International Journal of Research e-ISSN: 2348-6848 p-ISSN: 2348-795X Available at https://edupediapublications.org/journals Volume 04 Issue 10 September 2017

Empirical Study on Conservative Radicals in 1918-1928

Ms. Neelam Asst. Professore Govt. PG College Jind ABSTRACT In the years after the First World War various paramilitary organizations were set up in with the communicated motivation behind keeping a comrade revolution in the state. Energized by 's and Bavaria's Social Democratic leaders, military officers and men of means shaped Freikorps units to topple the Spartacist revolt in Berlin in January 1919 and the Räterepublik in Munich in April 1919. After the apparition of revolution retreated these groups did not disband but rather revamped themselves as paramilitary leagues. In Bavaria the most critical of these early organizations was the Civil Defense Guards, or Einwohnerwehr, which was prevailing after 1921 by Bund Bayern und Reich. In the years that took after the two groups worked perseveringly to force their ideological engraving on Bavaria, however bombed in the primary. In any case, through their endeavors they set patterns and spread thoughts that would later be taken up by and his Nazi Party.

INTRODUCTION period and formed their perspective of the republic. At long last, the Einwohnerwehr This is an investigation of paramilitary and Bund Bayern und Reich offered politics in Bavaria amid the early and respectability to thoughts and propensities center a very long time of the Weimar that would be misused by organizations, Republic. Specifically it is an examination similar to the Nazi Party, which much of two organizations: the Einwohnerwehr more revolutionary in their objectives. and Bund Bayern und Reich. These two groups assumed an essential part in Be that as it may, for the Nazis to succeed, encouraging a climate of hatred and the Einwohnerwehr and its successor, resistance to Germany's first majority rules Bund Bayern und Reich, needed to come system. Asserting to ensure 'lawfulness' up short. This, at that point, is an account and the state from inward foes bowed on of the cutoff points of paramilitary politics its obliteration, the two paramilitaries in Bavaria in the 1920s. Notwithstanding occupied with exercises that had the the success the two groups had as impact of impeding the production of a operators of the counterrevolution, the democratic republic in Bavaria, and Einwohnerwehr and Bund Bayern und toppling it when conceivable. Moreover, Reich neglected to accomplish the the two affiliations were basic to fanning ideological objectives laid out by their the flares of discontent over the Treaty of particular leaderships. That plan depended Versailles, a disappointment that was vital on a mix of old notions of federalism and to the world perspective of numerous states' rights extended from the imperial ultranationalist Germans amid the Weimar period and a sentimental, very adapted,

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and socially despondent German The First World War changed Bavarian, patriotism that had been intensified amid and by expansion German, society. It the war years. Accordingly the two enormously expanded the energy of the organizations upheld answers for the state in individuals' lives, conveyed vast nation's issues that were both scale industrialization to the state, and moderate/reactionary (i.e., needing to changed the relationship of Bavarians to reestablish the past type of government) the old regime that had existed before and more radical (the making of a völkisch 1914 on both the state and government perfect world) in the meantime. This level. More imperative, radical patriotism investigation will take a gander at the on the model of both the völkisch historical backdrop of these affiliations, movement and the patriotic affiliations how every wa established, the separate ended up basic to the upkeep of ideological programs, and the exercises of mainstream bolster for the conflict, for as the two groups to decide those components the military stalemate proceeded, and the that constrained their success. nation's material condition declined, discontent started to surface among the The Origins of the Patriotic Movement populace that in the end finished in revolution in 1918. The patriotic (vaterlandisch) organizations that jumped up in Bavaria after 1918 were The Revolution of November 1918 the appearances of a long incubation period in which certain people and groups Revolutionary fervor held Bavaria in the voiced their discontent with the state of fall of 1918 as German powers were issues in Imperial Germany. These crumbling, yet implications of the coming faultfinders were not to be found on the uprising permeated consistently. Toward political left, as one may expect, yet on the the start of 1918 there were monstrous political right. They were not worried shows in both Munich and Nuremberg about the development of democracy, civil including a large number of specialists, the liberties, or more prominent economic and main such aggravation amid the war – in social justice for Germany's laborers yet truth the first to have happened in Bavaria with the safeguarding of a specific lifestyle since 1848. The protesters requested a and social association inside the Reich. prompt end to the war without additions. Their compositions made an impression of Besides they requested that the monarchy an approaching emergency inside both be canceled for a people's state, or German society and government. The Volksstaat. The authorities responded organizations they propelled both quickly to these challenges by capturing extensive and little, diffused their the ringleaders, the most celebrated of perspectives into the more extensive these being , a transplanted society and give a layout which to litterateur from Berlin who came to compose after the armistice. assume a critical part in Bavaria's revolution. War, Revolution, & Repression in Bavaria – 1914-1919 In spite of the fact that suppression worked in these early months, by the fall

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everything had changed so much that the Social Democratic Party (USPD) which government started putting out peace had part with the bigger party over the sensors to the partners and promising issue of help for the war. Eisner was a change at home. In Bavaria, as somewhere tenacious faultfinder of the both the war else, this included carrying the Social and the German imperial framework, Democrats into the government in the something that would put him inconsistent expectations of hindering a Bolshevik- with patriotic groups; nearly as much as style revolution. The Social Democratic his Jewish legacy did. Party, in spite of its revolutionary talk and Marxist legacy, had turned out to be Upon his discharge from jail on October completely devoted to improving society 14, 1918 Eisner quickly turned into the gradually through the democratic voice for those Germans, socialist or procedure. While whispers of revolution something else, who were tired of the war were all over the place, the leaders of the and needed to change the German state, Social Democrats – most particularly and Bavaria, root and branch. Before his Erhard Auer – were resolved to outline a discharge Eisner had been entered by the more direct way. In October the SPD, Independent Socialists as a possibility to alongside Center Party, went into succeed Georg von Vollmar, the long haul arrangements which delivered a protected Social Democratic parliamentary boss who monarchy in Bavaria. resigned because of sickness. This decision set Eisner against Auer, who was The arrangement was superseded by the possibility for the lion's share SPD. In occasions. Established change was passed the battle Eisner put forth his most brave in the Bavarian Diet (Landtag) on expressions against the war and the November 2; by November 5, 1918 Bavarian monarchy, which he accepted revolution had effectively broken out was similarly as complicit in causing, and inside the High Seas Fleet at Kiel. News of drawing out, the war as the Hohenzollern the uprising had a zapping impact all illustrious family in Prussia. In an October through Germany. In Bavaria the voice of 23 discourse in the Schwäbingerbräu revolution came to be symbolized in the Eisner asserted that a people's state that individual of Kurt Eisner, who had sorted had a Wittelsbach sitting on it as ruler was out the general strikes in Munich and no genuine change by any means. After Nuremberg in January. An individual from two days Eisner made another discourse in the Independent Social Democratic Party, which he said that, for Germany to push Eisner moved to Munich from Berlin in ahead, the Kaiser and his children must 1906. A columnist by profession, he renounce and the nation turn into a turned into a staff essayist for the Munich republic. Post, which was the significant Social Democratic day by day in southern The battle amongst Eisner and Auer was Germany. Amid the war, in the same way all the while continuous when revolution as other German socialists, Eisner went softened out up early November, and it separate ways with the Majority Social was in this setting revolution came to Democrats and joined the Independent Bavaria. On November 7, 1918 both the SPD and USPD held a joint rally in

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Munich's Theresienwiese to require a The disagreement about the allotment of conclusion to the war and produce a political power was by all account not the typical vision for what's to come. only purpose of conflict inside the youthful revolutionary government. Eisner Eisner’s Death and the Radicalization of would fight with his coalition accomplices the Revolution over an assortment of themes. Outside strategy specifically was a flashpoint of The success of the revolution in Munich debate. Allan Mitchell noticed that the prompted the establishment of a republican revolution in Germany and Bavaria type of government in Bavaria. This delivered almost inverse outcomes which government was going by Kurt Eisner, compared to, from multiple points of view, who had driven the revolutionary bands on the enmity that dependably existed November 7. Eisner had been dynamic amongst Berlin and Munich. The amid the day, not just addressing the revolution in the capital delivered a extensive group at the Theresienwiese, yet revolutionary government that was ruled additionally sorting out new political by the Social Democrats, which would structures to replace the old monitor. have liked to keep up progression and Under his direction the primary Worker's, request, with the Independent Socialists in Soldier's, and Farmer's Councils (Rate) a minority position in the bureau. In were set up. The principal official Bavaria, by differentiate; the revolutionary demonstration of the high committee of government was driven by the Independent the soldiers, workers, and farmers was to Socialists with the Social Democrats out of name Kurt Eisner as the new priest leader sight. Eisner and his partners, while of Bavaria and, alongside him, the whole worried about looking after request, were bureau. They did this in spite of the way significantly keener on a total separation that the high chamber itself had been with the arrangements, and even the elites, unelected and quickly assembled. The of the past. chambers cleared into the power vacuum that had been made by the fall of Political Elites and the Creation of the customary government. It was trusted by Einwohnerwehr the individuals who made and bolstered them that the boards would progress All through the rest of 1919 the toward becoming in the expressions of one Einwohnerwehr was composed to end up a aficionado, "the fulfillment of their (the helper committed to the protection of the Proletariat's) social expectations and state, its constitution, and those state longings, which, notwithstanding supporting (staatserhaltend) elements. It democracy, have been already unfulfilled." developed to include a lot of Bavaria This was surely the objective of Eisner, however there would be cutoff points to its who contended that the chambers be given scope. These were fixing to the affiliation's a noticeable place in the new republican belief system, which was itself an government. In his view they would fill in impression of the world perspective of its as a bulwark to the parliament – a sort of leaders. Their unremitting hatred of auxiliary parliament to guarantee socialism alongside their romanticized additionally changes. perspective of Germany, and its place in

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the world, precluded certain segments of paramilitary arrangements. A great part of the populace that did not hold to the patriot the participation originated from a vision of the Einwohnerwehr. particularly working class foundation. The general population that joined Kanzler Lower Level Elites and Bavarian starting in December 1918 included: Paramilitary Organizations retailers, butchers, and tailors; men of refinement yet not extraordinary riches. A considerable lot of the nearby Bavarian right-wing groups that had taken an Arranging the Rosenheim national's interest in the suppression of the volunteer army continued gradually at Räterepublik started to shape in the first. Kanzler had wanted to develop a months following the November power of 1,000 men, arm them with revolution in Bavaria. These organizations weapons seized from a store close had a few things in like manner; they were Rosenheim, and to lead an ambush on little, exceptionally neighborhood, and Munich similarly that Bavarian laborers completely insufficient in either had done in 1705. This turned out to be an counteracting radical change or toppling overwhelming undertaking as the Eisner the new government in Munich. Be that as government and the gatherings had it may, their reality vouches for an disallowed the ownership of weapons assurance among a specific stratum of the without permit of the government. Kanzler recently uprooted political elites in Bavaria composed that he needed to "ask and take" to resuscitate their places of noticeable keeping in mind the end goal to get the quality inside the Bavarian state. weaponry required. To camouflage his exercises, he utilized his office as a The men most dynamic in shaping right- weapons terminal, enrolling his coworkers wing paramilitary organizations originated in his motivation. Making things more from the lower compasses of the Bavarian troublesome was the choice of the government and civil administration. They chamber in Rosenheim to flame the were not individuals who, before 1918, chairman and neighborhood government included the commanding statures inside councilor, individuals that Kanzler would the state, however held positions that gave have relied on for help. them some impact and enabled others to seek them for leadership. As a gathering The Bavarian Political Elite and the they were amazed by the speed with which Creation of the Einwohnerwehr the old request fell in Bavaria and anticipated that would see protection from The underlying organizations of the the new government shape. At the point patriotic movement, the different Freikorps when this did not emerge they started to and beginning Einwohnerwehr, had been sort out alone. established by men who held lower level posts in the Bavarian state and armed The procedure by which his gathering was force. While their involvement was basic composed given a model to the future both to rally support to their motivation Einwohnerwehr, in which Kanzler had a and as far as association, these units would critical influence, and in addition other not have made due for long, not to mention

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flourished, without the implied and military districts, and that the Finance dynamic investment of driving lawmakers Ministry should lead the pack in and the Bavarian Army. The political supporting the gathering. At long last, the figure most related to the movement, both members talked about various at the time and thusly by students of housekeeping things like character papers history, was Gustav von Kahr. Amid 1919 for the leadership and the sort of dress for and mid 1920 Kahr served the Hoffmann the normal member. government as provincial leader of Upper Bavaria, which included Munich and the Foundation of Bund Bayern und Reich areas toward the south and east where both The thought for the Bund Bayern und Escherich and Kanzler had their influence Reich came to fruition as the aftereffect of bases. Later on he moved toward an open deliberation between driving becoming Minister-President of Bavaria Einwohnerwehr leaders in the weeks and would remain an imperative player following the associated final proposal of concerning the patriotic movement all May 1921. A few proposition were through the period. advanced inside the association's Following this meeting establishment of leadership for how to manage the demands the Einwohnerwehr was sped up by of the Control Commission. The most Escherich, working through Kahr's office compelling of these, and the one in the and helped by both the inside and defense long run embraced, originated from vice services in Munich. Actually the two president of staff Riedel. In a offices began making controls for the memorandum he contended, "The prompt association before asked for to do as such arrangement of a mystery association from by Berlin. The Ministry of Defense set up the most genuine of the genuine should be a progression of rules for the dispersion all the while constituted and is currently as and utilization of weaponry and ammo that of now being readied." For Riedel a was coursed through the government, and clandestine paramilitary gathering given to Escherich, following the June 21 remained the main choice. Bavaria meeting. These controls were to be couldn't avoid the unified demands, in his directed by the neighborhood defense view, since open conflict would be officials, who, as noted already, were in restricted by Social Democrats and their charge of streamlining the units' exercises partners on the left, whom he accepted and ensuring the government's would go about as a fifth section in the proclamations were taken after. nation, and on the grounds that there was essentially no open help for another war The last organizational meeting was hung even among moderate and white collar on July 17, 1919. At this meeting, which class Germans. It is anything but difficult was led by Kahr, the leadership was to set up such an association, he asserted, instituted for the Einwohnerwehr. by following the cell structure of comrade Escherich turned into the state pioneer, groups. They could even keep a large while Kanzler turned into his appointee. portion of their weapons, surrendering a Moreover, it was chosen that territorial specific number to authorities to pacify the offices of the gathering should compare to partners however keeping the mass

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covertly covered up. What was required, its participation Bund Bayern und Reich as per Riedel, was a power of thirty to fifty was made out of numerous men who had thousand equipped men, upheld by a already been a piece of the old bigger element – made up of the main part Einwohnerwehr, and a couple of the of the Einwohnerwehr's previous controls that won there were proceeded in individuals – who arranged the route for Pittinger's affiliation. Individuals needed national reestablishment and would fill in to have an irreproachable notoriety. They as a hold to the more elite power. were not permitted to be individuals from radical organizations, particularly those Riedel's thoughts were embraced by the that had a place with what the leadership Bavarian leadership and brought about the called "the red universal." This Einwohnerwehr being rearranged as the incorporated the Social Democratic Party Organsation Pittinger on June 12, 1921. (SPD), whose individuals had been The new association was mystery and permitted to join the Einwohnerwehr, essentially littler than the previous however were denied from marking on to Einwohnerwehr, just being alluded to as Bayern und Reich. Moreover individuals OrgPi in official documents to keep away must not be "cynics, naggers, and routine from doubt. All around associated with the troublemakers," for these individuals were political elite of Bavaria and to the viewed as more risky than communists. significant figures of the patriotic movement, Pittinger would utilize these The Ideology of Bund Bayern und Reich contacts to help develop the Organization Pittinger and later Bund Bayern und Reich. The principle motivation behind the Bund Bayern und Reich was to help free Not at all like the Einwohnerwehr, which Germany from without and inside. In their had depicted itself as running as per regulations and a considerable lot of their democratic standards, Bayern und Reich correspondences they alluded to was substantially more dictator in its themselves as an "opportunity alliance," or determination of leaders. The leadership, Freiheitsbund. In this limit they tried to which was self chosen, named the change the nation. "Our alliance needs to provincial leaders, who at that point picked be a school for the general population, the region leaders, who at that point picked needs to join the best powers in the land, the nearby group leaders. All region and and needs to raise our young men into provincial leaders filled in as men." To accomplish their lofty neighborhood assistant leaders in objectives, Bayern und Reich invested a conjunction with the association's part as a lot of energy in effort to the youthful, save military power. Party politics was building up neighborhood youth sections taboo to all individuals in the nearby, in most Bavarian urban areas and requiring regardless of whether they were leaders or their individuals to select their youngsters not. The legitimization for such a in such organizations. They additionally restriction was, to the point that the tried to achieve German moms, whom they intermeshing of politics with the exercises saw as basic for engendering the Bund's of the gathering made conflicts of intrigue thoughts and qualities inside the family, that were difficult to overcome. As far as which was the "cornerstone of the state."

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Given a firm foundation in the family and organizations of the Working Group amid with the youthful, the radical nationalist the spring of 1923. Specifically they belief system of Bayern und Reich would disturbed illegal for the Protection of the help restore Germany. Republic and wanted to upset the conventional May Day festivities in The Constraints of Independence Munich. They were extremely open about their goal and objectives and one The open door for patriotic (vaterländisch) aftereffect of their radicalism was that it organizations like Bund Bayern und Reich alarmed the Bavarian government to the to oust democracy was presumably never genuine peril postured by Hitler and his superior to in November 1923. A time of partners. Settlement to their demands was international strife and economic crumple not feasible for the Knilling bureau. had left the Weimar Republic with couple Furthermore, authorities were genuinely of protectors. The conviction that the time undermined by different paramilitaries, was at hand stirred and radicalized the especially Bund Bayern und Reich, who patriotic movement, pushing its different wanted to push their ideological program gatherings, affiliations, and paramilitaries however were unwilling to go the course towards activity. However contrasts that Hitler planned to take. Pittinger's among the diverse groups made a planned urgings on the protected inquiry was only uprising unimaginable and safeguarded one case of the weight that decreased the that, when it happened, it was set apart by government's "space to move," and perplexity and deferral. constrained Knilling to walk a tight rope Bund Bayern und Reich's part in the Beer between the two camps. Hall Putsch was minor, best case scenario, Such an exercise in careful control turned and this mirrored the cutoff points of its out to be more troublesome through the brand of paramilitary politics. Committed span of the mid year as the government to the topple of Weimar democracy and needed to manage various dissents by the disavowal of the Treaty of Versailles, Nazis, who utilized the economic pain of Pittinger's men gotten themselves the midyear and pre-winter a very long hampered in their quest for their objectives time as a reason for exhibitions. These by the cozy relationship they had with the were hard to put down or stay silent Bavarian Reichswehr. At the point when notwithstanding the best endeavors of the that body was for the oust of the Bavarian government to quiet such government, they were similarly as readied movement. They additionally had a to walk on Berlin as the Nazis were. At the tendency to end up fierce as the Nazi point when the armed force upheld off, Stormtroopers were similarly as ready to Bund Bayern und Reich remained down. assault police and security powers as they The repercussions of that demonstration were communists. One such occasion would influence the association for quite a happened on July 14, 1923 where a long time to come. showing on Arnulfstrasse by the Nazis was The prelude to the failed overthrow saw an viciously separated by police. One expansion in radicalism by the onlooker to the occasion swore that the

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police accused the demonstrators of in Bavaria in 1921 and 1922, and he stayed swords and elastic truncheons; however near the leaders, for example, Pittinger and this was gone before by the General von Möhl, who were set up to destructiveness of the protestors who complete these. Because of these moved to inside fifty meters of police, who associations Kahr was reviewed to the had cordoned off the mail station. government on September 26, 1923, however this time in the post of General Results of the Protest State Commissioner. In this post, the previous Minister President was given The government's reaction to such virtual authoritarian powers in Bavaria incitements was progressively to take action against civil unsettling influence The activities of Bund Bayern und Reich from both the left and the right. Police and amid the Beer Hall Putsch, while dubious prosecutors were told to embrace any among the enrollment, brought advantages quantify to safeguard security and request. to the association. One of these was a In any case, even as they requested such recharging of its superior position inside measures the bureau kept on undermining the patriotic movement. In a statement their endeavors against Hitler and the discharged after the overthrow finished, Fighting League. They declined to move Kahr made exceptional note of the against the German Days sorted out by the unwaveringness of Pittinger's affiliation. patriotic movement in groups all through Bavaria. These had expanded consistently CONCLUSION and turned out to be progressively set apart by its strident suggestions. By and by the At the point when Adolf Hitler was Interior Ministry kept on being more delegated Chancellor of Germany on worried about the activities of the January 30, 1933 it denoted the communists, who had sorted out their own culmination of over a time of disturbance particular paramilitary association – the with respect to patriotic (vaterländisch) Communist One Hundreds – to exploit the organizations in Bavaria, who had would confusion of the Ruhr Crisis. have liked to see German democracy toppled since the primary stirrings of Unwilling to move against the more revolution in November 1918. The hatred radical elements of the patriotic they felt towards the Weimar Republic, movement, the government in Munich which they generally related to the chose to swing to a man who had a cozy political left and Marxism drove the working association with them, Gustav multiplication of Freikorps, paramilitaries, von Kahr. In the wake of leaving the post and political gatherings in the republic's of Minister-President in 1921 Kahr came initial years. The Einwohnerwehr and back to his past position of commonplace Bund Bayern und Reich were a basic piece legislative head of Upper Bavaria. From of this development, at various that point he kept on being vigorously circumstances, and their reality gave an engaged with right-wing politics and the institutional system by which völkisch paramilitaries. Kahr was included with a thoughts increased far reaching large number of the overthrows arranged acknowledgment. That numerous

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individuals from the Civil Guards and München. Mit einem Vorwort von Ernst Bayern und Reich discovered their way Engelberg. Schriftenreihe des Instituts für into the Nazi Party or, in any event, voted Deutsche Geschichte an der Karl-Marx- and joined associated organizations stands Universität Leipzig. Berlin: Rütten & a testament to the part such groups played Loening, 1956. in the developmental years after 1918. This investigation of the Einwohnerwehr [3] Campbell, Bruce. The S.A. and Bund Bayern und Reich has taken a Generals and the Rise of Nazism. gander at the development of each Lexington: The University Press of gathering as far as its philosophy, its Kentucky, 1998. enrollment, and exercises. Each in its own specific manner had a particular history, [4] Dreetz, Dieter, Klaus Gessner, and yet contained attributes that made it like Heinz Sperling. Bewaffnete Kämpfe in other patriotic substances. The essential Deutschland 1918-1923. Schriften des likenesses between these two paramilitary Militärgeschichtlichen Instituts der DDR. developments and the others can be found East Berlin: Militärverlag der Deutschen in its hating of Marxist Socialism in every Demokratischen Republik, 1988. one of its structures, a forceful German nationalism, doubt, if not outright hatred, [5] Erger, Johannes. Der Kapp- of parliamentary democracy, and a Lüttwitz-Putsch: Ein Beitrag zur deutschen conviction that there should have been an Innenpolitik 1919/20. Düsseldorf: Droste arrival to a prior vision of the German Verlag, 1967. state, or German culture, or to the beliefs of 1914. These real thoughts, for quite a [6] Fenske, Hans. Konservatismus und while, joined the patriotic movement and Rechtsradikalismus in Bayern nach 1918. gave it lucidness. Patriotic paramilitaries Bad Homburg: Verlag Gehlen, 1969. had different characteristics in like manner also. Most were started by men who were [7] Gilbhard, Hermann. Die Thule- a piece of the lower to center spans of the Gesellschaft: vom okkulten Bavarian state bureaucracy. These were Mummenschanz zum Hakenkreuz. individuals who, had the old regime Munich: Kiessling Verlag, 1994. proceeded past 1918, may have one day progressed to the most elevated ranges of [8] Longerich, Peter. Die braunen the state and its bureaucracy. Bataillone: Geschichte der S.A. Munich: Verlag C.H. Beck, 1989. REFERENCES [9] Merkl, Peter. H. The Making of a [1] Bessel, Richard. Political Violence Stormtrooper. Princeton: Princeton and the Rise of Nazism: The Storm University Press, 1980. Troopers in Eastern Germany, 1925-1934. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984. [10] Schade, Franz. Kurt Eisner und die bayerische Sozialdemokratie. [2] Beyer, Hans. Von der Schriftenreihe der Forschungsstelle der Novemberrevolution zur Räterepublik in Friedrich-Ebert Stiftung. Hannover:

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Verlag für Literatur und Zeitgeschehen, 1961. [12] Zimmermann, Werner Gabriel. Bayern und das Reich 1918-1923: Der [11] Tyrell, Albrecht. Vom Trommler bayerische Föderalismus zwischen zum Führer: der Wandel von Hitlers Revolution und Reaktion. Munich: Selbstverständnis Zwischen 1919 und Richard Pflaum Verlag, 1953. 1924 und der Entwicklung der NSDAP. Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1975.

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