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Swimming Pools and Natural Bathing Places: an Annotated Bibliography

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Swimming Pools and Natural Bathing Places: an Annotated Bibliography This document is provided by the U.S. Centers for Diisease Control and Prevention (CDC) ONLY as an historical reference for the aquatics and public health communities. It is no longer being maintained and the data it contains may no longer be current and/or accurate. The CDC Healthy Swimming website is the most current source of information on safe water, waterborne diseases, best practices and all other water-related information. It should be consulted first at: http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/swimming/ . AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY "^irT^:A/ It- r- m .CM«jtk<^ £'^>i ^*}.^« U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE • Public Heolth Se University of New Hampshire Library Swimming Pools 3 MbOD DDMT3 2577 and Natural Bathing Places AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1957-1966 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE Public Health Service Bureau of Disease Prevention and Environmental Control National Center for Urban and industrial Health Cincinnati, Ohio Public Health Service Publication No. 1586 i-or .sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Governnnent Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 — Price 25 cents CONTENTS Page Preface ^^ I. Swimming Pools A. Disease and Water Quality 1 B. Safety 3 C. Design and Construction — General 5 D. Design and Construction — Heating, Lighting, Ventilation and Noise Control 14 E. Design and Construction — Recirculation System 18 F. Operation and Maintenance 19 G. Water Treatment — General 23 H. Water Treatment — Filtration 27 I. Water Treatment — Disinfection 30 J. Water Treatment — Algae Control 36 K. Pool Management and Training 37 L. Regulations 40 II. Natural Bathing Places 43 Periodical Publications Cited 46 Author Index 47 ni PREFACE Swimming continues to be one of the most popular of aquatic outdoor activities for today's physical-fitness and recreation-minded population. This is reflected in the steady increase of swimming pool construction which in 1964 was at a rate of 80,000 pools annually. Public health oflScials have been concerned with sanitation and safety problems involving swimming and bathing. The construction and operation ot swimming pools and outdoor bathing places should provide an environment of safe water and attractive facilities for adequate protection against disease transmission and to prevent accidents. This bibliography is intended for use by health and recreation authori- ties and others responsible for the construction, operation, and maintenance of swimming pools and natural bathing places. This initial publication covers the 1957-66 period. Plans are to update the series at 2-year intervals. IV : I. SWIMMING POOLS A. QUALITY pool is a nonchlorinated, flll-and-draw type pool DISEASE AND WATER with rough concrete and rock walls. Mycrobac- terium balnei, isolated from the pool and the lesions, was indicated as the causative organism. Amies, C. R. 1. The Problem of Surface Film on Dick, Elliot C. ; Shull, Ivan F. ; and Swimming Pool Water. Swimming Pool Armstrong, Alan S. 1957. Age, 31:11:62, November 5. Surface-Subsurface Distribution of Bacteria in Swimming Pools — Field The concept of pollution from surface films was Studies. American Journal of Public experimentally in order to assess its studied Health, 50:5:689, May 1960. importance as a practical problem. It was found that surface water contained considerably more organisms than the same volume of water Seven outdoor swimming pools, located in Kan- collected at a depth of one foot. The organisms sas City, Kans., Topeka, Kans., or the environs sta- present on the surface were predominantly of these two cities were sampled without warn- very phlycocci and viridans streptococci with ing during the summer of 1958 to determine sur- few conforms while results of samples taken face-subsurface distribution of bacteria. Two surface were just the opposite. below the pools were typical fill and draw pools which were hand chlorinated with hypochlorites ; the remain- der of the pools examined were recirculating Harold F. ; and Kabler, Paul W. Clark. pools with different filtration and recirculation 2. Reevaluation of the Significance of systems. Although the surface-subsurface sam- THE COLIFORM BACTERIA. Jourmal, Amer- pling results indicated that there may be con- in the surface film, the ican Water Works Association, 56:7:931, centration of bacteria concentration does not appear to be alarming. July 1964. Almost all surface or subsurface counts fell within the standards set by the American Pub- The intended water use should determine the lic Health Association for swimming pools to technical procedures used in bacteriological e.x- be labeled as "fair." amination of the waters. Criteria are suggested for interpreting the significance of the various members of the coliform group in the investi- Farrington, Joseph; Murray, Nelson A.; and gation of water pollution. The scientific basis Jeffries, Mildred for the use of the coliform groups as pollution indicators is reviewed and the various methods 6. Swimming Pool Granuloma, Journal used in interpreting coliform data are dis- of the Florida Medical Association, 47 :4 cussed. 400, October 1960. Cleere, Roy L. Reviews some medical literature showing that granuloma which causes skin lesions has been 3. Resume of Swimming Pool Granu- linked to abrasive accidents in swimming pools. loma. The Sanitarian. 23:2:105, Sep- Four cases of granuloma occurring in northern tember-October 1960. Florida are reported in which each case had received an abrasion at the site of the lesions while swimming. Reports the clinical features and laboratory findings of 262 cases of granulomatous lesions of the skin. All cases gave a history of swim- ming in a warm mineral water pool in Glen- Favero, Martin S. ; Drake, Charles H. ; and wood Springs, Colo. The construction of the Randall, Georganne B. draw and fill pool is outlined. It is pointed out 7. of Staphylococci as Indicators that due to the rough surface of the walls the Use pool cannot be completely drained thereby pro- OF Swimming Pool Pollution. Public viding a habitat for the growth of bacteria. Health Reports, 79:1:61, January 1964. The predominant bacterial flora of 12 public, Cleere, Roy L. ; Mollohan, Cecil S. ; and university and private swimming pools were Romer, Mary S. studied for a 2-year period to determine the 4. The Mystery of the Swimming Pool. validity of present standards for measuring the Rocky Mountain Medical Joumal,bS :3 :31, water's sanitary quality. The results indicated that present standards based on the presence of March 1961. the coliform bacteria and the total count are inadequate. It is suggested that the staphy- Public health authorities investigated an epi- lococci be adopted as indicators of pollution in demic of 262 cases of "sore elbow" occurring in swimming pools with an allowable maximum of bathers in the Glenwood Springs, Colo. pool. The less than 100 staphylococci per 100 ml. of water. Greenberg, Arnold E.; and Kupka, Edward Freshwater bathing beaches where the water is unchlorinated were found to have relatively high Swimming Pool Injuries, Mycobac- indices of enteric bacteria. 7 teria, AND Tuberculosis-like Disease. Public Health Reports, 72:10:902, Octo- ber 1957. McLean, Donald M. ; Brown, John R. ; and Nixon, Murray C. Reports studies that indicate the possibility that 13. Microbiological and Chemical Inves- abrasive accidents in swimming pools may lead tigations OF Outdoor Public Swim- to inoculation lupus vulgaris, granulomatous ming Pools. Jout^nal tuberculosis lesions, or other tuberculosis-like Canadian of Public lesions. The authors conclude that since the Health, 52:61, February 1961. swimming pool appears to be a factor in disease transmission, smooth-surface vi^alls and break- During summer 1960, coliform organisms and curtail- point chlorination will prove effective in other enteric bacteria were recovered from two epidemics. ing outdoor public swimming pools in Toronto de- spite levels of free residual chlorine which were maintained above 0.2 p.m. No virus was iso- Kelly, Sally; and Sanderson, Wallace W. p. lated from 88 samples of water. While levels of 9. Enteric Viruses in Wading Pools. ammonia nitrogen and organic nitrogen re- Public Health Reports, 76:199, March mained relatively unchanged in an overflow- refill pool, concentrations 1961. of these constituents increased steadily toward the end of the summer in the recirculating pool. The isolation of viruses from urban wading pools showing no chlorine residual indicated that a potential health hazard may exist. The failure Meslin, Jerry to detect viruses in chlorinated swiiiiming pools sampled during the same period and in the same 14. Watch Out for Pool Granuloma. area suggested that chlorination of wading Sivimming Pool Age, 34:12:164, Decem- pools is needed. ber 1960. Mailman, W. L. Discusses a skin disease, granuloma, that may be contracted in swimming pools from scratches or 10. Cocci Test for Detecting Mouth and abrasions. Points out that studies in Sweden and Nose Pollution of Swimming Pool California have revealed that rough pool sur- Water. American Jotirnal of Public faces, particularly walls, and poor water disin- Health, 52:12:2001, December 1962. fection are contributing factors in the spread of the disease. Fourteen school swimming pools were tested foi the presence of cocci from September 28, 1960, Mollohan, Cecil S. ; and Romer, Mary S. March 1, 1961. Intensive spot examination of to 15. Public Health Significance of Swim- swimming pool water during heavy bathing loads yielded varying numbers of cocci per sam- ming Pool Granuloma. American Jour- ple. Pollution appeared to be in pockets of con- nal of Public Health, 51 :6 :883, June 1961. tamination that disappeared as a result of dis- semination and destruction by chlorine. The Reports an outbreak of more than 200 cases relation to spread of disease was not studied. of "sore elbow" (swimming pool granuloma) caused by Mycobacterium balnei with the source McLean, Donald M. of the infection being a swimming pool in Glen- wood Springs, Colo.
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