increased theft - St Luke, Old Street, VM, 30 March 1831; meeting in St Mary, Stoke Newington, reported in The Times, 22 Oct. 1830, p. 3; Hackney, Parish Meeting Minutes, 21 Oct. 1830; St George-in-the­ East, VM, 10 Oct. 1830; St Mary, Islington, VM, 22 Sept. 1830; nuisances - St Mary, Islington, TM, 11 Aug. 1830; East Division, Southwark, PCM, 1 April 1830; St James, Oerkenwell, PCM, 7 Oct. 1830. 65. See my 'St Marylebone,' p. 459. 66. GLRO, P71/TMS/494, W. Stainer, vestry clerk, to Lord Melbourne, 25 Jan. 1831. See also GLRO, P71/TMS/478, 10 Jan. 1831. For additional examples, see Oapham, VM, 21 Oct. 1830; StMary, Stoke Newington, VM, 4 June 1830. 67. The speakers had all been watch trustees or committee members. PRO, H.O. 61/2, Return of Parish Meetings, 1830 and Robert Stanton, Esq., late MP for Penryn to Peel, 2 Oct. 1830. 68. St Leonard, Shoreditch, Parish Meeting Minutes, 29 Sept. 1830. The resolu­ tions in opposition to the Metropolitan Police were adopted unanimously. 69. The Times, 15 Oct. 1830, p. 3. 70. For an example of street lamp reports, see MEPO 1/1, Mayne to J. and C. Pugh, joint clerks for Paving, etc., St Andrew, Holborn, and St George-the­ Martyr, 6 Nov. 1829. For inspectors of nuisances, see MEPO 1/1, Mayne to J. Wallin, Esq., Oerk to Parish of St Anne, Westminster, 2 Feb. 1830. For church duty, see MEPO 1/1, Mayne to T. Cook, Esq., 18 Dec. 1829. 71. 10 Geo. IV c. 44 s. 4. 72. See St James, Oerkenwell, PCM, 21 Oct. 1830, 5 May 1831, 19 May 1831; St Marylebone, Committee of Management Minutes, 1 Sept. 1830 and 22 Dec. 204 Notes

1830; PRO, HO 61/2, A.W. Cutto, Oerk to the Paving Commissioners for East Division of Southwark to Sir Robert Peel, 6 Aug. 1830. 73. St Luke, Old Street, VM, 30 March 1830. See also St James, Oerkenwell, PCM, 1 Jan., 4 Jan., 4 Nov. 1830. 74. A Vestcyman of St Anne's, Limehouse, The Metropolitan Police (1834), p. viii. 75. Vestcyman, The Metropolitan Police, p. vii. 76. PRO, MEPO 1/44, Rowan to Sir Robert Peel, 15 May 1834. 77. See PRO, HO 61/2, meeting announcement for St Pancras, 11 Oct. 1830; Capt. Carden, Superintendent S Division, Report on Persons Opposed to Police, 6 Oct. 1830; Return of Parish Meetings, Sept.-Oct. 1830; HO 59/2, Rowan to Phillips, 18 Oct. 1830. 78. PRO, HO 59-2, Rowan to Phillips, 18 Oct. 1830. 79. 1834 Select Committee Reporl on Police, p. 4. 80. 1834 Select Committee Reporl on Police, p. 7. 81. Emsley, Crime and Society, pp. 180, 187-91. 82. St George, Hanover Square, VM, 25 Jan. 1833. 83. St Andrew, Holborn, and St George-the-Martyr, VM, 18 Nov. 1830. 84. It is also interesting to note the way in which the Commissioners of Police used volunteer Special Constables to police the streets, while their policemen were controlling crowds, something that had been done before under the old system of night watch. See, for example, St James, Piccadilly, VM, 4 Nov. 1831. 85. 1834 Select Committee Reporl on Police, p. 21. 86. For the idea that the acceptance of the Metropolitan Police was something unexpected, see, for example, TA. Critchley, who gives all the credit for this transformation to Rowan and Mayne. See Critchley, History of Police, pp. 55-6. 87. Peel wrote to the Duke of Wellington 'Think of the state of Brentford and Deptford, with no sort of police by night!' See Parker (ed.), Peel from His Private Papers, vol. II, p. 111. For vestcymen's view, see St Marylebone, VM, 21 July 1832. 88. Gash, Mr Secretary Peel, p. 331-4. For Chadwick's report, see Finer, Life and Times of Sir Edwin Chadwick, pp. 29-30. 89. Chadwick, 'Preventive Police', p. 252. 90. For a similar development in rural policing, see R. Storch, 'Policing Rural Southern England before the Police: Opinion and Practice, 1830-1856', in Hay and Snyder (eds), Policing and Prosecution, pp. 211-66. 91. W. Bagehot, The English Constitution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1915, repr. 1966), p. 263. I am grateful to Dr Ian B. Mylchreest for this reference. Select Bibliography

Unless otherwise noted, place of publication is London.

I. UNPUBLISHED GOVERNMENT AND PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS

A. Public Record Office

Home Office Papers HO 42/1-5, 112-113, 118-124 Domestic Correspondence HO 52/2-5 Public Order HO 59/1-2 Police Court and Magistrates In-Letters HO 61/1-7 Metropolitan Police Correspondence HO 62/1 & 4 Daily Police Reports HO 65/1-3, 11-12 Police Entry Books Metropolitan Police Papers MEPO 1/1-2 Letter Books MEPO 1/44 Commissioners Correspondence, Private and Confidential MEPO 2/38 Recruiting Procedure: Sir Robert Peel's Proposals 2/39 Applications for Superior Posts 2/50 Accounts 2/51 Police Rate MEPO 3/1781 & 1783 Office of the Commissioners, Correspondence MEPO 4/1 Weekly Manning Returns MEPO 4/6 Entry Book of Complaints from Members of the Public MEPO 4/12 Daily Police Reports MEPO 4/291 Register of Superannuation Fund MEPO 5/1 Office of the Receiver, Correspondence and Papers MEPO 8/34 Westminster Court, Daily Occurrence Book

B. House of Lords Record Office

MSS Draft of 1720 Night Watch Bill MSS Petitions Concerning 1720 Night Watch Bill: From a. the Dean and Chapter of Westminster b. Burgesses of Westminster c. Inhabitants of Westminster d. the Justices of Middlesex e. the Gentlemen of Westminster

205 206 Select Bibliography

II. PUBUSHED PARLIAMENTARY JOURNALS, DEBATES, AND PAPERS

A. Journals

House of Lords Journals House of Commons Joumals

B. Parliamentary Debates

Cobbett, William and T.C Hansard (eds). The Parliamentary History ofEngland from the Earliest Period to the Year 1803. 36 vols. --Cobbett's Parliamentary Debates, 1803-1820. 41 vols. Hansard, T.C. (ed}. Parliamentary Debates. 2nd series, 1820-1830. 25 vols.

C. British Sessional Papers

House of Commons Sessional Papen of the Eighteenth Century. Sheila Lambert (ed.) Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1975. Reports from Committees of the House of Commons, Reprinted by Order of the House. vol. XIII, Finance Reports, XXIII to XXXVI. 1803. British Sessional Papers, House of Commons -1785, vol. XV, Draft of 1785 Police BiU. --· 1812, vol. II, Select Committee Report on the Nightly Watch and Police of the Metropolis. --1816, vol. V, Select Committee Report on the Police of the Metropolis. --1817, vol. VII, Select Committee Report on the Police of the Metropolis. --1818, vol. VIII, Select Committee Report on the Police of the Metropolis. --1822, vol. IV, Select Committee Report on the Police of the Metropolis. --1828, vol. VI, Select Committee Report on the Police of the Metropolis. --1830, vol. IV, Select Committee Report on Select Vestries. --1830, vol. XXII, Revenue and Expenditure of Metropolitan Police up to 31 Dec. 1829. --1832, vol. XXXIII, Revenue and Expenditure of Metropolitan Police up to 31 Dec. 1831. --1834, vol. XVI, Select Committee Report on the Police of the Metropolis

III. UNPUBUSHED PAROCHIAL AND LOCAL RECORDS

A. Greater London Record Office, Clerkenwell

St Mary, Lambeth: P85/MRY1!130 Vestry Minutes St Mary, Rotherhithe: P71/MRY/5 Ust of subscribers for prosecuting thieves; minutes of meetings, and accounts St Thomas, Southwark: P71!1'MS/478 Circular concerning expenses of old Nightly Watch, 1830 Select Bibliography 207

--/481 Petition to the King concerning the New Police, n.d. --/494 Copy of return of annual expenses for Nightly Watch and Day Police for year ending March 1830 --/919 Resolution of deputations from Metropolitan parishes regarding the Police --1920 Resolution of Vestrymen of St Luke's, Middlesex, with resolutions of deputations, 24 April 1834, concerning Police --/950 Draft letter of complaint to Commissioner of Police, Nov. 1840 --!951 Acknowledgement of letter of complaint from Commissioners, 30 Nov. 1840 StJohn, Hackney: P79/JNI/145 Vestry Minutes --/157 Minutes of Parish Meetings --/158/1-8 Minutes of 'Ihlstees for lighting and Watching --/159 Rough Minutes of 'Ih1stees for lighting and Watching --/166 Minutes of Meetings of Inhabitants of South Hackney St Paul, Hammersmith: PSO/PAU/11 Minutes of Society for Prosecution of Felons St Mary, Islington: P83/MRY1/424 Minutes of 'Ihlstees --/526 Printed annual accounts of Lamp and Watch Rates --/650 Minutes of Lamp and Watch Commissioners --/657 Draft Watch Committee Minutes --/658 Draft Memo on Duty of Watchmen --/659 Copy Thble of Duties of St Marylebone Watchmen --/660 Printed Statements of Duties of Watchmen,... provided by Thomas Cromwell, Oerkenwell --/661 Names and Addresses of Men applying to be Watchmen St Leonard, Shoreditch: P91/LEN/10-11 'Ihlstees of the Poor Minutes St Saviour, Southwark: P92/SAV/455 Vestry Minutes Holy 'frinity, Oapham: P95!1'RY1/8 Vestry Minutes Metropolitan Roads Commission: MRC/1-3 Minutes --111 Committee Minutes --/14 Letter Register --/52 Acts of Parliament Miscellaneous: MJ/OC./11/147-8 Middlesex Justices MJ/S.P../1785/June Opposition to terms of Bill to set up Commissioners of Police ... , June 1785

B. Westminster City Archives, Westminster City Library

St Anne, Soho: Vestry Minutes St George, Hanover Square: Vestry Minutes Minute Book of the Grosvenor Place 'Ihlstees St James, Piccadilly: Vestry Minutes Watch Committee Record of Complaints Brought before the Committee by the Beadles and Captains of Patrol Rules, orders and regulations for the better mllnagement of the nightly watch and beadles in the parish, 1796. Watchmen's Duty Book 208 Select Bibliography

Attendance Books of the Morning and Evening Patrols Ust of the Morning and Evening Patrols Beadle's Reports on Activities During Night Patrols Report Book of the Captain of the Watch Patrol Charge Book St John the Evangelist Vestry Minutes St Margaret: Vestry Minutes St Martin-in-the-Fields: Vestry Minutes St Paul, Covent Garden: Vestry Minutes Watch 'Ihlstee Minutes Liberty of the Rolls: Inhabitant's Meeting Minutes Westminster Court of Burgesses: Minutes

C. Local History Archives, Marylebone Public Ubrary

St Marylebone: Vestry Minutes Minutes of the Vestrymen as Commissioners of the Watch Minutes of the Committee of Management Paddington: Vestry Minutes Highway Board Minutes Highway Board, Watching and lighting Sub-Committee Minutes

D. Local History Archives, Holbom Public Library

United Parishes of St Andrew, Holbom and St George the Martyr: General [Vestry] Meeting Minutes Watch Committee Minutes St George, Bloomsbury: Vestry Minutes

E. Local History Archives, John Harvard Lib~ Southwark

Minutes of Commissioners for Paving, East Division Minutes of Commissioners for Paving, West Division StMary, Rotherhithe: Vestry Minutes Dulwich Manor: Proceedings of Court Leet Oink Uberty: Minutes of Commissioners for Paving Watchmen's Account Books Patrol Charge Book Street Keeper's Report Book Borough Paving Commissioners Minutes St George the Martyr: Papers relating to the appeal for the repeal of the Police Act, 1830 Walworth Manor: Court Leet Book Select Bibliography 209

F. Local History Archives, 1bwer Hamlets Ceatral Ubrary

St Matthew, Bethnal Green: Vestry Minutes Norton Falgate: 'Ihlstee Minute Books St George-in-the-East: Vestry Minutes Christchurch, Spitalfields: Vestry Minutes St Leonard, Bromley: Vestry Minutes Correspondence about Police Poplar and Blacltwall: Minutes of Inhabitants' Meetings

G. Local History Archives, Hackaey Ceatral Ubrary

Hackney Thmpike lhlst: Minute Books St John, Hackney: Parish Meeting Minutes Lamp and Watch lhlstee Minutes Wages and Attendance Book of Watchmen St Leonard, Shoreditch: Minute Books of Parish Meetings Four Rates Board lhlstee Minutes St Mary, Stoke Newington: Vestry Minutes

H. Local History Archives, Fiasbury Public Ubrary

StJames, Clerkenwell: Vestry Minutes Paving Commission Minutes St John, Clerkenwell: Peace Officers Book, Liberty of St John, Jerusalem St Luke, Old Street: Vestry Minutes Minutes of lhlstees for Lighting and Watching

I. Greenwich Local History Ceatre

Greenwich: Vestry Minutes

J. Local History CoUectioa, Keasiagtoa Central Ubrary

St Luke, Chelsea: Vestry Minutes Vestry Order book St Mary Abbots, Kensington: Vestry Minutes and Petty Sessions Kensington Thmpike lhlst Minutes 210 Select Bibliography

IV. UNPUBLISHED CORRESPONDENCE AND PAPERS

A. British Ubrary, British Museum

Additional Manuscripts 40181-40351, Peel Papers

B. Devon County Record Office, Exeter

Sidmouth Correspondence and Papers: Box 64 Cato Street Conspiracy Box 31 Addresses by Burgesses of Westminster C1797-C1821 Police, Law and Order, Miscellaneous Correspondence

V. PUBLISHED PRIMARY SOURCES

A. Newspapers and Journals

The Annual Register The Anti-Jacobin Applebee's Weekly Joumol The Black Dwarf The Daily Courant The Daily Gazetteer The Daily Joumol The Daily Post The Daily Universal Register The Evening Post The Gazetteer and New Daily Advertiser The General Evening Post The Gentleman's Magazine The Historical Register The London Daily Post, and General Advertiser The London Evening Post The London Gazette The Original Weekly Joumol Read's Weekly Joumo~ or British Gazetteer The Times The Weekly Joumol or, British Gazetteer

B. Memoirs, Speeches, and Correspondence

A Constitutional Friend, ed. The Speeches of the Right Honourable Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Henry G. Bohn, 1842. Hansard, Luke Graves. His Diary 1814-1841: A Case Study in the Reform ofPatronage. Edited by S. Ford and G. Ford. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1962. Jucker, Ninetta S., ed. The Jenkinson Papers, 1760-1766. Macmillan, 1949. Select Bibliography 211

Paley, Ruth, ed. Justice in Eighteenth-Century Hackney: The Justicing Notebook of Henry Norris and the Hackney Petty Sessions Book. London Record Society, 1991. Parker, Charles Stuart, ed. Sir Robert Peel from his Private Papers. 3 vols. John Murray, 1891-99, reprint, 1970. Peel, George, ed. The Private Letters of Sir Robert Peel. 1920. Pellew, the Hon. George, ed. The Life and Correspondence of the Right Honourable Henry Addington, First VIScount Sidmouth. 3 vols. John Murray, 1847. The Speeches of the Late Right Honourable Sir Robert Peel, 2 vols. George Routledge, 1853.

C. Articles, Pamphlets, and Books

Correct Abstract of the New Metropolitan Police Act. W. Percival, 1829. The Compleat Constable, 4th ed. 1710. London Parishes. 1824. Outlines of a Plan for Patroling and Watching the City of London, Borough of South­ wark, and their Environs. R. Faulder, 1786. Report of the Committee who were Appointed to Enquire into the State of the Nightly Watch of the City and Liberty of Westminster. 1772. The Report of the Select Committee Appointed by the House of Commons Relative to the Establishment of a New Police. .. and the Convict Establishment. R. Shaw, 1799. The Select Vestry Justified. In Answer to a Pamphlet entitled, 'The Constitutional'. 1754. To the Right Honourable William Nash, Lord Mayor of the City of London. [1772]. The Vices of the Cities of London and Westminster. 1751. Allen, Lancelot Baugh. Brief Considerations on the Present State of the Police, etc .. J.Brettell, 1821. Barrett, George. An Essay Towards Establishing a System of Police, on Constitutional Principles. H. Reynell, 1786. A Barrister. A Letter to a Member ofParliament on the Police of the Metropolis, 2nd ed. w. Wright, 1822. Bentham, Jeremy. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Wilfred Harrison, ed. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1948. Blizard, Sir William. Desultory Reflections on Police: With an Essay on the Means of Preventing Crimes and Amending Criminals. Baker and Galapin, 1785. Brooke, James W. The Democrats of Marylebone. William Jones Qeaver, 1839. Brougham, Henry, Lord. Works. Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black, 1873. Brown, T. The Midnight Spy, or A View of the Transactions of London and Westminster. 1766. Burn, Richard. The Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer, 23rd ed., George Chetwynd, ed. 1820. Chadwick, Edwin, 'Preventive Police', London Review 1 (1829), pp. 252-308. Colquhoun, Patrick. A Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis, 7th ed. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1806, reprint 1969. Cruikshank, Robert. Cruikshank v. the New Police; Shawing the Great Utility of that Military Body, Their Employment, Etc. W. Kidd, n.d. Dobie, Rowland. History of the United Parishes of St. Giles-in-the-Fields and StGeorge, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed. Henry Bickers, 1834. Defoe, Daniel (writing as Andrew Moreton). Parochial7yranny. 1727. Dornford, Josiah. Seven Letters to the Lords of the Privy Council on the Police. 1785. Dudley, Thomas B.W. The Tocsin or a Review of the London Police Establishments. 1828. 212 Select Bibliography

Entick, the Rev. John. A New and Accurate History and Survey ofLondon, Westminster, Southwarlc, and Places Adjacent. 1766. Fielding, Henry. An Enquiry into the Causes of the Late Increase ofRobbers, Etc.. 1751. Fielding, Sir John. An Account of the Origins and Effects of a Police Set on Foot by His Grace the Duke of Newcastle in the year 1753. A Milton, 1758. Gilbert, Thomas. A Plan of Police. 1786. A Hypochondriac. The Blue Devils; or New Police. George Henderson, 1830. Hanway, Jonas. The Defects of Police, the Cause of Immorality and the Continual Robberies committed particularly in and about the Metropolis. 1775. Mildmay, Sir William. The Police of France: or, An Account of the Laws and Regula­ tions Established in that Kingdom, for the Preservation of Peace and Preventing of Robberies. E. Owen and T. Harris, 1763. Pearson, John. The London Charleys of the 18th Century or Half Past 7Welve O'Clock and a Very Cloudy Sort of Morning. J. King, 1827. Pennant, Thomas. Some Account of London, 5th ed. S. Hamilton, 1813. Phipps, Joseph. The Vestry Laid Open. 1739. A Police Magistrate. Remarks on the Present Unconnected State ofthe Police Authorities in the Metropolis, and a Method Proposed of Rendering Them More Effective. T. Hodgson, 1821. Ritson, Joseph. Office of Constable, 2nd edition. 1815. Shaw, R. Observations on a Late Publication Intituled ~ 71-eatise on the Police of the Metropolis' by P. Colquhoun, Esq.. 1800. Smith, Thomas. A Topographical and Historical Account of the Parish of St Marylebone. John Smith, 1833. Thrner, Sir Bernard. A Plan for Rendering the Militia ofLondon Useful and Respectable and for Roising an Effective and Well Regulated Watch. 1782. A Vestryman. A Letter to the Inhabitant Householders of St John, Southwark on a Petition Recently Presented to the House of Commons. 1823. A Vestryman of St Anne's Limehouse. The Metropolitan Police: Its Expenses Examined; Its Efficiency Questioned; and Several Objections Discussed. A. and R. Spottiswoode, 1834. W. S. A Proposal to Render Effectual a Plan, to Remove the Nuisance of Common Prostitutes from the Streets of the Metropolis. 1758. Wade, John. A 71-eatise on the Police and Crimes of the Metropolis. 1829. Willcock, J.W. The Office of Constable. 1827. Williams, David. Regulations of Parochial Police. J. Owen, 1797. Whitworth, Sir Charles. The Draught of an Intended Act, For the better Regulation of the Nightly Watch and Beadles within the City and Liberty of Westminster, and Parts Adjacent. 1773. Yockney, Samuel. An Appeal to the Candour and Good Sense of the Parishioners of Saint Paul, Covent Garden. 1807.

VI. SECONDARY WORKS

A. Books

Albert, William. The 11unpike Road System in England 1663-1840. Cambridge: Cam­ bridge University Press, 1972. Select Bibliography 213

Ascoli, David. The Queen's Peace: The Origins and Development of the Metropolitan Police 1829-1979. Hamish Hamilton, 1979. Bailey, Victor, ed. Policing and Punishment in Nineteenth Century Britain. New Bruns­ wick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1981. Beattie, J.M. Crime and the Courts in England 1~1800. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. Binney, J.E.D. British Public Finance and Administration 1774-92. Oxford: aarendon Press, 1958. Black, E.C. The Association: Extraparliamentary Political Organization 1769-1793. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963. Bohsteadt, John. Riots and Community Politics in England and Wales 179(}...1810. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983. Bordura, David, ed. The Police: Six Sociological Essays. New York: Wiley, 1967. Borsay, Peter, ed. The Eighteenth-Century Town. Longman, 1990. Brewer, John. Party Ideology and Popular Politics at the Accession of George III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. --. The Sinews of Power: War, Money and the English State 1688-1783. Unwin Hyman, 1989. Brewer, John and John Styles. An Ungovernable People: The English and their Law in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Hutchison, 1978. Bristow, E.J. VICe and VIgilance: Purity Movements in Britain since 1700. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1977. Broeker, Galen. Rural Disorder and Police Reform in Ireland 1812-1836. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970. Browne, Douglas G. The Rise of Scotland Yard: A History of the Metropolitan Police. George G. Harrap, 1956. Cain, Maureen. Society and the Policeman's RDle. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973. Chambliss, William J. Exploring Criminology. New York: Macmillan, 1988. Chester, Sir Norman. The English Administrative System 1780-1870. Oxford: Oaren­ don Press, 1981. Christie, Ian. Stress and Stability in Late Eighteenth-Century Britain. Oxford: aaren­ don Press, 1984. Colley, Unda. Britons: Forging the Nation 1707-1837. New Haven, Cf: Yale University Press, 1992. Cookson, J.E. Lord Liverpool's Administration: The Crucial ~ars 1815-1822. Archon Books, 1975. Corfield, P.J. The Impact of English Towns, 1700-1800. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. Critchley, T.A. The Conquest of Vwlence. Constable, 1970. --.A History of Police in England and Wales 900-1966. Constable, 1967. Davison, Lee, and Tim Hitchcock, Tim Keirn, and Robert B. Shoemaker, eds. Stilling the Grumbling Hive: The Response to Social and Economic Problems in England, 1689-1750. New York: StMartin's Press, 1992. Darvall, EO. Popular Disturbances and Public Order in Regency England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934. De Lacy, Margaret. Prison Reform in Lancashire, 1700-1850: A Study in Local Admin­ istration. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986. Dickinson, H.T. Liberty and Property: Political1deo/ogy in Eighteenth-Century Britain. New York: Holmes and Meir, 1977. --. The Politics of the People in Eighteenth-Century Britain. New York: St Martin's Press, 1994. Dinwiddy, John. Bentham. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. 214 Select Bibliography

--.From Luddism to the First Reform Bill: Reform in England 1810-1832. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1987. Dozier, Robert. For King, Constitution, and Country: English Loyalists and the French Revolution. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1983. Earle, Peter. The Making of the English Middle Class: Business, Society and Family Life in London, 1660-1730 (Methuen, 1989). Eastwood, David. Governing Rural England: 'lradition and Transformation in Local Government 1780-1840. Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1994. Ehrman, John. The lbunger Pitt: The Reluctant 'Iransition. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1983. --. The Younger Pitt: The Year.s of Acclaim. New York: E.P. Dutton Co., 1969. Emsley, Clive. British Society and the French War.s, 1793-1815. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1979. -. Crime and Society in England, 1750-1900. Longman, 1987. --.The English Police: A Political and Social History. New York: StMartin's Press, 1991. --.Policing and 1ts Context, 1750-1870. New York: Schocken Books, 1983. Emsley, Oive and Barbara Weinberger, eds. Policing Western Europe: Politics, Profes­ sionalism, and Public Order, 1850-1940. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. Finer, S.E. The Life and Times of Sir Edwin Chadwick. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1952. Foucault, Michael. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. lhms. A Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Gash, Norman. Lord LiverpooL· The Life and Political Career of Robert Banks Jenkin­ son, Second Earl of Liverpool177Q-1828. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984. --.Mr. Secretary Peel. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961. --. Pillar.s of Government and Other &says on State and Society c. 1770-c. 1880. Edward Arnold, 1986. --.Sir Robert Peel. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972. Gatrell, V.A.C. The Hanging 'Iree: Execution and the English People 1770-1868. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Gatrell, V.A.C., Bruce Lenman and Geoffrey Parker. Crime and the Law: The Social History of Crime in Western Europe since 1500. Europa Publications, 1980. George, M. Dorothy. London Life in the Eighteenth Century. New York: Capricorn Books, 1965. Gilmour, Ian. Riot, Risings and Revolution: Governance and Vwlence in Eighteenth­ Century England. Hutchinson, 1992. Glover, Richard. Britain at Bay: Defence Against Bonaparte, 1803-14. New York: Barnes and Noble Books, 1973. Goodwin, Albert. The Friends of Liberty: The English Democratic Movement in the Age of the French Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979. Harrison, Mark. Crowds and History: Mass Phenomena in English Towns, 1790-1835. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Hay, Douglas, Peter Linebaugh, John G. Rule, E. P. Thompson and Cal Winslow. Albion's Fatal 'Iree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth Century England. New York: Pantheon Books, 1975. Hay, Douglas and Francis Snyder, eds. Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1859. Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1989. Hayter, Tony. The Anny and the Crowd in Mid-Georgian England. Thtowa, NJ: Row­ man and Littlefield, 1978. Hone, J. Anne. For the Cause of 'Duth: Radicalism in London 1796-1821. Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1982. Select Bibliography 215

Houlding, JA. Fit for Service: The 1Taining of the British Anny, 1715-1795. Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1981. Howson, Gerald. Thief-Taker General: The Rise and FaU ofJonathan Wild. Hutchinson, 1970. Hume, L.J. Bentham and Bureaucracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. lgnatieff, Michael. A Just Measure ofPain: The Penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution, 175()...1850. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978. Johnson, David J. Southwark and the City. Oxford University Press for the Corpora­ tion of the City of London, 1969. Jones, David. Crime, Protest, Community and Police in Nineteenth-Century Britain. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982. Kent, Joan. The English Village Constable 158()...1642. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986. Landau, Norma. The Justices of the Peace, 1679-1760. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984. Linebaugh, Peter. The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century. The Penguin Press, 1991. MacDonagh, Oliver. Early VICtorian Government. New York: Holmes and Meier, 1977). Manchee, W.H. The Westminster City Fathers: The Burgesses Court of Westminster I585-1901. John Lane, 1924. Manning, Peter K. Police Work: The Social Organization of Policing. Cambridge, MA: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1977. · Mather, F.C. Public Order in the Age of the Chartists. Manchester: Manchester Uni­ versity Press, 1959. Midwinter, Eric. Social Administration in Lancashire, 183()...1860: Poor Laws, Public Health, and Police. Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1969. Miller, Wilbur. Cops and Bobbies: Police Authority in New lVrk and London, 183()... 1870. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973. Mitchell, Austin. The Whigs in Opposition 1815-1830. Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1967. Mosse, George, ed. Police Forces in History. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1975. Nelson, R.R. The Home Office, 1782-1801. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1969. Norman, E.R. Church and Society in England 177()...1970. Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1976. Norris, John. Shelburne and Refonn. New York: St Martin's Press, 1963. O'Gorman, Frank. The Whig Party and the French Revolution. Macmillan, 1967. Palmer, Stanley H. Police and Protest in England and Ireland 178()...1850. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Pawson, Eric. 'ITansport and Economy: The TUrnpike Roads of Eighteenth Century Britain. New York: Academic Press, 1977. · Philips, David. Crime and Authority in Victorian England. Croom Helm, 1977. Phillipson, Coleman. Three Criminal Law Refonners: Beccaria, Bentham, RDmilly. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith, 1923, reprint 1970. Pike, Michael S. The Principles of Policing. Macmillan, 1985. Pinks, William J. The History of Clerkenwell, 2nd ed., ed. Edward J. Wood. Charles Herbert, 1880. Pollock, John. Wilberforce. New York: St Martin's Press, 1977. Radzinowicz, Sir Leon and Roger Hood. A History of the English Criminal Law from 1750, 5 vols. New York: Macmillan, 1948--86. Read, Donald. Peterloo: The 'Massacre' and Its Background. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1958. Reith, Charles. British Police and the Democratic Ideal. Oxford University Press, 1943. 216 Select Bibliography

--.A New Study of Police History. Oliver and Boyd, 1956. --. The Police Idea: Its History and Evolution in England in the Eighteenth Century and After. Oxford University Press, 1938. Report of the Westminster City Council from the 9th November 1900 to the 31st March 1902. Havison and Sons, 1902. Rogers, Nicholas. Whigs and Cities: Popular Politics in the Age of Walpole and Pitt. Oxford: aarendon Press, 1989. Rose, Michael, ed. The Poor and the City: The English Poor Law and Its Urban Context, 1834-1914. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1985. Royle, Edward and James Walvin. English RJJdicals and Reformers 1760-1848. Brighton, Sussex: The HaiVester Press, 1982. Rude, George. Criminal and VICtim: Crime and Society in Early Nineteenth-Century England. Oxford: Oarendon Press, 1985. --. The Crowd in History 1730-1848, revised ed. Lawrence and Wishart, 1981. --.Hanoverian London 1714-1808. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1971. . Wilkes and Liberty. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962. Rumbelow, Donald. I Spy Blue: the Police and Crime in the City of London from Elizabeth I to Victoria. Macmillan, 1971. Schwarz, L.D. London in the Age ofIndustrilllisation: Entrepreneurs, Labour Force and Living Conditions, 1700-1850. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. Sharpe, J.A. Crime in Early Modem England, 1550-1750. Longman, 1984. Shelton, Walter. English Hunger and lndustrilll Disorders: A Study of Social Conflict During the First Decade of George Ill's Reign. Thronto: University of Thronto Press, 1973. Sheppard, Francis. Local Government in St Marylebone 1688-1835. The Athlone Press, 1958. --.London 1808-1870: The Infernal Wen. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1971. Shoemaker, Robert B. Prosecution and Punishment: Petty Crime and the Law in London and Rural Middlesex, c. 1~1725. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Stafford, William. Socialism, RJJdicalism and Nostalgia: Social Criticism in Britain, 1775-1830. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Stevenson, John, ed. London in the Age of Reform. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1977. Stevenson, John, and R. Quinalt, eds. Popular Protest and Public Order: Six Studies in British History, 1790-1920. New York: St Martin's Press, 1974. Stone, Lawrence, ed.An Imperial State at War: Britain from 1689 to 1815. Routledge, 1994. Thomis, Malcolm I and Peter Holt. Threats of Revolution in Britain, 1789-1848. Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1977. Thompson, E.P. The Making of the English Working Class. New York: Vintage Books, 1963. . --. Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act. New York: Pantheon Books, 1975. Tobias, J.J. Crime and Industrilll Society in the Nineteenth Century. B.T. Batsford, 1967. --.Crime and Police in England 1700-1900. New York: StMartin's Press, 1979. --.Nineteenth Century Crime: Prevention and Punishment. Newton Abbot, 1972. Walmsley, Robert. Peterloo: The Case Reopened. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1969. Webb, Sydney and Beatrice Webb. English Local Government, 11 vols. Hamden, Cf: Archon Books, 1906, reprint 1963. Select Bibliography 217

Western, J.R. The English Militia in the Eighteenth Centwy. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1965. Wright, D.G. Popular Radicalism: The Wo'*ing Class Experience, 1780-1880. New York: Longman, 1988. Wrigley, E.A and R.S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541-1871. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Zegger, Robert E. John Cam Hobhouse: A Political Life, 1819-1852. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1973.

B. Articles and Essays

Armory, Hugh. 'Henry Fielding and the Criminal Legislation of 1751-52'. Philological QUI.lrterly 2 (1971), pp. 175-92. Aylmer, G.E. 'From Office-holding to Civil Service: The Genesis of Modem Bureaucracy.' Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 30 (1980), pp. 91-108. Baugh, Daniel A. 'The Cost of Poor Relief in South-East England 179(}-1834'. Economic History Review, 2nd series, 38 (1975), pp. 50-68. Braddick, Michael. 'State Formation and Social Change in Early Modem England: A Problem Stated and Approaches Suggested', Social History, 16 (1991), pp. 1-17. Briggs, Asa. 'Middle-class Consciousness in English Politics, 1780-1846'. Past and Present 9 (1956), pp. 64-73. Clark, Peter. 'The "Mother Gin" Controversy in the Early Eighteenth Century', Thmsactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 38 (1988), pp. 63-84. Cooper, Robert Alan. 'Jeremy Bentham, Elizabeth Fry, and English Prison Reform'. Journal of the History of Ideas 42 (1981), pp. 675-90. Davis, Jennifer, 'A Poor Man's System of Justice: The London Police Courts in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century'. The Historical Journal 27 (1984), pp. 309-35. Emsley, Clive. 'Detection and Prevention: The Old English Police and the New, 1750-1900'. Historical Social Research 37 (1986), pp. 69-88. --. 'The Home Office and Its Sources of Information and Investigation 1791-1801'. English Historical Review 94 (1979), pp. 532-61. Forsythe, Bill. 'Centralisation and Local Autonomy: The Experience of English Prisons 1820-187T. Journal of Historical Sociology 4 (1991), pp. 317-45. Ginter, Donald. 'The Loyalist Association Movement of 1792-93 and British Public Opinion'. The Historical Joumal9 (1966), pp. 179-90. Gurr, T.R. 'Historical 1tends in Violent Crime: A Critical Review of the Evidence'. Crime and Justice: An AnnUI.ll Review of Research 3 (1981), pp. 295-353. Harling, Philip. 'Rethinking "Old Corruption"'. Past and Present 147 (1995), pp. 127-58. --. and Peter Mandler. 'From "Fiscal-Military'' State to Laissez-faire State, 1760-1850'. Journal of British Studies 32 (1993), pp. 44-70. Hart, Jennifer. 'The Reform of the Borough Police, 1835-1856'. English Historical Review 70 (1955), pp. 411-27. --. 'Nineteenth-Century Social Reform: A Tory Interpretation of History'. Past and Present 38 (1965), pp. 3~1. Hastings, R.P. 'Private Law-enforcement Associations'. Local Historian 14 (1980), pp. 226-32. Hay, Douglas. 'War, Dearth and Theft in the Eighteenth Century: The Record of the English Courts'. Past and Present 95 (1982) pp. 117-60. 218 Select Bibliography

Holdsworth, Sir William. 'Bentham's Place in English Legal History'. California Law Review 28 (1940), pp. 566-86. Innes, Joanna. 'Parliament and the Shaping of Eighteenth-Centuxy Social Policy,' 11Tlnsactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 40 (1990), pp. 63-92. Innes, Joanna, and John Styles. 'The Crime Wave: Recent Writing on Crime and Criminal Justice in Eighteenth-Centuxy England'. Journal of British Studies 25 (1986), pp. 380-435. Jones, David J.V. 'The New Police, Crime and People in England and Wales 1829- 1888'. 11Tlnsactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th Series, 33 (1983), pp. 151- 68. Kent, Joan R. 'The Centre and the Localities: State Formation and Parish Govern­ ment in England, circa 1640-1740,' The Historical Journal, 38 (1995), pp. 363-404. King, Peter. 'Decision-Makers and Decision-Making in the English Criminal Law, 1700-1800'. The Historical Journal21 (1984), pp. 25-58. --. 'Newspaper Reporting, Prosecution Practice and Perceptions of Urban Crime: the Colchester Crime Wave of 1765,' Continuity and Change 2 (1987), pp. 423-54. Langbein, John H. 'Albion's Fatal Flaws'. Past and Present 98 (1983), pp. 96-120. --. 'Shaping the Eighteenth-Centuxy Criminal Thai: A View from the Ryder Sources'. The University of Chicago Law Review 50 (1983), pp. 1-136. Lawson, Philip. 'Reassessing Peterloo'. History Today 38 (1988), pp. 24-9. MacDonagh, Oliver. 'The Nineteenth-Century Revolution in Government: A Reap­ praisal'. The Historical Journal1 (1958), pp. 52-67. McGown, Randall, 'The Image of Justice and Reform of the Criminal Law in Early Nineteenth-Centuxy England'. Buffalo Law Review 32 (1983), pp. 89-125. Mitchell, Austin. 'The Association Movement of 1792-93'. The Historical Journal 4 (1961 ), pp. 56-77. Paley, Ruth. '''An Imperfect, Inadequate and Wretched System?": Policing London Before Peel,' Criminal Justice History, 10 (1989), pp. 95-130 Palmer, Stanley H. 'Before the Bobbies: The Caroline Riots, 1821'. History Today 21 (1977), pp. 637-44. --. 'Calling Out the lroops: the Military, the Law and Public Order in England 165~1850'. Journal of the Society for Amly Historical Research 41 (1978), pp. 198-214. Parris, Henry. 'The Nineteenth-Centuxy Revolution in Government: A Reappraisal Reappraised'. The Historical Journal3 (1960), pp. 17-37. Reynolds, Elaine A. 'St Marylebone: Local Police Reform in London, 1755-1829'. The Historian 51 (1989), pp. 446-66. Roberts, MJ.D. 'Making Victorian Morals?: The Society for the Suppression of Vice and its Critics, 1802-1886'. Historical Studies. 21 (1984), pp. 157-73. --.'The Society for the Suppression of Vice and Its Early Critics, 1802-1812'. The Historical Journa/26 (1983), pp. 159-76. Robinson, Cyril P. 'Ideology as History: A Look at the Way Some English Police Historians -Look at the Police'. Police Studies 2 (1979), pp. 35-49. Rodman, Barbee-Sue. 'Bentham and the Paradox of Penal Reform'. Journal of the History of Ideas 29 (1968), pp. 197-210. Rogers, Nicholas. ~tocratic Oientage, 'Irade and Independency: Popular Politics in Pre-Radical Westminster'. Past and Present 61 (1973), pp. 7~106. --. 'The Gordon Riots Revisited'. Historical Papers (1988), pp. 16-34. --. 'Policing the Poor in Eighteenth-Centuxy London: The Vagrancy Laws and their Administration'. Social History 24 (1991), pp. 127-47. --. 'Popular Protest in Early Hanoverian London'. Past and Present 19 (1978), pp. 70-100. Select Bibliography 219

Rubenstein, W.D. 'The End of "Old Corruption" in Britain, 1780-1860'. Past and Present 101 (1983), pp. 55-86. Schofield, Thomas Philip. 'Conservative Political Thought in Britain in Response to the French Revolution'. The Historical Journal29 (1986), pp. 601-22. Schwarz, LD. 'The Standard of living in the Long Run: London, 1700-1860'. Economic History Review, 2nd series, 38 (1979), pp. 24-41. Shoemaker, Robert B. 'The London "Mob" in the Early Eighteenth Century,' Journal of British Studies 26 (July 1987), pp. 273-304. Stevenson, John. 'The London "Crimp" Riots of 1794'. International Review of Social History 16 (1971), pp. 40-58. Stone, Lawrence. 'Interpersonal Violence in English Society, 1300-1980'. Past and Present 101 (1983), pp. 23-33. Storch, Robert. 'The Plague of Blue Locusts: Police Reform and Popular Resistance in Northern England, 1840-57'. International Review of Social History 20 (1975), pp. 61-90. --. 'The Policeman as Domestic Missionary: Urban Discipline and Popular Culture in Northern England, 1850-1880'. Journal of Social History 9 (1976), pp. 481-509. Styles, John. 'The Emergence of the Police - Explaining Police Reform in Eigh­ teenth and Nineteenth Century England'. British Journal of Criminology 27 (1987), pp. 15-22. --. 'Sir John Fielding and the Problem of Criminal Investigation in Eighteenth­ Century England'. 'Jransactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 33 (1983), pp. 127-49. Sutherland, Lucy. 'The City of London in Eighteenth-Century Politics' in Richard Pares and AJ.P. Taylor, eds, Essays Presented to Sir Lewis Namier. Macmillan, 1956, pp. 49-74. Swift, Roger. 'Urban Policing in Early Victorian England, 1835-86: A Reappraisal'. History 73 (1988), pp. 211-37. Thompson, E.P. 'The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century'. Past and Present 70 (1971), pp. 76-136. Torrance, John. 'Social Oass and Bureaucratic Innovation: The Commissioners for Examining the Public Accounts 1780-1787'. Past and Present 78 (1978), pp. 56-81. Western, J.R. 'The Volunteer Movement as an Anti-Revolutionary Force, 1793-1801'. English Historical Review 4 (1956), pp. 603-14. Wrigley, E.A. 'A Simple Model of London's Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650-1750'. Past and Present 37 (1967), pp. 44-70. Zirker, Malvin. 'Fielding and Reform in the 1750's'. Studies in English Literature 7 (1967), pp. 453-67.

D. Unpublished Theses and Dissertations

Devereaux, Simon. 'Convicts and the State: The Administration of Criminal Justice in Great Britain during the Reign of George III'. Ph.D. diss., University of Thronto, 1997. Ffooks, Enid. 'Kensington Thmpike 'Ihlst'. Presented for the University of London Extension Diploma in History, 1957. ('IYPescript located in Local History Collec­ tion, Kensington Central Library.) Paley, Ruth. 'The Middlesex Justices Act of 1792: Its Origins and Effects'. Ph.D. diss., University of Reading, May 1983. Reynolds, Elaine A. 'The Night Watch and Police Reform in Metropolitan London, 1720-1830'. Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1991. Index

accountability, 12-13, 69-70, 77, 82-3, Middlesex Justices Act (1792 and 90, 94, 100-2, 123-4, 129-33, 139, 1821), 76,84-6,114-15,134 145-7, 153, 163, 165 Night Watch Acts and Bills, 3, 16, of beadles, 10, 16-17,23,26-8,40, 18-19, 22-3, 29, 35, 37, 39-41, 53, 62-3, 120 44, 51, 78, 9~ 94-5; Nightly of constables, 9, 11, 13-16, 19, 23, Watch Bill (1720) 7-15; 25-8, 32,38,40, 49-50,5~ Westminster (1774), 45, 51-7, 54-7, 62-3, 65-7, 97, 99, 107-9, 96-7, 103, 148; Nightly Watch 112-13, 116, 120-25, 128, Bill (1812), 99-102, 116-18, 134-5 145 of government, 58, 60-61, 74-5, 85, Police Bill (1785), 73-6, 85-6 104, 106-10, 134, 144-5 Riot Act, 31 of magistrates, 13, 31-2, 49, 60, Seditious Meetings Act (1819), 110 74-5, 97, 108-9, 112, 122-3, Six Acts (1819), 110 128, 134-5, 147 Sturges Bourne Vestry Acts (1818, of patrols, 52, 57, 64, 99, 103, 112-14, 1819), 142-3 117 Thames River Police Act (1800), of vestries and vestrymen, 13-14, 25, 76-7 34, 108, 140-47 turnpike trust acts, 36, 78 of volunteers, 86, 102-3, 108-10 Westminster Constables Act (1756), of watch committees, 54-5, 62, 99, 46,54 121-2, 143-4 see also Parliament ofwatchmen, 10-11,14-17,19,23-4, alcohol, 20-21, 23, 60, 73, 80 26-8,37,50,53-4,56-7,61-5, see also gin, liquor licensing, pubs 97,99,103,107,113-17,119-24, Allen, Lancelot Baugh, 106-7 125,127,147 amateurism, 14-15, 34, 42-4, 49, 62-3, Account of a Successful Experiment for 66-7,71-2,74,84-5,86-9,94, an Effectual Nightly Watch, 103-4 96-8, 100, 102-4, 107-10, 113, accounts 120-21, 124-5, 131-4, 165 parish, 109, 121, 141-3 American Revolution, 58-60, 164 poor,92-3, 141-2 Annual Register, 30 watch, 11-12, 15-19, 79-80, 92-6, Applebee's Weekly Journal, 15 101-3, 116, 136-7, 143-4, 155-6 arms and weapons, 22-3, 27, 35, 51, 72, Acts of Parliament (including bills), 3- 78,81, 83, 87,96-7,103,109-10, 4, 8, 27, 29, 33, 38, 46, 50, 53, 61, 120 68, 108, 116-17, 121-2, 127-8, army, see military 138, 143, 157 Arran, Lord, 15 Additional Churches Act (1818), 141 arrest(s), 69, 71, 77, 80, 109, 128 Great Reform Bill (1832), 160 powers of, 10, 12, 18, 23, 25, 31, 37, Hobhouse's Vestry Act (1831), 40, 45, 47, 53, 65-6, 113, 144-5, 154 121-3 Metropolitan Police Act (1829), 5, 56, 125-6, 139-40, 143-6, 148, Bagehot, Walter, 165-6 154-5, 157, 159, 162-3 ballad singers, 49-50

220