Christian Spirituality and Science Issues in the Contemporary World
Volume 4 Issue 1 The Christian and the Environment Article 2
2003
The Fate of Nature
Howard J. Fisher Avondale College, [email protected]
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Recommended Citation Fisher, H. J. (2003). The fate of nature. Christian Spirituality and Science, 4(1), 5-16. Retrieved from https://research.avondale.edu.au/css/vol4/iss1/2
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The Fate of Nature Howard J Fisher Abstract The Judaeo-Christian tradition of Creation with its directives for humans to subdue and to have dominion over the Earth has been seen as a factor in the generation of negative or exploitative attitudes towards the natural world, especially among Christians who interpret the Creation stories literally. As a corrective, in recent decades scholars have developed a rationale for stewardship of nature based on these same and other Biblical passages. However, much less attention has been given to the implications of beliefs about the end-time (eschatology). Seventh-day Adventists, along with some other Christians, anticipate that a fiery obliteration of the Earth’s surface will usher in the kingdom of God. Logically such beliefs might not be expected to generate any particular concern for the well-being of the non-human Creation. A few Adventist authors have called for some amendment to or revision of traditionally-held eschatology as it concerns the fate of nature. Nevertheless there is some evidence that many Seventh-day Adventists feel that there is a basis for caring for the Creation in spite of its imminent annihilation. However, in company with many Biblical literalists, practical action is generally lacking from personal agenda. Some reasons for the apparent dissonance between eschatological beliefs and environmental concern are suggested.
Over the last few decades it has be- consequences. Stung by White, come popular to place the blame for theologians rushed to reinterpret the the world’s environmental problems Scriptures so that the “dominion” of at the feet of the Judaeo-Christian tra- genesis became “stewardship”, and dition and its allegedly Bible-based just twelve years later Rifkin declared doctrine of human dominion over that “ . . . one would be hard pressed the Creation. In 1967 Lynn White, to find a leading Protestant scholar . an historian, published an article . . who would openly question the in the journal Science in which he new interpretation . . .” (Rifkin 1979) claimed that in the medieval era the (emphasis mine). Bible had been understood to mean The 1990s saw the publication of a that the natural world was created number of studies in which social largely for the purpose of meeting data were examined for possible human needs. Most Christians be- connections between religious af- lieved that Genesis 1:26–28 conferred filiation or belief and environmental mastery over nature on humanity. concern (eg, Eckberg and Blocker, In the context of this viewpoint, the 1989,1996; Kanagy and Willits 1993; western, Christianized world ac- Hornsby-Smith and Procter 1995; quired the technological capacity to Blombery 1996; Black 1997). Gen- subjugate nature, with disastrous
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erally there have been some sug- been done with the eschatological gestions of an association between aspect of the Bible’s theology of na- religious profession and negative ture.” This is still largely true. Janel environmental attitudes, although Curry-Roper (1990) stated her belief sometimes the link has been weak “. . . that eschatology is the most and in a couple of instances no link ecologically decisive component of has been demonstrated at all. The a theological system. It influences results obtained by Eckberg and adherents’ actions and determines Blocker (1996) provide an example their views of mankind, their bodies, of a study in which some connection souls and worldviews.” was found: for Americans there was a Intuitively, we might expect that positive correlation between biblical when the eschatological viewpoint literalism and lack of environmental held involves a literalist interpreta- concern. However, it appears that tion of apocalyptic literature, atti- virtually all of these studiEs have tudes to environmental issues will be more-or-less followed White in at- generally apathetic or antipathetic. tempting to make the link between Apocalyptic is here used in the Christianity and environmental popular sense of a way of speaking apathy or antipathy via Genesis of future events that portends disas- 1:26–28 (the “dominion” passage). ter. James Watt, Ronald Reagan’s But given that most are now reinter- infamous Secretary of the Interior preting “dominion” as “steward- (1981–1983), comes to mind. He ship”, those who wish still to test has been “. . . quoted as belittling White’s hypothesis in fact may not concerns about environmental pro- find appropriate data from surveys tection in part because it would all be of Christians in the late twentieth or destroyed by God in the apocalypse” early twenty-first centuries. For the (Gore 1992, p 263). An American most part the dominion theology has study by Heather Boyd showed that been corrected and Christians have amongst ‘religion variables’, “Funda- been re-educated, at least in theory. mentalist tradition stood out as the While on the one hand our “begin- Christian variable of importance. It nings” have been made environ- predicted lack of support for envi- mentally-friendly, what, on the ron-mentalism. Concern with the other hand, of our “endings”? Very ‘end times’ and evangelizing people few investigators appear to have at- for eternal life in heaven, combined tempted to look at or for connections with suspicion of the environmental between beliefs concerning eschatol- movement as both a liberal and a ogy and environmental attitudes. secular movement may lend itself Thus Gowan in 1986 could conclude to a lack of concern for the environ- (p 108) “. . . as yet almost nothing has ment” (Boyd 1999).
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In discussing Paul Santmire’s Travail nist Rosemary Ruether (1992) was of Nature (1985), Bridger wrote in more blunt. Using Seventh-day Ad- 1990, “. . . until recently, theological ventists as an example to support her ethicists have neglected the escha- position, she saw apocalypticism as a tological dimension in ecological form of escapism in which its adher- discussion. . . If Santmire is correct (in ents not only imagine themselves to his eschatological reading of biblical be safe from world destruction, but faith and in Jesus’ proclamation of see world destruction as the very the kingdom and of Paul’s writings) means by which they can escape. we are justified in concluding that Curry-Roper (1990) distinguished with a few recent exceptions (of between several Protestant escha- whom Jürgen Moltmann is the most tological positions, and considered notable) the treatment of ecology has their implications for attitudes to centred almost exclusively on refin- environmental stewardship. Those ing and developing a stewardship that believe that the world is inevi- ethic based on the concept of domin- tably getting progressively worse see ion found in the creation narratives environmental problems as signs of and worked out in Old Testament the end and of Christ’s return. Since social legislation” (Bridger 1990). heaven is to be the inheritance of Just as there is a spectrum of environ- believers, the present natural world mental attitudes within the Christian is not seen to be of any consequence. community, so there is also a spec- Others see history as progressive: trum of eschatological understand- obedience to God’s laws will restore ings, some of them non-apocalyptic. nature to its previous Edenic state: It is not my intention to discuss here the earth is the present and future these various eschatologies: rather home of humanity. A third possible I shall examine one in particular, group consists of those who see some that is, the Seventh-day Adventist partial restoration of the natural tradition, which, like many others, world before a future universal res- is apocalyptic, incorporating a cata- toration when Christ returns. clysmic culmination of history. I will The Seventh-day Adventist tradition attempt to relate this eschatological most clearly fits within Curry-Rop- understanding to environmental at- er’s first group: heaven is to be the titudes held by its adherents. inheritance of the saints (although Catherine Keller (1997) argued that heaven will ultimately be transferred popular Protestant views of heaven to a renewed earth), and at least the which incorporate a literalist apoca- surface of this present Earth will be lypticism tend to associate environ- destroyed, including all life. En- mental concerns with futility and vironmental deterioration is often possibly paganism as well. Ecofemi- regarded as a sign of the imminence
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of Christ’s return. Seventh-day that which is about to pass away, and Adventists anticipate a millennium soon. Indeed, this under-standing during which the Earth will be deso- seems to exclude the non-human late, inhabited only by Satan and his creation from God’s redemption, angels. It is believed that the saved, with the human species providing both resurrected and living, will be the only continuity between the transported with a returned Jesus to Old Earth and the New. However a heavenly abode for the duration of Paul suggested (Col 1:15–20) that the one thousand-year period, but all created things are reconciled to will return from thence in the heav- God through the shedding of Jesus’ enly city, the New Jerusalem, which blood on the cross. He also declares, is to be relocated to Earth at the end “. . . the creation itself will be liber- of this time. The millennium will be ated from its bondage to decay and ushered in by the appearance of a lit- brought into the glorious liberty of eral lake of fire, into which the beast the children of God” (Rom 8:21). and the false prophet will be cast, and Miroslav Volf (2000) concluded that will be terminated by a lake of fire “. . . the eschatological transition which will purge the entire planetary must be ultimately understood as surface and consume the dragon and the final reconciliation of ‘all things’, the lost who have been raised in the grounded in the work of Christ the second resurrection. These views reconciler” (p 278), and Santmire are drawn from Revelation 19–20, 2 (1985) has asked: Peter 3:5–10, 1 Thess 4:16–17, John Is the final aim of God, in [God’s] 14:1–3, 1 Cor 15:20–23, as well as governance of all things, to bring into from certain Old Testament passages being at the very end a glorified king- which refer to desolation. Sauter dom of spirits alone who, thus united (1999) cited a 1986 study by Mojta- with God, may contemplate [God] in bai which recalled that “. . . many perfect bliss, while as a precondition engineers who were Seventh-day for their ecstasy all other creatures Adventists or who belonged to the of nature must be left by God to fall Pentecostal movement did not have away into eternal oblivion? Or is conscientious objections to working the aim of God . . . to communicate on the production of atomic bombs; [God’s] life in another way which they thought they were preparing the calls forth at the very end new way for the second coming of Jesus heavens and a new earth in which Christ, which according to ‘biblical rightness dwells, a transfigured information’ would be preceded by cosmos where peace is universally an enormous global fire” (p xi). established between all creatures at Such anticipations might not be ex- last, in the midst of which is situated pected to generate special concern for a glorious city of resurrected saints
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who dwell in justice, blessed with all that the work of God’s redemption the resplendent fullness of the earth, or salvation complete God’s work of and who continually call upon all creation . . . the end or goal of God’s creatures to join with them in their saving action can only be the same joyful praise of the one who is all in as the end of God’s action as Crea- all? (pp 217–218). tor . . . In the biblical view, ultimate salvation means fulfilment for the There is indeed a promise of a New whole creation, and it is impossible Earth, but if it has no effective conti- for humans to attain it without the nuity with the Old Earth, one might coparticipation of the extrahuman ask how, then, is that a reconciliation creatures” (p 105). of all things, and how might the present creation look forward to Perhaps at this point it is worthwhile that time with “eager longing” (Rom to note that scientists also predict 8:19)? Polkinghorne (2000) main- an eventual doom for planet Earth, tained that there is both a continuity which is most likely to be consumed and a discontinuity between this by an expanding but ultimately world and the new creation, while dying Sun. However this end will Conradie (1999) has commented: “ probably be long after the extinc- Christian hope for life beyond death tion of the human species and most maintains a typical tension between other life as we know it. Despite this the continuity and discontinuity forecast, most scientists do not regard of this life and the life to come, my concern for the natural world as a present body and my resurrected futile pursuit, although the motiva- body, the old Jerusalem and the new tion for the concerns of some is the Jerusalem, this earth and the new prospect of a damaged environment earth.” For Polkinghorne, “ . . . the for humans. Scientists give no re- new creation is not due to God’s wip- assurance regarding the long-term ing the cosmic slate clean, and start- prospects for humanity, and it would ing again. Instead, what is brought seem that if the New Earth is to have about is the divine redemptive any physical reality, God’s trans- transformation of the old creation.” forming intervention is a necessity. Moltmann (1996) reminded us to As Stoeger (2000) has written, the think of the unity of redemption and natural sciences provide us with no creation: “ . . . according to Christian access to this transformed reality, and under-standing, the Redeemer is no “. . . our human experience gives us other than the Creator . . . There are only obscure, but nevertheless real, not two Gods, a Creator God and a intimations and indications” (p20). Redeemer God. There is one God” (p While Seventh-day Adventist escha- 259). Thus Kehm (1992) argued, “. . . tology forecasts a fiery destruction of the logic of the biblical story requires life on Earth’s surface, nevertheless
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there have been and are occasional ship to the natural world”. Alvin voices within the Seventh-day Ad- Kwiram (1993) admitted that some ventist community calling for a Seventh-day Adventists would argue greater level of concern for environ- that our apocalyptic view exempts us mental matters both from a theologi- from responsibility for the creation, cal perspective and in practice. In but asked if it was not appropriate 1982 Gary Longfellow, writing in the to consider a new paradigm based official Seventh-day Adventist jour- on a different time-frame, suggest- nal, Review and Herald, argued that ing that “a re-examination of our while God’s environmental ethic was metaphors and our tradition in the one of love, many Adventists had lost context of environmental awareness sight of this and had based their life would enlarge our understanding styles and goals on a selfish-use ethic. and broaden our vision”. Adventist He regretted that “ instead of a love eco-feminist Sheryll Prinz-McMillan for the land . . . we measure the value (1994) challenged Adventism to of God’s creation by its usefulness to “re-examine eschatology, bringing us.” Then he asked,”“Are we con- into its scope all of creation . . . doning environmental destruction [and to] recenter humanity within while believing that God will come creation and God’s presence.” An- and rescue us?” The following year gel Rodriguez attempted to resolve Barry Casey, then a member of the the tension by suggesting that “the theological faculty of Columbia Un- apocalyptic conflagration of the ion College, Washington DC, made natural world is to be understood a plea on behalf of creation which as an act of redemption which leads warned against “short-chang[ing] to the renewal of creation and not to the present by ignoring the destruc- its extinction.” Thus the conflagra- tion of the earth through a misguided tion will destroy the wicked pow- apocalyptic other-worldliness,” ers, which have no possibility of believing that “God’s purposes for re-creation. “Not so with the natural the world are inclusive of all real- world. The final conflagration is its ity, that they are not isolated for the liberation . . . Nature is not expect- ‘remnant’ who are saved but include ing a future participation in the the earth itself and ultimately the destruction of the wicked but rather universe “ (Casey 1983). Harper ‘into the glorious freedom of the (1993) found Seventh-day Advent- children of God’” (Rodriguez 1994, ist theology to be saturated with pp 5–15). this “other-worldly” eschatological In early 2000, with Ed Parker, I view, which he believed was not conducted a modest survey of Sev- necessarily wrong, but “need(ed) enth-day Adventists living at or to better articulate God’s relation- near Avondale College, a tertiary
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educational institution located on the concerns reflect society at large rather east coast of New South Wales. The than Christian teaching (only 25% survey was intended to explore any disagreed). connections between Seventh-day Only 24% believed the Bible to be the Adventist beliefs, especially with actual word of God and that it should regard to end-time apocalypses, be read literally (31% if the College and concerns about environmental academic staff results are excluded). issues. The 164 respondents in- The alternative proposition – that the cluded members of two local church Bible is the inspired word of God but congregations, and academic staff should not’always be read literally and theology students at Avondale – drew 78% agreement. However, College. The survey instrument while only 24% believed the Bible consisted of a questionnaire inviting should be read literally, 53% agreed responses to twelve statements on a that there would be grass-eating Likert scale with five options rang- lions in the New Earth, indicating a ing from disagree strongly to agree literal reading of Isaiah 65:25 which, strongly. The following indications in describing the new heavens and about the attitudes of this group of the new earth which God promises Seventh-day Adventists may be in- to create, declares “The wolf and ferred from the results of the survey the lamb shall feed together, the (percentage of respondents shown lion shall eat straw like the ox.” in brackets). Twenty-four per cent agreed that Christians should be concerned the natural world was not included about the environment (86%). It is a in the redemption provided by Jesus matter of stewardship (83%). Nature Christ, but 47% thought that it would is created by God and should be be included – just a slightly smaller respected (96%). proportion than that which believed there would be grass-eating lions. However, a strong anthropocentric current is indicated by the belief In view of the perceived links be- (69%) that the natural environment tween apocalyptic eschatology and has been provided largely for hu- lack of environmental concern, the man benefit, and by the fact that fact that ninety per cent of respond- 48% agreed that the Christian’s en- ents did not think that environmental vironmental concerns arise mainly concern was pointless even if the because of the connection between Earth was to be cleansed by fire the environment and human welfare was unexpected. It is possible that (36% disagreed). Despite the strong some of the responses to the survey indication of a stewardship respon- were coded rather than committed, sibility for Christians, 58% agreed meaning that the degree of apparent that the Christian’s environmental
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sympathy or concern with environ- information about the latter” (Black mental degradation may reflect what 1997). In another Australian study, the respondents think ought to be ‘Tricia Blombery concluded that “. . rather than what actually is. . although Australians show a high level of concern for the environment, With these caveats in mind, it seems the majority are reluctant to make reasonable to suggest from this any personal sacrifices in order to survey that holding to a literalist protect it . . . Perversely, it is those apocalyptic eschatology does not most committed to the creation necessarily produce attitudes that stories and the sacredness of nature are negative towards nature and the as God’s creation who take the least environment. Literalist eschatol- action and who are least willing ogy is usually paired with literalist to make personal sacrifices for the interpretations of Genesis creation environment. However, they aren’t narratives and at the present time, much more reluctant than the total with “dominion” having been re- group. Although Australians show interpreted as “stewardship”, at least a great deal of concern for environ- in theory environmental concerns ment issues and accept collective are on the agenda. Unfortunately, responsibility for the remedy only translation of theory into practice the minority are prepared to put this may be another matter. Alan Black’s concern into action.” In other words, 1997 Australian study indicated that if the actions of Biblical literalists do Biblical literalists have significantly not reflect much concern for the envi- lower rates of adoption of environ- ronment, their behaviour is not much mentally-protective behaviour than worse than that of the population at do people who hold a more liberal large. For Seventh-day Adventists, or secular interpretation of the Bible. some of the reluctance to become This conclusion was based on assess- involved in practical environmental ment of such activities as choosing actions might arise from a suspicion household products they think are that many other people who are in- better for the environment; reusing volved with environmental concerns or recycling something rather than have associations with New Age throwing it away; attending meet- movements or with pantheism. ings or signing petitions aimed at protecting the environment, and One might conclude that the causes contributing to an environmental of the lack of practical environmen- organisation. “Because attitudes tal concern are much broader than do not always correlate strongly religious ones. However this is not with behaviour, one should not to say that religion might not become assume that information about the a powerful factor in generating such former is an adequate substitute for concern. In 1970 Francis Schaeffer
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expressed this hope: “. . . a truly millions of Australians, New Zea- biblical Christianity has a real answer landers and Americans - the cereal to the ecological crisis . . .it offers the Weet-Bix is made by a Seventh-day hope here and now of substantial Adventist-operated company, and healing in nature of some of the Kellogg was once a Seventh-day results of the Fall.” “It is the biblical Adventist). This health emphasis view of nature that gives nature a has followed in part from their value in itself . . . because God made it denying the dualist notion of an . . . this is the true Christian mentality immortal soul in a mortal body, . . . What God has made, I, who am and their appreciation of the ho- also a creature, must not despise.” listic nature of humans. Schaeffer further urged that “. . . the • Perhaps, too, there is a diminished Church ought to be a ‘pilot plant’ . . sense of the imminence of the sec- . exhibiting . . . through individual ond coming of Christ and attend- attitudes and the Christian commu- ant cataclysmic events: maybe the nity’s attitude . . . that in this present world will go on for longer than life man can exercise dominion over was thought, so there is some point nature without being destructive” to caring for the natural environ- (Schaeffer 1970, pp 81–82). ment.. Why do many Seventh-day Advent- Thus it would seem that Seventh-day ists consider that the natural environ- Adventists (at least in the western ment is worth worrying about even world), despite their apocalyptic though most believe it is slated for eschatology, in theory view the incineration? Some possible factors non-human Creation as worthy of include the following: concern and consideration. Some • Caring for the environment may Adventists’ beliefs are logically con- be seen as a test of stewardship, ducive to this concern, but there is along the lines of the parable of the still the tension, already-mentioned, talents. Many think in terms of the existing “between the continuity and directive, “occupy ‘til I come”. discontinuity of this life and the life to come . . . this earth and the new • Concern for the health of the en- earth” (Conradie 1999). Forty-seven vironment is logically connected per cent of the survey respondents with health of body, mind and agreed that the natural world would spirit, and caring for the body is be included in the redemption pro- seen as an issue of stewardship. vided by Jesus Christ, which implies Seventh-day Adventists are pos- some continuity between old and sibly best known for their health new. How this might be in the con- emphasis. (They are responsible text of Seventh-day Adventist escha- for changing the breakfast habits of
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tology has not been explored in any References depth, but those lions will be there, Bakken, P W, Engel, G and Engel, J R even if they do eat straw! “If that (1995) Ecology, Justice and the Christian is the case, lionhood will have also Faith: a Critical Guide to the Literature. to share in the dialectic of eschato- Greenwood, CT: Westport Press, logical continuity and discontinuity” Ball, J (1998) The use of ecology in (Polkinghorne 2002, p203). the evangelical Protestant response Questions for Discussion to the ecological crisis. Perspectives on 1 Do our personal beliefs concerning Science and Christian Faith 50: 32–38. Earth’s future influence how we Black, A W (1997) Religion and live on the Earth now? environmentally protective behav- 2 Should there be and is there a iour in Australia. Social Compass noticeable difference in our behav- 44(3):401–412. iour with regard to God’s creation Blombery, T (1996) ‘Lord, her watch and environmental issues and that thy Church is keeping’ or is she? Reli- of non-Christians in our society? gion and the environment. Australian 3 Is a lion that eats a diet of grass still Religious Studies Review 9:1–9. a lion? What changes would be Boyd, H H (1999) Christianity and required in the lion (consider, for the environment in the American example, dentition and digestive public. Journal for the Scientific Study tract, instinctive behaviour)? of Religion 38(1):36–44. 4 Are passages such as Isaiah Bridger, F (1990) Ecology and es- 65:17–25 better understood as chatology: a neglected dimension. metaphor, meaning that the strong Tyndale Bull. 41(2):290–301. and the weak, the rich and the poor, will ultimately find peace Casey, B (1983) Let the wilderness be together? glad! The Apocalypse and the envi- ronment. Spectrum 13(3):40–51. 5 Could it be that the ecology of the New Earth is to be so radically dif- Conradie, E M (1999) In search ferent from the present that there of a vision of hope for a new cen- can be no effective continuity be- tury. Journal of Religion and Society tween the Old and the New? (For 1:(
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Curry-Roper, J M (1990) Contem- Kehm, G H (1992) The new story: re- porary Christian eschatologies and demption as fulfilment of creation, in their relation to environmental Hessel, D T (ed) After Nature’s Revolt: stewardship. Professional Geographer Eco-justice and Theology. Minneapolis 42(2):157–169. MN: Fortress Press.
Eckberg, D L and Blocker, T J (1989) Keller, C (1997) The lost fragrance: Varieties of religious involvement Protestantism and the nature of what and environmental concerns: testing matters. Journal of the American Acad- the Lynn White hypothesis. Journal emy of Religion 65:355–369. for the Scientific Study of Religion Kwiram, A (1993) Adventists and the 28:509–517. good earth. Spectrum 22(5):28–35. Eckberg, D L and Blocker, T J (1996) Longfellow, G (1982) God’s envi- Christianity, environmentalism and ronmental ethic. Adventist Review the theoretical problem of religion. 159(40):9-10. Journal for the Scientific Study of Reli- gion 35: 343–355. Moltmann, J (1996) The Coming of God: Christian Eschatology. London: Gore, A (1992) Earth in the Balance: SCM Press. Ecology and the Human Spirit. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. Polkinghorne, J (2000) Eschatology: some questions and some insights Gowan, D E (1986) Eschatology in from science, in Polkinghorne, J and the Old Testament. Edinburgh: T & Welker, M, pp 29–41. T Clark Ltd. Polkinghorne, J (2002) The God of Harper, B.W. (1993) Resurrection of Hope and the End of the World. New the world. Spectrum 22(5):41-44. Haven: Yale University Press. Hornsby-Smith, M P and Procter, M Polkinghorne, J and Welker, M (eds) (1995) Catholic identity, religious (2000) The End of the World and the context and environmental values Ends of God: Science and Theology on in western Europe: evidence from Eschatology. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity the European values surveys. Social Press International. Compass 42(1):27–34. Prinz-McMillan, S (1994) Feminists, Kanagy, C L and Willits, F K (1993) A ecology and the Sabbath. Spectrum ‘greening’ of religion? Some evidence 23(5):13–19. from a Pennsylvania sample. Social Science Quarterly 74:674–683. Rifkin, J (1979) The Emerging Order: God in an Age of Scarcity. New York: G P Putnam’s Sons, cited in Bakken et al.
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Rodriguez, A (1994) Stewardship Volf, M (2000) Enter into joy! Sin, Roots. Silver Spring MD: General death, and the life of the world to Conference of Seventh-day Advent- come, in Polkinghorne, J and Welker, ists. M, pp 256–278.
Ruether, R R (1992) Gaia and God. San White, L Jr (1967) The historical Francisco, CA: Harper. roots of our ecologic crisis. Science 155: 1203–1207. Santmire, H P (1985) The Travail of Nature: the Ambiguous Ecological Acknowledgements Promise of Christian Theology. Phila- This article has been developed from delphia: Fortress Press. a presentation given to the Joint Con- ference of the Australian and New Sauter, S (1999) What Dare We Hope? Zealand Associations of Theological Reconsidering Eschatology. Harris- schools and Australian and New burg, PA: Trinity International. Zealand Society of Theological Stud- Schaeffer, F (1970) Pollution and the ies, July 3–7, 2000, at Christchurch, Death of Man: the Christian View of New Zealand. That presentation was Ecology. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House co-authored by Howard Fisher and Publishers. Edmund Parker.
Stoeger, W R (2000) Scientific ac- The Author counts of ultimate catastrophes Howard Fisher is currently Senior in our life-bearing universe, in Lecturer in Geography at Avondale Polkinghorne, J and Welker, M, College, PO Box 19, Cooranbong pp 19–28. NSW 2265 Australia. [email protected]
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