Impacts on Other Wildlife

CONTENTS

Impacts on Other Wildlife ...... 343 Overview ...... 343 Threatened, Endangered, and Special Concern Species ...... 343 Mammals ...... 359 Birds...... 403 Amphibians ...... 425

i CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

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ii IMPACTS ON OTHER WILDLIFE

OVERVIEW dance of these species and the ecosystems on which they depend. The project area is home to a variety of wildlife and considered to be part of the most ecologically intact ecosystem in the lower 48 states. Bison and METHODOLOGY USED TO ANALYZE EFFECTS elk serve as food sources for predators and scav- The process for assessing impacts to threatened, engers and compete for habitat with other ungu- endangered, and sensitive species is essentially lates. They could also alter the natural environ- the same as that for other wildlife, except it is ment in ways that could either compromise or im- focused on the species that have been identified. prove another species’ ability to survive. Bison The following impact intensities include what the and elk management could impact other wildlife effect would be under section 7 of the Endangered species, and, therefore, the effects of the alterna- Species Act. tives on threatened and endangered species; other ungulates; predators and scavengers; small mam- • Negligible — Sensitive species would not be mals; large rodents; Neotropical migratory birds; affected, or the effects would be at or below gallinaceous birds; waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, the level of detection. and cranes; and amphibians are analyzed below. A negligible effect would equate with a “no effect” determination under section 7 of the Endangered Species Act regulations for THREATENED, ENDANGERED, AND threatened or endangered species. SPECIAL CONCERN SPECIES • Minor — Impacts to sensitive species would be perceptible or measurable, but the sever- The Endangered Species Act (16 USC 1531 et ity and timing of changes to parameter seq.) defines the terms and conditions of the fed- measurements are not expected to be outside eral status of species in a wildlife refuge or park natural variability and are not expected to and requires an examination of impacts on all spe- have effects on populations of sensitive species federally listed or proposed for listing, and cies. Impacts would be outside critical peri- designated critical habitats for threatened or en- ods. dangered species. In compliance with section 7 of A minor effect would equate with a determi- the Endangered Species Act, personnel from the nation of “not likely to adversely affect” un- National Elk Refuge and Grand Teton National der section 7 of the Endangered Species Act Park are working with the U. S. Fish and Wildlife regulations for threatened or endangered Service’s Wyoming field office to prepare a bio- species. logical evaluation of the effects of the preferred alternative on threatened and endangered spe- • Moderate — Impacts to sensitive species cies. That document will not be completed until a would be perceptible and measurable, and final preferred alternative has been selected after the severity and timing of changes to pa- the comment period closes for the draft environ- rameter measurements are expected to be mental impact statement. that document will be sometimes outside natural variability, and the official determination of effects on species and changes within natural variability might be will be incorporated by reference into the final long term. Populations of sensitive species environmental impact statement. might have small to moderate declines, but they are expected to rebound to pre-impact Both the U.S. fish and Wildlife Service and the numbers. No species would be at risk of be- National Park Service are required by their poli- ing extirpated from an area. Some impacts cies to consider potential effects of actions on might occur during key time periods. state or locally listed species. Both agencies are to A moderate effect would in most cases perpetuate the natural distribution and abun- equate with a determination of “likely to ad-

343 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

versely effect” under section 7 of the Endan- in the Jackson elk or bison herd would be greatest gered Species Act regulations for threatened under Alternative 1, followed by Alternatives 5, 4, or endangered species. 3, with the least risk under Alternatives 2 and 6 (approximate equal risk) (HaydenWing and Olson • Major — Impacts to sensitive species would 2003). The severity of impacts that could poten- be measurable, and the severity and timing tially result from the establishment of chronic of changes to parameter measurements are wasting disease in the Jackson Hole area would be expected to be outside natural variability for greatest under Alternatives 1 and 5 (approxi- long periods of time or even be permanent; mately equal risk), followed by Alternatives 4 and changes within natural variability might be 3, with the least risk under Alternatives 2 and 6 long term or permanent. Populations of sen- (approximate equal risk). sitive species might have large declines, with population numbers significantly depressed. Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles would not In extreme cases, a species might be at risk be impacted by contracting paratuberculosis, bru- of being extirpated from an area, key ecosys- cellosis, or chronic wasting disease under any of tem processes like nutrient cycling might be the alternatives because they are not known to be disrupted, or habitat for any species might be susceptible to these diseases (Williams 2001; rendered not functional. Substantive impacts Thorne et al. 1982). would occur during key time periods. Im- pacts would be long term to permanent. If bovine tuberculosis became established in the A major effect would equate with an “ad- Jackson Hole area, wolves and grizzly bears could versely affect with/without a jeopardy opin- contract the disease from elk and bison. Although ion” under section 7 of the Endangered Spe- individual animals could develop symptoms and cies Act regulations. die, they would not be able to sustain the disease and pass it along to other members of their species (Roffe, pers. comm. 2002). There are no IMPACTS ON GRAY WOLVES, GRIZZLY BEARS, documented cases of predator or scavenger spe- AND BALD EAGLES cies in North America maintaining the disease within their populations (Clifton-Hadley et al. Impacts of the Alternatives 2001). Impacts Common to All Alternatives Wolf and grizzly bear populations are not likely to Disease Impacts — Elk and bison make up a sub- be impacted by bovine tuberculosis in the short stantial portion of the prey base for wolves in term (Roffe, pers. comm. 2003). In the long term Jackson Hole and a portion of the prey base for the risk for transmission of this disease from elk grizzly bears and bald eagles. or bison to wolves and grizzly bears would continue to increase over time, as prevalence in elk If a new disease (e.g., bovine tuberculosis, bovine and bison and the number of symptomatic cases paratuberculosis, or chronic wasting disease) was increased. Those alternatives with the highest introduced into the Jackson Hole area and re- concentrations of animals (Alternatives 1, 5, and 4, duced elk and/or bison numbers by a moderate to in that order) would have the greatest risk of major amount, wolves, grizzly bears, and bald ea- negatively impacting wolves and grizzly bears. gles in general could benefit in the short term due to more vulnerable prey and more carcasses Human Disturbance — Bald eagles are often pre- available for scavenging. In the long term wolves, sent on the refuge feedgrounds, and in 1999 grizzly bears, and bald eagles could be negatively wolves also were often present on the feed- impacted due to a decrease in the numbers of grounds. Wolves have been less visible in recent available prey. The risk of this happening would years, but they are occasionally seen in the vicin- increase under Alternatives with high concentra- ity. The feeding program does not appear to dis- tions of animals. turb predators and scavengers, but it appears to indirectly attract them as a result of large concen- The severity of impacts that could result from the trations of elk and bison. Animals new to the establishment of tuberculosis or paratuberculosis feeding operations could be wary at first, but they

344 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Threatened, Endangered, and Special Concern Species seem to quickly habituate. Therefore, manage- Jackson Hole, the Green River basin, and the Red ment activities associated with the supplemental Desert would not be affected or would be affected feeding program for elk and bison under all alter- to a negligible degree by actions that are being natives in the short term and under Alternatives considered in this planning process. However, 1, 3, 4, and 5 in the long term would have negligi- Alternatives 2 and 3 and possibly 6 could result in ble effects on threatened and endangered species. elk spending more time on federal lands in Jack- Gradually phasing out supplemental feeding un- son Hole or migrating to the Green River basin. der Alternatives 2 and 6 would eventually elimi- Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles in these nate any possible disturbance effects of activities areas could benefit from more available prey and associated with winter feeding. carrion.

Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles would not Alternative 1 be negatively impacted or would be impacted to a negligible degree by activities associated with elk Analysis and bison hunting under all alternatives except 2. Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles could po- Hunters walking and horseback riding through tentially benefit from the growing bison popula- the hunt zones and rifles being fired in the north- tion because more animals could be dispersed out- ern portion of the refuge and on the eastern side side the park and the refuge onto the national for- of the park could disturb wolves, grizzly bears, est and private lands, making them available for and bald eagles in the immediate area of each hunting. If increasing bison numbers posed a hunting party for a short time. Impacts on popula- threat to human safety or property and were re- tions of threatened species would be negligible. moved by government authorities, the resulting Eliminating hunting under Alternative 2 would gut piles and carcasses could benefit bald eagles, remove any associated disturbance on wolves, grizzly bears, and wolves by providing more food. grizzly bears, and bald eagles. This situation could also lure grizzly bears and wolves closer to humans in and around Jackson Farming and irrigation management practices on Hole, resulting in increased human-caused mor- the refuge in all alternatives and restoring agri- tality of these species, but the effect on the popu- cultural lands to native vegetation in the park un- lation would be negligible. der Alternatives 2–6 could disturb wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles, but the effects would be Grizzly bears would continue to benefit by prey- negligible. ing on elk calves in the spring, and bald eagles and grizzly bears would continue to scavenge elk car- Eliminating farming and irrigation practices un- casses opportunistically. Since the numbers of elk der Alternative 2 and Option B of Alternative 3 on would remain similar to baseline conditions, griz- the refuge would reduce human disturbance on zly bears and bald eagles would not be impacted the southern part of the refuge. The benefits to by elk management under Alternative 1 any more wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles would be than they have been affected in the recent past. negligible because the negative impacts of farming and irrigation on these species are considered The herd objective of approximately 11,000 elk negligible. would be enough to sustain any foreseeable numbers of wolves that would inhabit the Jackson Hunting Risks to Grizzly Bears — As the grizzly Hole area. (See text box for calculations of num- bear population continues to expand southward, ber of elk necessary to feed 30–60 wolves.) the risk of conflicts between hunters and grizzlies would increase and could result in increased mor- No grizzly bears are known to have been killed by tality for bears and hunters under Alternatives 1, elk hunters on the National Elk Refuge or in 3, 4, 5, and 6, which would continue hunting on the Grand Teton National Park. The risk of hunters refuge and, when necessary, an elk reduction pro- killing grizzly bears while elk hunting under Al- gram in the park. ternative 1 would be similar to baseline conditions. The risk of bear/human conflicts would con- Other Lands — Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald tinue in all areas open to hunting. eagles on other federal lands and private lands in

345 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Nutritional Needs of Wolves There is currently one wolf pack in the Daily wolf consumption rates vary still consume an average of 10 pounds of Jackson Hole area and the Gros Ventre from 6 to14 pounds per animal, with an meat per day (Jimenez, pers. comm. drainage, with approximately 16–18 average of 10 pounds per day (Boyce and 2003). wolves. Four wolf packs would be the Guillard 1992). Nutritional needs depend The average weight of an elk (in- maximum number of packs that could on the season, with greater nutrient cluding the weight of bulls, cows, and biologically occur in this area (Kaminski, requirements in winter. Also, hunts in calves) is 400 pounds, 10% of which is pers. comm. 2003; Jimenez, pers. comm. winter are likely to be more successful inedible (B. Smith, pers. comm. 2003). 2003). In areas where livestock are due to deep snow levels and poorer con- The following calculation estimates the raised, wolves sometimes come into dition of prey species. Little is known maximum number of elk kills necessary conflict with ranchers due to depreda- about kill rates in the summer, but for wolves to survive for a year: tions, and wolf numbers are kept low by wolves appear to select various prey 10 pounds meat / wolf / day × 90% of agencies or as a result of shooting by species throughout the year, depending kills × number of wolves × 365 days = ranchers. It is unlikely that in the Jackson on availability. In Montana researchers pounds of elk meat / wolf / year ÷ 400 Hole and Gros Ventre areas wolf num- found that wolf scat in the summer con- pounds x 110% (to include inedible bers would grow much beyond 30 wolves tained deer, bighorn sheep, and prong- parts of an elk carcass) = number of elk (two to three packs) due to these con- horn remains, while in the winter it con- killed / year. flicts (Jimenez, pers. comm. 2003). The tained primarily elk (Jimenez, pers. An estimated maximum of 271 elk per following analysis uses four packs with a comm. 2003). During the winter on the year, or 2% of the Jackson elk herd when total of 60 wolves as a maximum number northern range of Yellowstone, approxi- it is at 11,000, would be more than suffi- for the sake of calculating elk consump- mately 90% of the wolf kills were elk cient to maintain a wolf population of 30 tion rates. However, this number would (Mech et al. 2001); available information animals. An estimated maximum of 542 be unlikely to inhabit the Jackson Hole indicates that summer kill rates on elk elk, or 5% of the Jackson elk herd at a and Gros Ventre areas with current hu- are less. Multiple wolf prey makes it population of 11,000, would be sufficient man population numbers and livestock difficult to calculate how many elk a wolf to maintain a wolf population of four operations. pack could take in a year, since at certain packs with a total of 60 wolves. times they could be taking few elk but

Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles would be Conclusion positively affected in years with high numbers of Compared to baseline conditions, wolves, grizzly bison and elk and negatively affected in years bears, and bald eagles on the refuge and in the with low numbers. This would be particularly true park could benefit negligibly from increased natu- in the park, where elk numbers could fall as low as ral mortality of growing numbers of bison. These 600 in some years. species would not be affected by elk numbers and distribution any more than they have been in the In some years, fewer elk and bison under Alterna- recent past. Overall, impacts in the long term tive 2 could negatively impact grizzly bears, bald would be similar to baseline conditions. This al- eagles, and wolves. However, the winter mortal- ternative would not result in the impairment of ity of the elk and bison on the refuge and state wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles in the park. feedgrounds is currently artificially low because of supplemental feeding. At present, the most important mortality factor is hunting. Under Alter- Alternative 2 native 2, increased winter mortality during above Analysis average and severe winters would replace to some degree the elimination of hunting. Therefore, Under Alternative 2 annual winter mortality for more carcasses would be available to scavengers elk is estimated to range between 1% and 20% during above-average and severe winters be- (rarely). Higher winter and early spring mortality cause, although there could be fewer elk and bison in elk and bison, while making more carcasses on average, more would die in these winters. available for scavenging by wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles in the short term, could also in- Not allowing hunting on the refuge or the elk herd crease the risks of conflicts among these preda- reduction program in the park would eliminate tors and with humans.

346 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Threatened, Endangered, and Special Concern Species gut piles, other carcass remains left by hunters, the Gros Ventre would end sometime in the fu- and wounded elk not retrieved by hunters. Con- ture), there could be fewer prey animals for flicts between hunters and grizzly bears would not wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles in the Jack- occur under this alternative because hunting on son Hole area compared to baseline conditions and the refuge and the elk reduction program in the Alternative 1. However, elk would remain in the park would be discontinued. Grizzly bears could Gros Ventre, Buffalo Valley, and other areas of be negatively impacted by the reduction in gut Jackson Hole that contain winter range. There- piles and other carcass remains, which can be a fore, wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles could rich source of protein and fat for bears that are be negatively affected, but only to negligible de- preparing for hibernation. Migrating bald eagles gree compared to baseline conditions and Alterna- that stop at the refuge in the fall to feed on gut tive 1. Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles in piles left from hunting could also be negatively the Green River basin and the Red Desert would impacted. benefit but only to a negligible degree due to the larger number of wintering ungulates and in- The estimated lower numbers of elk and bison creased number of carcasses. under Alternative 2 would still be sufficient to feed any foreseeable number of wolves that could Impacts of bison fertility control would likely have inhabit Jackson Hole (see calculations under Al- negligible impacts on wolves and bald eagles on ternative 1). Furthermore, in hard winters, elk the refuge. If fertility control was carried out in would be in poorer condition and easier to prey the park, wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles upon. could be temporarily disturbed to a negligible degree by biologists walking through various habi- In recent winters wolves in the Jackson Hole area tats and shooting dart guns. However, their sur- have not spent much time on the National Elk vival and reproduction would not be affected. Refuge, preferring to hunt in the Gros Ventre River drainage and concentrating on the WGFD As described under Alternative 1, wolf, grizzly feedgrounds. If the Wyoming Game and Fish De- bear, and bald eagle populations in Jackson Hole partment continued feeding operations in the would not be affected or would be affected to a Gros Ventre drainage, wolves could continue to negligible degree by contracting bovine tubercu- spend much of their time in the winter hunting elk losis (Roffe, pers. comm. 2003). There would be a concentrated on these feedgrounds and might not moderate reduction in potential for transmission be affected by the phaseout on the refuge. of bovine tuberculosis from elk and bison to wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles under Al- Although overall numbers of elk and bison could ternative 2 compared to Alternative 1 due to be lower than under Alternative 1, grizzly bears lower prevalence in elk and bison. could benefit from more of these ungulates being on native winter range rather than concentrated Biochemical contraceptives approved for use in on the refuge. Carcasses on the refuge are usually free-ranging wildlife do not enter the food chain entirely consumed within 24–48 hours, leaving and therefore would have no negative effects on nothing for grizzly bears to scavenge in the wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles. spring. More elk on native winter range could mean that more winter-killed elk would be avail- There would be no hunting on the refuge or the able as carcasses in the spring for grizzly bears. park under Alternative 2, with no risk of elk or However, grizzly bears could be negatively af- bison hunters killing grizzly bears. fected by fewer calves available for predation in the spring and summer. If grizzly bears turned to Conclusion livestock due to fewer elk calves in the spring, more bears could potentially be killed by govern- Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles would ment authorities and ranchers. benefit in years of high elk and bison mortality on the refuge and in the park and could be negatively In the long term, if large numbers of elk migrated affected in mild years after the elk and bison herd to the Green River basin and the Red Desert in had declined in numbers compared to Alternative the winter (assuming that supplemental feeding in 1. Although the overall impacts on wolves, grizzly

347 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

bears, and bald eagles could be negative, the in- in the winter hunting elk concentrated on these tensity would be no more than negligible to minor. feedgrounds. Therefore, wolves might not be af- This alternative would not result in the impair- fected by the reduction in elk feeding programs on ment of wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles in the refuge. the park. Even though overall numbers of elk could be lower in some years, grizzly bears could benefit Alternative 3 from more of these ungulates being on native win- Analysis ter range rather than concentrated on the refuge. This could mean that more winter-killed elk and In some years fewer elk under Alternative 3 could bison would be available as carcasses in the spring negatively affect scavengers, such as bald eagles for grizzly bears. Grizzly bears could also be nega- and grizzly bears. Gut piles and other carcass re- tively impacted by the reduction in elk numbers mains and wounded animals not retrieved by to 500–1,000 in the park, which would result in hunters would provide scavengers with food in fewer elk calves as potential prey in the spring. If the fall/winter because elk and elk hunting would bears turned to livestock as a result of fewer elk be carried out on the refuge and in the national calves, more bears could potentially be killed by forest, and the elk reduction program would take government authorities and ranchers. place in the park. This food source would increase in the short term on the refuge and in the park as If large numbers of elk migrated in the long term hunting was increased to reduce the Grand Teton to the Green River basin and the Red Desert in elk herd segment. While providing threatened the winter (assuming that feeding in the Gros scavenger species with additional food, the in- Ventre would end sometime in the future), there crease in gut piles could increase conflict between could be fewer prey animals for wolves, grizzly grizzly bears and humans, resulting in increased bears, and bald eagles in the Jackson Hole area bear mortality. In the long term, gut piles would compared to baseline conditions and Alternative decline due to far fewer elk being harvested on 1. However many elk would remain in the Gros the refuge and in the park. Ventre, Buffalo Valley, and other areas of Jackson Hole that contain winter range. Therefore, Compared to Alternative 1, scavengers could be wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles could be negatively impacted because the bison population negatively affected, but only to a negligible de- would not be allowed to grow without limit under gree compared to baseline conditions and Alterna- Alternative 3, resulting in fewer bison carcasses tive 1. Scavengers in the Green River basin and to scavenge. However, during the hunting season the Red Desert would benefit, but only to a negli- there could be more gut piles on the refuge and gible degree due to the larger number of winter- since supplemental feeding would occur only in ing ungulates and more carcasses. severe winters and there could be more winter- killed elk and bison throughout Jackson Hole in Effects of disturbance to wolves, grizzly bears, non-feeding years. and bald eagles due to elk and bison brucellosis vaccination would be negligible and temporary. The estimated lower numbers of elk under Alter- native 3 would still be sufficient to feed any fore- As described under Alternative 1, wolf, grizzly seeable number of wolves that could inhabit Jack- bear, and bald eagle populations in Jackson Hole son Hole (see calculations in text box in Effects of would not be affected or would be affected to a Alternative 1). negligible degree by bovine tuberculosis (Roffe, pers. comm. 2003). There would be a moderate In recent winters wolves in the Jackson Hole area reduction in the potential for transmission of this have not spent much time on the National Elk disease from elk and bison to wolves, grizzly Refuge, preferring to hunt in the Gros Ventre bears, and bald eagles under Alternative 3 com- River drainage, concentrating on state feed- pared to Alternative 1 due to reduced prevalence. grounds. If the Wyoming Game and Fish Depart- However, the potential for transmission from bi- ment continued to feed in the Gros Ventre drain- son would be slightly higher than under Alterna- age, wolves would likely spend much of their time

348 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Threatened, Endangered, and Special Concern Species tive 2 because more bison would be present in the Alternative 1; therefore, a larger number of elk herd. would be subject to higher winter mortality. Griz- zly bears could benefit if more winter-killed elk Compared to baseline conditions and Alternative and bison died in areas accessible to bears after 1, there would be a decreased risk for hunters they emerged from hibernation in the spring. killing grizzly bears on the National Elk Refuge. Although there would be both an elk hunt and a In years with no supplemental feeding, the vul- bison hunt, fewer elk would be coming to the ref- nerability and mortality of elk and bison on the uge in the long term, and therefore fewer hunters. refuge could be higher, and wolves, grizzly bears, Grizzly bears would also have to begin to frequent and bald eagles could benefit compared to baseline the refuge in the future in order for there to be conditions and Alternative 1. any risk. Scavenging wolves, grizzly bears and bald eagles In the park the risk of hunters killing grizzly would benefit in the short term as relatively large bears would be much less than under baseline numbers of bison were killed to bring numbers conditions and Alternative 1 because the Grand down from an estimated 800–1,000 (at the signing Teton elk herd segment would be smaller, so the of the record of decision) to 450–500. Hunters elk reduction program would likely be changed as would leave numerous gut piles on the refuge and a result and fewer hunters would be deputized. In the national forest in the first few years as the some years, it might not be necessary to have a herd was being reduced. While providing more hunt, in which case the risk of killing grizzly bears food for threatened species, more gut piles on the would be zero. refuge could increase conflict between grizzly bears and humans, which could increase grizzly bear mortality. In the long term, compared to Al- Conclusion ternative 1, scavengers would still benefit but to a Most wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles on the lesser degree because fewer bison would be in the refuge and in the park would benefit in years of herd and fewer would need to be harvested, leav- high elk and bison mortality and could be nega- ing fewer gut piles. Furthermore fewer bison tively affected in mild years after the elk and bi- would be destroyed on private lands. son herds had declined in numbers compared to Alternative 1. However, grizzly bears could bene- Effects of disturbance to wolves, grizzly bears, fit from elk and bison being more distributed over and bald eagles due to brucellosis vaccination the landscape and suffering higher winter mor- would be similar to the effects of the feeding pro- tality. Although the overall impacts on wolves, gram and would be negligible and temporary. grizzly bears, and bald eagles could be negative, the intensity would be no more than negligible to As described under Alternative 1, wolf, grizzly minor. This alternative would not result in the bear, and bald eagle populations in Jackson Hole impairment of wolves, grizzly bears, or bald ea- would not be affected or would be affected to a gles in the park. negligible degree by bovine tuberculosis (Roffe, pers. comm. 2003). There would be a negligible to minor reduction in potential for transmission of Alternative 4 bovine tuberculosis from elk or bison to wolves, Analysis grizzly bears, and bald eagles under Alternative 4 due to decreased prevalence. During the estimated 4–5 out of 10 winters that elk would be supplementally fed on the National Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles that con- Elk Refuge, the effects of Alternative 4 on most sume elk would be exposed to brucellosis vaccine, wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles with regard Strain 19. No clinical trials have been conducted to elk as a prey species would probably be similar to determine if this vaccine is safe for non-target to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. species. However, Cook and Rhyan (2002) noted, “Field experience suggests that S19 is safe in An estimated 2,000 more elk could be using native many species of non-target wildlife.” The Wyo- winter range compared to baseline conditions and ming Game and Fish Department (2002b) noted

349 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES that “no disease or other problem attributable to wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles would be the vaccine was seen in elk or other species,” as a similar to Alternative 1. This alternative would result of vaccinating 23,640 elk from 1985 through not result in the impairment of wolves, grizzly 1995. Strain 19 has also been used on WGFD bears, or bald eagles in the park. feedgrounds for 17 years, and no disease in non- target species has been observed. Species that Alternative 5 had the greatest potential of being exposed include bears and many scavenging species of birds Analysis (Rhyan and Cook 2002). Therefore, Strain 19 The short- and long-term effects of elk numbers would not be expected to have any negative ef- and distribution on wolves, grizzly bears, and bald fects on wolves, grizzly bears, or bald eagles in the eagles would be similar to the effects of baseline short or long term. conditions and Alternative 1 with regard to elk as a prey species. Scavenging wolves, grizzly bears, Numerous studies indicate that RB51 does not and bald eagles would benefit in the short term as effect nontarget species (Kreeger 2002). Species relatively large numbers of bison were killed to tested include deer mice, ground squirrels, voles bring numbers down from an estimated 800–1,000 ravens, coyotes, dogs, and black bears. Therefore, (at the signing of the record of decision) to 400. RB51 would not be expected to have any negative Hunters would leave numerous gut piles on the effects on predators or scavengers in the short or refuge and in the national forest in the first few long term. years as the herd was being reduced. While providing more food for threatened species, more gut The potential for elk and bison hunters killing piles on the refuge could increase conflict between grizzly bears on the National Elk Refuge would grizzly bears and humans, which could increase be less by a major amount compared to baseline grizzly bear mortality. In the long term, compared conditions and less by a moderate amount com- to Alternative 1, these threatened species would pared to Alternative 1 because fewer elk would be still benefit but to a lesser degree because fewer on the refuge in the long term. There would also bison would be in the herd and fewer would need be a bison hunt on the refuge, but in the long term to be harvested, leaving fewer gut piles. Fur- the numbers of animals that would be killed annu- thermore fewer would be destroyed on private ally would be relatively small. This potential risk lands. assumes that in the future grizzly bears would begin to frequent the National Elk Refuge. Effects of disturbance to wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles due to brucellosis vaccination In Grand Teton National Park, the potential risk would be similar to the effects of the feeding pro- of deputized elk hunters killing grizzly bears gram, which are negligible and temporary. would be less by a major amount compared to baseline conditions and less by a moderate amount Strain 19 and RB51 would not be expected to have compared to Alternative 1 because there would be any negative affects on wolves, grizzly bears, and fewer elk in the park and the elk reduction pro- bald eagles in the short and long terms, as dis- gram would likely be changed as a result. cussed for Alternative 4.

Conclusion The potential for elk and bison hunters to kill grizzly bears on the National Elk Refuge would Most wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles on the be less by a moderate amount compared to base- refuge and in the park would benefit due to higher line conditions and less by a minor amount com- elk and bison mortality and wider distribution of pared to Alternative 1 because there would be carcasses during years when the refuge did not fewer hunters in the field. There would also be a feed. Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles could bison hunt on the refuge, but in the long term the benefit by a negligible amount due to higher elk numbers of bison that would be killed annually mortality rates. Grizzly bears, which do not nor- would be relatively small. This potential risk as- mally occur on the refuge, would benefit from sumes that in the future grizzly bears would begin wider distribution of winter-killed elk and bison. During supplemental feeding years, the effects on

350 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Threatened, Endangered, and Special Concern Species to occur on the National Elk Refuge more fre- also result in fewer elk calves for grizzly bears to quently. prey on in the spring. If bears turned to livestock as a result of fewer elk calves in the spring, more In Grand Teton National Park the potential risk bears could potentially be killed by government for deputized elk hunters to kill grizzly bears authorities and ranchers. would be less by a moderate amount compared to baseline conditions and less by a minor amount As numbers of elk decreased on the refuge and in compared to Alternative 1 because there would be the park in the long term, the number of elk killed fewer elk in the park and the elk reduction pro- during the hunting season would also decrease; gram would likely be changed as a result. therefore, available gut piles and other carcass remains would decline. Bison hunting would initially provide many gut piles for scavengers, but Conclusion as the bison herd was reduced to the objective of With regard to elk numbers and distribution, the an estimated 400 post-hunt, the number of gut effects on wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles piles available each hunting season on the refuge on the refuge and in the park would be similar to would be much less. Scavenging wolves, grizzly the effects of Alternative 1. Scavenging wolves, bears, and bald eagles would benefit in the short grizzly bears, and bald eagles would greatly bene- term. While providing more food for threatened fit in the short term from gut piles left by hunters species, more gut piles on the refuge could in- as bison numbers were reduced from 800–1,000 crease conflict between grizzly bears and humans, animals to 400. While providing more food for which could increase grizzly bear mortality. In the threatened species, more gut piles on the refuge long term these threatened species would be could increase conflict between grizzly bears and negatively affected by a major amount due to humans, which could increase grizzly bear mor- fewer gut piles and other remains compared to tality. Scavenging threatened species would con- baseline conditions and Alternative 1. tinue to benefit in the long term from the bison hunt but to a lesser degree because fewer animals Alternative 6 would not deter elk and bison would be killed. Overall impacts on wolves, grizzly hunting in Bridger-Teton National Forest. How- bears, and bald eagles in the long term would be ever, hunting opportunities and the resulting gut similar to Alternative 1. This alternative would piles would fluctuate as elk herd numbers varied. not result in the impairment of wolves, grizzly Compared to baseline conditions and Alternative bears, or bald eagles in the park. 1, the number of gut piles and other remains would be moderately higher when the elk herd was at the 11,000 objective because as the Grand Alternative 6 Teton herd segment decreases, the Teton Wilder- Analysis ness herd segment would represent a greater proportion of the herd. After hard years, when In some years fewer and more widely distributed the elk herd numbers could fall to an estimated elk and bison under Alternative 6 could negatively 8,100, the number of gut piles would be moder- affect wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles. ately reduced because hunting would be reduced However, grizzly bears do not normally occur on to allow the elk herd to rebound. Therefore, in the refuge, and therefore, carcasses that are more some years scavenging threatened species would distributed across the landscape would be a po- benefit by a moderate amount from more gut piles tential benefit for bears. In hard winters, scaven- and other remains compared to baseline condi- gers both on and off the refuge would benefit by tions and Alternative 1. However, more gut piles the larger number of winter-killed elk and bison could increase grizzly bear mortality as a result of because the winter mortality rate would no longer conflicts with hunters. In years when the elk herd be kept artificially low by supplemental feeding. was below objective, scavengers would be negatively affected by a moderate to major amount Possible benefits of changes in carcass availability due to fewer available gut piles. could be offset to an unknown extent by periodic reductions in elk numbers to an estimated 1,200– Gut piles would increase in Grand Teton National 1,600 in the park. Fewer elk in the park would Park and the refuge in the short term while elk

351 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES numbers were being reduced, but would eventu- areas of Jackson Hole that contain winter range. ally decrease by a major amount in the long term. Therefore wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles If the grizzly bear population expanded south- could be negatively affected, but only to a negligi- ward, bears could increase their use of gut piles ble degree compared to baseline conditions and and other remains compared to current conditions Alternative 1. Wolves, grizzly bears, and bald ea- since they do not now use gut piles on the refuge gles in areas outside the Jackson Hole area could or the southern part of the park. In the long term, benefit but only to a negligible degree due to more whatever use grizzly bears could make of gut piles wintering ungulates in these areas. and carcass remains would be less by a major amount under Alternative 6 than it would be un- If grizzly bears continued to expand their range der baseline conditions and Alternative 1 due to southward and individual bears began to frequent fewer elk on the refuge and in the park. the National Elk Refuge, the risk of hunters killing grizzly bears compared to current conditions While grizzly bears and bald eagles depend on a could increase because no grizzly bears have been variety of food sources, with elk and bison car- seen on the refuge in more than a decade. Com- casses and/or calves serving as rich fat and pro- pared to Alternative 1, the short-term risk of tein sources, wolves in the Jackson Hole area rely killing grizzly bears might also increase if grizzly on large ungulates for most of their sustenance. bears began inhabiting the refuge because elk Major reductions in elk numbers could have nega- harvest levels would increase in order to bring the tive impacts on wolf populations if other ungulates Grand Teton elk herd segment down, so more were not numerous enough to provide an alter- hunters would be in the field. In the long term the nate food source. risk of killing grizzly bears could decrease because even though there would be both an elk hunt and The estimated lower numbers of elk in some years a bison hunt, fewer elk would be coming to the under Alternative 6 would still be sufficient to refuge and potentially fewer hunters would ac- feed the foreseeable numbers of wolves that could quire permits. inhabit Jackson Hole. (See calculations in text box in Alternative 1.) Lower elk numbers would pri- In the park the risk of deputized elk hunters kill- marily occur in the park, which could limit further ing grizzly bears would be higher in the short expansion of wolves in the park. term compared to baseline conditions and Alter- native 1 due to a higher harvest rate to bring the Until recently, wolves in the Jackson Hole area Grand Teton elk herd segment down to 1,200– have not spent much time on the National Elk 1,600 elk. In the long term the risk of killing Refuge, preferring to hunt in the Gros Ventre grizzly bears would be lower than Alternative 1 River drainage and focusing on the WGFD feed- because the park elk herd segment would be grounds. Since the Wyoming Game and Fish De- smaller and the elk reduction program would partment would likely continue to feed in the Gros likely be changed as a result. Ventre drainage, wolves could continue to spend much of their time in the winter hunting elk con- Conclusion centrated on these feedgrounds. Therefore, wolves might not be affected by the elimination of Most wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles on the feeding on the refuge. refuge and in the park would benefit in years of high elk and bison mortality and could be nega- If large numbers of elk migrated outside the Jack- tively affected in mild years after the elk and bison Hole area in the winter (assuming that feed- son herds had declined in numbers compared to ing in the Gros Ventre would end sometime in the Alternative 1. Although the overall impacts on future), fewer elk and bison would die on native wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles could be winter range in the Jackson Hole area. Therefore negative, the intensity would be no more than less food would be available for wolves, grizzly negligible to minor. Grizzly bears could benefit bears, and bald eagles compared to a situation in from elk and bison being more distributed over which most elk remained in the Jackson Hole the landscape and suffering higher winter mor- area. However, many elk would remain in the tality. This alternative would not result in the im Gros Ventre drainage, Buffalo Valley, and other

352 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Threatened, Endangered, and Special Concern Species pairment of wolves, grizzly bears, and bald eagles Alternative 1 in the park. Analysis Yellow-billed cuckoos could be negatively affected Mitigation on the refuge in the short and long terms under Mitigation measures would not be necessary. Alternative 1 by a decline in the amount and condition of cottonwood and willow habitats. Heavy browsing by large numbers of elk and growing YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO numbers of bison would continue to reduce under- Yellow-billed cuckoos, a candidate species, require story plants and prevent regeneration of cotton- woody riparian habitat with dense understory. wood and willow plants, resulting in a loss of an Although the cuckoo has rarely been observed in estimated 50 acres of willow habitat and an esti- the Jackson Hole area, changes in riparian and mated 220 acres of cottonwood habitat. Also, an aspen woodland habitats could potentially affect estimated 1,450 acres of suppressed willow plants the western population of this species. would not recover on the southern part of the refuge and would eventually disappear.

Impacts of the Alternatives In the park and the national forest some areas of Impacts Common to All Alternatives woody riparian habitat that could be yellow-billed cuckoo habitat would be negatively affected by Yellow-billed cuckoos would not be adversely im- large numbers of elk and growing numbers of bi- pacted by management activities associated with son browsing, trampling, and rubbing. the supplemental feeding program for elk and bison under Alternatives 1, 3, 4, and 5. Supplemen- Potential yellow-billed cuckoo habitat on other tal feeding would be phased out under Alternative federal and state lands and private lands would 2, Option B of Alternative 3, and Alternative 6. not be affected by actions being considered under During the phaseout period, management activi- Alternative 1 any differently than they have been ties associated with supplemental feeding would affected in the recent past. not adversely impact yellow-billed cuckoos because supplemental feeding occurs during winter Conclusion when they would have migrated to their winter feeding grounds. Yellow-billed cuckoos on the refuge and in the park could potentially be negatively affected due To the extent that yellow-billed cuckoos nest on to a loss of acreage and a decline in the condition or migrate through the refuge and the park, they of woody riparian habitat compared to baseline would likely not be adversely impacted by activi- conditions. This alternative would not result in ties associated with elk and bison hunting in all the impairment of yellow-billed cuckoos in the alternatives except 2 because they would have park. migrated out of the area by the time hunting occurred. Alternative 2 Yellow-billed cuckoos would not be adversely im- Analysis pacted by management activities associated with Yellow-billed cuckoos could potentially be nega- a brucellosis vaccination program for elk and bi- tively affected on the refuge in the short and long son under Alternatives 3, 4, and 5 because this terms under Alternative 2 due to the continued would happen in winter when cuckoos would have decline in the amount and condition of woody ri- already migrated. parian habitats. Heavy browsing by elk and bison would continue to reduce understory plants and prevent regeneration of cottonwood and willow trees, resulting in a loss of an estimated 150–230 acres of willow and cottonwood habitat. In addition, an estimated 1,400 acres of suppressed wil-

353 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES low plants would not recover and would eventu- Conclusion ally disappear from the southern part of the ref- Yellow-billed cuckoos on the refuge could poten- uge. Compared to Alternative 1, yellow-billed tially benefit under Alternative 2 due to less habi- cuckoos under Alternative 2 would be positively tat being lost and a smaller decline in the condi- impacted in the short and long terms due to an tion of woody riparian habitat compared to Alter- estimated 40–150 more acres of habitat, but the native 1. However, the effects would likely be effects would likely be negligible. negligible. In the park, yellow-billed cuckoos could benefit from increased habitat and improved con- In the park, yellow-billed cuckoos could benefit dition of woody riparian habitat compared to Al- from increased acreage and improved condition of ternative 1. This alternative would not result in woody riparian habitats due to fewer elk and bi- impairment of yellow-billed cuckoos in the park. son summering in the park compared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. Alternative 3 To the extent that yellow-billed cuckoos nested on Analysis or migrated through the refuge and the park, they would likely not be adversely impacted by activi- Yellow-billed cuckoos on the refuge could poten- ties associated with bison fertility control under tially benefit under Alternative 3, compared to Alternative 2. If fertility control took place on the Alternative 1, due to a major increase in willow refuge during winter, yellow-billed cuckoos would habitat and no net loss of cottonwood habitat. An have already migrated out of the area. If the fer- estimated 1,450 acres of suppressed willow plants tility control program was conducted in the park, currently in wet meadow habitat would recover to any yellow-billed cuckoos present could poten- good and fair condition willow stands, and an es- tially be disturbed for a short period by the pres- timated 220 acres of cottonwood habitat would not ence of humans in woody riparian habitats. How- convert to other habitat types as a result of fewer ever, the number of people engaged in this activ- browsing elk and bison on the refuge. ity would be relatively few at any given time, so the extent of disturbance would be negligible. Yellow-billed cuckoos in the park could potentially benefit from increased acreage and improved con- Yellow-billed cuckoos could be negatively im- dition of woody riparian habitats due to fewer elk pacted in the long term by the decline in condition summering in the park compared to current con- and acreage of woody riparian habitats in localized ditions and Alternative 1. areas of the national forest. Yellow-billed cuckoos could potentially be nega- If large numbers of elk did not migrate outside tively impacted in the long term by the decline in the Jackson Hole area, yellow-billed cuckoos on condition and acreage of woody riparian habitats BLM lands and private lands in the Jackson Hole in localized areas of the national forest. area could be negatively impacted. Without supplemental winter feeding on the refuge, elk would The effects of Alternative 3 on yellow-billed likely forage more often on private lands, which cuckoos on BLM lands and private lands in the could result in further habitat degradation, re- Jackson Hole area and in the Green River basin duced residual vegetation, and loss of acreage in would be similar to Alternative 2. some areas. Conclusion If large numbers of elk did migrate outside Jack- son Hole in the winter, yellow-billed cuckoos in Yellow-billed cuckoos on the refuge and in the the Green River basin could be negatively im- park could be positively affected due to the impacted in localized areas. Yellow-billed cuckoos in proved condition and increased acreage of woody the Green River basin could be negatively im- riparian habitat compared to Alternative 1. This pacted as a result of cottonwood and willow habi- alternative would not result in impairment of yel- tats experiencing higher levels of browsing, which low-billed cuckoos in the park. could result in habitat degradation and loss of acreage in some areas.

354 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Threatened, Endangered, and Special Concern Species

Alternative 4 Yellow-billed cuckoos in the park could potentially benefit by a negligible to minor degree due to im- Analysis provements in the condition of woody riparian Yellow-billed cuckoos could benefit under Alter- habitats, compared to current conditions and Al- native 4, compared to Alternative 1, by an in- ternative 1. crease in willow habitat and a decreased loss of cottonwood habitat on the refuge. An estimated Yellow-billed cuckoos in the national forest would 250 acres of suppressed willow plants in the short not be affected by Alternative 5 any differently term and an estimated 500 acres in the long term than they have been in the recent past. would recover to willow stands. In addition, only an estimated 150 acres of cottonwood habitat Conclusion would convert to other community types, compared to an estimated 220 acres of cottonwood Yellow-billed cuckoos on the refuge could be posi- habitat under Alternative 1. tively affected due to the improved condition and increased acreage of woody riparian habitat com- In the park, yellow-billed cuckoos could poten- pared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. tially benefit by negligible to minor improvements The effects of Alternative 5 on yellow-billed in condition of woody riparian habitats compared cuckoos in the park would likely be positive due to to Alternative 1. negligible improvements in woody riparian habitats compared to Alternative 1. This alternative Yellow-billed cuckoos could be negatively im- would not result in the impairment of yellow- pacted in the long term by the decline in condition billed cuckoos in the park. and acreage of woody riparian habitats in localized areas of the national forest. Alternative 6 Analysis Conclusion Yellow-billed cuckoos could potentially benefit Yellow-billed cuckoos on the refuge could be posi- under Alternative 6 on the refuge, compared to tively affected due to the improved condition and Alternative 1, by an increase in willow habitat. An increased acreage of woody riparian habitat com- estimated 1,450 acres of suppressed willow plants pared to Alternative 1. Yellow-billed cuckoos in currently in wet meadow habitat would recover to the park would likely be positively affected due to good and fair condition willow stands, and an es- negligible to minor improvements in woody ri- timated 150 acres of cottonwood habitat would not parian habitats compared to Alternative 1. This convert to other habitat types due to fewer alternative would not result in the impairment of browsing elk and bison on the refuge. yellow-billed cuckoos in the park. Yellow-billed cuckoos in the park could potentially Alternative 5 benefit from increased acreage and the improved condition of woody riparian habitats due to fewer Analysis elk and bison summering in the park compared to Yellow-billed cuckoos could benefit under Alter- Alternative 1. native 5, compared to current conditions and Al- ternative 1, by an increase in willow habitat and a Yellow-billed cuckoos could potentially be nega- decreased loss of cottonwood habitat on the ref- tively impacted in the long term by the decline in uge. An estimated 250 acres of suppressed willow condition and acreage of woody riparian habitats plants would recover to willow stands in the short in localized areas of the national forest due to term and an estimated 500 acres in the long term. more elk browsing on native winter range. In addition, only an estimated 150 acres of cottonwood habitat would convert to other commu- If large numbers of elk did not migrate outside nity types, compared to an estimated 220 acres of the Jackson Hole area, yellow-billed cuckoos on cottonwood habitat under Alternative 1. BLM lands and private lands in the Jackson Hole area could be negatively impacted in localized ar-

355 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES eas. Elk that were no longer being fed on the ref- result in additional changes to grizzly movements uge in the winter would likely forage more often but are not expected to negatively affect grizzly on private lands compared to Alternative 1, and bear populations. By agreement with the U.S. higher levels of browsing could result in habitat Fish and Wildlife Service, the highway itself, with degradation, reduced residual vegetation, and loss or without new construction, likely negatively of acreage in some areas. affects individual grizzly bears already, and a biological opinion and incidental take permit will If large numbers of elk did migrate outside the be required. Jackson Hole area in the winter, yellow-billed cuckoos on federal, state, and private lands in The planned highway improvements could disturb other locations could be negatively impacted in and displace threatened, endangered, and candi- localized areas. This could occur if cottonwood and date species during construction. In the long term willow communities experienced higher levels of changes to the highway could decrease habitat browsing, resulting in habitat degradation and and potentially increase mortality due to greater loss of acreage in some areas. numbers of vehicle collisions with grizzly bears and wolves if traffic volumes increased. The highway improvement plan recommends reducing Conclusion the posted speed limit from 65 to 55 mph, which Yellow-billed cuckoos on the refuge and in the might prevent at least some accidental deaths. park could be positively affected due to the im- Upgrading an existing highway is not expected to proved condition and increased acreage of woody result in extensive effects in terms of blocking riparian habitat compared to Alternative 1. This movement corridors. alternative would not result in the impairment of yellow-billed cuckoos in the park. Cumulative effects would not occur under Alter- natives 1 and 5 considered in this environmental impact statement because elk distribution, move- Mitigation ments, and mortality rates would remain similar Measures to mitigate adverse effects on yellow- to baseline conditions; therefore, the effects on billed cuckoos would be the same as those for grizzly bears, wolves, and bald eagles would re- avoiding or lessening adverse impacts to riparian main similar to baseline conditions. Cumulative and aspen woodland communities (see “Impacts effects on grizzly bears, wolves, and bald eagles on Habitat” in this chapter). under Alternatives 2, 3, 4, and 6 would likely be negligible. Cumulative effects on the yellow-billed cuckoo would also likely be negligible given the Cumulative Effects small amount of habitat (21 acres) affected. Transportation Improvements The reconstruction of 38 miles of U.S. 26/287 over Federal Land Management Activities Togwotee Pass would result in short-term distur- Grand Teton National Park Fire Management bance and displacement of threatened and endangered species and could affect the movement of Mechanical treatments could result in a small re- threatened and endangered species in the Buffalo duction in threatened and endangered species Valley area. The total amount of habitat that habitat, reduced habitat quality, and short-term could be disturbed for each threatened and candi- disturbance effects that could displace animals date species is 275 acres for the grizzly bear and near the Wildland Urban Interface (WUI) areas. the gray wolf, 218 acres for the bald eagle, and 21 However, these actions are not expected to ad- acres for the yellow-billed cuckoo. The potential versely affect endangered or threatened species displacement, movement barrier, and mortality at a population level because habitat effectiveness impacts from highway construction for the gray in WUI areas and immediately surrounding areas wolf, the bald eagle, and the yellow-billed cuckoo has already been reduced. WUI areas represent a would be similar to what currently occurs and is small part of the habitat available to park wildlife, not expected to negatively affect these species. and the vast majority of wildlife habitat in Grand Additional retaining walls and guardrails could

356 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Threatened, Endangered, and Special Concern Species

Teton National Park occurs outside developed Alternative 1, in combination with the effects of areas. Grand Teton infrastructure improvements, would not result in cumulative effects. Alternatives 2–6 Prescribed fire can be used to maintain and re- could result in additional displacement of threat- store more diverse vegetative communities in ened or endangered species as a result of greater landscapes where natural fire regimes have been human presence in southern portions of the park disrupted. Prescribed fires could, in the short and during conversion of formerly cultivated areas to long terms, alter plant communities and displace native vegetation. threatened or endangered species from some habitat areas, but the long-term effects could cre- Grand Teton/Yellowstone National Parks and ate vegetative diversity, thus improving foraging John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Memorial Parkway opportunities (grizzly bears and yellow-billed Temporary Winter Use Plan cuckoos) and nesting and migrating habitat (yellow-billed cuckoos). The Temporary Winter Use Plan Environmental Assessment identifies wolves and grizzly bears as Alternative 1 would not result in cumulative ef- the threatened and endangered species most fects as a result of Grand Teton National Park fire likely to be affected by disturbance and displace- management. Alternatives 2–6 would convert ment due to winter motorized recreation. Yellow- formerly cultivated areas in the southern portion billed cuckoos have already migrated to their win- of the park to native vegetation. These conversion ter feeding grounds by the time that winter rec- activities could disturb and displace threatened or reation begins. Oversnow motorized vehicles are endangered species in the short term from nearby not expected to disturb bald eagles in Grand Te- habitat and could add to short-term habitat losses ton National Park or John D. Rockefeller, Jr., caused by park fire management. These activities Memorial Parkway because the travel corridor would likely affect few threatened or endangered does not closely follow the Snake River. Although species because they are widely dispersed in the most grizzly bears are in their dens by December park during the summer. 15 and most dens in the park are located in remote areas, grizzly bears that emerge from their dens prior to March 15 could be disturbed by winter Grand Teton National Park Recreation Infra- recreational activities. structure Improvements Potential construction of a multi-use trail ex- While the total number of oversnow vehicles al- tending from Moose to the north Jenny Lake lowed in the parks would approximate the histori- junction would result in site-specific, temporary cal average, all users would be led by professional impacts along planned trail routes during the guides trained in how to avoid causing wildlife summer. The finished trail would attract addi- displacement or stress, and familiar with likely tional recreationists along the Snake River corri- wildlife locations along the road system. Under dor during the summer and possibly cross-country such conditions, recreational users would be less skiers in the winter. The range and specific details likely to interact with wildlife, causing less stress, of the improvements and their effects are unless displacement, and fewer population-level im- known at this time. pacts. The impacts would not be of sufficient mag- nitude to constitute impairment of threatened or Improvements to the Gros Ventre campground endangered species. would result in site-specific, temporary impacts during construction and would result in a minor No impacts to threatened or endangered species increase in the number of summer campers and on adjacent lands outside the park units are an- the potential for displacement of threatened or ticipated. Because the selected alternative would endangered species. These improvements would allow a number of snowmobiles into the park that potentially increase disturbance to threatened or is near the historical average daily visitation, it is endangered species in summer and alter distribu- unlikely to result in significant visitor displace- tion and habitat use, although effects would likely ment to surrounding federal, state, or county land, be negligible because habitat effectiveness in except during high use periods (Christmas week these areas is already reduced. and Presidents Day weekend).

357 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Alternatives 1 and 5, and Alternative 4 in above- cies or entities. The retention of conservation average winters, would not result in cumulative easements and continued management for open impacts to wolves and grizzly bears from planned space and wildlife habitat would protect threat- winter use activities. Alternatives 2, 3, 4 in aver- ened and endangered species habitat. Pursuit of a age or below average winters, and Alternative 6 long-term protective withdrawal to prohibit the would increase the number of elk on native winter staking and development of mining claims would range and the number of winter-killed elk car- also benefit yellow-billed cuckoos by preventing casses. Grizzly bears and wolves feeding on these potential adverse impacts to foraging or nesting carcasses could be disturbed and displaced with habitats. greater frequency due to oversnow vehicles. Ar- eas designated as crucial elk winter range would Cumulative effects are not expected under Alter- not be affected because closures would continue. natives 1 and 5 because these alternatives would not affect the amount of browsing by elk in woody riparian habitats. Alternatives 2, 3, and 4 in aver- Bridger-Teton National Forest Fuels Manage- age or milder than average winters, as well as ment Projects Alternative 6, would increase elk distribution in Bridger-Teton National Forest has identified 15 some years and increase the potential for heavy fuels reduction projects in the primary analysis browsing that could reduce the quality of habitat area, and several others in the secondary analysis for yellow-billed cuckoos. area in the upper Green River watershed. These projects would alter about 9,400 acres of national Pinedale Anticline Oil and Gas Exploration and forest lands and could temporarily disturb and Development Project displace threatened or endangered species. In the long term, however, most of these projects would Oil and gas development activities in the Pinedale improve transition and winter habitats for ungu- anticline project area are not likely to adversely lates, which would benefit threatened or endan- affect the black-footed ferret, bald eagle, whoop- gered predator species that prey on elk and other ing crane, or Canada lynx; nor are they likely to ungulates. More diverse woody riparian areas jeopardize the mountain plover or the candidate would also benefit yellow-billed cuckoos. The bi- swift fox, provided that surveys are conducted son and elk management alternatives considered and that reasonable and prudent protective meas- in this environmental impact statement are not ures are implemented. The bison and elk man- anticipated to result in cumulative effects on agement alternatives are not anticipated to result threatened or endangered species relative to the in cumulative effects on threatened or endangered planned fuels management projects. species relative to the Pinedale anticline project.

Bridger-Teton National Forest Recreation Plan- Snake River Restoration Activities ning / Moose-Gypsum Projects The Snake River restoration project by the U.S. The dispersed recreation camping site plan could Army Corps of Engineers could impact habitat for result in beneficial cumulative effects to yellow- various wildlife species, including the yellow- billed cuckoos due to improved nesting habitat in billed cuckoo, along the Snake River. This project the Green River basin plus improved habitat on would prevent further degradation of habitat and the refuge under Alternatives 3–6. facilitate habitat recovery.

Cumulative effects are not expected under Alter- BLM Snake River Resource Management Plan natives 1 and 5 primarily because these alterna- Greater public access or use in areas of sensitive tives would not increase or alter elk distribution wildlife habitats, including overnight camping, and the potential for heavy browsing in woody would likely increase the potential for more hu- riparian habitats. Alternatives 2, 3, and 4 in aver- man / wildlife conflicts along the Snake River. Im- age or milder than average winters, as well as pacts to woody riparian habitat that yellow-billed Alternative 6, would increase elk distribution in cuckoos depend on could occur if livestock grazing some or all years, with the potential for heavy was allowed by the acquiring or managing agen-

358 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals browsing in yellow-billed cuckoo habitat, which The way that elk and bison are managed in Jack- could offset the benefits of restoration. son Hole influences the health and viability of other ungulate species, especially mule deer and bighorn sheep. Where winter ranges overlap, elk Population Growth and Private Land Development and bison can outcompete mule deer and bighorn Primary Analysis Area sheep (Murie 1951; Nelson 1982; Miller 2002). Projected population increases in both Teton and Sublette counties will continue to create develop- Impacts of the Alternatives ment pressure for private land. Habitat loss, more Impacts Common to All Alternatives encounters and conflicts between threatened / endangered species and humans, vehicle collisions, Habitat and Forage Competition Effects — The and changes to animal movements could occur. distribution of elk, bison, and other ungulates overlaps extensively during summer and fall. The loss of woody riparian habitat under Alterna- However, the diets of elk and bison differ from tives 1 and 2, combined with loss of habitat to pri- the diets of mule deer and moose during these vate development, would likely have negative cu- seasons (Nelson 1982; Miller 2002), and forage and mulative effects on yellow-billed cuckoos. Al- habitat resources could be partitioned among elk, though the amount of woody riparian habitat on bison, mule deer, bighorn sheep, moose, and the refuge would increase under Alternatives 3–6, pronghorn in areas where their distributions the beneficial cumulative effects would be negligi- overlap (Houston 1982). Elk primarily graze on ble when combined with the negative effects of grasses during summer and fall, and mule deer loss of habitat on private lands. and moose primarily forage on forbs and browse during these seasons. Furthermore, forage used Although the loss of habitat on some private lands by mule deer and moose during summer and fall is would negatively affect threatened and endan- not limiting. Although the distribution of bison gered species, cumulative effects on wolves, griz- also overlaps with the distribution of mule deer zly bears, and bald eagles under all alternatives and moose in some areas during the summer and would not occur because the refuge and the park fall, habitat use and diet are substantially differ- would continue to preserve approximately 358,000 ent. acres of habitat, most of which would continue to be available to these species. Elk distribution and habitat use is substantially different than that by pronghorn and bighorn sheep, and the diets of elk and pronghorn are MAMMALS much different during summer and fall. Therefore, direct competition for forage is minimal. Although OTHER UNGULATES the distribution of bison overlaps extensively with The analysis of potential effects of management the distribution of pronghorn during summer and alternatives on mule deer, moose, bighorn sheep, early fall in the park, the diet of bison overlaps and pronghorn is of particular importance in this little with the diet of pronghorn. Bison primarily planning process because providing a refuge and eat grass, and pronghorn primarily eat forbs dur- grazing habitat for these other ungulate species ing their stay in Jackson Hole. Furthermore, bi- are major purposes of the National Elk Refuge, son can enhance the availability and production of and mule deer, moose, and bighorn sheep popula- forbs for pronghorn in some locations (Houston tions are declining in the Jackson Hole area 1982; Yoakum et al. 1996), although this has not (Minta and Campbell 1991; Brimeyer, pers. comm. been studied in the park. Therefore, differences in 2003; Berger, pers. comm. 2004). Analyzing the bison numbers among alternatives would likely potential effects on these species is generally im- not adversely affect pronghorn in Jackson Hole. portant given the requirement to conserve all na- The distribution of bison and bighorn sheep do not tive wildlife species on national wildlife refuges overlap during summer and fall. and in national parks, as well as the requirement under the National Environmental Policy Act to analyze potential effects on affected resources.

359 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Marshland habitat is not used by other large un- mites in the Jackson elk herd under any of the gulates, except moose in some locations. However, alternatives. the marshland habitat used by moose would not be affected by any of the alternatives. Lungworm species are specific to their particular host species (Petersen 2003; Disease Experts The range of bighorn sheep in the park only Meeting 2002), and the risk of interspecies trans- minimally overlaps with the distribution and habi- mission is low. Therefore, other ungulates would tat use of elk, and there is little overlap in winter not be affected by elk lungworms under any of the range. The distributions of bison and bighorn alternatives. sheep do not overlap in the park. Therefore, none of the alternatives would affect bighorn sheep in Effects of Undocumented Viral Microparasites the park. and Prion Diseases — As previously discussed for elk, vesicular stomatitis is not likely to cause Effects of Documented Microparasitic Dis- any impacts in ungulates under any of the alterna- eases — Brucellosis is not expected to directly tives (Disease Experts Meeting 2002). Foot-and- adversely impact populations of mule deer, white- mouth disease and rinderpest are also not ana- tailed deer, pronghorn, moose, or bighorn sheep lyzed in detail because neither disease is present because serologic surveys for brucellosis in other in the United States, and if they were introduced, ungulates have only found a fraction of a percent the national response would be major and very that were seropositive, and these species are aggressive (Disease Experts Meeting 2002). likely dead-end hosts (Thorne et al. 1982, 1997b; Disease Expert Meeting 2002; Davis 1990a; Soil conditions do not appear to be conducive to Adrian and Keiss 1977; Foreyt, Evermann, and maintaining the infectious anthrax endospores in Heimer 1983). the environment, as previously discussed for elk, so anthrax is not expected to measurably affect Pasteurellosis has been observed in mule deer, mule deer, moose, pronghorn, or bighorn sheep pronghorn, and bighorn sheep and could have populations under any alternative. Risk of an- substantial impacts on bighorn sheep populations thrax becoming established in Jackson Hole ap- in some cases (Thorne et al. 1982; Peterson 2003). pears to be low under all alternatives. However, the potential for transmission of septi- cemic pasteurellosis from elk to these other un- Potential for other ungulates species to become gulate species is unknown, but is likely low be- infected by malignant catarrhal fever would be cause behaviorally these species typically segre- highest under Alternative 1 given the higher gate or occupy different types of habitat and are number of bison (followed by Alternatives 5, 4, 3, rarely in contact with one another. 2, and 6). However, because mule deer, moose, pronghorn, and bighorn sheep would rarely de- Although other wild ungulates (bighorn sheep, velop clinical signs and would rarely die (Heu- mule deer, pronghorn) may be susceptible to schele and Reid 2001; Zarnke, Li, and Crawford forms of necrobacillosis (Petersen 2003), these 2002; Petersen 2003), populations of these species species are not expected to be impacted under any in the Jackson Hole area would be adversely af- of the management alternative as a result of ne- fected to a negligible to minor degree at most un- crotic stomatitis (Disease Expert Meeting 2002). der any of the alternatives.

Effects of Documented Macroparasitic Dis- Moose, bighorn sheep, and pronghorn would not eases — Psoroptic scabies is a condition found be directly impacted by chronic wasting disease, if only in mammals. Scabies is widespread in Wyo- it became established in Jackson Hole, under any ming among free-ranging populations of bighorn of the alternatives because they do not appear to sheep, Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep, white- be susceptible to the disease (Williams, Kirkwood, tailed deer, and elk. Transmission from species to and Miller 2001). species does not occur (Murie 1951). Hence, other non-elk ungulate species, all other wildlife species, Effects of Management Actions — Pronghorn and and livestock (Hepworth and Thomas 1962) would bighorn sheep would not be directly affected by not be impacted by the presence of psoroptic hunting activities on the refuge or in the park, or

360 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates the elimination of hunting in the two areas, be- refuge where wintering use by elk and bison is cause they are not found in hunt areas during the minimal. The number of mule deer wintering on hunting season. Miller Butte, the main wintering area on the refuge, increased to highs of about 100–110 during Winter feeding operations and the elimination of the mid-1960s, but steadily declined to less than winter feeding would not directly affect mule 30 by 1990 (Matson 2000), and no mule deer have deer, moose, pronghorn, or bighorn sheep because wintered on Miller Butte the last several years. they do not inhabit the feeding sites on the refuge. USFWS and WGFD biologists feel that the decline and eventual disappearance of mule deer on the butte could have been due in part to a major Alternative 1 decline in the condition of browse species, which Analysis has in large part been due to heavy elk browsing. As a general rule, elk outcompete mule deer on National Elk Refuge — During the spring, sum- winter ranges that are limited in size and forage mer, and fall a small number of mule deer can be since elk are more opportunistic than mule deer in found in the Gros Ventre Hills and along the Gros their diet selection, more easily digest low quality Ventre River, but this use of the northern end of forage, and are more mobile (Wisdom and Thomas the refuge appears to be depressed compared to 1996). Nelson (1982) noted that mule deer may historical use of the area. This situation would leave or avoid areas that are heavily used by elk likely not change in the short term, but over the even if forage was available. Elk are fed within ½- long term, as aspen stands continued to disappear, mile of the butte. Miller Butte was identified by use of the northern refuge would likely decline Minta and Campbell (1991) as one of three impor- further. tant mule deer wintering areas in Jackson Hole, and the only one that occurs completely on federal Moose have likely been most affected by the loss land. of more than 1,000 acres of willow habitat along lower Flat Creek on the refuge, a result of heavy Up to a dozen mule deer winter on Boucher Hill annual browsing by elk in association with winter above the fish hatchery and along the Gros Ven- feeding. This willow habitat would not be restored tre River in some winters, although in some win- under Alternative 1, and the feasibility of future ters no deer winter in these areas. Although restoration of willow habitat would decline sub- browse conditions appear to be better than they stantially, permanently eliminating an estimated are on Miller Butte, they have also been adversely 1,500 acres of moose habitat. Moose numbers affected by elk due to the proximity to the feed- along the Gros Ventre River would not be af- grounds on the refuge. fected in the short term because this habitat is not expected to change. Declining acreage of aspen on Direct competition between elk, bison, and win- the Gros Ventre Hills over the long term could tering bighorn sheep for forage would continue to potentially negatively affect the moose population be minimal because few elk graze on the eastern but probably only to a negligible extent due to the side of Miller Butte, especially after winter feed- already poor condition of these stands. The deg- ing operations begin each winter. An average of radation of 220 acres of cottonwood habitat along 31 bighorn sheep have been observed on the ref- the upper portion of Flat Creek has reduced the uge during the last five winters. It is anticipated amount of moose habitat on the refuge, but only to that the refuge could continue to support 20–36 a negligible degree, and this would not change bighorn sheep or more each winter under Alter- under this alternative. native 1. However, bison could increase grazing pressure on Miller Butte as their population con- Under Alternative 1, direct competition between tinued to grow under this alternative, which could elk, bison, mule deer, and moose for forage in lower the carrying capacity for bighorn sheep. sagebrush shrublands on the refuge would continue to be minimal or non-existent because few if Cultivated fields on the refuge would be antici- any mule deer would continue to winter on the pated to continue to receive only minimal use by refuge and because moose use sagebrush shrub- pronghorn and mule deer, and this low level of use lands during winter in the northern portion of the would continue. Most of this use occurs during the

361 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES summer when elk and bison are not on the refuge; willows. These situations would continue under therefore, increases in bison numbers would not Alternative 1. affect the use of cultivated fields by ungulates during the summer unless the bison population A 2002 study by McCloskey and Sexton concluded grew so large that it was not possible to move all that as much as half of the aspen habitat in the bison off the refuge during the summer. Under park could disappear in the long term, in part due natural conditions the sagebrush shrubland and to heavy browsing by elk, but primarily due to grassland habitat that occurred in areas that are fire suppression and encroachment by conifers. now under cultivation likely contributed to a The park’s new Fire Management Plan (NPS greater extent to sustaining populations of mule 2004b) aims to ensure that, unless a natural result deer, moose, pronghorn, and possibly bighorn of plant succession, fire continues to play its role sheep. in influencing vegetation patterns on much of the park landscape. Under Alternative 1 it is likely While mule deer move from summer habitat to that high numbers of elk would continue to be wintering areas about the same time as the refuge regularly sustained in Jackson Hole as a result of hunting season, elk hunting activities on the ref- supplemental winter feeding, and heavy continued uge could displace mule deer from parts of the browsing by elk would contribute to the loss of northern end of the refuge. Deer movement off aspen habitat for mule deer and moose. Willow the refuge appears to roughly correspond to the and cottonwood habitats used by mule deer and initiation of elk hunting on the refuge (Brock, moose do not appear to be heavily browsed by elk pers. comm. 2003). It does not appear that hunting in the park; therefore, animals in these habitats activities have more than negligible or minor ef- would be affected to a negligible degree. fects on moose distribution, survival, and production. Direct competition between elk, bison, and other ungulates in agricultural, native grassland, and The fence along U.S. 26/89, which was constructed sagebrush shrubland habitats in the park appears to block the movement of elk and bison onto the to be minimal, except seasonally in localized areas. highway, would continue to also block the move- Previous agricultural lands in the park would con- ment of bighorn sheep to East Gros Ventre Butte tinue to be minimally used by mule deer, moose, (just to the west of the refuge), thereby forcing and pronghorn both in the short and long terms. them to remain on Miller Butte. Occasionally, big- The distribution of elk only minimally overlaps horn sheep are observed pacing up and down the with the distributions of mule deer and moose in fence looking for a way to cross over to East Gros sagebrush shrubland and grassland habitats dur- Ventre Butte. The fence could also block the ing winter; therefore, the opportunity for direct movement of mule deer between East Gros Ven- competition for forage would be localized and tre Butte and Miller Butte. negligible. Elk do not appear to be damaging sagebrush or other shrubland habitats in the park. Grand Teton National Park — Direct competition between elk and other ungulates for forage in The overlap between the distribution and dietary riparian and aspen woodlands in the park occurs needs of bison and other ungulates during winter seasonally in localized areas. Elk and moose dis- is even more limited; therefore, no more than a tributions overlap to a small extent during winter negligible amount of direct competition would oc- along the Buffalo Fork, Spread Creek, and Gros cur. Overgrazing and wallowing by bison in local- Ventre River, but the highest concentrations of ized areas, which would increase as the population elk are associated with upland sites (where willow continued to grow, could potentially affect forage and cottonwood are not present), and moose tend availability for other ungulates, but the effects to concentrate in the bottoms (Singer and Zeigen- would be negligible relative to the amount of for- fuss 2003). Although elk use some of the same ar- age available in the park. For example, there is eas where moose winter, competition between the some evidence that plant species diversity is two species for browse appears to be minor in lower in bison wallows (Collins and Uno 1980, as most of the park. An exception is in the Elk Ranch cited in Shaw 1996). reservoir area where elk that graze in surrounding upland areas spend much of their time in the

362 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates

The elk herd reduction program in the park does Other Lands — On BLM and private lands in the not appear to adversely impact mule deer and Jackson Hole area there is minimal competition moose populations, although hunting could have between elk and other ungulates for winter short-term effects on the distribution and habitat browse and forage in most locations. This low use of mule deer. The number of deputized hunt- level of competition has been heavily influenced ers involved and the intensity of hunting activities by supplemental feeding of elk on the refuge and can be high in some park areas. To the extent that state feedgrounds in the Jackson Hole area; elk mule deer prematurely left the refuge and park would continue to be drawn away (or hazed) from for their wintering grounds, they would be more private lands to the refuge (or a state feedground) subject to harvest outside these two areas. under Alternative 1.

Bridger-Teton National Forest — On elk winter Potential Effects of Bovine Tuberculosis and range in the national forest, elk compete directly Paratuberculosis — Mule deer, moose, and big- for browse with mule deer and moose in riparian horn sheep are susceptible to paratuberculosis, and aspen woodlands, and many years of high lev- and most if not all are susceptible to bovine tuber- els of browsing by elk and other ungulates has culosis (Williams 2001; Petersen 2003). If these depleted available browse in some areas. Under diseases became established in the Jackson elk baseline conditions, an estimated 2,900–5,200 elk and bison herds, the risk of transmission to other would winter on native winter range (as compared ungulates under Alternative 1 would continue to to 4,400–7,900 during the last 15 years), and these increase over the long term as prevalence and the elk would continue to contribute to the degrada- number of clinical cases increased, which is ex- tion of willow, aspen, and cottonwood habitat in pected due to high concentrations of elk and bison the national forest, which would adversely affect on the refuge. Although the majority of infected mule deer and moose. animals do not develop clinical symptoms, those that do eventually die (Williams 2001). Because Under baseline conditions on elk winter range in mule deer and moose are not unnaturally concen- the national forest, an estimated 2,900–5,200 elk trated in the study area, the disease would not would have the potential to compete directly for likely become self-sustaining in the populations. If forage with mule deer, moose, and bighorn sheep the winter feeding of elk and bison and no popula- in grassland, sagebrush, and other upland shrub- tion control of bison on the refuge continued after land habitats. Elk could compete with mule deer tuberculosis or paratuberculosis became estab- and moose for browse such as bitterbrush, lished in the herds, the elevated prevalence in the serviceberry, and sagebrush in a variety of habi- herds would provide a continual source of infec- tats and areas. Elk also compete with bighorn tion for mule deer, moose, and bighorn sheep. sheep for bunchgrasses in localized areas in low- However, occurrences of mule deer and moose elevation bighorn wintering areas in the Gros developing clinical symptoms and eventually dy- Ventre River drainage, such as Crystal Creek, ing from the disease would likely not be high Red Hills, Lightning Creek, and Russold Hill enough to markedly affect the populations. How- (Brimeyer, pers. comm. 2003). On higher elevation ever, the more gregarious nature of bighorn sheep bighorn winter ranges there is less potential for and a greater propensity for bighorn sheep to competition. Competition between elk and big- maintain the disease (Williams 2001), could result horn sheep could also occur in Curtis Canyon, in bighorn sheep being adversely affected by an which is adjacent to the refuge. It is not clear outbreak of these diseases in the elk and bison whether or how this competition is affecting mule herds. deer, moose, and bighorn sheep populations, but the potential impacts would continue in the long Potential Effects of Chronic Wasting Disease — term. Bison do not appear to be competing with Based on current information, only elk, mule deer, other ungulates for forage in the national forest, and white-tailed deer are susceptible to chronic except possibly to a negligible degree on south- wasting disease, which is always fatal (Williams and west-facing slopes immediately east of the and Miller 2002). Given the current pattern and refuge and park. rate of spread of chronic wasting disease in Wyo- ming, the likelihood of the disease reaching Jack- son Hole is high.

363 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Transmission of chronic wasting disease appears to (1) continued degradation and loss of key habi- to be related to the density of susceptible hosts. tats on the refuge and in the park, (2) a high level Environmental contamination could potentially be of competition for forage on the refuge, and (3) another key mode of transmission, which can be potential disease risks associated with the high affected by animal density as well as duration and concentrations of elk and bison that would occur repetition of use. The introduction of chronic nearly every year under this alternative (e.g., wasting disease into the mule deer population in chronic wasting disease, tuberculosis). Alterna- the Jackson Hole area would have an adverse im- tive 1 would also continue to contribute to the de- pact on the population, irrespective of elk man- cline in moose habitat in the Jackson Hole area, agement in Jackson Hole. The prevalence of although only to a minor degree, due to the con- chronic wasting disease in infected mule deer tinued degradation and loss of riparian and aspen herds in southeastern Wyoming and north-central woodland habitat on the refuge and in the park. Colorado can be as high as 15%. Modeling sug- Elk would continue to compete directly with big- gests that chronic wasting disease in free-ranging horn sheep for forage on the refuge, and it is pos- mule deer associated with free-ranging, non-fed sible that bison could begin competing with big- elk could have detrimental impacts to mule deer horn sheep in the long term as the bison popula- populations (M. W. Miller et al. 2000; Gross and tion continued to grow. The fence along U.S. 26/89 Miller 2001). The elk population in the area of the would continue to restrict bighorn sheep move- subject population of mule deer had a prevalence ments, but long-term impacts would likely be mi- of less than 1% (i.e., prevalence in elk likely had a nor. Due to continued large concentrations of elk relatively minor influence on the mule deer popu- on refuge feedlines and growing numbers of bison lation). The artificially high concentrations of on feedlines, the potential for mule deer and large numbers of elk on the same ground for sev- moose populations to be infected by a non- eral months each year under Alternative 1 would endemic infectious disease that was transmitted likely lead to a prevalence level somewhere be- from the elk or bison herds would increase. Alter- tween that observed in non-fed elk populations native 1 would not impair mule deer, moose, big- (1%–4%) and that found in game farms (up to horn sheep, or pronghorn populations in the park. 90%). This assumes that winter feeding would continue each winter and that high elk numbers Alternative 2 would be maintained even after chronic wasting Analysis disease was discovered in refuge elk. If the prevalence of chronic wasting disease in refuge National Elk Refuge — In the short term (within elk approached levels recorded on infected game the next 15 years) under this alternative, competi- farms, this could result in a prevalence level in tion between elk and other ungulates in willow, mule deer that would exceed the level that would aspen, and cottonwood habitats on the northern occur if elk were not fed on the refuge. It is possi- part of the refuge and eastern part of the park ble that a high prevalence of chronic wasting dis- could be higher in some years soon after imple- ease in elk could result in increased transmission mentation of this alternative due to the elimina- from elk to mule deer and/or increased environ- tion of elk hunting in these areas. mental contamination, which could potentially increase the prevalence in mule deer. Conversely, If elk in the Jackson elk herd unit did not begin it is also possible that an elevated prevalence in wintering in the Green River basin, the degrada- elk would have relatively little effect on the tion and loss of willow, aspen, and cottonwood prevalence in mule deer. Alternative 1 would rank habitat on the refuge would be similar to Alterna- highest in the risk of potential adverse impacts to tive 1, although slightly less riparian and aspen the mule deer herd and would be similar to Alter- woodland habitat would be lost under Alternative native 5 (see Table 4-6). 2. Despite lower numbers of elk in some years, the elimination of winter feeding and hunting might Conclusion not result in any measurable reductions in the use of woody vegetation by elk. It is likely that the Alternative 1 would continue to limit the ability of refuge would not be able to winter all of the elk the Jackson mule deer population to recover due and bison that could potentially migrate to the

364 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates refuge in above-average and severe winters, Butte and other areas could recover and increase which would result in more severe use of browse production. in some locations. In other years browsing pressure could be lower due to fewer animals and If large numbers of elk began wintering in the milder winters. On average, therefore, adverse Green River basin and the Red Desert, direct impacts to mule deer and moose might not be sub- competition of elk and bison with mule deer, stantially different than Alternative 1. moose, and bighorn sheep would be lower than the potential effects described above. If large numbers of elk did begin wintering in the Green River basin and the Red Desert, willow Converting cultivated fields on the refuge to na- habitat on the refuge could increase by an esti- tive vegetation and eliminating flood irrigation mated 1,500 acres in the long term, which would could increase the use of these habitats by mule benefit moose on the refuge by a moderate to ma- deer, pronghorn, and bighorn sheep in the long jor amount and would benefit the Jackson Hole term as compared to Alternative 1. moose population to a negligible degree. This increase in willow habitat on the refuge would offset To the extent that mule deer are being displaced the adverse impacts to moose associated with the from key habitats on the refuge and park under loss of aspen habitat. baseline conditions due to elk hunting on the refuge and the elk herd reduction program in the In the short term (within the next 15 years) com- park, eliminating hunting in the two areas would petition between elk and other ungulates in sage- benefit mule deer by reducing disturbance and brush shrubland and grassland habitat on the movements. If mule deer are currently leaving northern part of the refuge and eastern part of the refuge and park prematurely due to hunting the park could begin increasing within a few years activities, which could lead to increased mortality of implementation due to the elimination of elk (because deer can be legally harvested outside the hunting in these areas. Otherwise, no measurable refuge and park), then eliminating elk hunting changes in competition would be anticipated in the would reduce this mortality factor. short term. The fence along U.S. 26/89 would continue to Despite fewer elk and bison, direct competition block the movement of bighorn sheep to East between elk, bison, mule deer, moose, and bighorn Gros Ventre Butte, thereby forcing them to re- sheep for forage in sagebrush shrubland and main on Miller Butte. The fence could also con- grassland habitat on the refuge would increase in tinue to block the movement of mule deer be- many years over the long term due to the higher tween East Gros Ventre Butte and Miller Butte. reliance of elk and bison on standing forage with Removing the fence under this alternative would the eventual elimination of winter feeding. No allow bighorn sheep to cross over to East Gros feeding of elk and bison (after 10–15 years), no Ventre Butte. However, elk would also be able to irrigation, and no hunting on the refuge or herd cross, which would result in substantial competi- reduction in the park would result in elk and bison tion for forage. Furthermore, removing the fence being more widely dispersed on the refuge could increase mortality of bighorn sheep due to throughout more of the winter, which would re- vehicle collisions. sult in a higher proportion of refuge elk and bison using sagebrush shrubland and grassland habitat Grand Teton National Park — Direct competi- in the northern portion of the refuge. In addition tion between elk and other ungulates for forage in to increased competition for browse, Alternative 2 riparian and aspen woodlands of the park could would probably also reduce the amount of sage- increase in localized areas during some years in brush and other upland shrubs due to heavy the long term as the number of elk wintering on browsing and hoof action in localized areas, which native range in the park increased due to the would further reduce the amount of browse avail- eventual elimination of winter feeding on the ref- able to mule deer and moose. However, periodic uge. declines in elk numbers following above-average and severe winters (possibly as low as 1,200 elk) Direct competition between elk, bison, and other would provide periods when shrubs on Miller ungulates in agricultural, native grassland, and

365 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES sagebrush shrubland habitats in the park during removed, browsing pressure on private lands on summer and fall would have the potential to de- East Gros Ventre Butte and areas to the north cline to some degree due to the major reduction in and west would increase markedly. Aspen and elk numbers in some years and the major reduc- cottonwood habitat on these private lands are al- tion in bison numbers in the park. Eliminating the ready used by mule deer and moose; therefore, elk reduction program in the park would result in competition for forage would increase. elk, including elk from other segments, moving more slowly through grassland and sagebrush If large numbers of elk migrated to the Green habitat in the park during fall and early winter, River basin and the Red Desert in the long term, which could offset reductions in competition. direct competition between elk and other ungu- However, these habitats receive little use by lates for forage could increase in riparian and as- other ungulates during the fall. Converting agri- pen woodland, agricultural, native grassland, and cultural lands to native vegetation would further sagebrush shrubland habitats on federal, state, reduce competition by increasing the amount of and private lands in the basin. native grassland and sagebrush habitat. Potential Effects of Bovine Tuberculosis and More bison wintering in the park under this alter- Paratuberculosis — If tuberculosis or paratuber- native, as compared to Alternative 1, would result culosis became established in the elk and bison in little or no competition with other ungulates populations under Alternative 2 after elk and bi- because bison and elk would be the only grazing son numbers on the refuge and park had already ungulates at lower elevations of the park during declined to anticipated levels and winter feeding winter. had been eliminated, there would be a moderate reduction in the risk of these diseases being Bridger-Teton National Forest — Larger num- transmitted from elk and bison to other ungulates bers of elk, as compared to Alternative 1, would compared to Alternative 1 due to reduced preva- use winter range in the national forest, which lence. Because tuberculosis and paratuberculosis would increase already heavy browsing pressure would likely not pose a major problem to mule on aspen, willow, cottonwood, and sagebrush deer and moose under Alternative 1, the reduced shrubland habitats and would increase competi- risk under Alternative 2 (similar to Alternative 6) tion between elk and other ungulates, further con- would result in only negligible potential benefits tributing to degradation and loss of these habi- to these two species. Of the alternatives being tats. Damage to vegetation caused by higher considered in this process, Alternative 2 would numbers of elk on native grasslands would also provide the least amount of risk to other ungulate reduce the amount of forage available to other species. ungulates. Competition could also increase on higher elevation bighorn sheep winter ranges. Potential Effects of Chronic Wasting Disease — Therefore, there could be adverse impacts to mule Alternative 2 (and Alternative 6) would have the deer, bighorn sheep, and moose in the national least potential for adversely impacting mule deer forest. These impacts would be lessened substan- in the Jackson Hole area because fewer elk would tially over the long term if large numbers of elk winter on the refuge, eliminating artificial concen- migrated to the Green River basin and the Red trations of elk. If chronic wasting disease became Desert. established after Alternative 2 was fully implemented, disease prevalence would likely be repre- Other Lands — On BLM and private lands in the sentative of other infected populations of elk, such Jackson Hole area, direct competition between elk as those in southeastern Wyoming and north- and other ungulates for forage would increase in central Colorado. This would result in a lower localized areas after winter feeding was elimi- chance, as compare to Alternative 1, that the nated on the refuge. On some lands grazing and prevalence of chronic wasting disease in mule browsing pressure by elk could be heavy, which deer in Jackson Hole would exceed the prevalence would substantially increase the competition be- in other infected mule deer populations. This al- tween elk, mule deer, and moose on private lands ternative, as well as Alternatives 3 and 6, would in Buffalo Valley, Jackson Hole, and possibly Ho- have the lowest level of potential adverse impacts back Canyon. If the fence along U.S. 26/89 was to mule deer in the Jackson Hole area. Regardless

366 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates of how elk are managed in Jackson Hole, the mule wintering in the Green River basin and the Red deer population would still be adversely impacted Desert. Even if large numbers of elk began win- by the introduction and spread of chronic wasting tering in the Green River basin and the Red Des- disease, but Alternatives 2, 3, and 6 would not add ert, aspen habitat on the northern part of the ref- to the severity of the adverse impacts, in contrast uge would continue to decline in condition and to Alternatives 1, 4, and 5, which would add to the acreage due to a major reduction in the frequency severity. of winter feeding and the closure of the part of the hunt zone. Conclusion Under this alternative competition between elk Of the alternatives being considered, Alternative and other ungulates in some sagebrush shrubland, 2 (together with Alternatives 3 and 6) would have native grassland, and agricultural habitats in part the least amount of adverse impacts to other un- of the hunt zone on the refuge and in the Blacktail gulates on the refuge, except that competition Butte and Kelly hayfields areas of the park (Hunt between bighorn sheep, elk, and bison could in- Area 76) could begin increasing within a few years crease compared to Alternative 1. Alternative 2 of implementation due to eliminating of elk hunt- (together with Alternative 6) would have the low- ing or the reduction program in these areas. est risk of any of the alternatives in terms of the severity of an outbreak of a non-endemic infec- Competition from elk and bison with mule deer, tious disease in elk and/or bison that could ad- moose, and bighorn sheep for forage in sagebrush versely impact the population health of other un- shrubland and grassland habitat on the refuge gulates. would increase due to the higher reliance of elk and bison on standing forage due to a major re- In the park aspen habitat would improve in many duction in winter feeding (similar to Alternative areas that are now being heavily grazed by elk. In 2). No hunting on the part of the current hunt areas where winter use by elk increased, competi- zone on the refuge and no irrigation (Option B of tion with moose for browse could increase during Alternative 3) would also contribute to elk and some winters. Because of attempts to maintain bison being more widely dispersed throughout natural densities of elk and bison, Alternative 2 more of the winter, impacting ungulates in more (and 6) would have the lowest potential for ad- areas. Because there would be far fewer elk on verse impacts to other ungulate populations in the the refuge, competition for browse could poten- park. Alternative 2 would not result in the im- tially be lower than under Alternative 1. If large pairment of park resources. numbers of elk began wintering in the Green River basin, direct competition between elk and mule deer, moose, and bighorn sheep would be Alternative 3 lower than the potential effects described above. Analysis Under Option A of Alternative 3 cultivated fields National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative on the refuge would probably continue to receive 1, elk numbers on the refuge would decline to a only minimal use by pronghorn sheep and mule low enough level that willow habitat could in- deer, and this low level of use would continue crease by an estimated 1,500 acres in the southern (similar to Alternative 1). Most of this use would part of the refuge in the long term, which would occur during the summer; therefore, changes in increase the amount of moose habitat by a major elk and bison numbers on the refuge would not amount. Up to 1,000–2,000 elk on the refuge would affect the use of cultivated fields by ungulates. maintain a high level of competition between elk and moose in the restored willow habitat, but The effects of Option B on other ungulates with there would be net benefit to moose. Similar to respect to restored cultivated fields would be Alternative 2, the degradation and loss of aspen similar to the effects of Alternative 2. and cottonwood habitat on the refuge would be similar to Alternative 1, although slightly less ri- Maintaining the fence along U.S. 26/89 would con- parian and aspen woodland habitat would be lost tinue to block the movement of bighorn sheep to if elk in the Jackson elk herd unit did not begin East Gros Ventre Butte, thereby forcing them to

367 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES remain on Miller Butte. The fence would also con- winter range in the national forest, which would tinue to block the movement of mule deer be- increase already heavy browsing pressure on as- tween East Gros Ventre Butte and Miller Butte. pen, willow, and cottonwood, and sagebrush shrubland habitats, as well as competition be- Grand Teton National Park — Many of the aspen tween elk and other ungulates, further contribut- stands that have been heavily browsed by elk ing to degradation and loss of these habitats. would benefit from the major reduction in the Damage to vegetation caused by higher numbers Grand Teton segment of the elk herd. The park’s of elk on native grasslands would also reduce the new Fire Management Plan (NPS 2004b) aims to amount of forage available to other ungulates. ensure that, unless a natural result of plant suc- Competition could also increase on higher eleva- cession, fire would continue to play its role in in- tion bighorn sheep winter ranges. Therefore, mule fluencing vegetation patterns on much of the park deer, bighorn sheep, and moose in the national landscape. Under Alternative 3 fewer elk, and the forest could be adversely affected. These impacts park’s fire management program, would contrib- would be lessened substantially over the long ute to less aspen habitat loss, with direct benefits term if large numbers of elk migrated to the to mule deer and moose. Direct competition be- Green River basin and the Red Desert. tween elk and other ungulates for forage in riparian and aspen woodlands in the park during Other Lands — On BLM and private lands in the winter would increase in localized areas if winter Jackson Hole area the direct competition between use of the park by elk increased as compared to elk and other ungulates for forage would increase baseline conditions and Alternative 1. The major in localized areas after winter feeding was re- reduction in winter feeding on the refuge could duced on the refuge. On some lands grazing and result in a larger proportion of park elk wintering browsing pressure by elk could be heavy, which off the refuge, including areas in the park. Even would substantially increase competition between though there were far fewer elk in the park seg- elk, mule deer, and moose on private lands in Buf- ment, use of the park by wintering elk could in- falo Valley, Jackson Hole, and possibly Hoback crease. This would in part be due to elk from the Canyon. Removing the fence along U.S. 26/89 this Yellowstone and Teton segments, which would would likely markedly increase the amount of remain high in numbers in many years, increasing browsing pressure on private lands on East Gros their winter use of western parts of the park such Ventre Butte and areas to the north and west. as the Spread Creek/Uhl Hill area. Aspen and cottonwood habitat on these private lands are already used by mule deer and moose, Direct competition between elk/bison and other and therefore, competition for forage would in- ungulates in native grassland and sagebrush crease. shrubland habitats in the park would likely not increase to any measurable degree despite the If large numbers of elk migrated to the Green major reduction in winter feeding on the refuge River basin and the Red Desert in the long term, because the number of elk in the park segment this could result in direct competition between elk would decline by a major degree. Although the and other ungulates for forage in riparian and as- bison population would remain large and a larger pen woodland, agricultural, native grassland, and number of bison would winter in the park, no sagebrush shrubland habitats on federal, state, other grazing ungulates (aside from elk) would and private lands in localized areas, resulting in winter in the same areas in the park. degradation of habitat.

To the extent that mule deer would be displaced Potential Effects of Bovine Tuberculosis and from key habitats in the park compared to Alter- Paratuberculosis — Potential effects of tubercu- native 1 due to eliminating the elk reduction pro- losis and paratuberculosis on mule deer, moose, gram in the Blacktail Butte and Kelly hayfields and bighorn sheep, if the diseases became estab- areas would benefit mule deer by reducing distur- lished in the elk and bison populations under Al- bance and movements. ternative 3, would be similar to those discussed for Alternative 2, except that the chances and ex- Bridger-Teton National Forest — Larger num- tent of effects would be somewhat higher due to a bers of elk compared to Alternative 1 would use larger number of bison and winter feeding during

368 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates

severe winters. Under Alternative 3 there would increase the potential risk of other ungulates be- be a moderately lower risk of the diseases being ing infected). transmitted from elk or bison to other ungulate populations. In the park aspen habitat would improve in many areas that are now being heavily grazed by elk. In Potential Effects of Chronic Wasting Disease — areas where winter use by elk increased, competi- Given the major reductions in elk numbers and tion with moose for browse could increase during concentrations on the refuge in the long term and some winters. Alternative 3 would not result in the reduction of winter feeding to severe winters the impairment of park resources. only, the adverse impacts associated with an outbreak of chronic wasting disease would be lower Alternative 4 than under Alternative 1. If chronic wasting disease became established after Alternative 3 was Analysis fully implemented, the prevalence of the disease National Elk Refuge — In the long term on the would likely be representative of other infected refuge the level of competition between elk, mule populations of elk, such as those in southeastern deer, and moose would increase due to increased Wyoming and north-central Colorado. This would use of the northern end of the refuge by elk in result in a lower chance, as compared to Alterna- non-feed years (despite a moderate reduction in tive 1, that the prevalence of chronic wasting dis- elk numbers) and the exclusion of nearly 1,000 ease in mule deer in Jackson Hole would exceed acres of aspen habitat. Excluding ungulates from the prevalence in other infected mule deer popula- the exclosure would result in more browsing by tions. Regardless of how elk are managed in Jack- ungulates outside the exclosure, which would di- son Hole, the mule deer population would still be rectly increase competition and result in a more adversely impacted by the introduction and rapid degradation and loss of aspen stands in the spread of chronic wasting disease, but Alternative long term as compared to Alternative 1. 3 would not add to the severity of adverse impacts. The severity of impacts would be much less Additionally, elk would be excluded from these than under Alternatives 1, 4, and 5. large areas and migrating elk would be forced to move around the aspen exclosure, resulting in a Conclusion higher level of browsing pressure by elk in nearby aspen and willow habitats and accelerating the Of the alternatives being considered, Alternative rate of degradation and loss of these habitats. Al- 3 (similar to Alternatives 2 and 6) would have the though fewer bison would slow the decline of least amount of adverse impacts to other ungu- woody plant communities outside of exclosures on lates on the refuge, except that competition be- the refuge as compared to Alternative 1, impacts tween bighorn sheep, elk, and bison could poten- would continue to occur (primarily due to elk tially increase under these alternatives compared browsing). Therefore, the net effect on mule deer to Alternative 1. This alternative would have the and moose would be detrimental as compared to second largest amount of riparian and aspen Alternative 1. Adverse impacts to moose using woodland habitat available to mule deer and the northern end of the refuge would not be as moose on the refuge, especially if large numbers intense as the impacts to mule deer because the of elk began migrating out of the Jackson Hole cottonwood community along the Gros Ventre area. Alternative 3 would have the third lowest River receives proportionally more use by moose risk of any of the alternatives in terms of the se- than aspen communities, and the Gros Ventre cot- verity of an outbreak of a non-endemic infectious tonwood community would not be adversely im- disease in elk and/or bison that could adversely pacted to any large degree. impact the population health of other ungulates. High bison numbers under Alternative 3 would Elk and bison would be more widely dispersed cause a comparatively higher potential of major and would make greater use of standing forage adverse impacts to mule deer and moose if a dis- and browse during non-feeding winters and for ease such as bovine tuberculosis became estab- longer periods during winters when supplemental lished in the elk and/or bison herds (which would forage was provided. This would result in a

369 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES greater use of forage by elk and bison in sage- Grand Teton National Park — It is not clear brush shrubland and grassland habitat in the whether Alternative 4 would have a net beneficial northern part of the refuge. Actual impacts to or detrimental effect on mule deer and moose in mule deer would be negligible due to the low the park. The number of elk in the park herd seg- number of mule deer wintering on the refuge un- ment would decline to an estimated 1,300–1,600, der baseline conditions. which would reduce direct competition and heavy browsing of woody vegetation in riparian and as- Use of Miller Butte by elk would likely increase as pen woodlands. As previously described, the compared to Alternative 1, which could adversely park’s new Fire Management Plan (NPS 2004b) affect bighorn sheep and reduce the likelihood of aims to ensure that, unless a natural result of mule deer resuming their use of Miller Butte as a plant succession, fire would continue to play its wintering area. Because long-term bison numbers role in influencing vegetation patterns on much of would be substantially lower under Alternative 4 the park landscape. Under Alternative 4 fewer than under Alternative 1, Alternative 4 could po- elk, and the park’s fire management program, tentially result in less competition between bison would contribute to less aspen habitat loss, with and bighorn sheep on Miller Butte. Increased for- direct benefits to mule deer and moose. age production in cultivated fields would help offset any increased use of Miller Butte by elk and Direct competition between elk, bison, and other bison under Alternative 4. ungulates on agricultural lands, native grassland, and sagebrush shrubland habitats in the park The increase in forage production in areas newly during summer and fall would decline by a negli- equipped with sprinkler irrigation systems on the gible degree as a consequence of moderately re- refuge would not affect other ungulates to any ducing elk numbers and substantially reducing measurable degree because pronghorn generally bison numbers, and because only a minor amount do not use meadows and pastures that produce of competition occurs at present due to differing tall grasses, bighorn sheep do not use cultivated habitat and dietary requirements. Converting fields, and the vegetation that would be encour- agricultural lands to native vegetation would fur- aged in these fields is not favored by mule deer ther reduce competition by increasing native and moose. Changes in elk and bison numbers on grassland and sagebrush habitat. This would pri- the refuge would not affect the use of cultivated marily benefit pronghorn in the short term due to fields by ungulates because most of the use these the conversion of nonnative grassland habitat to fields receive from other ungulates occurs when native grassland habitat, which would include a elk and bison are not present. diversity of forbs. As bitterbrush, sagebrush, and other shrubs increased in cover and height, mule Disturbance effects of hunting on mule deer and deer and moose would begin to benefit. moose on the northern portion of the refuge and the eastern side of the park would be similar to Bridger-Teton National Forest — Larger num- Alternative 1. It is possible that mule deer have bers of elk would use winter range in the national been displaced from preferred habitats on the ref- forest, which would increase already heavy uge and in the park and that some mule deer leave browsing pressure on aspen stands. The increase the refuge and park prematurely, which could in- in elk use of winter range would be less under this crease the harvest of refuge and park deer. It alternative than under Alternatives 2 and 3; does not appear that hunting activities have more therefore, the net benefits to other ungulates than negligible or minor effects on moose distribu- would be slightly higher. Larger numbers of elk tion, survival, and production. Pronghorn and big- using native winter range in the Buffalo Valley horn sheep would not be affected. area and the Gros Ventre River drainage, as compared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1, The fence along U.S. 26/89 would continue to would increase competition between elk and block the movement of bighorn sheep to East moose for browse in willow and cottonwood habi- Gros Ventre Butte, thereby forcing them to re- tats and would contribute to further degradation main on Miller Butte. The fence would also con- and loss of these habitats, but the increase would tinue to block the movement of mule deer be- be negligible or minor (similar to Alternatives 2 tween East Gros Ventre Butte and Miller Butte. and 3). Therefore, impacts to mule deer and moose

370 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates using willow and cottonwood stands (as opposed large numbers of elk would continue to winter on to aspen stands) in the national forest would be the refuge (4,000–5,000 compared to 5,000–7,500 adverse. under Alternative 1) and because winter feeding would continue in about half the winters, potential Competition between elk and moose might also adverse impacts would not be reduced nearly to increase in areas supporting bitterbrush and the extent that they would be under Alternatives other upland shrub species in the Gros Ventre 2, 3, and 6. The prevalence of chronic wasting dis- River drainage and Buffalo Valley. Damage to ease in elk would likely be between prevalence vegetation caused by higher numbers of elk on under Alternatives 1 and 3, as would potential native winter range would also reduce the amount impacts to mule deer. of forage available to other ungulates. It is not clear whether the moderate reduction in winter Conclusion feeding, a moderate reduction in elk numbers on the refuge, and a major reduction in bison num- Alternative 4 would be more detrimental to mule bers would result in increased or decreased use of deer, moose, and bighorn sheep on the refuge than south- and west-facing slopes immediately east of Alternative 1 and possibly more detrimental than the refuge. any other alternative. Alternative 4 would result in a higher level of adverse impacts to mule deer Other Lands — On BLM and private lands in the and moose because it would immediately exclude Jackson Hole area direct competition between elk nearly 1,000 acres of aspen habitat from use by and other ungulates for forage could increase in mule deer and moose, and it would accelerate the localized areas. It is not anticipated that many elk degradation of habitat and increase competition would leave the refuge in winter because elk and for browse outside the exclosure. The potential bison numbers would be reduced, they would be adverse impacts of some diseases (e.g., chronic fed an estimated 4–5 winters out of 10 on average, wasting disease) to mule deer would only be and sufficient standing forage would be available slightly lower under Alternative 4 than under Al- to them in average and below-average winters. ternative 1, but higher than under Alternatives 2, Potential adverse impacts on riparian and aspen 3, and 6. Competition between elk, bison, and woodlands on BLM and private lands would be other ungulates on Miller Butte could potentially considerably less than the effects of Alternatives be higher than baseline conditions, but would be 2 and 3, but could be slightly higher than those of lower than under Alternative 1 if the burgeoning Alternative 1. bison population under that alternative began grazing on Miller Butte. Potential Effects of Bovine Tuberculosis and Paratuberculosis — If bovine tuberculosis or It is not clear whether Alternative 4 would have a paratuberculosis became established in the elk or net beneficial or detrimental effect on mule deer bison population under Alternative 4, the poten- and moose in the park. However, the changes tial adverse impact to other ungulates would be would be negligible to minor. Alternative 4 would lower by a negligible to minor extent, as com- not result in the impairment of other ungulate pared to Alternative 1. This would be due to the populations in the park. minor to moderate reduction in elk numbers, a major reduction in bison numbers, and reduced Alternative 5 winter feeding to an estimated 4–5 winters of 10. Potential adverse impacts to other ungulates Analysis would be higher under Alternative 4 than under National Elk Refuge — In the long term aspen Alternatives 2, 3, and 6, but less than under Al- habitat outside the exclosure on the refuge would ternatives 1 and 5. disappear at a faster rate than they would under Alternative 1 because the exclosure would con- Potential Effects of Chronic Wasting Disease — centrate browsing in other areas. As aspen habi- Alternative 4 would lower the potential adverse tat became more and more scarce, direct competi- impacts associated with chronic wasting disease, if tion between elk, mule deer, and moose would it became established in the Jackson Hole area, as compared to Alternative 1. However, because

371 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES increase until aspen habitat outside the exclosure any measurable changes in competition between was no longer available. elk, bison, and bighorn sheep.

Similar to Alternative 4, the condition and amount Similar to Alternative 4, the increase in forage of willow, aspen, and cottonwood habitat available production in areas newly equipped with sprinkler to mule deer and moose on the refuge under this irrigation systems on the refuge would not affect alternative would decline faster than under Al- other ungulates to any measurable degree. ternative 1, despite the major improvement in the Pronghorn under baseline conditions are few in condition of willow and aspen stands inside exclo- number and the amount of forage already avail- sures on the refuge, because these areas would able to pronghorn during summer months far ex- not be available to mule deer and moose. Elk ceeds the needs of the population. Furthermore, would also be excluded from these large areas, pronghorn generally do not use meadows and pas- and the aspen exclosure would force migrating elk tures that produce tall grasses. Thus, increasing around its periphery, causing a higher level of the height and density of grass in cultivated fields browsing pressure in nearby aspen and willow would tend to discourage use by pronghorn. The habitat, which would accelerate the rate of degra- cultivated fields that would be sprinkler irrigated dation and loss of these habitats. Increasing wil- have been infrequently used by mule deer and are low habitat by about 500 acres and cottonwood not used by moose or bighorn sheep. The vegeta- habitat by 100 acres on the refuge would not bene- tion that would be encouraged in cultivated fields fit moose because they would be excluded from is not favored by mule deer or moose. Changes in these areas. Although the reductions in bison elk and bison numbers on the refuge would not numbers would slow the decline of woody plant affect the use of cultivated fields by ungulates communities outside exclosures on the refuge to a because most of the use these fields receive from small degree as compared to Alternative 1, im- other ungulates occurs when elk and bison are not pacts would continue to occur (primarily due to present. elk browsing). Therefore, the net effect on mule deer and moose would be adverse compared to Disturbance effects of hunting on mule deer and Alternative 1. Adverse impacts to moose using moose on the northern portion of the refuge and the northern end of the refuge would not be as the eastern side of the park would be similar to severe as the impacts to mule deer because the Alternative 1. Mule deer may have been displaced cottonwood community along the Gros Ventre from preferred habitats on the refuge and in the River receives proportionally more use by moose park, and some mule deer could leave the refuge than aspen communities, and the Gros Ventre cot- and park prematurely, which could increase the tonwood community would not be adversely im- harvest of refuge and park deer. It does not ap- pacted to any large degree. pear that hunting activities have more than negligible to minor effects on moose distribution, sur- The major reduction in bison numbers on the ref- vival, and production. Pronghorn and bighorn uge (and no change in elk numbers under Alterna- sheep would not be affected because they are not tive 5) would result in no more than a negligible present in hunt areas when hunting is occurring. increase or decrease in direct competition between elk, bison, mule deer, moose, and bighorn The fence along U.S. 26/89 would continue to sheep for forage in sagebrush shrubland and block the movement of bighorn sheep to East grassland habitat on the refuge, as compared to Gros Ventre Butte, thereby forcing them to re- baseline conditions. The winter diets of mule deer main on Miller Butte. The fence would also con- and moose do not overlap with the winter diet of tinue to block the movement of mule deer be- bison. Under baseline conditions bison do not tween East Gros Ventre Butte and Miller Butte. graze on Miller Butte, and the reduction in bison numbers under Alternative 5 would further en- Grand Teton National Park — Alternative 5 sure that bison would not graze on Miller Butte in would have negligible beneficial effects on mule the future (as compared to Alternative 1 under deer and moose in the park as compared to base- which bison grazing on the butte could increase line conditions and Alternative 1 due to the minor substantially). Alternative 5 would not result in reduction in elk numbers in the park. This could

372 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates negligibly reduce browsing pressure in riparian No additional effects would be anticipated on and aspen woodlands. BLM and private lands in the Green River basin and the Red Desert (similar to Alternative 1). Direct competition between elk, bison, and other ungulates in agricultural, native grassland, and Competition between elk and other ungulates in sagebrush shrubland habitats in the park during sagebrush shrublands, grasslands, and agricul- summer and fall would decline by a negligible de- tural habitats on BLM and private lands in the gree because of a negligible to minor reduction in Jackson Hole area would continue to be minimal, elk numbers and a major reduction in bison num- as under Alternative 1. bers, and because present competition is minimal due to differing habitat and dietary requirements. Potential Effects of Bovine Tuberculosis and Converting agricultural lands to native vegetation Paratuberculosis — If bovine tuberculosis or would further reduce competition by increasing paratuberculosis became established in the elk or the amount of native grassland and sagebrush bison herd, impacts of Alternative 5 on the poten- habitat. The conversion to native habitat would tial transmission to other ungulates would be primarily benefit pronghorn in the short term due lower by a minor amount due to fewer bison. The to the conversion of nonnative grassland habitat potential for the diseases to be transmitted from to native grassland habitat, which would include a elk to other ungulates under Alternative 5 would diversity of forbs. As bitterbrush, sagebrush, and be similar to that under Alternative 1. Potential other shrubs increased in cover and height, mule adverse impacts to other ungulates would be deer and moose would begin to benefit. higher than under Alternatives 2, 3, 4, and 6.

Bridger-Teton National Forest — The downward Potential Effects of Chronic Wasting Disease — trend in condition of riparian and aspen woodlands Given the similarity in elk numbers and winter in the national forest would not be altered by this feeding practices on the refuge, Alternatives 1 alternative, as the effects would be similar to Al- and 5 would sustain a similar high potential for ternative 1. Elk would continue to compete di- producing or facilitating high prevalence rates of rectly for browse with mule deer and moose in the chronic wasting disease in elk and deer. If riparian and aspen woodlands, and continued high chronic wasting disease became established in levels of browsing by elk and other ungulates Jackson Hole, the artificially high concentrations would continue to deplete available browse in of elk would facilitate a higher prevalence of some areas. chronic wasting disease in the herd than occurs in non-fed populations. This would result in an ele- Competition between elk and other ungulates in vated potential for transmission to mule deer and sagebrush shrubland and grassland habitats in the the potential for increased adverse impacts to the national forest would not be altered by Alterna- deer herd (see the potential effects of Alternative tive 5. The effects would be similar to Alternative 1). 1. Elk would continue to compete directly for browse with mule deer and moose in riparian and Conclusion aspen woodlands, and browsing by elk and other ungulates would continue to deplete available Alternative 5 would immediately exclude mule browse in some areas. Although there could be a deer and moose from nearly 1,000 acres of aspen large reduction in the amount of bison grazing on habitat and would accelerate the degradation of south- and southwest-facing slopes immediately willow and aspen habitat outside the exclosures east of the refuge, bison currently are not com- on the refuge as compared to Alternative 1. How- peting with other ungulates for forage on these ever, adverse impact would not be as large as slopes. they would be under Alternative 4. Competition between elk and other ungulates would not differ Other Lands — Competition between elk and appreciably from the level of competition that other ungulates in riparian and aspen woodlands would occur under Alternative 1. on BLM and private lands in the Jackson Hole area would continue to be minimal, as under Al- Alternative 5 would have negligible beneficial ef- ternative 1. fects on mule deer and moose in the park as com-

373 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES pared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1 due aspen habitat (about 1,850 acres) would be re- to the minor reduction in elk numbers in the park. stored to Class I or II condition, which would This could potentially reduce browsing pressure benefit mule deer and moose. This contrasts with in riparian and aspen woodlands by a negligible Alternative 1, where aspen habitat would con- amount. Alternative 5 would be similar to Alter- tinue to decline in condition and most stands on native 1 from the standpoint of an elevated poten- the refuge would eventually disappear. Alterna- tial of mule deer and moose populations being af- tive 6 would result in the largest amount of woody fected if a non-endemic infectious disease became vegetation in healthy conditions and the largest established in Jackson Hole. Alternative 5 would amount of this habitat that would be available to not result in the impairment of other ungulate mule deer and moose. populations in the park. There would be few if any measurable changes in habitat conditions or competition between elk, Alternative 6 bison, and other ungulates in sagebrush shrub- Analysis land, grassland, and agricultural habitats on the refuge and park under this alternative. National Elk Refuge — In the first few years of implementing this alternative, the level of compe- Despite fewer elk and bison, direct competition tition between elk and other ungulates in willow, between elk, bison, mule deer, moose, and bighorn aspen, and cottonwood habitat at the north end of sheep for forage in sagebrush shrubland and the refuge would increase somewhat, despite de- grassland habitat on the refuge would increase in clining numbers of elk, because of the erection of many years over the long term due to the higher the first aspen exclosures (totaling up to 600 reliance of elk and bison on standing forage be- acres). After five years, winter feeding would cause winter feeding would be eliminated. No cease completely, a second 600-acre aspen exclo- feeding of elk and bison (after 5–10 years) and no sure would be constructed, and the northern por- hunting on the northern fifth of the refuge would tion of the refuge would be closed to hunting; result in elk and bison being more widely dis- these actions would contribute to higher levels of persed throughout more of the winter, with a browsing by elk, especially if an elk hunt at the higher proportion of refuge elk and bison using south end of the refuge forced animals north. sagebrush shrubland and grassland habitat in the However, the major reduction in elk numbers and northern part of the refuge. In addition to in- dismantling of the first aspen exclosure (esti- creased competition for browse, it would also be mated to occur within 10 years) would mitigate anticipated that Alternative 6 could result in a adverse effects to some extent. reduction in the amount of sagebrush and other upland shrubs due to overbrowsing and hoof ac- Elk numbers on the refuge would decline further tion, which would further reduce the amount of as a result of above-average and severe winters, browse available to mule deer and moose. Actual which would provide periodic relief to willow, as- impacts to mule deer would be negligible due to pen, and cottonwood habitat (thereby enhancing the low number of mule deer wintering on the their health and productivity and reducing elk refuge under baseline conditions. competition with mule deer and moose). After an estimated 25–30 years, all aspen habitat would Once elk numbers had been reduced to a maxi- again be available to mule deer and moose on the mum of 2,400–2,700 animals, the overall use of refuge. If good and fair condition aspen habitat Miller Butte by elk could be lower. While heavy was maintained in most aspen stands over the use of shrubs by elk could occur in some years, the long term, it is possible that increased browse, lower maximum number of elk under this alterna- along with elk numbers below 3,200 on the refuge, tive and periodic reductions in elk numbers after could mitigate the effects of eliminating winter above-average and severe winters (down to as low feeding and closing part of the refuge to hunting. as an estimated 1,200 elk due to higher mortality) would provide periods when shrubs could recover In the short term habitat conditions within aspen on Miller Butte and mule deer could winter on stands outside exclosures would not change ap- other areas on the refuge. Therefore, some im- preciably. In the long term most of the acreage of provement in habitat conditions on the butte and

374 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates

lowered competition with mule deer for browse Grand Teton National Park — Although the would be possible under Alternative 6. number of elk in the park segment would be lower than the baseline level by a major amount, winter Use of Miller Butte by bison would be higher, use by elk could increase after winter feeding on which in combination with continued use by elk the refuge was eliminated and as a larger amount (albeit possibly at lower levels in some years), of potential winter habitat in the park was con- could adversely affect bighorn sheep in some win- verted to early seral plant communities. More elk ters, as compared to baseline conditions. In most wintering in the park could increase direct compe- winters, a sufficient amount of forage would likely tition with moose, but because elk numbers in the exist in areas used by bighorn sheep on the butte. summer would be considerably lower than under Increased forage production in cultivated fields Alternative 1, overall competition between elk would help offset the increased use of Miller Butte and other ungulates in willow, aspen, and cotton- by elk and bison under Alternative 6. As com- wood habitats would be lower. Lower elk num- pared to Alternative 1 in the long term, competi- bers in the park following above-average and se- tion between elk, bison, and bighorn sheep for vere winters would provide periods when aspen forage on Miller Butte could be lower under Al- and other habitats could recover. In most areas of ternative 6 if large numbers of bison began graz- the park where the condition of aspen stands has ing on Miller Butte under Alternative 1 (due to been affected by heavy elk browsing, the condi- refuge staff no longer being able to control the tion of the stands would improve somewhat due to distribution of the bison herd). If large numbers of fewer elk in the park segment. Also, the park’s elk began wintering outside of the Jackson Hole new Fire Management Plan (NPS 2004b) aims to area, direct competition between elk, bison, mule ensure that, unless a natural result of plant suc- deer, moose, and bighorn sheep could be lower cession, fire would continue to play its role in in- than the potential effects described above. fluencing vegetation patterns on much of the park landscape. Benefits on mule deer and moose Competition between elk, bison, mule deer, would likely be greater than under Alternative 1. moose, and bighorn sheep for forage in sagebrush and grassland would not reach the level that it Direct competition between elk, bison, and other would under Alternative 2 (where elk numbers ungulates in agricultural, native grassland, and could be higher in some years and irrigation sagebrush shrubland habitats in the park during would be eliminated), but it could be higher than summer and fall would have the potential to de- all other alternatives due to higher elk and bison cline to some degree due to the major reduction in numbers than under Alternative 3 and the lack of elk and bison numbers in the park. The closure of winter feeding. Effects of sprinkler irrigated the Blacktail Butte/Kelly hayfields area to the elk fields would be similar to those of Alternative 4. reduction program (and possibly elimination the program in the park) would result in elk, including To the extent that mule deer are being displaced elk from other segments, moving more slowly from key habitats on the refuge and park under through grassland and sagebrush habitat during baseline conditions due to elk hunting on the ref- fall and early winter, which could offset the de- uge and the elk herd reduction program in the cline in competition to some extent. However, park, the eventual elimination of hunting on part these habitats receive little use by other ungu- of the refuge and in the Blacktail Butte and Kelly lates during fall. Furthermore, elk and bison have hayfields area would benefit mule deer by reduc- different habitat and dietary requirements than ing disturbance and movements. other ungulate species during winter. Converting agricultural lands to native vegetation would fur- Maintaining the fence along U.S. 26/89 would con- ther reduce competition by increasing the amount tinue to block the movement of bighorn sheep to of native grassland and sagebrush habitat. East Gros Ventre Butte, thereby forcing them to remain on Miller Butte. The fence would also con- Direct competition between elk, bison, and other tinue to block the movement of mule deer be- ungulates in grassland and sagebrush shrubland tween East Gros Ventre Butte and Miller Butte. habitats in the park could increase during winter in the long term due to the eventual elimination of winter feeding on the refuge and the resulting

375 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES increase in winter use of park habitats. This would and/or moose for forage on federal, state, and pri- result in competition between elk and moose for vate lands in areas where elk began wintering. browse (e.g., bitterbrush) in the sagebrush shrubland habitat. More bison wintering in the Potential Effects of Bovine Tuberculosis and park under this alternative, as compared to base- Paratuberculosis — If bovine tuberculosis or line conditions and Alternative 1, would result in paratuberculosis became established in the elk little or no competition with other ungulates be- and bison populations after Alternative 6 was cause bison and elk would be the only grazing un- fully implemented, there would be a moderate gulates at lower elevations of the park during reduction in the risk of these diseases being winter. transmitted from elk and bison to other ungulates compared to Alternative 1 and similar to Alterna- Bridger-Teton National Forest — Larger num- tive 2. Although tuberculosis and paratuberculosis bers of elk would use winter range in the national are typically not sustained in free-ranging popula- forest, which would increase already heavy tions of ungulates that are not artificially concen- browsing pressure on aspen stands. More elk us- trated (Williams 2001), they have been sustained ing native winter range in the Buffalo Valley area in some free-ranging situations (Peterson 2003). and the Gros Ventre River drainage would in- Nonetheless, it would be much less likely that crease competition between elk and moose for these diseases would be sustained in the elk herd, browse in willow and cottonwood habitats, con- and the prevalence in the bison herd would be tributing to further degradation and loss of these much less under Alternative 6. Consequently, the habitats. Therefore, there could be a net adverse herds would not provide a continual source of po- impact to mule deer and moose using willow and tential transmission to bighorn sheep on winter cottonwood stands (as opposed to aspen stands) in range. Because tuberculosis and paratuberculosis the national forest, assuming that elk numbers in would likely not pose a major problem to mule the Jackson elk herd unit remained near the herd deer and moose under Alternative 1, the reduced objective of about 11,000 animals. risk under Alternative 6 would result in only negligible potential benefits to these two species. Of Potential effects on mule deer, moose, and bighorn the alternatives being considered, Alternative 6 sheep in the national forest would be similar to would provide the least amount of risk to other those under Alternative 2. Because the number of ungulate species. elk on native winter range in the national forest would increase under Alternative 6, direct compe- Potential Effects of Chronic Wasting Disease — tition would increase between elk, mule deer, Alternative 6 (and Alternative 2) would have the moose, and bighorn sheep in grassland, sagebrush, least potential for adversely impacting mule deer and other upland shrubland habitats, assuming in the Jackson Hole area because of a low number that elk numbers remained near the elk herd ob- of wintering elk on the refuge and the elimination jective of about 11,000 animals. of artificial concentrations of elk on the refuge, as described for Alternative 2. Other Lands — On BLM and private lands in the Jackson Hole area direct competition between elk Conclusion and other ungulates for forage would increase in localized areas after winter feeding was elimi- Of the alternatives being considered, Alternative nated on the refuge. On some lands browsing and 6 (similar to Alternatives 2 and 3) would have the grazing pressure by elk could be heavy, which least amount of adverse impacts to other ungu- would substantially increase competition between lates on the refuge, except that competition be- elk, mule deer, and moose on private lands in Buf- tween bighorn sheep, elk, and bison could increase falo Valley, Jackson Hole, and possibly Hoback under these alternatives compared to baseline Canyon. conditions. Alternative 6 (along with Alternatives 2 and 3) would have the largest amount of riparian If large numbers of elk migrated to areas outside and aspen woodland habitat available to mule deer Jackson Hole, this could result in an increase in and moose on the refuge, especially if large num- direct competition between elk and mule deer bers of elk began migrating out of the Jackson Hole area. Alternative 6 (along with Alternatives

376 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates

2 and 3) would have the lowest risk of any of the could be undertaken to restore fire’s natural role. alternatives in terms of the severity of an out- This could better maintain a natural diversity break of a non-endemic infectious disease in the within and among aspen stands in the park and elk or bison herd that could adversely impact the would benefit mule deer and moose. population health of other ungulates. To alleviate potentially higher levels of competi- In the park aspen habitat would improve in many tion between elk, bison, and bighorn sheep on areas that are now being heavily grazed by elk, Miller Butte under alternatives that reduced the but some aspen stands could potentially degrade frequency of winter feeding on the refuge, exclo- faster (e.g., in areas where winter use by elk sures or wing fences could be constructed. would increase). In areas with more winter use by elk, competition with moose for browse could in- To reduce the potentially significant adverse im- crease during some winters. Prescribed fire could pacts on mule deer and moose from the introduc- offset increased levels of elk grazing in aspen tion of a non-endemic infectious disease under habitat if aspen suckers were protected from un- alternative where winter feeding continued gulate grazing. While it is difficult to determine (thereby compounding the adverse effects that whether changes in habitat conditions and level of would occur if a non-endemic infectious disease competition under Alternative 6 would result in a was introduced), winter feeding could be immedi- net improvement or detriment to mule deer and ately reduced by a major amount or eliminated, moose in the park, the changes would be negligi- and/or elk and bison numbers could be reduced in ble to minor. Because of attempts to maintain order to reduce the potential of transmission. Re- natural densities of elk and bison, Alternative 6 ducing the potential for transmission would result (together with Alternative 2) would have the low- in a lower prevalence in elk and bison, which est potential for other ungulate populations in the would reduce the extent to which the disease can park to be infected by a non-endemic disease be transmitted to other ungulate species, which in transmitted from elk or bison. Alternative 6 turn could result in a lower prevalence in these would not result in the impairment of park re- other ungulate populations. These mitigation sources. measures are addressed in Alternatives 2 and 3, although under these alternatives the measures are intended to be preventive, rather than reac- Mitigation tionary. In areas where elk are limiting the recruitment of willow, aspen, and cottonwood seedlings and Although stopping winter feeding and reducing suckers on refuge and national forest lands, exclo- elk numbers if chronic wasting disease was dis- sures could be used constructed or electric fences covered in the elk population could alleviate some could be used during critical periods to allow the of the adverse impacts to mule deer, it would not seedlings and suckers to reach heights that would be as effective as reducing winter feeding and elk enhance their survival. While costs could be high numbers prior to an outbreak of chronic wasting if this mitigation was used in conjunction with disease. It takes more than 15 months to detect treatments in aspen habitats in the national forest chronic wasting disease in mule deer (Williams et (i.e., large areas), it might be necessary at least on al. 2001) and presumably about the same amount a small scale near elk feedgrounds or on heavily of time in elk. Furthermore, the prevalence would used winter range. Alternatives 4–6 include long- be so low during the first few years, that the term exclosures. Other efforts to restore willow chance of detecting the disease would be low. This and cottonwood habitat damaged by large num- would give the disease at least a few years to bers of elk wintering on native winter range in the spread, increase in prevalence, and become well Buffalo Valley area and Gros Ventre River drain- established in the population before any action age would benefit mule deer and moose in these could be taken in response to detecting it. areas. The impact analysis conducted for each alterna- To offset adverse impacts of elk on aspen habitat tive assumes that winter feeding would already in the park, prescribed burning of large acreages have been fully phased back to anticipated levels of aspen habitat being encroached by conifer trees prior to any introduction of a non-endemic infec-

377 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES tious disease. It is quite possible that chronic terface (WUI) areas. However, these actions are wasting disease could become established in the not expected to adversely affect ungulates at a elk and mule deer herds inhabiting the Jackson population level because WUI areas and their Hole area during the initial stages of implementa- immediate vicinity already have reduced habitat tion. Mitigation measures under this scenario effectiveness. WUI areas represent a small part could include the following: of habitat available to park wildlife, and the vast majority of wildlife habitat in Grand Teton Na- • phase out winter feeding completely within tional Park occurs outside developed areas. two to four years • reduce the population through public hunt- Prescribed fire could be used to maintain and re- ing, agency culling, or a combination of both store more diverse vegetative communities in landscapes where natural fire regimes have been • depopulate the herds through agency culling disrupted. Prescribed fires could, in the short and The effects of phasing winter feeding out within a long terms, alter plant communities and displace few years as an emergency action would be simi- individual ungulates from certain portions of habi- lar to the effects described under Alternatives 2 tat, but the long-term effects could create vegeta- and 3, except that hunting would be used in some tive diversity that would benefit moose and mule alternatives to reduce numbers at the same time deer. that winter feeding was being curtailed. If any of these options was implemented, the effects would Negative impacts due to the loss of habitat and materialize much quicker than identified under inaccessible habitat on the refuge and in the park Alternatives 2 and 3. It is unlikely that winter under Alternatives 1, 4, and 5 could be offset to feeding would be phased out without a concerted some extent by improved habitat conditions for effort to reduce numbers and vice versa. ungulates due to the park’s fire management program. Alternatives 2, 3, and 6 would have beneficial cumulative effects due to improved habitat on Cumulative Effects the refuge, combined with improved habitat in the Transportation Improvements park as a result of the fire management program. The reconstruction of U.S. Highway 26/287 would disturb about 117 acres of “crucial” moose habitat, Grand Teton National Park Recreation Infra- 24 acres of moose seasonal range (Jackson herd), structure Improvements and 12 acres of seasonal mule deer habitat (Sub- Potential construction of a multi-use trail ex- lette herd) along the existing road corridor. The tending from Moose to the north Jenny Lake reconstruction might also increase ungulate mor- junction would result in site-specific, temporary tality due to vehicle collisions as traffic volume impacts along planned trail routes during the grows. Along some portions of the highway re- summer. The finished trail would attract addi- taining walls, guardrails, and passing lanes would tional recreationists along the Snake River corri- create both short- and long-term barriers to dor during the summer and possible cross-country movement. Upgrading the existing highway is not skiers in the winter. expected to result in extensive effects in terms of blocking migration routes or movement corridors. The trail construction phase would likely displace It is anticipated that cumulative effects on overall mule deer and moose within or near work areas in mule deer and moose herd dynamics would be the short term and make habitat unavailable. If negligible. pathways were separate from existing roads, long-term impacts to mule deer and moose could Federal Land Management Activities include loss of habitat, loss of the use of habitat near the new pathways, and changes in move- Grand Teton National Park Fire Management ments and distribution. Improved human access Mechanical treatments could result in a small re- to parts of the park could increase levels of dis- duction in ungulate habitat, reduced habitat qual- turbance to mule deer and moose and could alter ity, and short-term disturbance that could dis- distribution and habitat use. The range and spe- place animals in proximity to wildland urban in-

378 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Other Ungulates cific details of the improvements are unknown at forage opportunities in some areas due to reduc- this time. tions in forage areas immediately after various fuel reduction treatments and increased trail op- Improvements to the Gros Ventre campground portunities. In the long term, however, the proj- would result in site-specific, temporary impacts ects could result in enhanced forage opportunities during construction, with a minor increase in the for ungulates due to regeneration of nutrient-rich number of summer campers and the potential for undergrowth. The benefits of increased forage for displacement of mule deer and moose. These im- ungulates could be less for mule deer and moose provements would potentially increase distur- under Alternatives 2, 3, and 6 if Jackson elk mi- bance to moose and mule deer in summer and al- grated to the Green River basin, increasing com- ter distribution and habitat use, although effects petition for forage that would result from the would likely be negligible because the areas al- Moose-Gypsum project. ready have reduced habitat effectiveness. BLM Snake River Resource Management Plan Negative impacts on mule deer and moose habitats on the refuge and in the park under Alterna- Greater public access could increase conflicts with tives 1, 4, and 5 could be compounded to some ex- mule deer and moose and negatively impact tent by loss of habitat for mule deer and moose woody riparian habitats that provides browse for due to infrastructure improvements. The benefi- ungulates. Continued management of conserva- cial effects of improved habitat on the refuge un- tion easements for open space and wildlife habitat der Alternatives 2, 3, and 6 could be offset by would help protect foraging habitat. Pursuit of a habitat being lost due to the park’s infrastructure long-term protective withdrawal to prohibit the improvements, but the effects would likely be staking and development of mining claims would negligible. also benefit mule deer and moose by preventing potential adverse impacts to habitats. Bridger-Teton National Forest Fuels Manage- Cumulative effects would not be expected under ment Projects Alternatives 1 and 5 because competition between Bridger-Teton National Forest has identified 15 elk and other ungulates would not increase. Al- fuels reduction projects in the primary analysis ternatives 2, 3, and 4 in average or milder than area and several others in the secondary analysis average winters, as well as Alternative 6, would area. These projects would alter about 9,400 acres increase elk distribution in some years, resulting of national forest land and could temporarily di- in greater potential for competition between elk minish forage opportunities immediately after and other ungulates and possible cumulative ef- various fuel reduction treatments. In the long fects on other ungulates along the Snake River. term, however, most of these projects would improve ungulate transition and winter habitats. Pinedale Anticline Oil and Gas Exploration and Development Project Long-term, enhanced forage in fuels reduction areas would benefit all ungulates. Because of re- Oil and gas development activities in the Pinedale duced or eliminated winter feeding on the refuge, anticline project area could impact crucial winter Alternatives 2, 3, and 6 would result in more elk range for deer and antelope. Seasonal and location wintering on native range and potentially heavy restrictions would protect wintering big game. browsing in fuels reduction areas, reducing the Cumulative effects would not be expected under amount of forage available to mule deer and Alternatives 1 and 5 because these alternatives moose. would not affect competition between elk and other ungulates. Alternatives 2, 3, and 4 in average or milder than average winters, as well as Bridger-Teton National Forest Travel Manage- Alternative 6, would increase elk distribution in ment Plan Updates / Moose-Gypsum Projects some years, resulting in greater potential for The management projects planned in the secon- competition between elk and other ungulates in dary analysis area would alter existing ungulate the secondary analysis area and increasing the habitat. The projects could temporarily diminish

379 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES possibility for cumulative effects on other ungu- Population Growth and Private Land Development lates in the Pinedale anticline study area. Primary Analysis Area Projected population increases in both Teton and Jonah Infill Drilling Project Sublette counties would continue to create a de- The pronghorn antelope is the only big game spe- mand for private land development in these areas. cies that regularly inhabits the Jonah infill project Habitat loss, increases in other ungulate/human area. The degree of habitat fragmentation within encounters and conflicts, vehicle collisions with the project area at current levels is high and is mule deer and moose, and changes to movements expected to increase with the proposed project could occur. under any of the action alternatives. The proposed action for the Jonah infill drilling project would Some of the most important wintering area in result in an estimated increase (over present con- Jackson Hole (East and West Gros Ventre buttes) ditions) of 16,200 acres of new initial disturbance, occurs on private lands. This area is immediately for a total of 20,409 acres of project-related sur- adjacent to major developments such as residen- face disturbance. Cumulative effects would not be tial and commercial areas that continue to grow. expected to occur under Alternatives 1 and 5 for Furthermore, the encroachment of private devel- bison and elk management because these alterna- opment continues to be the largest threat to mule tives would not affect competition between elk deer winter range on East and West Gros Ventre and other ungulates. Alternatives 2, 3, 4 in aver- buttes (Clark and Campbell 1981; Minta and age or milder than average winters, as well as Campbell 1991). Few parts of this winter range Alternative 6, would increase elk distribution in complex are protected by conservation easements some years, raising potential competition between and by out-holdings of the National Elk Refuge elk and other ungulates in the secondary analysis (across the highway from the refuge on East Gros area and increasing the possibility for cumulative Ventre Butte), which would provide long-term effects on other ungulates in the Jonah infill proj- protection to small portions of the winter range. ect area. Proximity to high-density housing areas and highways has resulted in indirect harassment by Snake River Restoration Activities people, disturbance and mortality caused by dogs, Restoration of the Snake River channel the U.S. and vehicle-caused mortality along highways and Army Corps of Engineers could affect woody ri- roads (Clark and Campbell 1981; Minta and parian habitat for a variety of wildlife species, Campbell 1991). Ongoing home construction on including mule deer and moose along the Snake top of East Gros Ventre Butte could increasingly River. This environmental restoration project affect use of east-facing slopes by mule deer. It is would prevent further degradation of habitat and possible that residential development in Jackson facilitate habitat recovery. Hole has cut off migration routes of mule deer between summer and traditional winter areas. Cumulative effects as a result of bison and elk management alternatives would not be expected Another key factor affecting mule deer wintering under Alternatives 1 and 5 because these alterna- in Jackson Hole is that habitat quality of winter tives would not affect competition between elk ranges is in a deteriorated condition. Because and other ungulates. Alternatives 2, 3, and 4 in most of the mule deer winter range in Jackson average or milder than average winters, as well as Hole is close to the town of Jackson and residen- Alternative 6, would increase elk distribution in tial developments, and the majority of mule deer some years, raising potential competition for for- winter range on East and West Gros Ventre age between elk and other ungulates along the buttes is privately owned, there is a low probabil- Snake River and lessening the benefits of im- ity that the habitat would be burned or otherwise proved habitat. treated in the future. Without such treatment, habitat would continue to decline in condition.

Additional development near or adjacent to the Snake River is subject to the Natural Resource

380 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Predators and Scavengers

Overlay (NRO) zoning district requirements (see sin, and parts of the migration route are threat- Chapter 1, “Reasonably Foreseeable Actions”), ened by residential development in the Pinedale which will help sustain migration in these areas area (Madson 2001). Development or activities in by protecting migration routes and crucial winter these areas would not increase competition be- ranges. Residential development of platted and tween other ungulates and Jackson elk under Al- zoned parcels to the south and west of the Jackson ternatives 1, 4, and 5 because elk movements and Hole Airport, within the primary analysis area, distribution either would not increase from cur- has greatly reduced the potential for ungulate rent distribution (Alternatives 1 and 5) or would migration between Grand Teton National Park increase to a limited extent in some years (Alter- and habitat on private lands. native 4). Under Alternatives 2, 3, and 6 the combination of Jackson elk migrating to the Green Two narrow corridors of open land near Gros River basin and increased development in Sub- Ventre Junction could sustain the major east-west lette County would result in greater competition migration in the Jackson Hole Airport area. The between elk and other ungulates for winter range. northernmost area is protected by conservation easements, while the narrow corridor to the south is partially included in the NRO district and ap- Potential Jackson elk migration to the Green pears to be a private open space component of the River basin under Alternatives 2 and 3 would help Bar-B-Bar Meadows subdivision. These protected protect the corridor and would bring added rec- lands could continue to support a migration corri- ognition to the importance of the corridor, which dor through the area, although it is not known would benefit mule deer. However, a large influx whether there is sufficient habitat to sustain such of elk would increase competition for browse. Un- a corridor for the long term. der Alternative 4, no effort would be made to restore elk migrations to the Green River basin, but Additional development on private lands in the the protection of migration corridors for prong- Buffalo Valley area would be outside of or on the horn and mule deer would be supported, which perimeter of the winter range for ungulates and is would benefit mule deer. subject to the NRO district requirements. Such development, if it occurred, is not expected to adversely affect ungulate use of the winter range in PREDATORS AND SCAVENGERS the area. In the study area elk are the primary prey of large predators, such as black bears, cougars, and Because elk would continue to be fed on the ref- coyotes. Scavengers such as coyotes, ravens, and uge under Alternatives 1 and 5, and under Alter- magpies feed on dead elk and bison when car- native 4 in above-average and severe winters, casses are available. Therefore, predators and competition between elk and other ungulates scavengers would be affected by changes in the would not increase on native winter range. Alter- number of elk and bison and their mortality rates. natives 2, 3, and 4 in average or milder than aver- Factors that affect elk and bison numbers and age winters, and potentially Alternative 6, would distribution include a change in the population increase elk distribution in some or all years. This, objectives of elk and bison on the refuge and in combined with human population growth and de- the park that would redistribute animals to other velopment, would likely affect increase competi- areas, a reduction in winter supplemental feeding tion between mule deer, moose, and elk. on the refuge (which would also redistribute elk and bison to other areas and possibly increase Secondary Analysis Area winter mortality), and the introduction of new diseases, such as chronic wasting disease or tu- Within the secondary analysis area in Sublette berculosis. County, ongoing and future subdivision and development of agricultural lands could disrupt mi- Impacts on gray wolves, grizzly bears, and bald gration routes and reduce the availability of un- eagles are discussed under “Threatened, Endan- gulate winter range in the upper Green River gered, and Species of Special Concern.” Lynx, and valley. Many of the mule deer that summer in the wolverines are not expected to be affected by bi- Jackson Hole area winter in the Green River ba- son and elk management, and therefore, are not

381 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES analyzed. The effects of each alternative on black Alternatives 4 and 3, with the least risk under bears are expected to be generally similar to ef- Alternatives 2 and 6 (approximate equal risk). fects on grizzly bears, and the effects on coyotes similar to the effects on wolves. Predators and scavengers would not be impacted by contracting paratuberculosis, brucellosis, or chronic wasting disease under any of the alterna- Impacts of the Alternatives tives because they are not known to be suscepti- Impacts Common to All Alternatives ble to these diseases (Williams 2001; Thorne et al. 1982). Long-tailed Weasels, Mink, Red Foxes, Striped Skunks, and Bobcats — Red foxes and striped If bovine tuberculosis became established in the skunks are common predators that can thrive in a Jackson Hole area, predators and scavengers variety of habitats and feed on a variety of food might be able to contract the disease from elk and sources. Bobcats and long-tailed weasels, although bison. Although individual animals might develop less common, can also live in various habitats and symptoms and die directly, the disease could not feed on numerous food sources, but tend to focus be sustained within the population and passed on small mammals and birds. Mink occur in along to other members of the species (Roffe, marshes and along watercourses and feed on fish pers. comm. 2002). There are no documented cases and small mammals. Accurate data on population of predator and scavenger species in North numbers for these species is not available. They America maintaining the disease within their could feed on elk or bison carrion opportunisti- populations (Clifton-Hadley et al. 2001). cally, but ungulate carrion is probably a negligible to minor part of their diets. Long-tailed weasels, Direct Effects of Human Disturbance — Some mink, red foxes, striped skunks, and bobcats are species of predators and scavengers, such as coyo- not addressed in detail because actions being con- tes, ravens, and magpies, are attracted to the sidered in the alternatives would have negligible feedgrounds as a result of large concentrations of to minor effects on their population numbers if elk and bison. Animals new to the feeding opera- there are any effects at all. tions might be wary at first, but they seem to habituate quickly. Therefore, predators and scaven- Disease Impacts — If a new disease (e.g., bovine gers would be negligibly impacted by manage- tuberculosis, paratuberculosis, or chronic wasting ment activities associated with the supplemental disease) was introduced into the Jackson Hole feeding program in all alternatives in the short area and caused a moderate to major reduction in term and Alternatives 1, 3, 4, and 5 in the long elk and/or bison numbers, predators and scaven- term. Supplemental feeding on the refuge would gers in general would benefit in the short term be gradually phased out under Alternatives 2 and due to more vulnerable prey and more carcasses 6, which would eventually eliminate any possible available for scavenging. In the long term preda- disturbance effects of activities associated with tors and scavengers could be negatively impacted winter feeding. Under Alternative 3 feeding due to a decrease in available prey. The risk of would only occur in the severest winters. this happening would increase in alternatives with high concentrations of animals, which would tend Predators and scavengers would be impacted to a to foster the spread of an infectious disease. negligible degree by activities associated with elk and bison hunting in all alternatives except 2. The severity of impacts on predators and scaven- Hiking and horseback riding and the firing of ri- gers that could result from tuberculosis or para- fles in the northern portion of the refuge and the tuberculosis substantially decreasing the Jackson eastern side of the park could temporarily disturb elk and bison populations would be greatest under predators and scavengers in the immediate area. Alternative 1, followed by Alternatives 5, 4, and 3, However, these impacts would not affect survival with the least risk under Alternatives 2 and 6 (ap- and reproduction. The long-term net effect of proximate equal risk) (HaydenWing and Olson adding a bison hunt and reducing elk hunting op- 2003). The severity of impacts from chronic wast- portunities would be a reduction in human distur- ing disease would be greatest under Alternatives bance during the hunting season under Alterna- 1 and 5 (approximately equal risk), followed by tives 3, 4, and 6.

382 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Predators and Scavengers

Under Alternative 2 no hunting on the refuge or The most common predators and scavengers on an elk herd reduction program in the park would the refuge and in the park are ravens, magpies, be allowed. Therefore, predators and scavengers coyotes, and badgers. They prey on small mam- would not be disturbed by associated human ac- mals and birds, as well as scavenge elk and bison tivities. carcasses and gut piles left by hunters. Coyotes also prey on elk calves. Ravens, magpies and Alternatives 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 include cultivation of coyotes often occur in large concentrations on the 2,400 acres on the refuge and either flood irriga- refuge feedgrounds in the winter and would be tion or flood and sprinkler irrigation. Under Al- affected by changes in supplemental feeding and ternatives 2 through 6, 4,500 acres of agricultural hunting. Badgers could be affected by habitat lands in the park would be restored to native changes in native grassland and sagebrush shrub- vegetation, which could take up to 30 years to land communities. Golden eagles are also occa- complete. Farming and irrigation management sionally seen scavenging on ungulate carcasses. practices on the refuge and restoration activities on the agricultural lands in the park could disturb Elk and Bison Numbers and Distribution — predators and scavengers during the day, but im- Predators and scavengers could potentially bene- pacts would be negligible in the short and long fit from a growing bison population, and eventu- terms. ally bison would become so numerous that at some point they could disperse outside the park and the Under Alternative 2 and Option B of Alternative refuge into the national forest or private lands, 3 farming and irrigation practices would be elimi- making them available for hunting. The resulting nated on the refuge, so less human disturbance gut piles and carcass remains could benefit coyo- would occur on the southern part of the refuge, tes, ravens, golden eagles, magpies, and black with negligible, beneficial impacts. bears. This situation could also lure bears and coyotes into closer proximity to people, resulting Impacts on Other Lands — Predators and scav- in increased human-caused mortality; however, engers on other federal and private lands in Jack- the effect on a species population would be negli- son Hole and the Green River basin would not be gible. affected or would be affected to a negligible degree by actions that are being considered in this Black bears and coyotes would continue to benefit planning process. An exception to this could occur by preying on elk calves in the spring and scav- under Alternatives 2, 3, and 6. If elk spent more enging elk carcasses opportunistically. Since the time on BLM lands in Jackson Hole or if large numbers of elk would remain similar to baseline numbers of elk migrated to the Green River basin conditions, these predator species would not be and the Red Desert, predators and scavengers in impacted by elk management under Alternative 1 these areas could benefit from more available any more than they have been affected in the re- prey animals and more winter-killed carcasses. cent past.

Cougars would not be affected by elk manage- Alternative 1 ment in the short or long terms anymore than Analysis they have been affected in the recent past. Base- line elk numbers are considered sufficient to sus- Black bears scavenge ungulate carcasses and prey tain a healthy population of cougars. A study in on elk calves. They occur in the park and may Yellowstone National Park and Gardner Basin rarely be seen on the refuge. While black bear analyzed kills by cougars, with an ungulate being numbers are unknown, their population is consid- killed on average every 9.4 days (Murphy 1998). ered stable. Annual predation rates ranged from a combined total of 34 elk and mule deer killed by adult female Cougar numbers are estimated at 28 resident cougars without cubs to 52 elk and mule deer adults, and cougars have been regularly sighted killed by family groups. Elk were the most impor- on the refuge and in the park. They prey primar- tant prey item, comprising approximately 61% of ily on large ungulates and could be affected by 302 confirmed and probable cougar kills. Ap- changes in elk numbers. proximately 68% of the elk killed were calves.

383 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Effects of Habitat Changes — Badgers on the ref- winters and lower than the short and long-term uge could benefit compared to baseline conditions projections for this alternative initially as a result because their native grassland and sagebrush of bison fertility control and stopping supplemen- shrubland habitats would expand by a negligible tal feeding and farming on the refuge. The bison amount in the short term and a minor amount in and elk herds would also be more distributed the long term. Badgers in the park and on other throughout winter range than under Alternative federal and private lands in Jackson Hole would 1. not be affected by actions under Alternative 1. In some years fewer elk and bison under Alterna- tive 2 could affect scavengers, such as coyotes, Conclusion black bears, golden eagles, magpies, and ravens. Compared to baseline conditions, many predators In the long term scavengers might be adversely and scavengers on the refuge and in the park affected in mild winters because even though the could benefit from increased mortality of growing mortality rate could be comparable to baseline numbers of bison due to natural mortality. Preda- conditions, there could be fewer elk and bison, and tors and scavengers would not be affected by elk they would be distributed more widely through- numbers and distribution any more than they out the Jackson Hole area, making carcasses have been in the past. Badgers could benefit from harder to find compared to baseline conditions and the expansion of native grassland and sagebrush Alternative 1. However, winter mortality of the shrubland habitats on the refuge but would not be elk and bison on the refuge and the WGFD feed- affected in the park any more than they have been grounds is currently artificially low because of in the past. This alternative would not result in supplemental feeding. At present, the most im- the impairment of predators and scavengers in portant mortality factor is hunting. Under Alter- the park. native 2 increased winter mortality during above- average and severe winters would make more carcasses available to scavengers. Because hunt- Alternative 2 ing on the refuge and the elk reduction program in Analysis the park would be eliminated, no gut piles or other carcass remains left by hunters would be Elk and Bison Numbers and Distribution — Af- left for scavengers. Black bears could be nega- ter cessation of bison fertility control and in the tively impacted through the loss of a rich source of absence of hunting on the refuge and in the park, protein and fat for bears that are preparing for elk and bison populations would likely go through hibernation. cycles, increasing in mild years and experiencing high mortality during severe winters. Under Al- Although overall numbers of elk and bison could ternative 2 annual winter mortality for elk is es- be reduced, some predators could benefit from timated to range between 1% and 20%. The higher more of these ungulates being on native winter the mortality, the more carcasses would be avail- range rather than concentrated on the refuge. able for scavenging by predators and scavengers. This could mean that more winter-killed elk would If fertility control was not successful in reducing be available as carcasses in the spring for black bison numbers to levels that the habitat could bears, which do not normally occur on the refuge. support, reductions in winter feeding (and higher However, black bears and coyotes could be nega- mortality) would be used to reduce their numbers tively affected by fewer calves available for pre- on the refuge, which would greatly benefit scav- dation in the spring and summer. If bears turned engers in the short term. to livestock due to lower numbers of elk calves in the spring, more bears could potentially be killed Many predators and scavengers would be posi- by government authorities and ranchers. The im- tively impacted in years when bison and elk num- pact of fewer calves on coyotes would probably be bers rose and negatively impacted in years when negligible because coyotes eat a large variety of they fell. This would be particularly true in the foods and are more adaptable than many other park where elk numbers could fall to as low as 600 predators. in some years. Elk and bison numbers would be lower than under baseline conditions after severe

384 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Predators and Scavengers

Fewer elk in some years in the long term could gers could be temporarily disturbed by associated mean reduced prey for cougars compared to base- activities; impacts would be negligible. line conditions and Alternative 1. Fewer elk in some years could either increase the amount of Effects of Habitat Changes — Under Alternative time cougars spent hunting, increase reliance on 2 badgers on the refuge could benefit, compared other prey species, or reduce cougar numbers. Elk to baseline conditions, because native grassland numbers under Alternative 2 might be able to and sagebrush shrubland habitats would expand support the existing cougar population, similar to by a minor amount in the short term and a moder- baseline conditions. In addition, in winter elk ate amount in the long term. In the park badgers would be more widely distributed on native range, could benefit in the long term because 4,500 acres which could mean that more prey would be avail- of agricultural lands would be converted to sage- able, increasing winter survival for cougars whose brush shrubland and native grassland habitats. territories do not include the refuge. If large numbers of elk did not migrate outside In the long term, if large numbers of elk migrated Jackson Hole, badgers on private lands in Jackson to the Green River basin and the Red Desert, Hole could experience negative impacts in local- there might be fewer prey animals for predators ized areas. Elk that were no longer being fed on and scavengers in the Jackson Hole area com- the refuge in the winter would likely forage more pared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. often on private lands compared to baseline condi- However many elk would remain in the Gros Ven- tions, resulting in further habitat degradation, tre, Buffalo Valley, and other areas of Jackson reduced residual vegetation, and loss of acreage in Hole. Therefore, predators and scavengers might some areas. be negatively affected, but to a negligible degree compared to baseline conditions and Alternative If large numbers of elk did migrate outside Jack- 1. Predators and scavengers in the Green River son Hole, badgers on BLM lands and private lands basin and the Red Desert would benefit but only in the Green River basin could be negatively af- to a negligible degree due to more wintering un- fected in localized areas as a result of native gulates and increased numbers of carcasses. grassland and sagebrush shrubland communities experiencing higher levels of grazing and brows- Direct Effects of Human Disturbance — Under ing. This could result in habitat degradation and Alternative 2 fertility control would be used to loss of acreage in some areas, negatively affecting help reduce bison numbers in the short term. Bi- small mammals that badgers prey on. son would likely be contracepted on feedlines. Predators and scavengers, such as coyotes, rav- Biosafety of Wildlife Contraceptives — A fertility ens, and magpies have become accustomed to hu- control program would be carried out on bison man activities associated with feeding elk and bi- involving surgical sterilization or biochemical con- son, so it is likely that they would eventually be- traceptives. Biochemical contraceptives approved come accustomed to contraception activities car- for use in free-ranging wildlife do not enter the ried out simultaneously. If fertility control was food chain and therefore would have no adverse carried out in the park, predators and scavengers affects on predators and scavengers. could be temporarily disturbed to a negligible degree by humans walking through various habitats Conclusion searching for bison and shooting dart guns. Predators and scavengers on other federal lands Many predators and scavengers would benefit in and private lands in Jackson Hole would not be years of high elk and bison mortality on the refuge affected by fertility control activities because they and in the park and would likely be adversely af- would only be carried out on refuge and park fected in mild years after the elk and bison herd lands. had declined, compared to Alternative 1. Some predators and scavengers such as black bears and On the refuge, an estimated 2,400 acres of culti- cougars could benefit from elk and bison being vated fields would be restored to native vegeta- more widely distributed over the landscape and tion under Alternative 2. Predators and scaven- suffering higher winter mortality. Fewer calves born in the spring due to fertility control could

385 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES adversely affect some predators and scavengers, because coyotes eat a large variety of foods and such as bears and coyotes. Badgers on the refuge are more adaptable than many other predators. and in the park could benefit due to the expansion of their preferred habitats. This alternative would Fewer elk in some years in the long term could not result in impairment of predators and scaven- reduce potential prey for cougars in the Jackson gers in the park. Hole area compared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. This means that fewer elk in some years could either increase the amount of time Alternative 3 spent hunting, increase reliance on other prey Analysis species, or reduce cougar numbers. Elk numbers under Alternative 3 might be able to support the Elk and Bison Numbers and Distribution — In existing cougar population to a similar extent as some years fewer elk under Alternative 3 could baseline elk numbers. In addition, elk would be affect scavengers, such as golden eagles, coyotes, more widely distributed on native winter range, black bears, magpies, and ravens. In the long which could mean more prey and increased winter term, scavengers might be adversely affected survival for cougars whose territories do not in- during mild and average winters because even clude the refuge. though the mortality rate might be comparable to baseline conditions, there would be fewer elk. In the long term, if large numbers of elk migrated However, the winter mortality of the elk and bi- to the Green River basin and the Red Desert, son on the refuge and state feedgrounds is cur- there could be fewer prey animals for predators rently artificially low because of supplemental and scavengers in the Jackson Hole area com- feeding. At present, the most important mortality pared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. factor is hunting. Under Alternative 3 gut piles However many elk would remain in the Gros Ven- and other carcass remains and wounded animals tre, Buffalo Valley, and other areas of Jackson not retrieved by hunters would provide scaven- Hole that contain winter range. Therefore, preda- gers with food in the fall and winter. This food tors and scavengers could be negatively affected, source would increase in the short term on the but to a negligible degree. Predators and scaven- refuge and in the park as hunting increased in gers in the Green River basin and the Red Desert order to reduce the Grand Teton elk herd seg- would benefit a negligible degree due to more ment. However, gut piles would decline in the wintering ungulates and carcasses. long term due to a reduced elk harvest. Direct Effects of Human Disturbance — Distur- Compared to Alternative 1, scavenger numbers bance effects of a brucellosis vaccination program could be lower because the bison population would would be similar to the effects of a fertility control not be allowed to grow without limit under Alter- program carried out on the feedlines or in the native 3 and there could be fewer bison carcasses park. These effects would be negligible and tem- to scavenge. However, during the hunting season porary. there could be more gut piles on the refuge, and since supplemental feeding would occur an esti- Effects of Habitat Changes — Compared to Al- mated 2 out of 10 winters, there could be more ternative 1, badgers could be negligibly affected winter-killed elk and bison throughout Jackson under Option A by changes in native grassland Hole in non-feeding years. and sagebrush shrublands habitats. Under Option B badgers would benefit by a minor amount due Although overall numbers of elk could be lower in to more acres in native grassland and sagebrush some years, some predators and scavengers could shrubland habitats. Badgers in the park could benefit from more of these ungulates being on benefit due to the restoration of 4,500 acres of ag- native winter range rather than concentrated on ricultural lands to native grassland and sagebrush the refuge. This could mean that more winter- shrubland communities. killed elk and bison would be available as carcasses in the spring for black bears, which do not The effects of Alternative 3 on badgers on BLM normally occur on the refuge. The impact of fewer lands and private lands in Jackson Hole and the calves on coyotes would probably be negligible,

386 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Predators and Scavengers

Green River basin would be similar to the effects would still benefit but to a lesser degree because of Alternative 2. fewer bison would be in the herd and fewer would need to be harvested, leaving fewer gut piles. Conclusion Direct Effects of Human Disturbance — Brucel- Most predators and scavengers on the refuge and losis vaccination disturbance effects to predators in the park would benefit in years of high elk and and scavengers would be similar to the effects of bison mortality and would likely be adversely af- the feeding program, which are negligible and fected in mild years after the elk and bison herd temporary. had declined in numbers compared to Alternative 1. However, some predators and scavengers, such Effects of Habitat Changes on Predators and as black bears, could benefit from elk and bison Scavengers — Changes in sagebrush shrubland being more distributed over the landscape and and native grassland habitat acreage on the ref- suffering higher winter mortality. Badgers could uge would have minor, negative effects on badg- be negligibly adversely impacted on the refuge by ers in the long term compared to baseline condi- a slight decline in their preferred habitats. Badg- tions and Alternative 1. Badgers could benefit ers in the park could be positively affected due to from farming practice changes under Alternative an expansion of their preferred habitats. This al- 4 because the improved irrigation system, to- ternative would not result in impairment of gether with increased forage production in culti- predators or scavengers in the park. vated fields, could result in more small mammals for badgers to prey upon. Badgers in the park would likely benefit from the restoration of 4,500 Alternative 4 acres of agricultural lands to native grassland and Analysis sagebrush shrubland communities. Elk and Bison Numbers and Distribution — In All predators that feed on small mammals, such as years when the refuge would continue to supple- hawks, badgers, and coyotes, could benefit if more mentally feed elk and bison, the effects on preda- small mammals inhabited the cultivated fields due tors and scavengers would be similar to baseline to changes in the irrigation system and higher conditions and Alternative 1. forage production. During average and below-average winters when Biosafety of Strain 19 Vaccination for Brucellosis elk would not be supplementally fed on the refuge — Predators and scavengers would be exposed to and would rely on native winter range, elk and Strain 19 and RB51 after consuming elk and bison bison mortality and vulnerability would likely be but would not be expected to experience any higher than under baseline conditions and Alter- negative effects (Cook and Rhyan 2002;WGFD native 1. Some predators and scavengers could 2002b). benefit from more widely distributed and vulnerable prey. Black bears could benefit if more winter-killed elk and bison died in areas that are ac- Conclusion cessible to bears after they emerge from hiberna- Most predators and scavengers in the park and tion in the spring. Cougars whose territories do refuge would benefit due to higher elk and bison not include the refuge could also benefit from mortality and wider distribution of carcasses and more widely distributed and vulnerable prey. prey during years when the refuge did not provide supplemental feed. In particular, black bears Scavengers would benefit in the short term as that do not normally occur on the refuge would relatively large numbers of bison were killed to benefit from a wider distribution of winter-killed bring numbers down from an estimated 800–1,000 elk and bison. In years when the refuge did feed, (at the signing of the record of decision) to 450– there would be no effect on most predators and 500. Hunters would leave numerous gut piles on scavengers compared to Alternative 1. Badgers refuge and national forest lands in the first few could be adversely impacted by a minor decline in years as the herd was being reduced. In the long the amount of their preferred habitat on the ref- term, compared to Alternative 1, scavengers uge. Badgers in the park could be positively af-

387 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

fected due to expansion of their preferred habitats Conclusion because of habitat restoration. This alternative With regard to elk numbers and distribution, the would not result in impairment of predators and effects on predators and scavengers on the refuge scavengers in the park. and in the park would be similar to the effects of Alternative 1. Most scavengers would greatly Alternative 5 benefit in the short term from gut piles left by hunters as bison numbers were reduced from 800– Analysis 1,000 animals to 400 animals. Scavengers would Elk and Bison Numbers and Distribution — The continue to benefit in the long term from the bison effects of elk numbers and distribution on preda- hunt but to a lesser degree because fewer animals tors and scavengers under Alternative 5 would be would be killed. Badgers on the refuge could be similar to the effects under baseline conditions adversely impacted in the long term by a minor and Alternative 1. decline in the amount of their preferred habitat. Badgers in the park could be the positively af- Scavengers would benefit in the short term as fected due to habitat restoration. This alternative relatively large numbers of bison were killed to would not result in impairment of predators and bring numbers down from an estimated 800–1,000 scavengers in the park. (at the signing of the record of decision) to 400. Similar to Alternative 4, hunters would leave nu- Alternative 6 merous gut piles on refuge and national forest lands in the first few years as the herd was being Analysis reduced. In the long term, compared to Alterna- Elk and Bison Numbers and Distribution — In tive 1, scavengers would still benefit, but to a some years, fewer and more widely distributed lesser degree because fewer bison would be in the elk and bison under Alternative 6 could affect herd and fewer would need to be harvested, leav- predators and scavengers, such as golden eagles, ing fewer gut piles. Furthermore, fewer would be magpies, ravens, coyotes, cougars, and black destroyed on private lands. bears. In the long term, some species of scavengers might be adversely affected in mild and av- Direct Effects of the Human Disturbance — Elk erage winters compared to baseline conditions would be vaccinated against brucellosis on feedli- and Alternative 1 because they would be distrib- nes by means of biobullets. Effects of disturbance uted more widely throughout the Jackson Hole to predators and scavengers would be similar to area, making carcasses harder to find. However, the effects of the feeding program, which appear black bears do not normally occur on the refuge, to be minimal. Therefore, any disturbance of so the wider distribution of carcasses would be a predators and scavengers due to the vaccination potential benefit. In hard winters scavengers both program would be negligible and temporary. on and off the refuge would benefit from a larger number of winter-killed elk and bison because the Effects of Habitat Changes — The effects of habi- winter mortality rate would no longer be kept tat changes on predators and scavengers due to artificially low by supplemental feeding. changes in farming practices on the refuge and restoration activities in the park would be similar Possible benefits of changes in carcass availability to the effects of Alternative 4. could be offset to an unknown extent by periodic reductions in elk numbers to an estimated 600– Biosafety of Strain 19 and RB51 Vaccination for 1,600 in the park and an estimated minor reduc- Brucellosis — Predators and scavengers would be tion in elk numbers in the Yellowstone and Teton exposed to Strain 19 and RB51 after consuming Wilderness herd segments. Fewer elk in the park elk and bison but would not be expected to expe- would also result in fewer elk calves for black rience any negative effects (Cook and Rhyan 2002; bears, cougars, and coyotes to prey upon in the WGFD 2002b; Kreeger 2002). spring. If black bears turned to livestock as a result of lower numbers of elk calves in the spring and fewer winter-killed elk, more bears could potentially be killed by government authorities and

388 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Predators and Scavengers

ranchers. The impact of fewer calves and car- when the elk herd was below objective, they casses on coyotes would probably be negligible, would be negatively affected by a moderate to because coyotes prey on a large variety of species major amount due to fewer available gut piles. and are more adaptable than many other predators. Although black bears greatly benefit from Fewer elk in some years in the long term could the protein that elk provide, the degree to which mean fewer prey for cougars in the Jackson Hole black bears would be impacted by reduced calf area compared to baseline conditions and Alterna- numbers and by reduced carcasses is unknown. tive 1. Fewer elk in some years could potentially Cougars would not likely be affected by fewer elk increase the amount of time spent hunting, in- calves and carcasses because they are capable of crease predation on other prey species, or reduce taking healthy adult elk. cougar numbers. It is also possible that elk numbers under Alternative 6 would be able to support Gut piles and carcass remains left by hunters and the existing cougar population to a similar extent wounded animals not retrieved by hunters could as baseline elk numbers. In addition, in the win- be an important source of protein for scavengers, ter, elk would be more widely distributed on na- such as ravens, coyotes, and black bears. Under tive winter range, so more prey could be available Alternative 6 elk hunting would continue on the to cougars, and winter survival for cougars whose refuge and the elk herd reduction program in the territories do not include the refuge would in- park (which could be discontinued if not needed in crease. However, elk number reductions of up to the long term), and bison hunting would begin on 80% in some years in the park would likely reduce the refuge. As numbers of elk decreased on the cougar numbers in that area. refuge and in the park in the long term, the number of elk killed during the hunting season would If large numbers of elk migrated outside the Jack- also decrease, and therefore available gut piles son Hole area in the winter, fewer elk and bison would decrease. Bison hunting would initially would die on native winter range in this area, so provide many gut piles for scavengers, but as the less food would be available for predators and bison herd was reduced to the objective of an es- scavengers compared to a situation in which most timated 400 post-hunt, the number of gut piles elk remain in the Jackson Hole area. However, available each hunting season would be much less. many elk would remain on the Gros Ventre feed- Scavengers on the refuge and in the park would grounds or on winter range in the Gros Ventre benefit in the short term, but in the long term drainage, Buffalo Valley, and other areas of Jack- scavengers would be negatively affected by a ma- son Hole that contain winter range. Therefore jor amount due to lower number of gut piles and predators and scavengers could be negatively af- other remains available compared to baseline con- fected, but only to a negligible degree compared ditions and Alternative 1. to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. Preda- tors and scavengers in areas outside the Jackson Elk and bison hunting would continue in the na- Hole area could benefit to a negligible degree due tional forest. However, hunting opportunities and to larger numbers of wintering ungulates in those the resulting gut piles would fluctuate depending areas. on the size of the herd and hunting quotas. Com- pared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1, the Effects of Habitat Changes on Predators and number of gut piles and other remains would be Scavengers — The effects of habitat changes on moderately higher when the elk herd was at the predators and scavengers due to changes in 11,000 objective because as the Grand Teton herd farming practices on the refuge and restoration segment decreased, the Teton Wilderness herd activities in the park would be similar to the ef- segment would represent a greater proportion of fects under Alternatives 4 and 5. the herd. After hard years, when elk herd numbers could fall to an estimated 8,100, the number Badgers on BLM lands and private lands in Jack- of gut piles would be moderately reduced because son Hole, the Green River basin, and the Red De- hunting would be reduced to allow the elk herd to sert would not be affected by actions that are be- rebound. Therefore, in some years scavengers ing considered under Alternative 6. would benefit by a moderate amount from the increase in gut piles and other remains, and in years

389 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Conclusion Some Generalities about Habitat Relationships of Small Mammals — Small-mammal population Most predators and scavengers on the refuge and research is complex and may at times be contra- in the park would benefit in years of high elk and dictory because small mammal communities are bison mortality and would likely be adversely af- extremely dynamic, and research findings can be fected in mild years after the elk and bison herds influenced by the timing of the study. had declined in numbers compared to Alternative 1. However, some predators and scavengers, such Therefore, general principles pertaining to small as black bears and cougars, could benefit from elk mammal populations and habitat relationships are and bison being more distributed over the land- given below, based on the professional opinion of scape and suffering higher winter mortality. Dr. Rick Douglass (biologist with Montana Tech Badgers on the refuge could be adversely im- of the University of Montana in Butte, Montana): pacted in the long term due to a minor decline in their preferred habitats. Badgers in the park • Deer mice persist in a large variety of habi- could be positively affected due to habitat restora- tats. They could decline if sedges and grasses tion on the agricultural lands. This alternative became very thick. would not result in impairment of predators and • Voles are most abundant where litter cover scavengers in the park. is high. In areas where grasses remain un- grazed and litter builds, a threshold phe- Mitigation nomenon could occur, where numbers of voles begin to fluctuate, while below that Mitigation measures would not be necessary. threshold, numbers remain low. Above the threshold, vole numbers could become very Cumulative Effects high, but would still crash at times. No cumulative effects on predators and scaven- • Shrews tend to occur in wet environments, gers are expected as a result of impacts of the al- but also occur on dry sites. ternatives in combination with the impacts of rea- • When some types of grasslands are heavily sonably foreseeable actions. grazed, the density of small mammals might not change, but the turnover rate of individ- SMALL MAMMALS ual animals might be completely altered (i.e., the mortality rate is high ). This probably oc- Methodology Used to Analyze Effects curs because predation increases, but reproduction and immigration keep up with the Composition of Small Mammal Communities — removal. The analysis of potential effects of alternatives on small mammal populations is based primarily on The following summary of the possible changes in the relationship of small mammal communities to small mammal populations due to habitat conver- different habitat types. Many small mammal spe- sions is based on the professional opinion of cies occur in several different habitats. However, Mitchell Hannon (Yellowstone Ecological Re- an individual species tends to do better in some search Center and the University of Nevada in plant communities, where it will occur at higher Reno, Nevada). His opinions are based on a densities, than in less optimal habitats, where it knowledge of species distributions and data col- will occur at lower densities. Therefore, the com- lected during small mammal surveys conducted in position of the small mammal community in one Yellowstone in 1992–93 and again in 2001–2. Data habitat type will differ from the composition of from the 1992–93 season can be found in Johnson the small mammal community in another habitat and Crabtree (1999). type, although both habitats will contain many of • Generally speaking, wetter environments the same small animal species (See “Small Mam- with more herbaceous vegetation would have mals” in Chapter 3). Small mammal populations greater small mammal diversity. also vary seasonally and annually, depending on factors such as precipitation, grazing pressure, • All species of small mammals that occur in and predation (Douglass, pers. comm. 2003). native grasslands in Jackson Hole can also

390 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Small Mammals

occur in sagebrush shrublands. When native squirrel populations would probably decrease grassland communities convert to sagebrush in density. shrubland communities and vice versa, the • Conversion of aspen woodland communities effects on the small mammal community to native grassland and sagebrush shrubland would depend on the quality of the grass un- habitats would likely change the small mam- derstory. Lush grasses growing beneath mal community in major ways. There would shrubs promote vole and ground squirrel be increases in deer mouse and ground squir- populations. Sparsely growing grasses would rel population densities but loss of flying result in low densities of small mammal spe- squirrel and red squirrels. Overall species di- cies. versity would decrease. • Deer mice, meadow voles, montane voles, and ground squirrels tend to live at high den- Impacts of the Alternatives sities in lush grassland. As grasses become sparser in native grassland habitat and sage- Impacts Common to All Alternatives brush shrubland habitat, deer mice, meadow Direct Effects of Human Disturbance — Small voles, montane voles, and ground squirrel mammals on the refuge would not be adversely populations would become less dense and, impacted or would be impacted to a negligible de- therefore, more dramatically affect the total gree by management activities associated with numbers of animals present in the area. the supplemental feeding program for elk or bison Shrews and jumping mice tend to live at low under Alternatives 1, 3, 4, and 5. Supplemental population densities wherever they are feeding would be phased out under Alternatives 2 found. Therefore, total numbers of small and 6. During the phaseout period, management mammals in sagebrush shrublands or native activities associated with supplemental feeding grasslands would not be greatly affected by would not adversely impact small mammals or changes in numbers of shrews and jumping would impact them to a negligible degree. The mice. effects would be negligible or nonexistent because • Conversion between native grassland habitat supplemental feeding would occur during winter and sagebrush shrubland habitat can affect in the cultivated fields where there are a low the level of cover available. Small mammals number of small mammal species (Swanekamp, species that use sagebrush as cover would pers. comm. 2002). The reasons that there are few tend to increase in abundance when sage- small mammals on cultivated fields probably re- brush shrubland habitat increases. Species lates to soil compaction from 90 plus years of that need open areas to view approaching thousands of ungulates on feedlines for an average predators tend to decrease in abundance of 70 days per year. In alternatives where sup- when sagebrush shrubland increases. plemental feeding would be reduced or eliminated, • Between native grassland and sagebrush small mammals might be able to colonize these shrubland habitats, the highest species di- areas in the long term. versity is likely to be in a sagebrush shrub- Small mammals on the refuge would not be ad- land habitat that has a patchy distribution of versely impacted or would be impacted to a negli- intermingling grassland and sagebrush. Con- gible degree by activities associated with elk and version of dry native grassland to a more or bison hunting in all alternatives except 2, which less homogenous sagebrush shrubland habi- would not allow hunting on the refuge or an elk tat that has a good grass understory is likely reduction program in the park. Hiking and horse- to result in an increase in small mammal di- back riding and the firing of rifles could tempo- versity. However the densities of each spe- rarily disturb small mammals in the immediate cies would be affected in different ways. area. However, these effects would not affect sur- Deer mice, rabbit, vole (meadow, montane vival and reproduction. and long-tailed) populations might not change much in density. Shrew, chipmunk, Small mammals on the refuge would not be ad- and sagebrush vole populations would likely versely impacted or would be impacted to a negli- increase in density, while gopher and ground gible degree by management activities associated

391 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES with a brucellosis vaccination program for elk and types would increase as riparian and aspen wood- bison under Alternatives 3, 4, and 5. Elk and bison land communities converted to sagebrush shrub- would be vaccinated on the feedlines. Small land and native grassland communities. Grazing mammals would not be affected beyond those ef- by unlimited numbers of bison in this alternative fects already associated with supplemental feed- could reduce residual grass cover in localized ar- ing. eas, which would adversely affect some small mammal species that depend on tall grass cover to Impacts on Marshland Habitats — Small mam- avoid predators. mal communities that are associated with marshlands in the Jackson Hole area and the Green Impacts to small mammal communities associated River basin would not be affected under any of with cultivated fields on the refuge would remain the alternatives any more than they have been similar to baseline conditions in the short and long affected in the recent past; any effects would be terms. Because plant species diversity and vege- negligible. tation structure is much lower in cultivated fields, the diversity of small mammals would remain low Impacts on Conifer Forest Habitats — Small compared to the diversity in sagebrush shrubland mammal communities that tend to do better in and native grassland habitats under natural con- conifer forests habitats in the Jackson Hole area ditions. Heavy grazing in the fall and winter and and the Green River basin would not be affected hoof action of large concentrations of ungulates under any of the alternatives or would be affected associated with feeding activities further reduces to a negligible degree. vegetation structure. Uinta ground squirrels and other small mammals would continue to be adversely impacted by flood irrigation activities that Alternative 1 would fill their burrows. Analysis Small mammal communities associated with wet National Elk Refuge — The composition of small meadow habitats on the refuge would expand mammal communities associated with willow, cot- slightly as their habitat increased by an estimated tonwood, and aspen habitats on the refuge would 50 acres in the short and long terms compared to shift toward a composition of small mammal spe- baseline conditions due to reductions in willow cies that tend to do better in wet meadow, native habitat. However, increasing numbers of bison in grassland, and sagebrush shrubland habitats as this alternative would likely cause adverse effects riparian and aspen woodland habitats decline by to wet meadow environments through hoof dam- an estimated 360 acres in the short term and by age and reduction of residual grass cover, which an estimated 2,120 acres in the long term com- would affect some small mammal species that de- pared to baseline conditions. Woodland riparian pend on tall grass cover to avoid predators. and aspen zones support a greater diversity of small mammals than other habitat types. As a Grand Teton National Park — The composition result of an estimated minor acreage decline in of small mammal communities in the park, that the short term in riparian and aspen woodland are associated with riparian and aspen habitats habitats and a major acreage decline in the long would shift towards small mammal communities term (Cole, pers. comm. 2003), small mammal di- that tend to due well in sagebrush shrubland habi- versity would likely decline. Red squirrels and tats because elk and bison are contributing to a flying squirrels would be lost due to the eventual minor decline in riparian and aspen woodland disappearance of aspen woodland habitat over the habitats. long term. Small mammal communities associated with agri- Small mammal communities associated with ref- cultural lands and wet meadow habitats would uge sagebrush shrubland and native grassland likely not be affected under Alternative 1. How- habitats would expand as their habitats increased ever, if a substantial amount of wet meadow plant by an estimated 310 acres in the short term and communities shifted to nonnative plant species an estimated 2,070 acres in the long term com- due to heavy grazing by ungulates, small mammal pared to baseline conditions. Both of these habitat diversity could decline.

392 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Small Mammals

Bridger-Teton National Forest — Small mammal by an estimated 310 acres (10%) in the short term communities that tend to do well in wet meadow, and an estimated 1,980 acres (60%) in the long riparian and aspen woodland, sagebrush shrub- term compared to baseline conditions. Woodland land, and native grassland habitats in the national riparian and aspen zones support a greater diver- forest would not likely be affected under Alterna- sity of small mammals; therefore, Alternative 2 tive 1. However, to the degree that elk are con- would cause a decrease in small mammal diversity tributing to the decline in riparian and aspen in the short and long terms. Red squirrels and woodland habitats in localized areas, that trend flying squirrels would disappear from the esti- would continue. Small mammals that tend to do mated 1,850 acres of aspen habitat that would well in riparian and aspen woodland communities convert to sagebrush shrubland and native would be negatively affected, and those that tend grassland communities. Alternative 2 would have to do well in sagebrush shrubland communities more small mammal diversity on the refuge than could expand due to habitat conversion. Alternative 1 because it would contain an estimated 150 more acres of riparian and aspen woodland habitat in the short term and an esti- Conclusion mated 40 more acres in the long term. However, a Management of elk on the refuge over the last 90 40-acre difference in habitat would result in a years (e.g., winter feeding and cultivation and negligible difference in the composition of small flood irrigation of nonnative plant species), and mammal communities in the long term. more recently bison, has resulted in moderate to major changes in habitats in some areas of the Small mammal communities on the refuge associ- refuge and park and could have substantially al- ated with sagebrush shrubland and native grass- tered the composition of small mammal communi- land habitats would expand as these habitats in- ties in some areas. Small mammal communities creased to an estimated 18,810 acres (17%) in the associated with sagebrush shrubland, native short term and an estimated 20,680 acres (28%) in grassland, and wet meadow communities on the the long term from the current estimated 16,100 refuge would expand compared to baseline condi- acres. In the long term an estimated 85% of this tions, while small mammal communities associ- 20,680 acres would be sagebrush shrubland habi- ated with riparian and aspen woodlands would be tat. Whether small mammal diversity increased reduced by a negligible amount. Overall diversity with conversion of native grassland habitat to of small mammal species on the refuge could de- sagebrush shrubland habitat would depend on the cline further, but the change would likely be neg- lushness of the grass understory, which would ligible. depend on aspect and the amount of utilization by elk and bison. Grazing by elk and bison reduces Overall diversity of small mammal species in the residual grass cover. Fewer elk and bison under park could decline because some riparian and as- this alternative would leave taller vegetation, pen woodlands would convert to conifer forest and which would benefit small mammal species that sagebrush shrubland communities. This alterna- rely on vegetation cover to avoid predators. tive would not result in impairment of small mammal communities in the park. The diversity of small mammals on the refuge would increase with the conversion of cultivated fields (approximately 2,400 acres) to native Alternative 2 grassland communities in the short term and to Analysis sagebrush shrubland habitats in the long term as compared to Alternative 1. Habitat changes under National Elk Refuge — Under Alternative 2 the Alternative 2 would probably result in more small composition of small mammal communities on the mammal species due to the greater variety of refuge associated with good and fair condition plant life and reduced concentrations of elk and willow, cottonwood, and aspen habitats would bison for long periods. Cessation of flood irriga- shift toward a composition of small mammal spe- tion would also benefit small mammals, such as cies that tend to do better in wet meadow, native Uinta ground squirrels, because their burrows grassland, and sagebrush shrubland habitats as would no longer be flooded. riparian and aspen woodland habitats decreased

393 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Compared to Alternative 1, Alternative 2 would Small mammal communities associated with wet have an estimated 100 fewer acres of wet meadow meadow habitats in the park would not be af- habitats, resulting in slightly fewer small mam- fected under Alternative 2. However, if a substan- mals who are dependent on wet meadow commu- tial amount of wet meadow plant communities nities. Lower numbers of elk and bison in this al- shifted to nonnative species in those years when ternative would likely benefit wet meadow envi- elk numbers were high, small mammal diversity ronments and the small mammals that depend on could decline. them, as there would be less bison hoof damage and more residual grass cover. If the bison fertility control program under Alter- native 2 was conducted in the park, probably in If large numbers of elk migrated out of Jackson the spring and summer (while most small mam- Hole in the winters, riparian and aspen woodlands mals are breeding and raising young), small on the refuge could improve in condition and in- mammals would be disturbed for a short period of crease in acreage by an estimated 1,720 acres time by individuals hiking through a variety of (53%). This would benefit small mammals that habitats. However, few people would be engaged tend to do better in woody habitats. Also, riparian in this activity at any given time, with a negligible and aspen woodland habitats would not convert to impact, especially since many areas of the park native grassland and sagebrush shrubland habi- are already open to hiking. tats, which would adversely affect small mammal communities that tend to do well in these habitats. Bridger-Teton National Forest — In the long term larger numbers of elk would graze and With a large elk migration out of Jackson Hole, an browse in the national forest, which could lead to estimated 1,450 acres of wet meadow habitat reduced residual vegetation and decline of willow, would convert to willow habitat, and small mam- cottonwood, and aspen woodland, as well as sage- mal communities that tend to do well in wet brush shrubland, native grassland, and wet meadows would be negatively impacted. meadow habitats in some locations. This conversion would negatively affect small mammal com- Small mammals on the refuge would not be ad- munities in these areas. In contrast, if large num- versely impacted or would be impacted to a negli- bers of elk migrated out of Jackson Hole, habitats gible degree by management activities associated in the national forest would improve in condition with a fertility control program for bison under and grasses would remain tall, with benefits to Alternative 2. If the program was conducted on small mammals. the refuge feedlines, small mammals would not be affected beyond those effects already associated Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not with supplemental feeding. migrate outside Jackson Hole, small mammal communities on riparian and aspen woodland, Grand Teton National Park — Small mammal sagebrush shrubland, native grassland, and wet communities associated with good and fair condi- meadow habitats on BLM lands and private lands tion willow, cottonwood, and aspen habitats in the in Jackson Hole could experience negative im- park would likely benefit as good and fair condi- pacts in localized areas. Elk that were no longer tion riparian and aspen habitat increased by a being fed in the winter would likely forage more negligible to minor amount compared to Alterna- often in habitats outside the refuge. Higher levels tive 1. of browsing and grazing on BLM and private lands could result in habitat degradation and re- Small mammal species that tend to do well in duced residual vegetation, which would nega- sagebrush shrubland and native grassland habi- tively affect small mammal communities associ- tats would benefit as an estimated 4,500 acres of ated with these habitats. agricultural lands were restored to native communities, and small mammal communities that If large numbers of elk did migrate outside Jack- tend to do well in agricultural lands would be son Hole, small mammal communities that tend to negatively affected. However, small mammal di- do well on riparian and aspen woodland, sage- versity would likely increase compared to baseline brush shrubland, native grassland, and wet conditions and Alternative 1. meadow habitats on BLM lands and private lands

394 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Small Mammals in the Green River basin could experience nega- ated with the disappearance of aspen. Red squir- tive impacts in localized areas. Small mammal rels and flying squirrels would disappear from the communities associated with these habitats in the aspen woodland communities that would convert Green River basin could be negatively impacted to sagebrush shrubland habitats. as a result of higher levels of grazing and browsing, which could result in habitat degradation and Compared to Alternative 1, Option A of Alterna- reduced residual vegetation. tive 3 would likely have a slightly lower abundance of small mammals on the refuge that tend to do well in native grassland and sagebrush shrub- Conclusion land habitats in the short and long terms because Small mammal communities associated with sage- there would be an estimated 220 fewer acres (1%) brush shrubland communities and riparian and of native grassland and sagebrush shrubland habi- aspen woodlands (where there would be a negligi- tats. The difference would likely be negligible. ble change) would expand on the refuge in the Under Option B of Alternative 3, the effects on long term compared to Alternative 1, while small small mammals in sagebrush shrubland and native mammal communities associated with cultivated grassland habitats on the refuge would be similar fields and native grasslands would be reduced. It to the effects of Alternative 2 because forage pro- is unclear how overall small mammal diversity on duction would be phased out. the refuge would be affected. If large numbers of elk migrated to wintering areas outside Jackson Under Option A of Alternative 3, small mammal Hole, small mammal diversity on the refuge would communities associated with cultivated fields on likely more closely approximate natural diversity the refuge would remain similar to baseline condi- under Alternative 2 compared to Alternative 1 tions and Alternative 1 in the short and long because more habitat would remain in healthier terms. The diversity of small mammals would re- riparian and aspen woodland habitats and because main low compared to the diversity that would cultivated fields would be converted to native occur in sagebrush shrubland and native grass- vegetation. land habitats under natural conditions due to lower plant species diversity in cultivated fields. Small mammal communities in the park would Uinta ground squirrels and other small mammals more closely approximate a natural level of diver- would continue to be adversely impacted by flood sity as under Alternative 1 due to converting ag- irrigation activities. Under Option B the effects ricultural lands to native vegetation and a poten- on small mammals in cultivated fields on the ref- tial increase in the health of riparian and aspen uge would be similar to the effects of Alternative woodland habitat. This alternative would not re- 2. sult in impairment of small mammal communities in the park. Compared to Alternative 1, wet meadow habitat under Alternative 3 would have an estimated 780 fewer acres (45%) in the short term and an esti- Alternative 3 mated 1,500 fewer acres (87%) in the long term, Analysis resulting in a reduced small mammal community dependent on wet meadow habitats. Lower num- National Elk Refuge — Small mammal diversity bers of elk in this alternative would likely result in under Alternative 3 would likely be greater than more residual grass cover on the remaining 270 under Alternative 1 because Alternative 3 would acres of wet meadows, which would benefit small have an estimated 1,000 more acres (31%) of ri- mammal species that depend on tall grass cover to parian habitat in the short term and an estimated avoid predators. 1,720 more acres (50%) in the long term. Despite the reduction of aspen habitat on the refuge, small Grand Teton National Park — Small mammal mammal communities associated with cottonwood communities associated with good condition wil- and willow habitats would benefit in the lower and low, cottonwood, and aspen habitats in the park upper Flat Creek areas, where willow habitat would likely benefit as good condition riparian and would recover and cottonwood habitat would per- aspen woodland habitat increased by a minor sist. Adverse impacts would primarily be associ-

395 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES amount compared to baseline conditions and Al- and aspen woodland habitats, which tend to have ternative 1. more diverse small mammal communities (and because this has been the habitat most impacted Small mammal species that tend to do well in by large concentrations of elk). Small mammal sagebrush shrubland and native grassland habi- communities associated with wet meadows and tats would benefit, as an estimated 4,500 acres of native grasslands would be reduced and small agricultural lands would be restored to native mammal communities associated with sagebrush communities. Small mammal diversity would shrubland would expand. Impacts of Option B likely increase compared to baseline conditions would be similar to Alternative 2 with regard to and Alternative 1. expanded sagebrush shrubland and native grassland habitats and reduced cultivated fields. In the park small mammal communities in wet meadows would not be affected due to actions Small mammal communities in the park would being considered under Alternative 3. more closely approximate a natural level of diversity than Alternative 1 due to conversion of agri- Bridger-Teton National Forest — The effects of cultural lands to native vegetation and a potential Alternative 3 on small mammal communities in increase in the health of riparian and aspen the national forest would be similar to the effects woodland habitats. Alternative 3 would not result of Alternative 2. in the impairment of small mammal communities in the park. Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not migrate outside Jackson Hole, small mammal Alternatives 4 and 5 communities on riparian and aspen woodland, sagebrush shrubland, native grassland, and wet Analysis meadow habitats on BLM lands and private lands National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative in Jackson Hole could experience negative im- 1, Alternatives 4 and 5 would have an estimated pacts in localized areas. Elk that are no longer 340 more acres (10%) of riparian and aspen wood- being fed in the winter would likely forage more lands in the short term and an estimated 1,590 often in habitats outside the refuge. Higher levels more acres (50%) in the long term. Because of browsing and grazing on BLM and private woodland riparian and aspen zones support a lands could result in habitat degradation and re- greater diversity of small mammals than do other duced residual vegetation, which could negatively habitat types, Alternatives 4 and 5 would have a affect associated small mammal communities. more diverse small mammal community than under Alternative 1. However, red squirrels and If large numbers of elk did migrate outside Jack- flying squirrels found in aspen stands outside the son Hole, small mammal communities that tend to exclosure would disappear because this unpro- do well on riparian and aspen woodland, sage- tected aspen habitat would convert to a sagebrush brush shrubland, native grassland, and wet shrubland community. meadow habitats on federal, state, and private lands the Green River basin could experience Small mammal communities on the refuge that are negative impacts in localized areas. Small mammal associated with sagebrush shrubland and native communities associated with these habitats could grassland habitats under Alternatives 4 and 5 be negatively impacted as a result of higher levels would likely remain similar to baseline conditions of grazing and browsing, which could result in and Alternative 1 in the short and long terms be- habitat degradation and reduced residual vegeta- cause changes in these habitats would be negligi- tion. ble to minor.

Conclusion Cultivated fields on the refuge would produce an estimated 50% more vegetation than under base- Small mammal diversity on the refuge would line conditions and Alternative 1, and approxi- likely be greater under Option A of Alternative 3 mately 1,100 acres would be sprinkler irrigated compared to Alternative 1 because there would be rather than flood irrigated. This increase in vege- more acreage and improved condition of riparian

396 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Small Mammals tation production and reduction in flood irrigation, Small mammal communities in the national forest which can drown small mammals, would likely would not be affected under Alternative 5 any result in more rodents and insectivores in the cul- more than they have been in the recent past. tivated fields compared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. Conclusion The composition of small mammal communities Alternatives 4 and 5 would have a higher level of associated with wet meadow habitats on the ref- small mammal diversity than Alternative 1 be- uge would shift toward small mammal communi- cause riparian and aspen woodland habitat would ties that do better in willow habitats as an esti- be larger and in improved condition. Small mam- mated 270 acres (16%) of wet meadow habitats mal communities associated with wet meadow converted to willow habitats in the short term, habitats and native grasslands would be reduced. and an estimated 520 acres (30%) in the long term. In wet meadow habitats outside the exclosure, the Under Alternatives 4 and 5 the park would more numbers of elk and bison in these alternatives closely approximate a natural level of small would likely reduce the amount of residual cover, mammal diversity due primarily to conversion of which would adversely affect small mammal spe- agricultural lands to native vegetation. This alter- cies that depend on tall grass cover to avoid native would not result in the impairment of small predators. mammal communities in the park.

Grand Teton National Park — In the park small Alternative 6 mammal communities associated with good and fair condition aspen communities could benefit by Analysis a negligible to minor degree due to fewer brows- National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative ing elk in Alternatives 4 and 5 compared to base- 1, Alternative 6 would have an estimated 1,090 line conditions and Alternative 1. Small mammal more acres (34%) in riparian and aspen woodland species that tend to do well in sagebrush shrub- habitats in the short term and an estimated 3,420 land and native grassland habitats would benefit more acres (105%) in the long term. Therefore, under these alternatives, as an estimated 4,500 Alternative 6 would have a more diverse small acres of agricultural lands would be restored to mammal community on the refuge because ripar- native communities. Small mammal diversity ian and aspen zones support a greater diversity of would likely increase compared to baseline condi- small mammals than do other habitat types. tions and Alternative 1. Compared to Alternative 1, Alternative 6 would Small mammal communities associated with wet likely have a slightly lower abundance of small meadows would likely not be affected under Al- mammals on the refuge that tend to do well in ternatives 4 and 5. However, under Alternative 5 native grassland and sagebrush shrubland habi- if a substantial amount of wet meadow plant tats in the short and long terms because there communities shifted to nonnative species due to would be an estimated 220 fewer acres (1%) of large numbers of ungulates grazing in these areas, native grassland and sagebrush shrubland habi- small mammal diversity could decline. tats. The difference would likely be negligible. Fewer elk in this alternative could leave taller Bridger-Teton National Forest — Small mammal vegetation that would benefit small mammal spe- communities in the national forest would not be cies that rely on vegetation cover to avoid preda- affected in the short term under Alternative 4 tors. because elk grazing and browsing would be similar to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. How- Cultivated fields on the refuge would produce an ever, in the long term larger numbers of elk could estimated 50% more vegetation than cultivated remain in the national forest throughout the win- fields in baseline conditions and Alternative 1, and ter, and increased grazing and browsing pressure approximately 1,100 acres would be sprinkler irri- might reduce residual vegetation and degrade gated rather than flood irrigated. This increase in habitat in localized areas, negatively affecting vegetation production and reduction in flood irri- small mammals dependent on these habitats.

397 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES gation, which can drown small mammals, would in the winter would likely forage more often in likely result in more rodents and insectivores in habitats outside the refuge. Higher levels of the cultivated fields compared to baseline condi- browsing and grazing on BLM and private lands tions and Alternative 1. could result in habitat degradation and reduced residual vegetation, negatively affecting associ- Compared to Alternative 1, there would be an ated small mammal communities. estimated 780 fewer acres of wet meadow habitat in the short term and an estimated 1,500 fewer If large numbers of elk did migrate outside Jack- acres in the long term under Alternative 6. There- son Hole, small mammal communities that tend to fore, even fewer small mammal communities could do well on riparian and aspen woodland, sage- depend on wet meadow habitats. Lower numbers brush shrubland, native grassland, and wet of elk in this alternative would likely result in meadow habitats on federal, state, and private more residual grass cover on the remaining 270 lands in other locations could be negatively af- acres of wet meadows, which would benefit those fected in localized areas. This would occur as a small mammal species that depend on tall grass result of higher levels of grazing and browsing cover to avoid predators. degrading habitat and reducing residual vegetation. Grand Teton National Park — In the park an improvement in the condition and acreage of ri- Conclusion parian and aspen woodland habitats would benefit associated small mammal communities by a negli- Small mammal diversity on the refuge would gible to minor degree under Alternative 6. Small likely be greater under Alternative 6 compared to mammal species that tend to do well in sagebrush Alternative 1 because the size and condition of shrubland and native grassland habitats would riparian and aspen woodland habitats would be benefit from the restoration of an estimated 4,500 improved, and this habitat has been most im- acres of agricultural lands to native communities. pacted by large concentrations of elk. Small Small mammal diversity would likely increase mammal communities associated with wet compared to baseline conditions and Alternative meadows and native grasslands would be reduced, 1, and small mammal communities in wet and small mammal communities associated with meadows would not be affected under Alternative sagebrush shrubland would expand. 6. Small mammal communities in the park would Bridger-Teton National Forest — Compared to more closely approximate a natural level of diver- Alternative 1, larger numbers of elk would graze sity than Alternative 1 due to conversion of agri- and browse in the national forest, which could lead cultural lands to native vegetation and a potential to reduced residual vegetation and decline of wil- increase in the health of riparian and aspen low, cottonwood, and aspen woodland, sagebrush woodland habitats. This alternative would not shrubland, native grassland, and wet meadow result in the impairment of small mammal com- habitats in some locations. This would negatively munities in the park. affect small mammal communities in these areas. In contrast, if large numbers of elk migrated out Mitigation Jackson Hole in the winters, habitats in the national forest would improve in condition and Measures to mitigate adverse effects of the alter- grasses would remain tall, benefiting small mam- natives on small mammal communities would be mals communities. the same as those addressed in the mitigation dis- cussions for pertinent habitats in the “Impacts on Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not Habitat” section of Chapter 4. migrate outside Jackson Hole, small mammal communities on riparian and aspen woodland, sagebrush shrubland, native grassland, and wet Cumulative Effects meadow habitats on BLM and private lands in No cumulative effects on small mammals are ex- Jackson Hole could experience negative impacts pected as a result of impacts of the alternatives in in localized areas. Elk that are no longer being fed

398 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Large Rodents combination with the impacts of reasonably fore- 1, 3, 4, and 5. Supplemental feeding would be seeable actions. phased out under Alternatives 2 and 6. During the phaseout period, management actions associated with supplemental feeding would not adversely LARGE RODENTS impact large rodents or would impact them to a Methodology Used to Analyze Effects negligible degree. The effects would be negligible or nonexistent because large rodents do not nor- Although beaver feed on aspen trees, most aspen mally occur in the cultivated fields, where sup- communities on the refuge show no signs of bea- plemental feeding takes place. ver use (Cole, pers. comm. 2002). Therefore the decline of aspen communities under Alternatives Large rodents would not be adversely impacted 1–5 over the long term would not greatly affect or would be impacted to a negligible degree by beavers. activities associated with elk and bison hunting in all alternatives except 2. Hiking and horseback Beavers historically occurred along Flat Creek on riding and the firing of rifles could disturb large the refuge but have not been present for many rodents in the immediate area for a short time. years. Beavers prefer aspen, willow, and cotton- However, these effects would not affect survival wood habitats, and any actions in other plant and reproduction. communities would have negligible effects on beavers. Thus, impacts to beaver have been pre- Large rodents would not be adversely impacted dicted based on the likelihood that beavers could or would be impacted to a negligible degree by re-colonize an area given anticipated habitat management activities associated with a brucello- changes under each alternative. sis vaccination program for elk and bison under Alternatives 3, 4, and 5. Elk and bison would be Woody riparian habitat on the refuge currently vaccinated on the feedlines in the cultivated fields, consists of approximately 1,390 acres of willow where large rodents do not normally occur. and cottonwood communities. Beavers would primarily be affected by changes in these two communities, and impacts have been estimated based Alternative 1 on acreage changes only within willow and cot- Analysis tonwood habitats. National Elk Refuge — Under Alternative 1 bea- Total woody vegetation on the refuge consists of vers on the refuge would be negatively impacted approximately 3,240 acres of willow, cottonwood, because woody riparian communities along Flat and aspen communities. Porcupines occur in all of Creek would decrease by an estimated 270 acres these habitats. Impacts have been estimated for in the short and long terms compared to baseline porcupines based on acreage changes within wil- conditions. This would be 19% of the current 1,390 low, cottonwood, and aspen habitats. acres of willow and cottonwood habitat. However, suppressed willow plants that occur on approximately 1,450 acres of wet meadow habitat would Impacts of the Alternatives not be able to recover due to continued heavy Impacts Common to All Alternatives browsing by elk. Therefore, beavers would not be able to return to the southern portion of the ref- Yellow-bellied Marmots — Marmots in Jackson uge in the future. Hole, the Green River basin, and the Red Desert would not be affected due to any actions being As the acreage of aspen stands and woody ripar- considered in this planning process. ian areas decreased, porcupines would likely be negatively impacted to a minor degree in the Direct Effects of Human Disturbance — Large short term. Due to the disappearance of aspen rodents would not be adversely impacted or would woodland habitat in the long term, porcupines on be impacted to a negligible degree by manage- the refuge would likely be negatively impacted by ment actions associated with the supplemental a major amount compared to baseline conditions. feeding program for elk and bison in Alternatives Porcupines feed on conifers, as well as aspen and

399 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES willow, but conifer forest habitat would not in the short term and 40 more acres in the long change. term, which would likely result in minor to negligible positive effects on porcupines. Grand Teton National Park — Beavers and porcupines in the park could be negatively impacted Beavers and porcupines would potentially benefit by the gradual and long-term decline of riparian by a moderate to major amount if large numbers and aspen woodlands compared to baseline condi- of elk migrated out of Jackson Hole in the winter tions. because impacts on 1,720 acres of riparian and aspen woodland habitats would be reduced in the Bridger-Teton National Forest — Large rodents long term compared to Alternative 1. in the national forest would not be affected under Alternative 1 any more than they have been af- Large rodents would not be adversely impacted fected in the recent past. or would be impacted to a negligible degree by management activities associated with a fertility control program for bison under Alternative 2. If Conclusion the fertility control program was conducted on Under Alternative 1 beavers would continue to refuge feedlines, large rodents would not be af- experience negative impacts because of the loss of fected because they do not normally occur in the willow and cottonwood habitat on the refuge. cultivated fields, where feeding takes place. Beaver habitat at the south end of the refuge would likely become permanently lost. This loss of Grand Teton National Park — Beavers and por- habitat combined with historical loss of habitat cupines in the park could benefit from a negligible and lethal removal from the northern part of the to minor increase in riparian and aspen habitats refuge could result in the lack of a permanent compared to Alternative 1. beaver population on the refuge. Porcupines would experience negative impacts to a minor If the bison fertility control program was con- degree in the short term and would likely suffer ducted in the park in the spring and summer major adverse impacts in the long term due to the (while most large rodents are breeding and rais- disappearance of aspen woodland habitat and the ing young), effects would likely be minimal. Large permanent loss of willow habitat at the south end rodents could be temporarily disturbed by hu- of the refuge. mans hiking through a variety of habitats; however, relatively few people would be involved at Beavers and porcupines in the park could be any given time, and many areas of the park are negatively impacted by the decline in condition of already open to hiking. riparian and aspen woodlands compared to baseline conditions. This alternative would not result Bridger-Teton National Forest — In the long in the impairment of large rodent communities in term larger numbers of elk would browse in the the park. national forest, which could negatively affect beavers and porcupines if this increased browsing pressure caused the decline of willow, cottonwood, Alternative 2 and aspen habitats in some areas. In contrast, if Analysis large numbers of elk migrated out of Jackson Hole in the winter, riparian and aspen woodlands in the National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative national forest would improve in condition, and 1, beavers could benefit to a minor to negligible porcupines and beavers could benefit from im- degree due to 150 more acres of willow habitat proved woody habitats as a result of less browsing under Alternative 2 in the short term and 40 more pressure. acres in the long term if beavers moved into what is now unoccupied habitat in the southern portion Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not of the refuge. migrate outside the Jackson Hole area, beavers and porcupines on BLM lands and private lands in Alternative 2 would result in an estimated 150 Jackson Hole could experience negative impacts more acres of riparian and aspen woodland habitat in some areas. Elk that are no longer being fed in

400 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Mammals — Large Rodents the winter would likely forage more often in ri- acres of riparian and aspen woodland habitat, parian and aspen woodland habitats outside of the which would likely have major positive effects on refuge. Higher levels of browsing on BLM lands porcupines in the short and long terms. and private lands could result in further habitat degradation and loss of acreage in some areas, Grand Teton National Park — Beavers and por- which would negatively affect beavers and porcu- cupines in the park could benefit by a minor in- pines. crease in riparian and aspen habitats compared to Alternative 1. If large numbers of elk did migrate outside Jack- son Hole, beavers and porcupines on BLM lands Bridger-Teton National Forest — The effects of and private lands in the Green River basin could Alternative 3 on beavers and porcupines in the experience negative, localized impacts as a result national forest and BLM lands and private lands of riparian and aspen woodland habitats experi- in Jackson Hole and the Green River basin would encing higher levels of browsing. This could result be similar to the effects of Alternative 2. in habitat degradation and loss of acreage in some areas. Conclusion Under Alternative 3 beavers and porcupines Conclusion could benefit by a major degree due to a major If large numbers of elk did not migrate outside increase in the amount and quality of riparian and Jackson Hole, beavers and porcupines would aspen woodland habitats in the short and long likely benefit by a negligible to minor degree in terms compared to Alternative 1. the short and long terms due to negligible to mi- nor changes in woody habitat. If large numbers of Beavers and porcupines in the park could benefit elk did migrate out of the Jackson Hole area, and by a minor increase in the amount and quality of if beavers moved into unoccupied habitat in the riparian and aspen habitats compared to Alterna- southern part of the refuge, large rodents could tive 1. This alternative would not result in the benefit by a major amount. impairment of large rodent communities in the park. Beavers and porcupines in the park could benefit from a negligible to minor increase in riparian and Alternatives 4 and 5 aspen woodland habitats and improve habitat conditions compared to Alternative 1. This alter- Analysis native would not result in the impairment of large National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative rodent communities in the park. 1, beavers that migrated into the southern portion of the refuge would benefit to a moderate degree Alternative 3 in the short term due to an estimated 370 more acres of riparian habitats and to a major degree in Analysis the long term due to an estimated 690 more acres. National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative However, beavers that moved into the Flat Creek 1, beavers that migrate into the southern portion area before suppressed willow plants in the wet of the refuge would benefit by a major amount in meadow habitat had fully recovered would likely the short and long terms due to an estimated be lethally removed until willow habitat became 1,000 more acres of woody riparian habitat in the firmly reestablished. short term and an estimated 1,720 more acres in the long term. Beavers that moved into the Flat Compared to Alternative 1, porcupines would Creek area before willow plants fully recovered benefit to a minor degree in the short term due to would likely be lethally removed until willow 340 more acres of riparian and aspen woodland habitat became firmly reestablished. habitat and by a moderate amount in the long term due to 1,590 more acres. Compared to Alternative 1, the effects of Alterna- tive 3 would result in an estimated 1,720 more

401 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Grand Teton National Park — Beavers and por- the long term porcupines would benefit by a ma- cupines in the park could benefit by a negligible to jor amount due to an estimated 3,420 more acres minor increase in riparian and aspen habitats of riparian and aspen woodland habitat compared compared to Alternative 1. to Alternative 1.

Bridger-Teton National Forest — Under Alterna- Grand Teton National Park — Beavers and por- tive 4 beavers and porcupines in the national for- cupines in the park could benefit by a minor in- est would not be affected in the short term. In the crease in riparian and aspen woodland habitats long term more elk would browse in the national compared to Alternative 1. forest, which could adversely affect willow, cottonwood, and aspen habitats, along with porcu- Bridger-Teton National Forest — Beavers and pines and beavers that depend on woody vegeta- porcupines in the national forest would not be af- tion. fected in the short term. In the long term more elk would browse in the national forest, which Beavers and porcupines in the national forest could adversely affect willow, cottonwood, and would not be affected under Alternative 5. aspen habitats and porcupines and beavers that depend on woody vegetation. Conclusion Conclusion Compared to Alternative 1, Alternatives 4 and 5 would negatively affect beavers in the near short Under Alternative 6 beavers that moved to the term if they were lethally removed from recover- southern portion of the refuge would be nega- ing willow habitat. After large willow plants were tively affected in the near short term as they are reestablished, beavers and porcupines would lethally removed from recovering willow habitat. benefit by a moderate increase in the amount and After large willow plants were reestablished in quality of riparian and aspen woodland habitats in the long term, beavers and porcupines on the ref- the long term. uge would benefit by a major degree, compared to Alternative1, due to increases in the amount of Beavers and porcupines in the park could benefit riparian and aspen woodland habitat and the im- by a negligible to minor increase in the amount proved condition of these habitats. and quality of riparian and aspen habitats compared to Alternative 1. This alternative would not Beavers and porcupines in the park could benefit result in the impairment of large rodent communi- by a minor increase in riparian and aspen habitats ties in the park. compared to Alternative 1. This alternative would not result in the impairment of large rodent communities in the park. Alternative 6 Analysis Mitigation National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative 1, beavers that migrated into the southern portion Measures to mitigate adverse effects of the alter- of the refuge would benefit by a major amount natives on beavers and porcupines would be simi- due to an estimated 900 more acres of woody ri- lar to those identified for riparian and aspen parian habitat, especially willow habitat, in the woodland communities in the “Impacts on Habi- short term, and an estimated 1,470 more acres in tat” section of Chapter 4. the long term. Beavers that moved into the Flat Creek area before willow plants had fully recov- Cumulative Effects ered would likely be lethally removed until willow habitat became firmly reestablished. No cumulative effects on large rodents are expected as a result of impacts of the alternatives in Porcupines would benefit by a moderate amount combination with the impacts of reasonably fore- in the short term due to an estimated 1,090 more seeable actions. acres of riparian and aspen woodland habitat. In

402 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Neotropical Migratory Birds

BIRDS tribution and in their life histories (Dobkin 1994). In addition, Neotropical migratory birds are being NEOTROPICAL MIGRATORY BIRDS affected by habitat changes that are occurring in both the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern The analysis of potential effects of management Hemisphere. Therefore, potential effects of alter- alternatives on Neotropical migratory birds and natives on Neotropical migratory birds are dis- other birds is of particular importance in this cussed in terms of the effects that changes in the planning process because providing a refuge and amount and condition of habitats in Jackson Hole breeding habitat for birds is a major purpose of could have on the abundance of birds while in the the refuge, and the management of elk and bison study area. Although there might be instances in has such a pervasive influence on the amount and which increased habitat might not result in an condition of breeding bird habitat on the refuge. increase in the abundance of a particular species Analyzing the potential effects on birds is gener- in Jackson Hole (due to factors outside the ally important given the requirement to conserve Greater Yellowstone Area), assessments made in all native wildlife species on national wildlife ref- this planning document assume that increases in uges and national parks, as well as the require- suitable habitat acreage would result in increased ment under the National Environmental Policy numbers, unless otherwise noted. Estimates are Act to analyze potential effects on affected re- not made about how populations might be af- sources. Executive Order 13186 requires that fed- fected. eral agencies pay particular attention to potential effects on migratory birds in developing resource management plans. Impacts of the Alternatives Impacts Common to All Alternatives The role that the refuge plays in conserving breeding bird habitat in the Jackson Hole area Neotropical migratory birds dependent on conifer will be assessed in the upcoming comprehensive forests and marshland habitats in Jackson Hole, conservation planning process for the refuge. The the Green River basin, and the Red Desert are assessment will involve factors such as the capac- not expected to be affected by the alternatives ity of the refuge to provide high quality and se- because their habitats would not be altered to any cure breeding habitat; and the importance of pro- measurable degree by any of the management viding high-quality habitat for breeding birds actions that are being considered. relative to the amount and quality of breeding bird habitat throughout the study area. Because Neotropical migratory birds would not be ad- the outcome of the bison and elk management versely impacted by management activities asso- planning process will have a large influence on the ciated with the supplemental feeding program for options that will be considered for managing other elk or bison under Alternatives 1, 3, 4, and 5. Sup- ungulates on the refuge, a comprehensive analysis plemental feeding would be phased out under Al- is needed in the elk and bison planning process. ternatives 2 and 6. During the phaseout period, management activities associated with supplemental feeding would not adversely impact Neo- Methodology Used to Analyze Effects tropical migratory birds because supplemental Approximately 175 species of birds occur on the feeding occurs during winter when Neotropical refuge and over 300 species of birds occur in the migratory birds would have migrated to their park. Many of these species are Neotropical mi- winter feeding grounds. gratory birds that spend the winter in South and Central America and breed and raise young in Neotropical migratory birds would not be ad- North America. Some of these species are highly versely impacted by activities associated with elk dependent on particular habitat types and could and bison hunting (under all alternatives except 2) require that their habitats be in a particular stage or a brucellosis vaccination program for elk and of succession or condition. Other species might bison (Alternatives 3, 4, and 5) because they use more than one habitat type and might be more would have already migrated to their winter tolerant of habitat degradation. Neotropical mi- feeding grounds by the time these activities would gratory species vary greatly in their seasonal dis- occur.

403 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Alternative 1 communities would remain at a low level on the refuge. Analysis National Elk Refuge — The abundance of some Neotropical migratory birds on the refuge that species of Neotropical migratory birds that use are dependent on cottonwood habitat are in very wet meadow habitats on the refuge could increase low abundance on 20% of the existing cottonwood in the short and long terms by a negligible amount acreage because of their poor condition. The re- due to a 50-acre (5%) increase in wet meadow maining 80% of cottonwood habitats on the refuge habitat compared to baseline conditions. While the are in fair to good condition and continue to sup- overall wet meadow plant community on the ref- port an abundance of Neotropical migrants. Neo- uge is in good condition, some areas where graz- tropical migratory birds that depend on healthy ing by elk and bison is heavy have little residual cottonwood habitat would probably not be af- vegetation. Bird species dependent on residual fected by the conversion of 220 acres of poor con- vegetation for nesting could be adversely im- dition cottonwood habitat to sagebrush shrubland pacted by a negligible to minor amount in the and native grasslands because they no longer oc- short term. Increasing numbers of bison in the cur in this area. However, Neotropical cavity long term would moderately increase the negative nesters can use poor condition cottonwood habi- impacts on these bird species. tat, and these species would likely decline by a minor (20%) amount in the short and long terms. The bird community associated with sagebrush shrublands and native grasslands appears to be in Neotropical migratory birds on the refuge that satisfactory condition, although few data exist to depend on good condition aspen woodland habi- verify assessment. Neotropical migrants that re- tats are already in very low abundance because quire sagebrush habitat and native grassland 80%–90% of aspen woodland stands are in poor habitat would likely increase in abundance by a condition. Neotropical birds that nest in good con- negligible amount in the short term due to an es- dition aspen woodland habitat would not be af- timated 310-acre (2%) increase in these habitats fected in the short term by an estimated 90-acre compared to baseline conditions. In the long term (5%) decline in aspen woodland communities be- Neotropical migratory birds that depend on sage- cause they do not occur in such poor condition brush shrubland and native grassland habitats habitat. However, Neotropical cavity nesters would likely increase in abundance by a minor would likely decline by a negligible to minor amount due to an estimated 2,070 acres (13%) of amount in the short term due to this 5% decline in riparian and aspen woodlands converting to sage- aspen woodland habitat. In the long term Neo- brush shrubland and native grassland habitats. tropical migratory birds that are dependent on Conversely, growing bison numbers could in- good, fair, or poor condition aspen woodland habi- crease grazing pressure on these habitats and re- tat would eventually disappear as aspen woodland sult in localized negative impacts to some bird communities disappear on the refuge. species. Alternative 1 would not affect Neotropical migra- Neotropical migratory birds dependent on willow tory bird species that use cultivated fields because habitat are already at a very low abundance on farming activities would remain similar to base- the refuge due to a historical loss of 1,450 acres line conditions. that now are classified as wet meadow habitat. An additional 50 acres of willow would convert to wet Grand Teton National Park — Neotropical birds meadow habitat due to heavy browsing by elk. dependent on wet meadow habitats would not be This would have minor negative affects on the affected by Alternative 1 any differently than current abundance of Neotropical migratory birds they have been in the recent past unless nonna- that use willow communities. In addition, sup- tive plants began to dominate many wet meadow pressed willow plants on 1,500 acres of wet areas due to heavy ungulate grazing. A shift to meadow habitat would not recover in the future nonnative species could adversely impact Neo- due to the numbers of browsing ungulates that tropical migratory birds dependent on wet mead- would continue to suppress willow plants. As a ows. result, abundances of birds that depend on willow

404 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Neotropical Migratory Birds

Increased grazing pressure and reduced residual native grassland habitats would expand, but this vegetation due to an unlimited number of bison would not make up for the decline in diversity grazing in the park in the summer would ad- associated with willow, cottonwood, and aspen versely affect Neotropical migratory birds de- habitats. pendent on native grassland and sagebrush shrubland habitats in the park. Neotropical migratory bird diversity would likely decline in small, localized areas in the park due to Neotropical birds dependent on agricultural lands a minor decrease in aspen habitats in the long in the park could be affected by increasing num- term. In addition, there would be a reduction of bers of bison that could accelerate the invasion of residual vegetation in native grassland and sage- noxious weeds in an area that is already domi- brush shrubland habitats and an increase in non- nated by nonnative weed species. Bison wallowing native invasive weeds on wet meadows and agri- would also increase the amount of bare ground, cultural lands due in part to a growing bison which would adversely affect Neotropical migra- population and continued heavy grazing by a large tory birds that could still inhabit the agricultural elk population. This alternative would not result fields. in the impairment of Neotropical migratory bird communities in the park. In the park Neotropical birds dependent on willow habitat would not be affected under Alterna- Alternative 2 tive 1 any differently than they have been in the recent past. Analysis National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative Neotropical migratory birds dependent on cot- 1, the abundance of Neotropical migratory birds tonwood habitat in the park could be adversely dependent on wet meadow habitat would likely be affected to a negligible degree by a loss of this less under Alternative 2 by a negligible to minor habitat type due to elk browsing and bison tram- degree due to 150 fewer acres (9%) of wet pling, while birds that are dependent on aspen meadow habitat. Any benefits to bird communi- habitat could be affected to a minor degree by ties in wet meadow habit stemming from reduced decreases in aspen habitat due to elk browsing. numbers of elk and bison could be offset by an increased reliance of remaining animals on native Bridger-Teton National Forest — Neotropical winter habitat. Substantial increases in herba- birds dependent on wet meadow, native grass- ceous cover might not occur. land, sagebrush shrubland, willow, cottonwood, and aspen habitats in the national forest would Neotropical migratory birds that are dependent not be affected by Alternative 1 any more than on sagebrush shrubland and native grassland they have been in the recent past. However, elk communities could be more abundant under Al- browsing in the national forest is negatively af- ternative 2 by a minor amount compared to Al- fecting some riparian and aspen woodland stands, ternative 1 due to restoring approximately 2,400 which could adversely affect birds that breed in acres of cultivated fields to native grassland habi- this habitat. This trend would likely continue in tats in the short term and sagebrush shrubland in the future. the long term. Conversely, any benefits to bird communities in sagebrush shrubland and native Conclusion grassland habitats stemming from reduced numbers of elk and bison could be offset by increased Under Alternative 1 there would be a moderate reliance of remaining animals on native winter loss in the diversity of Neotropical migratory bird habitat. Substantial increases in herbaceous cover species on the refuge due to a major, long-term might not occur. decline in the amount and condition of willow, cottonwood, and aspen habitats compared to baseline The abundance of Neotropical migratory birds conditions (in addition to the reduction that has that use willow habitat could be greater than the already occurred due to actions contained in Al- abundance of Neotropical birds under Alternative ternative 1). Neotropical migratory bird commu- 1 but only by a negligible amount in the short and nities in wet meadow, sagebrush shrubland, and

405 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES long terms. Although there would be an estimated pendent on wet meadows could be adversely af- 150 more acres (50%) of willow habitat, this re- fected by nonnative plants becoming dominant in covery would primarily occur in swales and other localized areas. areas of heavy snow accumulation. These individual clumps of willow habitat might be too small to Neotropical migratory birds dependent on ripar- provide sufficient nesting habitat for Neotropical ian and aspen woodland habitats in the park migratory birds dependent on willow communi- would likely benefit in the long term as willow, ties. In addition, compared to the potential willow cottonwood, and aspen communities improved in habitat (1,450 acres) that could exist with less un- condition and increased in acreage by a negligible gulate browsing, 150 acres is a minor amount. to minor amount due to less browsing and trampling by elk and bison. If most elk migrated out of Jackson Hole in the winters over the long term, Neotropical birds de- Restoring approximately 4,500 acres of agricul- pendent on refuge willow communities would tural lands to native grassland and sagebrush benefit to a major degree because potentially shrubland communities would likely increase the 1,450 acres of suppressed willow plants in wet diversity of Neotropical migratory bird species in meadows would recover to good condition habitat. these formerly cultivated areas.

Alternative 2 and Alternative 1 would have simi- If the bison fertility control program was con- lar abundances of Neotropical migratory birds ducted in the park in the spring and summer, that use cottonwood habitat in the short term. Neotropical migratory birds would be temporarily Under Alternative 2 cottonwood habitat would disturbed by the presence of a few people hiking decrease by an estimated 110 acres (10%) in the through a variety of habitats. Even though a fer- long term, potentially resulting in fewer birds tility control program in the park would be con- that use this habitat, but the difference would be ducted while birds were breeding and raising negligible. young, effects would likely be minimal, especially since many areas of the park are already open to The effects of Alternative 2 on Neotropical migra- hiking. tory birds dependent on aspen habitat would be similar to the effects under Alternative 1. In the Bridger-Teton National Forest — Neotropical long term birds reliant on aspen woodland habitat migratory birds in the national forest that depend would disappear as this habitat type disappeared on wet meadow, sagebrush shrubland, native from the refuge. grassland, and riparian and aspen woodland habitats would not be affected in the short term be- Restoring 2,400 acres of cultivated fields would cause elk grazing in these habitats would be simi- likely result in a more diverse composition of Neo- lar to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. In the tropical bird species on the refuge compared to long term, larger numbers of elk might remain in Alternative 1. the national forest, and this increased grazing and browsing pressure could reduce residual vegeta- Neotropical migratory birds would not be ad- tion and damage woody vegetation, negatively versely impacted or would be impacted to a negli- affecting Neotropical migratory birds that depend gible degree by management activities associated on tall vegetation and canopy cover for nesting. with a fertility control program for bison under Alternative 2. If the fertility control program was If large numbers of elk migrated to the Green conducted in the winter on the refuge feedlines, River basin, grasses in the national forest would Neotropical birds would be absent from the area. remain tall, and woody vegetation would remain healthy, benefiting birds dependent on tall vege- Grand Teton National Park — Neotropical mi- tation and canopy cover. gratory birds dependent on wet meadow habitats are not expected to be affected under Alternative Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not 2 unless nonnative invasive plants began to domi- migrate out of Jackson Hole, Neotropical migra- nate many wet meadow areas due to heavy elk tory birds associated with wet meadow, sage- grazing in some years. Neotropical migrants de- brush shrubland, native grassland habitats on

406 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Neotropical Migratory Birds

BLM and private lands in Jackson Hole could ex- gratory birds, more closely approximating natural perience negative impacts in localized areas. Elk conditions compared to Alternative 1. This alter- that are no longer being fed on the refuge in the native would not result in the impairment of Neo- winter would likely forage more often on private tropical migratory bird communities in the park. lands compared to baseline conditions, and higher levels of grazing and browsing could result in fur- Alternative 3 ther habitat degradation, reduced residual vegetation, and loss of acreage in some areas. Analysis National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative If large numbers of elk migrated outside Jackson 1, wet meadow habitat under Alternative 3 would Hole, Neotropical migratory birds associated with decrease by an estimated 780 acres (45%) in the wet meadow, native grassland, sagebrush shrub- short term and 1,500 fewer acres (87%) in the long land, and riparian and aspen woodland communi- term. This would affect Neotropical birds depend- ties on BLM lands and private lands in the Green ent on wet meadow habitats by a moderate to ma- River basin and the Red Desert could be nega- jor degree. Fewer elk in this alternative could tively affected in localized areas as a result of result in more residual grass cover on those wet higher levels of grazing and browsing. This could meadow acres that remain, which would benefit result in habitat degradation and loss of acreage bird species dependent on tall grass cover to avoid in some areas. Neotropical birds that need resid- predators. Conversely, any benefits to bird com- ual vegetation or a high percentage of canopy munities in wet meadow habitats stemming from cover would be negatively impacted the most. large reductions in elk numbers (bison numbers would remain unchanged) could be offset by in- Conclusion creased reliance of remaining animals on native winter habitat. Substantial increases in herba- Under Alternative 2 Neotropical migratory bird ceous cover might not occur. diversity on the refuge could be greater than under Alternative 1 by a negligible amount because Under Option A sagebrush shrubland and native of more acres of willow habitat in healthier condi- grassland habitats on the refuge would decrease tion in the short and long terms. Neotropical mi- by an estimated 220 fewer acres (1%) in the short gratory bird species dependent on aspen habitat and long terms. This small change in habitat would eventually disappear from the refuge as would have a negligible effect on the abundance of this habitat type disappeared under Alternative 2 Neotropical migratory birds dependent on these (similar to Alternative 1). Neotropical migratory habitat types compared to Alternative 1. bird communities associated with wet meadow and cottonwood habitats would be reduced by a Under Option B the effects on Neotropical migra- negligible to a minor amount, and bird communi- tory birds in sagebrush shrubland and native ties associated with sagebrush shrublands and grassland habitats would be similar to the effects native grasslands would expand by a minor of Alternative 2. amount. However, if large numbers of elk migrated out of the Jackson Hole area for the win- Under Alternative 3 an estimated 780 more acres ter, a major increase in willow habitat would (260%) of willow habitat in the short term and an greatly enhance Neotropical migratory bird com- estimated 1,500 more acres (500%) in the long munities dependent on this habitat type. Some term could result in a major increase in Neotropi- aspen communities could also survive and im- cal migratory birds dependent on this habitat prove in condition, which would support small compared to Alternative 1. This increase in willow communities of Neotropical migratory birds that habitat would be due to the recovery of sup- depend on good condition aspen habitat. pressed willow plants in wet meadow habitats. As these plants grew outside the browse zone, they In the park a minor increase in the condition and would provide birds with robust, multi-layered, amount of riparian and aspen woodland habitat and dense thickets that offer a variety of niches and restoring 4,500 acres of agricultural lands to for birds that are habitat specialists. native plant communities would likely increase the diversity and abundance of Neotropical mi-

407 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Compared to Alternative 1, an estimated 220 wood, and aspen habitats could benefit as a result more acres (20%) of cottonwood habitat under of minor improvement in willow, cottonwood, as- Alternative 3 could result in a minor increase in pen communities and additional acreage due to Neotropical migratory birds dependent on this fewer ungulates browsing in the park. habitat in the short and long terms. All cottonwood habitats would be in good or fair condition Bridger-Teton National Forest — The effects of under Alternative 3, compared to 80% of cotton- Alternative 3 on Neotropical migratory birds that wood communities in good or fair condition under are dependent on wet meadow, sagebrush shrub- Alternative 1. land, native grassland, and riparian and aspen woodland habitats in the national forest would be The effects of Alternative 3 on Neotropical migra- similar to the effects of Alternative 2. tory birds dependent on aspen habitat would be similar to the effects of Alternative 1. In the long Other Lands — The effects of Alternative 3 on term birds reliant on aspen woodland habitat Neotropical migratory birds that are dependent would disappear as this habitat type disappeared on wet meadow, sagebrush shrubland, native from the refuge. grassland and riparian and aspen woodland habitats on BLM lands and private lands in Jackson If large numbers of elk migrated outside Jackson Hole, the Green River basin, and the Red Desert Hole, some aspen stands on the refuge could sur- would be similar to the effects of Alternative 2. vive, and Neotropical migratory birds that depend on this habitat would benefit. These aspen stands Conclusion would have to be large enough to provide birds with interior forest as protection against nest Neotropical migratory bird diversity under Al- predators and parasites. ternative 3 could be greater than under Alterna- tive 1 due to a major increase in willow habitat Option A of Alternative 3 would not affect Neo- and a minor increase in cottonwood habitat on the tropical migratory birds on the refuge in culti- refuge. Neotropical migrants dependent on aspen vated fields because acreage and management of habitat would eventually disappear from the ref- these areas would be similar to baseline conditions uge as this habitat type could disappear under and Alternative 1. Option B would phase out cul- Option A, similar to Alternative 1. Option B would tivated fields, which would result in effects similar phase out cultivated fields, which would result in to Alternative 2. effects similar to Alternative 2. Neotropical migratory bird communities associated with wet Grand Teton National Park — Neotropical mi- meadows would be reduced by a moderate to ma- gratory birds dependent on wet meadow habitats jor amount, and those associated with sagebrush in the park are not expected to be affected under shrublands and native grasslands would be re- Alternative 3 unless large numbers of bison ne- duced by a negligible amount compared to Alter- gated, to some extent, the lower numbers of elk native 1. and resulted in more invasions by nonnative plant species. If nonnative invasive plant communities In the park more riparian and aspen woodland became dominant in localized areas, Neotropical habitats in healthy condition and the conversion of migratory birds dependent on wet meadow habi- agricultural lands to native plant communities tat could be adversely affected. would likely increase Neotropical migratory bird diversity, more closely approximating natural Neotropical migratory birds that are dependent conditions, as compared to Alternative 1. This on native grassland and sagebrush shrubland alternative would not result in the impairment of habitats could benefit from the restoration of ap- Neotropical migratory bird communities in the proximately 4,500 acres of agricultural lands to park. native grassland and sagebrush shrubland communities.

Compared to Alternative 1, Neotropical migratory birds that are dependent on willow, cotton-

408 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Neotropical Migratory Birds

Alternatives 4 and 5 pen woodland habitat would have a major beneficial effect on Neotropical birds, as compared to Analysis Alternative 1, where all aspen woodland commu- National Elk Refuge — Compared to Alternative nities would eventually disappear. 1, an estimated 270 fewer acres (16%) of wet meadow habitat in the short term would have a Grand Teton National Park — Neotropical mi- minor negative effect on Neotropical migratory gratory birds dependent on wet meadow habitats birds that use this habitat type. An estimated 520 in the park would not be affected under Alterna- fewer acres (30%) in the long term would have a tive 4. moderate negative effect. In the short term the construction of a 500-acre willow exclosure in wet Neotropical birds dependent on wet meadow meadow habitat on the refuge would result in a habitats would not be affected under Alternative major increase in the amount of residual cover, 5 unless nonnative invasive plants begin to domi- within the exclosure benefiting those species re- nate many wet meadow areas as a result of heavy quiring tall vegetation. However, over time the elk grazing. Neotropical migratory birds depend- quality of wet meadow habitat would decline as ent on wet meadows could be adversely affected willows increased within the exclosure. Outside by nonnative plant species becoming dominant in the exclosure little residual cover would remain localized areas. because elk and bison would graze heavily on the wet meadow habitat that was still accessible. Compared to Alternative 1, the composition of the Neotropical bird community in native grasslands An estimated 70 fewer acres (0.4%) of sagebrush and sagebrush shrublands would likely be more shrubland and native grassland habitat on the diverse under Alternatives 4 and 5 due to the res- refuge in the short term would have a negligible toration of 4,500 acres of agricultural lands to na- effect on the abundance of Neotropical migrants tive vegetation. dependent on these habitat types. An estimated 1,070 fewer acres (7%) in the long term would Neotropical migratory birds dependent on willow, have a minor negative effect. cottonwood, and aspen habitats could benefit by a negligible to minor degree due to less intense An estimated 270 more acres (90%) of willow browsing compared to baseline conditions and habitat in the short term and an estimated 520 Alternative 1. more acres (173%) in the long term would have beneficial effects on the abundance of Neotropical Bridger-Teton National Forest — Neotropical migratory birds that use this habitat type com- migratory birds in the national forest that depend pared to Alternative 1. Compared to the potential on wet meadow habitats would not be affected in amount of willow acreage on the refuge of 1,750 the short term because elk grazing in wet mead- acres, this habitat increase would be minor, and ows habitats would be similar to baseline condi- the benefit to Neotropical birds would likely be tions and Alternative 1. However, in the long minor. term larger numbers of elk could remain on national forest lands in the winter, increasing graz- Compared to Alternative 1, an increase of 70 acres ing pressure and reducing residual vegetation in (6%) of cottonwood communities would have neg- wet meadow communities. This could negatively ligible short- and long-term impacts on Neotropi- affect Neotropical migratory birds that depend on cal migratory birds that use good and fair condi- tall vegetation for cover. tion cottonwood habitat. In the short term there would be few if any In the short term the recovery of approximately changes to the Neotropical migratory bird com- 500 acres of poor condition aspen woodland habi- munities that depend on sagebrush shrubland and tat within an exclosure would have a moderate native grassland communities. In the long term impact on the abundance of Neotropical migratory larger numbers of elk grazing in the forest could birds that use good and fair condition aspen have adverse impacts to vegetation in some areas, woodland habitat, as compared to Alternative 1. with negative impacts on Neotropical migratory In the long term approximately 1,000 acres of as- birds that rely on tall grasses for cover.

409 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

There would be few, if any, changes to the Neo- refuge in the short term could have a negligible tropical migratory bird community that depends adverse effect on Neotropical migrants that de- on riparian and aspen woodland habitats in the pend on these habitat types. An estimated 1,920 short term as a result of elk browsing pressure. fewer acres (12%) in the long term could have a but more elk browsing in the long term could ad- minor adverse effect. Although ungulate numbers versely affect willow, cottonwood, and aspen habi- would be lower on the refuge, any benefits to tats and the Neotropical bird communities that some bird species stemming from large reductions depend on woody vegetation. in elk and bison numbers could be offset by a greater reliance of remaining animals on native Neotropical migratory birds in the national forest winter habitat. Substantial increases in herba- would not be affected under Alternatives 5 com- ceous cover might not occur. pared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. However, elk browsing in the national forest The effects of Alternative 6 on Neotropical migra- would continue to negatively affect some willow, tory birds that are dependent on willow habitat on cottonwood, and aspen stands. the refuge would be similar to Alternative 3.

An increase of 70 to 220 acres (6%–20%) of cot- Conclusion tonwood communities in the short and long terms Compared to Alternative 1, the diversity of Neo- would have negligible to minor beneficial impacts tropical migratory birds would be higher on the on Neotropical migratory birds that use good and refuge under Alternatives 4 and 5 by a minor to fair condition cottonwood habitat compared to moderate amount in the long term due to a mod- Alternative 1. erate increase in riparian and aspen woodland habitat in good and fair condition. Neotropical The recovery of approximately 600 acres of poor migratory bird communities associated with wet condition aspen woodland habitat in the short meadows would be reduced by a minor to moder- term within rotating exclosures would have a ate amount compared to Alternative 1, while birds moderate beneficial impact on the abundance of dependent on sagebrush shrubland and native Neotropical migratory birds that use this habitat grasslands would be reduced by a negligible to type. In the long term the restoration of 1,850 minor amount. acres of aspen woodland habitat to good condition habitat would have a major beneficial impact on In the park Neotropical bird diversity could be Neotropical birds compared to Alternative 1, greater than under baseline conditions and Alter- where all aspen woodland communities would native 1 due to more riparian and aspen woodland eventually disappear. habitat in healthier condition and the conversion of 4,500 acres of agricultural lands to native plant Neotropical migratory birds in the cultivated communities. The benefits would be less under fields would likely not be affected by management Alternative 5 due to relatively high numbers of activities any more than under Alternative 1. elk browsing on woody vegetation. This alternative would not result in the impairment of Neo- Grand Teton National Park — Lower numbers of tropical migratory bird communities in the park. elk grazing on wet meadows would likely result in fewer invasions by nonnative weeds, and Neo- tropical migratory birds dependent on wet mead- Alternative 6 ows could benefit from native plant communities Analysis remaining dominant. National Elk Refuge — The effects of Alternative Compared to Alternative 1, the composition of the 6 on Neotropical migratory birds dependent on Neotropical bird community in native grasslands wet meadow habitats on the refuge would be and sagebrush shrublands would likely be more similar to the effects of Alternative 3. diverse due to the restoration of 4,500 acres of agricultural lands to native vegetation, similar to An estimated 310 fewer acres (2%) of sagebrush Alternatives 2 through 5. shrubland and native grassland habitats on the

410 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Neotropical Migratory Birds

Neotropical migratory birds dependent on ripar- associated with wet meadow, sagebrush shrub- ian and aspen woodland communities in the park land, native grasslands and riparian and aspen could benefit by a negligible to minor amount due woodland habitats on federal, state, and private to the reduced numbers of elk browsing on woody lands in other locations could experience negative vegetation. impacts in localized areas. Birds that need residual vegetation or a high percentage of canopy Bridger-Teton National Forest — The effects of cover would be negatively impacted the most. Alternative 6 on Neotropical migratory birds dependent on wet meadow habitat in the national Conclusion forest would be similar to the effects of Alterna- tives 2 and 3. Neotropical migratory bird diversity under Al- ternative 6 would be greater than under Alterna- If larger numbers of elk grazed in sagebrush tive 1 in the short and long terms due to a major shrubland and native grassland habitats in the increase in good condition woody vegetation. Bird national forest, residual vegetation could be re- communities associated with wet meadows would duced, with adverse effects on migratory bird be smaller than under Alternative 1 by a moder- species that rely on tall grasses for cover. Con- ate to major amount and Neotropical migrants versely, if large numbers of elk migrated out of dependent on sagebrush shrubland and native Jackson Hole in the winters, grasses in the na- grassland habitats would be smaller by a negligi- tional forest would remain tall and birds depend- ble to minor amount. ent on tall vegetation would not be affected. In the park Neotropical migratory bird diversity In the long term more elk in the national forest would likely be greater than under Alternative 1 could increase browsing pressure on riparian and due to more riparian and aspen habitats in aspen woodland habitats and damage woody healthier condition and the conversion of agricul- vegetation, which could negatively affect Neo- tural lands to native plant communities. This al- tropical migratory birds that breed and nest in ternative would not result in the impairment of willow, cottonwood, and aspen habitats. Neotropical migratory bird communities in the park. If large numbers of elk did migrate out of the Jackson area, Neotropical migratory birds de- Mitigation pendent on riparian and aspen woodland habitat in the forest would benefit from the improved Measures to mitigate adverse effects of the alter- condition of these habitats. natives on Neotropical migratory birds would be the same as those for riparian and aspen wood- Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not land, wet meadow, sagebrush shrubland, and na- leave the Jackson Hole area in the winter, Neo- tive grassland habitats in the “Impacts on Habi- tropical migratory bird communities associated tat” section of Chapter 4. with wet meadow, sagebrush shrubland, native grassland and riparian and aspen woodland habitats on BLM and private lands in the Jackson Cumulative Effects Hole area could experience negative impacts in Federal Land Management Activities localized areas. Elk would likely forage more often in these habitats outside the refuge since no sup- Grand Teton National Park Fire Management plemental feed would be provided. Higher levels The park’s fire management plan could have of browsing and grazing on BLM lands and pri- short-term adverse affects on some Neotropical vate lands could result in further habitat degrada- migratory birds by disturbing and displacing indi- tion and loss of acreage in some areas, which viduals and reducing foraging and nesting habitat would negatively affect associated Neotropical or habitat quality. Fire management actions are migratory birds. not expected to affect species at a population level. Prescribed fire can be used to maintain and If large numbers of elk did migrate out of Jackson restore more diverse vegetative communities in Hole, Neotropical migratory bird communities landscapes where natural fire regimes have been

411 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES disrupted. The long-term effects of prescribed fire Bridger-Teton National Forest Fuels Manage- could create vegetative diversity that would im- ment Projects prove foraging and nesting habitat for many Neo- Bridger-Teton National Forest has identified 15 tropical migratory bird species. fuels reduction projects in the primary analysis area, and several others in the secondary analysis The decrease in diversity of Neotropical migra- area in the upper Green River watershed. These tory birds under Alternative 1 due to the loss of projects would alter about 9,400 acres of national riparian and aspen woodland habitat on the refuge forest land and could temporarily reduce Neo- could be offset to some extent by the beneficial tropical migratory bird habitat immediately after effects of Grand Teton National Park’s fire man- various fuel reduction treatments. However, in agement plan. Alternatives 2–6 would increase the long term, most of these projects would im- riparian and aspen woodland habitat on the refuge prove nesting and foraging habitats for Neotropi- and convert formerly cultivated areas in the cal birds. southern portion of the park to native vegetation. Improved native habitat on the refuge and in the The negative effects on the diversity of Neotropi- park, combined with improved habitat as a result cal migratory birds due to the loss of riparian and of fire management activities, would have long- aspen woodland habitat on the refuge and in the term, cumulative, beneficial effects on Neotropical park under Alternative 1 could be offset to some migratory birds. extent by improved nesting and foraging habitat within the forest over the long term. Beneficial Grand Teton National Park Recreation Infra- cumulative effects would result under Alterna- structure Improvements tives 2–6 due to increased riparian and aspen woodland habitats on the refuge and in the park, Potential construction of a multi-use trail from combined with improved habitats in the national Moose to the north Jenny Lake junction would forest. However, under Alternatives 2, 3, and 6, result in site-specific, temporary impacts along and to some extent under Alternative 4, more elk planned trail routes during the summer. The trail would be wintering on native winter range and construction phase would likely displace Neo- might heavily browse riparian and aspen wood- tropical birds within or near work areas in the land habitats in the forest, decreasing the benefits short term and make habitat unavailable. If path- to Neotropical birds. ways were separate from existing roads, long- term impacts to birds could include loss of habitat along the new pathways. The range and specific Bridger-Teton National Forest Recreation Plan- details of the improvements are unknown at this ning / Moose-Gypsum Projects time. The dispersed recreation camping site plan would decrease the potential for interactions that could The decrease in Neotropical migratory bird diver- disturb and displace Neotropical birds from more sity under Alternative 1 due to the loss of riparian critical habitat. In the long term these projects and aspen woodland habitat on the refuge could could result in beneficial effects to migratory have cumulative effects when combined with the birds, but the effects would likely be negligible. effects of habitat loss in the park due to infrastructure improvements. Alternatives 2–6 would increase riparian and aspen woodland habitat on BLM Snake River Resource Management Plan the refuge and would convert formerly cultivated Greater public access has the potential to increase areas in the southern portion of the park to native conflicts with Neotropical migratory birds and vegetation. These actions could offset the loss of negatively impact woody riparian habitats that habitat due to infrastructure improvement in the support a more diverse bird community. Contin- park over the long term. ued management of conservation easements for open space and wildlife habitat would help protect foraging and nesting habitat. Pursuit of a long- term protective withdrawal to prohibit the staking and development of mining claims would also

412 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Gallinaceous Birds benefit birds by preventing potential adverse Population Growth and Private Land Development habitat impacts. Primary Analysis Area Cumulative effects are not expected under Alter- Projected population increases in both Teton and natives 1 and 5 because the amount of browsing Sublette counties would continue to create a de- by elk in woody riparian habitats would not be mand for private land development in these areas. affected. Alternatives 2, 3, and 4 in average or Neotropical migratory birds would encounter in- milder than average winters, as well as Alterna- creased habitat loss, conflicts with humans, and tive 6, would increase elk distribution in some vehicle collisions. Development in riparian and years and increase the potential for heavy aspen woodland habitats would have the most browsing that could reduce the quality of habitat negative impacts on bird diversity. The loss of for Neotropical migratory birds. riparian and aspen woodland habitats on the refuge and in the park under Alternative 1, combined with the loss and degradation of this habitat type BLM Upper Green River Special Recreation on private lands, would have cumulative negative Management Area impacts on Neotropical bird diversity. Increased Proposed improvements to sensitive riparian riparian and aspen woodland habitat and im- vegetation zones would benefit a diversity of Neo- proved habitat quality on the refuge and in the tropical birds. Cumulative impacts under all the park under Alternatives 2–6 would offset to some alternatives would likely be negligible because of extent the loss of habitat on private lands, but the the small amount of acreage (16.5 acres) that effects would likely be negligible. would be directly impacted by the plan.

GALLINACEOUS BIRDS Snake River Restoration Activities Methodology Used to Analyze Effects Restoration of the Snake River channel by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers could impact ri- Estimates of an alternative’s potential beneficial parian habitat for a variety of wildlife species, or adverse effects on populations of gallinaceous including Neotropical birds. This environmental birds have been based on changes in the amount restoration project will prevent further degrada- and condition of preferred habitats. Increases in tion of riparian habitat and facilitate habitat re- the amount and/or condition of preferred habitats covery. are viewed as benefits to populations, and decreases are viewed as detrimental effects, even The negative effects on the diversity of Neotropi- though neither increases nor decreases could cal migratory birds due to the loss of riparian and translate directly into increased population or aspen woodland habitat on the refuge and the production levels. For example, the effect that park under Alternative 1 could be offset to some changes in the amount of sagebrush shrubland extent by increased woody riparian habitat along habitat would have on sage grouse would depend the Snake River. Beneficial cumulative effects on the location of changes, existing sage grouse would result in the long term under Alternatives habitat use patterns, size and quality of adjacent 2–6 due to increased riparian and aspen woodland sagebrush and native grassland habitats, and habitats on the refuge and in the park, combined many other factors. Nonetheless, increases in the with increased woody riparian habitat along the amount and quality of sagebrush habitat are bene- Snake River. Increased browsing by elk along the ficial to sage grouse populations and reductions Snake River under Alternatives 2, 3, and 4 in av- are generally detrimental. Due to the numerous erage and milder than average winters, as well as factors that may influence grouse populations, no Alternative 6, could offset some of the beneficial attempt has been made to quantify (negligible, cumulative effects. minor, moderate or major) the degree that grouse populations could benefit from or be adversely impacted by potential habitat changes.

413 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Impacts of the Alternatives would have a net beneficial or adverse effect on the sage grouse population in the long term. Impacts Common to All Alternatives Gallinaceous birds would not be adversely im- Ruffed grouse and blue grouse are rare on the pacted or would be impacted to a negligible de- refuge because suitable habitat is limited. A degree by management activities and other human crease in aspen woodlands by an estimated 90 disturbances under all alternatives. Activities as- acres (5%) in the short term would not measura- sociated with the supplemental feeding program bly affect ruffed and blue grouse populations. (Alternatives 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6), fertility control on However, the eventual loss of a major amount of the refuge (Alternative 2), and brucellosis vacci- riparian and aspen woodland habitat (an esti- nation on the refuge (Alternatives 4, 5, and possi- mated 1,850 acres, or 100%, of aspen habitat, an bly 3) would not disturb grouse because they estimated 50 acres (16%) of willow habitat, and an would occur in cultivated fields and grassland estimated 220 acres (20%) of cottonwood habitat habitat where gallinaceous birds do not normally under this alternative would have a negative im- occur. pact on ruffed and blue grouse.

Gallinaceous birds would not be adversely im- Grand Teton National Park — Increasing bison pacted or would be impacted to a negligible de- numbers in this alternative could result in in- gree by activities associated with elk and/or bison creased use of sagebrush shrubland habitat and hunting in all alternatives except 2. Hiking and reduced residual vegetation, potentially adversely horseback riding and the firing of rifles could affecting sage grouse nesting and brooding habi- temporarily disturb gallinaceous birds in the im- tat. In addition, continued encroachment of coni- mediate area; however, these effects would not fers into some areas formerly dominated by sage- affect survival and reproduction. brush could reduce the amount of suitable habitat in some areas and increase the number of widely spaced conifer trees that may provide perches for Alternative 1 nest predators. Analysis Ruffed grouse and blue grouse in some places in National Elk Refuge — Under Alternative 1 sage the park could be negatively impacted in localized grouse on the refuge would not be impacted in the areas by the loss of aspen and cottonwood habitat short term any more than they have been in the in the long term due in part to heavy browsing by recent past because there would be little or no elk and other ungulates. change in sagebrush shrubland communities. Sage grouse could potentially benefit in the long term Bridger-Teton National Forest — Sage grouse in as sagebrush shrubland habitat on the refuge in- the national forest would not be affected under creased by an estimated 1,160 acres (15%), in Alternative 1 any more than they have been in the large part due to the loss of aspen habitat. In ad- recent past, which includes localized adverse im- dition to increased acreage of sagebrush shrub- pacts due to heavy elk grazing and browsing. land habitat, sage grouse could also benefit from the loss of aspen habitat because it would elimi- Ruffed grouse and blue grouse could be nega- nate many tall perches used by common ravens, tively impacted in areas where aspen and cotton- which are key nest predators. Conversely, contin- wood habitat was lost in the long term due in part ued heavy grazing in some areas by elk and a to heavy browsing by elk and other ungulates. growing population of bison, trampling of sagebrush in localized areas, and maintenance of higher-than-natural densities of common ravens Conclusion and coyotes on the refuge (due in part to the large Under Alternative 1 sage grouse populations on concentration of wintering elk and bison) could the refuge could potentially benefit as sagebrush adversely affect the local sage grouse population. shrubland communities increased by a minor It is not clear whether potential beneficial and amount in the long term due primarily to a loss of adverse effects of elk and bison management aspen habitat compared to baseline conditions. However, large numbers of bison could negate

414 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Gallinaceous Birds any beneficial effects of more habitat by reducing of riparian and aspen woodland habitat to good residual cover and degrading habitat condition. and fair conditions in the long term. Ruffed grouse numbers would likely decline in the short and long terms as aspen habitat eventually Even if the fertility control program was con- disappeared, and the potential for increasing blue ducted in the park in the spring and summer un- grouse numbers would disappear. der Alternative 2, gallinaceous birds would not be disturbed more than a negligible degree and only Sage grouse in the park could be adversely af- for a short period of time by biologists hiking fected by growing numbers of bison in sagebrush through a variety of habitats. shrubland habitat compared to baseline conditions. Ruffed grouse and blue grouse could expe- Grand Teton National Park — An estimated rience adverse impacts due to reductions in the 2,250 additional acres of sagebrush shrubland amount and condition of aspen and cottonwood habitat would potentially benefit sage grouse in habitats in localized areas in the long term com- the park in the long term compared to baseline pared to baseline conditions. This alternative conditions and Alternative 1. A major reduction in would not result in the impairment of grouse bison numbers, which could result in larger communities in the park. amounts of residual grass cover in some areas, could also benefit sage grouse. Alternatives 2 and 3 (Option B) Negligible to minor increases in the amount and Analysis condition of riparian and aspen woodland habitats as a result of less browsing and trampling by elk National Elk Refuge — Under Alternative 2 and and bison could benefit ruffed and blue grouse in option B of Alternative 3, an estimated 200 addi- the park. tional acres (2%) of sagebrush shrubland habitat would likely not affect sage grouse on the refuge Bridger-Teton National Forest — Compared to in the short term, but an estimated 9,420 more Alternative 1, increased grazing and browsing acres (117%) of this habitat type in the long term pressure by elk in localized areas on sagebrush compared to Alternative 1 could result in benefi- shrubland and riparian and aspen woodland habi- cial impacts. However, the immediate discon- tats in the national forest could negatively affect tinuation of hunting and the eventual elimination sage grouse, ruffed grouse, and blue grouse nest- of winter feeding on the refuge under Alternative ing or other aspects of their ecology. 2 could result in higher levels of grazing by elk and bison in sagebrush shrubland habitats, which Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not could offset some of the benefits of increased migrate outside the Jackson Hole area, sage acreage. grouse and ruffed grouse on private lands in Jack- son Hole could be negatively affected in localized Compared to Alternative 1, in the short and long areas from elk foraging more often on private terms, Alternative 2 and option B of Alternative 3 lands compared to baseline conditions and Alter- would have an estimated 150 more acres (5%) of native 1. Higher levels of grazing and browsing woody vegetation, which could benefit ruffed and could result in further habitat degradation, re- blue grouse on the refuge but only to a negligible duced residual vegetation, and loss of acreage in degree. localized areas. Increased ungulate browsing caused by reduced If large numbers of elk did migrate outside the feeding and the elimination of hunting under Al- Jackson Hole area, sage, ruffed, and blue grouse ternative 2 could also negate any beneficial effects on federal, state, and private lands in the Green of increased habitat and possibly result in overall River basin could be negatively affected in local- negative impacts to forest grouse. ized areas as a result of sagebrush shrubland and riparian and aspen woodland habitats being de- If large numbers of elk migrated out of the Jack- graded and possibly lost from higher levels of son Hole area, ruffed and blue grouse could bene- browsing and grazing. fit with the recovery of an estimated 1,600 acres

415 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Conclusion and 1. Blue grouse would become increasingly rare on the refuge. Sage grouse on the refuge would potentially benefit in the long term as a result of a major increase Grand Teton National Park — An estimated in sagebrush habitat being available compared to 2,250 additional acres of sagebrush shrubland Alternative 1. Increased grazing by elk and bison habitat, compared to baseline conditions and Al- could offset the benefits of more sagebrush ternative 1, could benefit Sage grouse in the park shrubland habitat. Forest grouse on the refuge in the long term. A major long-term reduction in could be beneficially affected in the long term by a bison could also potentially benefit sage grouse. negligible increase in woody vegetation, but increased grazing and browsing by ungulates would Ruffed grouse and blue grouse in the park could likely negate this habitat increase and possibly potentially benefit from a minor increase in the result in overall negative impacts. If large num- amount and condition of riparian and aspen bers of elk migrated out of Jackson Hole, ruffed woodland communities because of fewer elk and blue grouse on the refuge would benefit from browsing in the park compared to baseline condi- the recovery of an estimated 1,600 acres of ripar- tions and Alternative 1. ian and aspen woodland habitats. Bridger-Teton National Forest — Compared to Sage grouse in the park would potentially benefit Alternative 1, increased grazing and browsing in the long term from 2,250 additional acres of pressure by elk in localized areas on sagebrush sagebrush shrubland habitat and a major reduc- shrubland and riparian and aspen woodland habi- tion in bison numbers compared to Alternative 1. tats in the national forest could negatively affect Ruffed and blue grouse could benefit due to a sage, ruffed, and blue grouse nesting or other as- negligible to minor increase in the condition of pects of their ecology. cottonwood and aspen habitat. This alternative would not result in the impairment of grouse Other Lands — If most elk remained in the Jack- communities in the park. son Hole area for the winters, ruffed grouse on BLM and private lands in Jackson Hole could be Alternative 3 (Option A) negatively affected in localized areas due to higher levels of browsing in willow, aspen, and Analysis cottonwood habitats. National Elk Refuge — Under Option A of Alter- native 3 an estimated 90 additional acres (1%) of If large numbers of elk did migrate outside the sagebrush shrubland habitat in the short term Jackson Hole area, sage and forest grouse on fed- would likely have negligible impacts on sage eral, state, and private lands in the Green River grouse. An estimated 5,690 more acres (71%) of basin could be negatively impacted in localized sagebrush shrubland habitat in the long term areas due to higher levels of grazing and browsing could benefit sage grouse. However, a major re- in sagebrush shrubland and riparian and aspen duction in winter feeding and closing part of the woodland habitats. hunt zone on the refuge could result in increased grazing pressure, which could offset some of the Conclusion benefits of increased acreage. Under Alternative 3 sage grouse on the refuge Ruffed grouse could benefit from the estimated could benefit due to negligible habitat changes on 1,720 more acres (53%) of riparian and aspen the refuge in the short term and major habitat woodland habitat remaining on the refuge in the changes in the long term compared to Alternative long term, compared to Alternative 1. However, 1. Increased grazing and browsing by elk and bi- benefits would be minimal because most of the son could offset potential benefits of more sage- difference in habitat would involve willow habitat, brush shrubland habitat. Ruffed grouse and blue which is not used to the same extent as aspen grouse could be slightly better off than under Al- habitat. Most or all of the aspen habitat on the ternative 1 because willow habitat would recover refuge would be lost under both Alternatives 3 under this alternative. Blue grouse would become increasingly rare on the refuge.

416 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Gallinaceous Birds

Sage grouse in the park would potentially benefit Conclusion in the long term from 2,250 additional acres of Increased browsing and grazing on sage grouse sagebrush shrubland habitat compared to baseline habitat due to reductions in winter feeding could conditions and Alternative 1. Ruffed grouse and negatively affect sage grouse populations com- blue grouse could benefit by a minor increase in pared to Alternative 1. Ruffed and blue grouse the condition of riparian and aspen woodland could benefit in the long term compared to Alter- communities. This alternative would not result in native 1 because good and fair condition riparian the impairment of grouse communities in the and aspen woodland habitats would increase by a park. moderate amount.

Alternative 4 Sage grouse in the park would potentially benefit in the long term from 2,250 additional acres of Analysis sagebrush shrubland habitat and from a major National Elk Refuge — An estimated 170 addi- reduction in bison numbers compared to Alterna- tional acres (2%) of sagebrush shrubland habitat tive 1. Ruffed grouse would not be affected or in the short term and an estimated 230 more acres would be beneficially affected to a negligible de- (3%) in the long term, compared to Alternative 1, gree due to fewer ungulates browsing on woody could probably have negligible effects on sage vegetation. This alternative would not result in grouse on the refuge. Major reductions in winter the impairment of grouse communities in the feeding could result in increased grazing pressure park. in some sagebrush shrubland habitats, which could negatively impact sage grouse populations. Alternative 5 Compared to Alternative 1, ruffed grouse and Analysis blue grouse on the refuge would benefit from an National Elk Refuge — The potential effects of estimated 1,590 additional acres (49%) of woody Alternative 5 on sage grouse on the refuge would vegetation in the long term and greatly improved be similar to the effects of Alternative 4, except habitat conditions. Improved habitat conditions that grazing pressure could be somewhat less in could result in increased use of the refuge by for- sagebrush shrubland habitats because supplemen- est grouse. tal feeding would make it unnecessary for elk to use native forage. More residual vegetation would Grand Teton National Park — An estimated in- benefit sage grouse. crease of 2,250 additional acres of sagebrush shrubland habitat in the long term and a major Exclosures under Alternative 5 would result in an reduction in bison numbers could potentially estimated 340 additional acres (10%) of riparian benefit sage grouse populations in the park. and aspen woodland habitat in the short term and 1,590 more acres (49%) in the long term and much Ruffed and blue grouse in the park would not be of this habitat would be in good and fair condition. affected or would be beneficially affected to a This would benefit ruffed and blue grouse, and it negligible degree under Alternative 4. could result in increased use of the refuge by these grouse species compared to Alternative 1. Bridger-Teton National Forest — Compared to Alternative 1, increased grazing and browsing Grand Teton National Park — Sage grouse in the pressure by elk in localized areas on sagebrush park would potentially benefit in the long term shrubland and riparian and aspen woodland habi- from an estimated 2,250 additional acres of sage- tats in the national forest could negatively affect brush shrubland habitat compared to baseline sage, ruffed, and blue grouse nesting or other as- conditions and Alternative 1. A major reduction in pects of their ecology. bison numbers could result in larger amounts of residual grass cover in some areas, which could benefit nesting sage grouse.

417 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Ruffed and blue grouse would not be affected or 1,720 additional acres (53%) of riparian and aspen would be beneficially affected to a negligible de- woodland habitat in the long term and greatly gree under Alternative 5. improved habitat conditions. Ruffed and blue grouse could increase their use of the refuge after Bridger-Teton National Forest — Sage, ruffed, habitat conditions improved. and blue grouse in the national forest would not be affected under Alternative 5 any more than Grand Teton National Park — An estimated in- they have been in the recent past. crease of 2,250 additional acres of sagebrush shrubland habitat and a major reduction in bison numbers could potentially benefit sage grouse Conclusion populations in the park. The effects of Alternative 5 on sage grouse on the refuge would be similar to the effects of Alterna- Ruffed and blue grouse could potentially benefit tive 4 except that grazing pressure would be by a minor increase in riparian and aspen wood- somewhat less on native winter range because of land communities due to fewer elk browsing in the supplemental feeding, and sage grouse would park compared to Alternative 1. benefit from more residual vegetation. Compared to Alternative 1, ruffed and blue grouse on the Bridger-Teton National Forest — Compared to refuge could benefit because a moderate amount Alternative 1, increased grazing and browsing of good and fair condition riparian and aspen pressure by elk in localized areas on sagebrush woodland habitats would be available in the long shrubland and riparian and aspen woodland habi- term. tats in the national forest could negatively affect sage, ruffed, and blue grouse nesting or other as- Sage grouse in the park would potentially benefit pects of their ecology. in the long term by 2,250 additional acres of sagebrush shrubland habitat and a major reduction in Other Lands — To the extent that elk increased bison numbers compared Alternative 1. Ruffed their use of private lands in the Jackson Hole area and blue grouse would not be affected or would be (due to a cessation of winter feeding on the ref- beneficially affected to a negligible degree under uge), sage grouse and ruffed grouse on these lands Alternative 5. These alternatives would not result could experience negative impacts in localized in the impairment of grouse communities in the areas (similar to Alternatives 2 and 3). park. If large numbers of elk migrated outside Jackson Hole, sage, ruffed, and blue grouse on federal, Alternative 6 state, and private lands in other locations could Analysis experience negative impacts in localized areas due to sagebrush shrubland and riparian and aspen National Elk Refuge — In the short term Alter- woodland habitats experiencing higher levels of native 6 would not affect sage grouse compared to grazing and browsing. This could result in habitat Alternative 1 due to little change in sagebrush degradation and loss of acreage in some areas. shrubland habitat. In the long term, sage grouse could potentially benefit by an estimated 3,990 more acres (50%) in sagebrush shrubland habitat Conclusion compared to Alternative 1. However, the eventual Sage grouse on the refuge could benefit due to elimination of winter feeding on the refuge and major, long-term habitat changes compared to possible closure of part of the hunt zone on the Alternative 1. Ruffed and blue grouse would refuge could result in higher levels of grazing by benefit in the short and long terms due to moder- elk in sagebrush shrubland habitats, which could ate to major habitat changes. offset some of the benefits of increased sagebrush shrubland. Sage grouse in the park could benefit in the long term from 2,250 additional acres of sagebrush Compared to Alternative 1, ruffed and blue shrubland habitat and a major reduction in bison grouse would likely benefit from an estimated numbers compared to Alternative 1. Ruffed and

418 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Waterfowl, Shorebirds, Rails, and Cranes blue grouse in the park could benefit by a minor high probability that heavy grazing by elk ad- increase in the condition of riparian and aspen versely affects duck production on the refuge. woodland communities. This alternative would not result in the impairment of grouse communities in Impacts of the Alternatives the park. Impacts Common to All Alternatives Cumulative Effects Impacts on Marshlands — Most waterfowl and other waterbirds that occur in Jackson Hole, the No cumulative effects on gallinaceous birds are Green River basin, and the Red Desert and that anticipated as a result of impacts of the alterna- depend on marshland habitat would not be af- tives in combination with impacts of reasonably fected or would be affected to a negligible degree foreseeable actions. by actions considered in this planning process. Although localized areas of marsh habitat on the WATERFOWL, SHOREBIRDS, RAILS, AND CRANES refuge have been heavily grazed, the good condition and amount of acreage under all alternatives Most waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in is expected to remain the same as under baseline Jackson Hole depend on marshland and wet conditions. meadow habitats for feeding, nesting, and other activities. Both of these habitats are generally in Direct Effects of Human Disturbance — Water- good condition on the refuge and in the park, but fowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes would not be the amount of grazing that occurs on the refuge adversely impacted or would be impacted to a can affect the amount of residual, or standing, negligible degree by management activities asso- vegetation that persists into spring when spring ciated with the supplemental feeding program for migrants use the refuge as a stopover point and elk or bison in Alternatives 1, 3, 4, and 5. The ef- when waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes nest fects would be negligible or nonexistent because on the refuge. supplemental feeding occurs during winter after most waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes have Methodology Used to Analyze Effects migrated to their winter feeding grounds. Those birds that remain for the winter primarily feed in The nesting requirements of waterfowl and other the marshland areas, which are far enough away waterbirds vary greatly; therefore, the effects of from feeding areas to not be affected by elk and ungulate grazing in meadow and marsh communi- bison feeding activities. ties differ. Species that prefer low stature vegetation for feeding, such as sandhill cranes, or are Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes would not able to successfully nest in low stature vegetation, be adversely impacted or would be impacted to a such as long-billed curlews, likely benefit from or negligible degree by activities associated with elk would not be adversely affected by moderate to and bison hunting in all alternatives except 2. heavy grazing. Rails and other secretive birds are Hiking and horseback riding and the firing of ri- adversely affected by heavy grazing that reduces fles could temporarily disturb waterfowl, shore- residual vegetation while the effects of ungulate birds, rails, and cranes in the immediate area. grazing might be neutral to other species. However, these effects would not affect survival and reproduction. Some bird species using meadow habitats on the refuge need dense, rank vegetation for successful Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes would not nesting, and the high level of grazing by elk in be adversely impacted or would be impacted to a some wet meadow areas could be adversely af- negligible degree by management activities asso- fecting the nesting success of these species (e.g., ciated with a brucellosis vaccination program for ducks such as the cinnamon teal). Although infor- elk and bison in Alternatives 3, 4, and 5 for the mation on the effects of elk grazing on duck nest- same reasons as described above for winter feeding on the refuge is not available, the large vol- ing activities. ume of information on the effects of livestock grazing on duck production indicates there is a

419 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Alternative 1 than in the recent past. Although elk browsing could reduce nesting cover in some areas, effects Analysis would likely be negligible at most. National Elk Refuge — Under Alternative 1 waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes that use wet Conclusion meadow habitats on the refuge could benefit from a negligible increase in wet meadow acreage (50 As compared to baseline conditions, Alternative 1 acres or 3%) in the short and long terms, as com- could result in negative impacts to waterfowl on pared to baseline conditions. However a reduction the refuge due to heavy grazing by elk in areas in the overall condition of wet meadow habitats used for nesting. In the long term as more bison from the current good condition to fair or poor grazed in the southern part of the refuge, adverse condition could negatively affect foraging habitat effects on nesting waterfowl could increase, and for waterfowl, shorebirds, and cranes, as well as the condition of wet meadow habitat could decline. nesting habitat for rails. The fair to poor condition However, cranes would likely not be impacted to of wet meadow communities would likely more any measurable degree. than offset any benefit from increased acreage. High levels of bison and elk grazing on wet The potential for adversely impacting duck pro- meadow habitats in the park could cause plant duction through depletion or degradation of nest- communities in some areas to shift from native to ing cover would continue in the short and long nonnative communities. High levels of grazing terms due to continued heavy grazing by elk and could also reduce residual vegetation and limit the bison in some wet meadow communities. amount of cover and nesting habitat for some species of birds in localized areas. This alternative Disking, plowing, and cultivation would have would not result in the impairment of waterfowl, minimal effects on duck production because irri- shorebird, rail, or crane populations in the park. gated areas are usually drier sites where few ducks typically nest. Flood irrigation would con- Alternative 2 tinue to benefit sandhill cranes by providing water in areas that would otherwise be dry. As a Analysis result, sandhill cranes would continue to use culti- National Elk Refuge — As compared to Alterna- vated fields and wet meadow areas maintained by tive 1, an estimated 100 fewer acres (6%) of wet flood irrigation seepage much more than they meadow habitat under Alternative 2 could ad- would have used native grasslands or sagebrush versely affect waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and shrublands that existed prior to Euro-American cranes to a negligible to minor degree in the short settlement. and long terms. However, Alternative 2 could also provide benefits to waterfowl and rails because Grand Teton National Park — Three wet fewer grazing elk and bison would result in meadow sites in the park were studied by McClo- denser, taller vegetation for nesting cover. How- sky and Sexton (2002) and are currently domi- ever, elk and bison, even though fewer in number, nated by nonnative plant communities (Haynes, could graze for longer periods of time in wet pers. comm. 2005). High numbers of elk and meadow areas as a result of phasing out supple- growing numbers of bison grazing in wet mead- mental feeding. In addition, the cessation of for- ows in the park could cause plant communities in age production could cause greater utilization of some areas to shift from native to nonnative forage in wet meadow communities by elk and communities, negatively affecting birds depend- bison. Therefore, it is unclear whether waterfowl, ent on wet meadows. High levels of grazing could rails, and shorebirds would experience a net bene- also reduce residual vegetation and limit the fit or adverse impact. amount of cover and nesting habitat for some species of birds in localized areas. The phaseout of cultivated fields would have minimal direct effects on duck, rail, and most Bridger-Teton National Forest — Waterfowl, shorebird production because these birds do not shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the national forest use cultivated fields for nesting or feeding. The would not be affected by Alternative 1 any more

420 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Waterfowl, Shorebirds, Rails, and Cranes native grasslands and sagebrush shrublands that Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not would replace the cultivated fields also would not migrate to the Green River basin and the Red provide nesting or feeding habitat for these spe- Desert, waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes on cies. The cessation of flood irrigation would have wet meadow habitat on private lands in the Jack- adverse impacts on sandhill cranes by eliminating son Hole area could experience negative impacts water in areas that would otherwise be dry. As a in localized areas. Elk that were no longer being result, cranes might stop using much of the area supplementally fed on the refuge would likely for- that is now cultivated. age more often on private lands, and higher levels of grazing could result in further habitat degrada- Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes would not tion and reduced residual vegetation in some ar- be adversely impacted or would be impacted to a eas. BLM lands in Jackson Hole contain a limited negligible degree by activities associated with a amount of wet meadow habitat; therefore, effects bison fertility control program under Alternative on waterfowl, shorebirds, rails and cranes would 2. If the fertility control program was conducted be minimal. on the refuge feedlines, most of these bird species would have already migrated to their winter If large numbers of elk did migrate outside Jack- feeding grounds, and overwintering birds spend son Hole, waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes most of their time in the marshland areas. on BLM lands in the Green River basin could be negatively affected in localized areas. Wet Grand Teton National Park — Waterfowl, shore- meadow communities in the Green River basin birds, rails, and cranes in the park could benefit are already heavily grazed by livestock, and the from fewer elk grazing in wet meadow habitats. addition of grazing by elk from the Jackson herd Residual vegetation could remain high and pro- could adversely affect ecological condition in some vide cover for nesting. In addition, nonnative spe- areas, with negative impacts on waterfowl, shore- cies might not dominate plant communities as birds, rails, and cranes in those areas. they could in heavily grazed areas. Conclusion Restoring agricultural fields to native vegetation could reduce the number of cranes that feed in As compared to baseline conditions and Alterna- those areas (Cole, pers. comm. 2005), but cranes tive 1, waterfowl and rails could benefit under do well with native meadow vegetation through- Alternative 2 from a possible increase in nesting out the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. cover; shorebirds would likely not be affected to any measurable extent. Sandhill cranes could de- If the bison fertility control program was con- crease on the refuge due to cessation of irrigation. ducted in the park during the spring and summer, waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes could be Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the temporarily disturbed by human presence in a park could benefit in some areas from fewer elk variety of habitats. However, few people would be and bison grazing in wet meadow habitats. Resid- engaged in this activity, and the extent of distur- ual vegetation might remain high enough to pro- bance would be small, especially since many areas vide cover for nesting birds. In addition, the con- of the park are already open to hiking. Although a dition of wet meadow habitats might not decline fertility control program in the park would likely to the same degree that they would under Alter- be conducted while most birds are breeding and native 1. This alternative would not result in the raising young, effects would likely be minimal. impairment of waterfowl, shorebird, rail, or crane populations in the park. Bridger-Teton National Forest — More elk grazing on wet meadows in native winter range could Alternative 3 negatively affect waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes that use this habitat type in the national Analysis forest. Bird species that need residual vegetation National Elk Refuge — The conversion of an es- for nesting and cover could be especially im- timated 780 acres (45%) of wet meadow habitat to pacted. willow habitat in the short term and an estimated

421 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

1,500 acres (87%) in the long term, compared to Bridger-Teton National Forest — More elk graz- Alternative 1, would limit the amount of foraging ing on wet meadows in native winter range could and nesting habitat available to waterfowl, shore- negatively affect waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and birds, rails, and cranes. This could reduce the cranes that use this habitat type in the national number of birds that feed and nest on the refuge. forest. Bird species that need residual vegetation However, because the affected area naturally for nesting and cover could be especially im- produced willow habitat in the past, the resulting pacted. bird community would more closely approximate a native diversity of birds. Other Lands — The effects of Alternative 3 on waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes on BLM In the wet meadow habitat that remains under lands in the Jackson area and in the Green River Alternative 3, the potential for adverse impacts to basin and private lands in the Jackson Hole area duck and rail production through reduction or would be similar to the effects of Alternative 2. degradation of nesting cover could decrease in the short and long terms as compared to baseline con- Conclusion ditions because fewer elk would browse on the refuge, but bison numbers would remain rela- Under Alternative 3 the conversion of wet tively high (800–1,000). Elk and bison could also meadow habitat to willow habitat on the refuge graze for longer periods of time in wet meadow would likely result in overall adverse impacts to areas as a result of elk and bison only being fed in waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the the most severe winters. In addition, stopping short and long terms as compared to Alternative forage production under Option B could cause 1. However, because the area naturally produced greater utilization of forage in wet meadow com- willow habitat in the past, the resulting bird munities. If bison grazed heavily in wet meadow community would more closely approximate a na- communities in the future, impacts to duck and tive diversity of birds. rail production due to the removal of residual cover in wet meadows and hoof damage would be Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the increasingly negative. park could benefit in some areas from fewer elk grazing in wet meadow habitats. Residual vegeta- Disking, plowing, and other cultivation practices tion might remain higher and provide better cover and the continuation of flood irrigation under Op- for nesting in these areas, as compared to Alter- tion A would have similar effects on duck and rail native 1. This alternative would not result in the production and sandhill cranes as Alternative 1. impairment of waterfowl, shorebird, rail, or crane However, a major loss of wet meadow habitat populations in the park. would likely result in overall adverse impacts to waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the Alternative 4 short and long terms as compared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. Analysis National Elk Refuge —The reduced acreage of Grand Teton National Park — Waterfowl, shore- wet meadow habitats on the refuge under Alter- birds, and rails in the park could benefit from the native 4 would reduce the amount of nesting and reduction in elk numbers grazing in wet meadow foraging habitat available for waterfowl, shore- habitats. Residual vegetation could remain high birds, rails, and cranes, possibly leading to re- enough to provide cover for nesting. In addition, duced numbers of birds feeding or nesting in nonnative species might not dominate plant com- these habitats on the refuge. As compared to Al- munities as they could in heavily grazed areas. ternative 1, Alternative 4 would result in an estimated 270 fewer acres (25%) of wet meadow habi- Restoring agricultural fields to native vegetation tat in the short term and an estimated 520 fewer could reduce the number of sandhill cranes that acres (48%) in the long term. The conversion of feed in those areas (Cole, pers. comm. 2005), but wet meadow communities to willow habitat would cranes do well with native meadow vegetation reduce foraging opportunities for shorebirds, throughout the greater Yellowstone ecosystem.

422 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Birds — Waterfowl, Shorebirds, Rails, and Cranes rails, and cranes, and it would reduce nesting op- Bridger-Teton National Forest — More elk graz- portunities for waterfowl, shorebirds, and rails. ing on wet meadows in native winter range could negatively affect waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and A 500-acre willow exclosure would initially pro- cranes that use wet meadow habitat in the na- tect 500 acres of wet meadow from grazing by elk tional forest. Bird species that need residual vege- and bison. In the short term residual cover in the tation for nesting and cover could be affected the 500-acre willow exclosure would be higher than most. under Alternative 1. But in the long term, the recovery of willow habitat would eliminate much of Conclusion the potential nesting habitat for waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes. The exclosure could The conversion of a moderate amount of wet also increase grazing pressure on wet meadow meadow habitat to willow habitat on the refuge, communities outside the exclosure, resulting in a combined with a change from flood irrigation to decline in tall, dense vegetation that serves as sprinkler irrigation, would likely result in overall cover for grass nesting birds, such as rails, snipe, adverse impacts to waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, willet, and curlew. However, much of this area and cranes in the short and long terms as com- naturally produced willow habitat in the past, so pared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. the resulting bird community would more closely However, because the area naturally produced approximate a native bird diversity. willow habitat in the past, the resulting bird community would more closely approximate a na- The continuation of farming practices under Al- tive diversity of birds. ternative 4 would have similar effects as under Alternative 1 in terms of disking, plowing, and Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the sowing seeds. Converting an estimated 1,100 park could benefit from fewer elk and bison graz- acres from flood irrigation to sprinkler irrigation ing on wet meadow habitats in some areas of the would adversely affect waterfowl, shorebirds, park, although not to the same extent as under rails, and cranes because standing water would be Alternatives 2 and 3. Residual vegetation could eliminated. remain higher and provide better cover for nesting birds in these areas, as compared to Alterna- Under Alternative 4 the loss of wet meadow habi- tive 1. This alternative would not result in the tat, combined with the conversion from flood irri- impairment of waterfowl, shorebird, rail, and gation to sprinkler irrigation, would likely result crane communities in the park. in overall adverse impacts to waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the short and long terms Alternative 5 as compared to baseline conditions and Alterna- tive 1. Analysis National Elk Refuge — The conversion of wet Grand Teton National Park — Waterfowl, shore- meadow habitat to willow habitat on the refuge birds, rails, and cranes in the park could benefit under Alternative 5 would decrease the amount of from fewer elk grazing on park wet meadow habi- foraging and nesting habitat available for water- tats although not as much as under Alternatives 2 fowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes, possibly re- and 3. Residual vegetation could remain high ducing the number of birds that feed or nest on enough to provide cover for nesting. In addition, the refuge. As compared to Alternative 1, Alter- nonnative species might not dominate plant com- native 5 would result in an estimated 270 fewer munities as they could in heavily grazed areas. acres (25%) of wet meadow habitat in the short term and an estimated 520 fewer acres (48%) in Restoring agricultural fields to native vegetation the long term. However, because the area natu- could reduce the number of sandhill cranes that rally produced willow habitat in the past, the re- feed in those areas (Cole, pers. comm. 2005), but sulting bird community would more closely ap- cranes do well with native meadow vegetation proximate a native diversity of birds. throughout the greater Yellowstone ecosystem.

423 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

The potential for adverse impacts to duck and rail pared to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. production due to the reduction or degradation of However, because the area naturally produced nesting cover would continue in the short and long willow habitat in the past, the resulting bird terms because of continued heavy grazing by elk community would more closely approximate a na- in some wet meadow communities outside the 500- tive diversity of birds. acre willow exclosure. This would result in a decline in tall, dense vegetation that serves as cover Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the for grass-nesting birds, such as rails, snipes, wil- park would not be affected under Alternative 5 let, and curlews. In the short term residual cover any more than under Alternative 1. High levels of within the exclosure would be higher than under elk and bison grazing on wet meadows in the park Alternative 1, and this would potentially benefit could cause plant communities in some areas to shorebirds and rails. In the long term the recov- shift from native to nonnative communities. This ery of willow habitat would eliminate much of the alternative would not result in the impairment of potential nesting habitat for grass-nesting birds. waterfowl, shorebird, rail, or crane communities in the park. Converting an estimated 1,100 acres from flood irrigation to sprinkler irrigation would adversely Alternative 6 affect waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes due to the elimination of standing water. Analysis National Elk Refuge — The effects of Alternative The combination of reduced wet meadow habitat 6 on waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes on and changing from flood to sprinkler irrigation the refuge would be similar to the effects of Al- would likely result in overall adverse impacts to ternative 3. The reduced acreage of wet meadow waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the habitats on the refuge would limit the amount of short and long terms as compared to baseline con- foraging and nesting habitat available for water- ditions and Alternative 1. fowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes, possibly reducing the number of birds that feed and nest on Grand Teton National Park — Waterfowl, shore- the refuge. birds, rails, and cranes in the park would not be affected by actions under Alternative 5. High lev- Grand Teton National Park — Waterfowl, shore- els of elk and bison grazing on wet meadows in the birds, rails, and cranes in the park could benefit park could cause plant communities in some areas from the reduction in elk numbers grazing on park to shift from native to nonnative communities. wet meadow habitats. Residual vegetation could remain high enough to provide cover for nesting. Restoring agricultural lands to native vegetation In addition, nonnative species might not dominate could reduce the number of sandhill cranes that plant communities, as they could in heavily grazed feed in those areas (Cole, pers. comm. 2005), but areas. cranes do well with native meadow vegetation throughout the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Restoring agricultural fields to native vegetation could reduce the number of sandhill cranes that Bridger-Teton National Forest — Waterfowl, feed in those areas (Cole, pers. comm. 2005), but shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the national forest cranes do well with native meadow vegetation would not be affected under Alternatives 5 any- throughout the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. more than in the recent past. Bridger-Teton National Forest — More elk graz- Conclusion ing on wet meadows in native winter range could negatively affect waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and The conversion of a moderate amount of wet cranes that use wet meadow habitat in the na- meadow habitat to willow habitat on the refuge, tional forest. Bird species that need residual vege- combined with a change from flood irrigation to tation for nesting and cover could be negatively sprinkler irrigation, would likely result in overall impacted the most. adverse impacts to waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the short and long terms as com-

424 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Amphibians — Impacts of the Alternatives

Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not cussions for wet meadow habitats in the “Impacts migrate outside Jackson Hole, waterfowl, shore- on Habitat” section of Chapter 4. birds, rails and cranes on wet meadow habitats on private lands in Jackson Hole could experience Cumulative Effects negative impacts in localized areas. Elk that are no longer being fed on the refuge in the winter Several reasonably foreseeable actions, including would likely forage more often on private lands the reconstruction of U.S. 26/287, The Bureau of compared to Alternative 1, and higher levels of Land Management’s Snake River Resource Man- grazing could result in further habitat degrada- agement Plan and the Upper Green River Special tion and reduced residual vegetation in some ar- Recreation Management Area Project Plan, and eas. BLM lands in Jackson Hole contain a limited private land development would all likely result in amount of wet meadow habitat; therefore, effects short- and long-term impacts to waterbird habi- on birds would be minimal. tat. Additionally, some of the actions associated with the upper Green River project plan and the If large numbers of elk did migrate outside the Snake River restoration project could benefit wa- Jackson Hole area, waterfowl, shorebirds, rails terbird habitat. Overall, the cumulative effects of and cranes on federal, state, and private lands in the alternatives on waterbird habitat would be other locations could experience negative impacts negligible. The extent of these effects is unclear in localized areas. Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails and due to the varied and conflicting negative and cranes in these areas could be negatively im- positive impacts that would simultaneously occur pacted as a result of wet meadow communities on the refuge and in the park. experiencing higher levels of grazing from a combination of livestock and elk, which could result in reduced ecological condition. AMPHIBIANS IMPACTS OF THE ALTERNATIVES Conclusion Impacts Common to All Alternatives The conversion of a major amount of wet meadow habitat to willow habitat on the refuge, combined Amphibians would not be adversely impacted or with the change from flood irrigation to sprinkler would be impacted to a negligible degree by man- irrigation, would likely result in overall adverse agement activities associated with the supplemen- impacts to waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes tal feeding program for elk or bison under Alter- in the short and long terms, as compared to base- natives 1, 3, 4, and 5 because supplemental feeding line conditions and Alternative 1. However, be- occurs during winter in cultivated fields where cause the area naturally produced willow habitat, amphibians do not generally occur. Furthermore, the resulting bird community would more closely amphibians would be hibernating in the winter. approximate a native diversity of birds. Supplemental feeding would be phased out under Alternatives 2 and 6; impacts on amphibians dur- Waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes in the ing the phaseout period would be negligible or park could benefit from the reduction in elk and nonexistent. bison numbers grazing on park wet meadow habitats as compared to Alternative 1. Residual vege- Amphibians would not be adversely impacted or tation could remain high enough to provide cover would be impacted to a negligible degree by ac- for nesting. This alternative would not result in tivities associated with elk and bison hunting un- the impairment of waterfowl, shorebird, rail, and der all alternatives except 2. Hiking and horse- crane communities in the park. back riding and the firing of rifles could temporarily disturb amphibians in the immediate area. However, these effects would not affect survival Mitigation and reproduction. In addition, amphibians would Measures to mitigate adverse effects of the alter- be hibernating during most of the hunting season. natives on waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and cranes would parallel those addressed in mitigation dis- Amphibians would not be adversely impacted or would be impacted to a negligible degree by man-

425 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES agement activities associated with a brucellosis Conclusion vaccination program for elk and bison in Alterna- Compared to baseline conditions, Alternative 1 tives 3, 4, and 5. Elk and bison would be vacci- could negatively impact amphibians on the refuge nated in the winter on the refuge feedlines, where in the short and long terms due to the continued amphibians do not generally occur and when they loss of riparian and aspen woodland habitat (in- are hibernating. cluding lost opportunities to recover healthy willow habitat) and possible trampling of stream Alternative 1 banks by elk and bison (i.e., loss of undercut banks). Although the diversion of water from ref- Analysis uge streams could adversely affect some amphibi- National Elk Refuge — Under Alternative 1, the ans, the diversions would continue to provide a irrigation system on the refuge would remain es- net benefit by providing wet areas associated with sentially the same as current conditions, and flood irrigation. standing water would remain available for amphibian habitat. The diversion of water from ref- Amphibians in the park could experience adverse uge streams could adversely affect some amphibi- impacts due to a loss of woody riparian habitat in ans, but the diversions would continue to provide localized areas from heavy browsing and tram- a net benefit by providing wet areas associated pling by elk. This alternative would not result in with flood irrigation. In general, amphibians are the impairment of amphibian populations in the not greatly affected by elk and bison (D. Patla, park. pers. comm. 2003). However, if growing numbers of bison congregated along the banks of Nowlin Alternative 2 and Flat Creeks in the winter and trample the underbank cavities that are important shelters for Analysis toads, boreal toads could be adversely affected. National Elk Refuge — Alternative 2 would eliminate irrigation on the refuge, and this could Willows provide important shelter areas that pro- negatively affect amphibians because there would tect amphibians from predation and that provide be less standing water in some areas, and poten- thermal cover. Historical loss of willow and espe- tially fewer amphibians would survive due to cially the accompanying loss of beaver are proba- elimination of this excess water. The Nowlin area bly a limiting factor for amphibians on the refuge has soil conditions that allow water to pool when (D. Patla, pers. comm. 2003). Willow habitat would flood irrigation is used, and amphibians in this decline by an estimated 50 acres, and 1,450 acres area could be negatively impacted as compared to of suppressed willow plants that currently occur baseline conditions and the Alternative 1 due to in wet meadow habitat would not be able to re- elimination of flood irrigation (D. Patla, pers. cover. Under Alternative 1 amphibians reliant on comm. 2003). willow habitat would be adversely affected to a negligible degree as compared to baseline condi- Bison numbers under Alternative 2 are not likely tions. to grow large enough that they would impact the banks of Nowlin and Flat Creek by trampling the Grand Teton National Park — Amphibians in the underbank cavities that are important to boreal park could be affected to a minor degree by the toads. Compared to Alternative 1, Alternative 2 loss of woody riparian habitats due to high levels would result in an additional 150 acres of willow of browsing or trampling by elk and bison. habitat, which could benefit amphibians in the short and long terms. Bridger-Teton National Forest — Amphibians in the national forest would not be affected under Amphibians would not be adversely impacted or Alternative 1 any more than in the recent past. would be impacted to a negligible degree by management activities associated with a fertility control program for bison under Alternative 2. If the fertility control program was conducted in the

426 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Amphibians — Impacts of the Alternatives winter on refuge feedlines, amphibians would be Conclusion hibernating. Amphibians on the refuge would likely be negatively impacted as compared to Alternative 1 due Grand Teton National Park — Amphibians in the to elimination of the flood irrigation system, al- park could benefit from additional woody riparian though more acres of good and poor condition habitats due to fewer elk and bison browsing and willow habitat (as compared to Alternative 1) trampling woody vegetation. could mitigate this impact to some degree. The loss of habitats produced by flood irrigation would If a bison fertility control program was conducted limit the refuge’s ability to mitigate habitat losses in the park in spring and summer, amphibians in surrounding areas. could be temporarily disturbed by humans hiking through a variety of habitats. However, few peo- Amphibians in the park could benefit from larger ple would be engaged in this activity, and many amount of woody riparian habitat (as compared to areas of the park are already open to hiking; Alternative 1) due to fewer elk browsing and therefore, the extent of disturbance would be trampling woody vegetation, although effects small. Although a fertility control program in the would be negligible. This alternative would not park would likely be conducted while most am- result in the impairment of amphibian populations phibians are breeding and raising young, effects in the park. would likely be minimal.

Bridger-Teton National Forest — Amphibians Alternative 3 could be adversely affected by larger numbers of Analysis elk browsing in cottonwood and willow habitats on native winter range in the national forest, poten- National Elk Refuge — Flood irrigation would tially causing a decline in these riparian communi- continue under Option A of Alternative 3, and the ties and reducing cover for amphibians. beneficial effects on amphibians would be similar to baseline conditions and Alternative 1. Under Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not Option B irrigation would be eliminated on the migrate outside the Jackson Hole area, amphibi- refuge, and the effects on amphibians would be ans on BLM lands and private lands in Jackson similar to the effects of Alternative 2. Compared Hole could experience negative impacts in local- to Alternative 1, amphibians would benefit due to ized areas. Elk that are no longer being fed in the an additional estimated 1,500 acres of willow habi- winter would likely forage more often in riparian tat. woodland habitats outside the refuge. Higher levels of browsing on BLM and private lands could There would be a large number of bison under this result in further habitat degradation and loss of alternative, some of which could congregate along acreage in some areas, negatively affecting am- the banks of Nowlin and Flat Creeks in the winter phibians. and trample the underbank cavities that are important shelters for boreal toads. Compared to If large numbers of elk did migrate outside Jack- Alternative 1, the negative impacts of Alternative son Hole, amphibians on BLM lands and private 3 on toad survival would likely be less because lands in the Green River basin and the Red Des- there would be fewer bison under Alternative 3 ert could experience negative impacts in localized than Alternative 1. areas as a result of higher levels of browsing in riparian woodland habitats, which could result in Grand Teton National Park — Amphibians in the habitat degradation and loss of habitat in some park could benefit by additional woody riparian areas. In addition, on BLM wet meadows, grazing habitats due to fewer elk browsing in the park as by both livestock and elk could result in reduced compared to baseline conditions and Alternative ecological condition, which could negatively affect 1. amphibians. Bridger-Teton National Forest — Amphibians could be adversely affected by larger numbers of elk browsing in cottonwood and willow habitats on

427 CHAPTER 4. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES native winter range in the national forest, poten- Grand Teton National Park — Amphibians in the tially causing a decline in these riparian communi- park would not be affected or would be benefi- ties and reducing cover for amphibians. cially affected to a negligible degree by actions being considered under Alternatives 4 and 5 as Other Lands — The effects of Alternative 3 on compared to baseline conditions and Alternative amphibians on BLM lands and private lands in 1. Jackson Hole, the Green River basin, and the Red Desert would be similar to the effects of Alterna- Bridger-Teton National Forest — Under Alterna- tive 2. tive 4 amphibians could be adversely affected by larger numbers of elk browsing in cottonwood and willow habitats in the national forest, potentially Conclusion causing a decline in these riparian communities Under Option A of Alternative 3 amphibians and reducing cover for amphibians. Amphibians in would likely benefit from a larger amount of wil- the national forest would not be affected by ac- low habitat than under Alternative 1 and from the tions being considered in Alternative 5 anymore continuation of flood irrigation. Under Option B than in the recent past. amphibians would likely benefit from a greater amount of good and fair condition willow habitat, Conclusion but they would be adversely affected by the elimination of flood irrigation. The potential would Amphibians on the refuge would likely be posi- exist for large numbers of bison to trample stream tively impacted under Alternatives 4 and 5 com- banks along Nowlin and Flat Creek (i.e., loss of pared to Alternative 1 due to the moderate to ma- undercut banks) which could adversely affect bo- jor increase in good and fair condition willow habi- real toads. tat. However, the elimination of flood irrigation on most fields would offset this benefit to some ex- Amphibians in the park could benefit from more tent. Converting to sprinkler irrigation in most woody riparian habitat (compared to Alternative fields would result in a closer approximation of a 1) as a result of fewer elk browsing in the park. natural diversity of amphibians on the refuge, but This alternative would not result in the impair- the loss of amphibian habitat produced by flood ment of amphibian populations in the park. irrigation would limit the refuge’s ability to offset habitat losses in surrounding areas. Alternatives 4 and 5 Amphibians in the park would not be affected or Analysis would be beneficially affected to a negligible degree under Alternatives 4 and 5 as compared Al- National Elk Refuge — Approximately 1,100 ternative 1. Neither alternative would result in acres of flood irrigation on the refuge would be the impairment of amphibian populations in the converted to sprinkler irrigation under Alterna- park. tives 4 and 5. Sprinkler irrigation uses less water and spreads it evenly over the cultivated fields. As a result, there would be much less standing Alternative 6 water or no standing water in areas where the soil Analysis is normally conducive to pooling (such as in the Nowlin area), so potentially fewer amphibians National Elk Refuge — Approximately 1,100 would survive (D. Patla, pers. comm. 2003). acres of flood irrigated fields on the refuge would be converted to sprinkler irrigation under Alter- Under Alternatives 4 and 5 there would be an native 6, and the effects would be similar to the estimated 270 more acres of willow habitat in the effects described for irrigation practices under short term and an estimated 520 more acres in the Alternatives 4 and 5. long term. As a result of increased willow habitat, amphibians would benefit compared to baseline Under Alternative 6 an estimated 1,500 additional conditions and Alternative 1. acres of willow habitat would be provided in the long term, a larger expansion than under Alterna-

428 Impacts on Other Wildlife: Amphibians — Impacts of the Alternatives tives 4 and 5. Amphibians would benefit as a re- elimination of flood irrigation would offset some of sult. these benefits.

Grand Teton National Park — Amphibians in the Amphibians in the park could benefit from a park could benefit from a larger amount of woody larger amount of woody riparian habitat (com- riparian habitat (compared to Alternative 1) due pared to Alternative 1) due to fewer elk browsing to fewer elk browsing in the park. in the park. This alternative would not result in the impairment of amphibian communities in the Bridger-Teton National Forest — Amphibians park. could be adversely affected by larger numbers of elk browsing in cottonwood and willow habitats on Mitigation native winter range in the national forest, potentially causing a decline in these riparian communi- Many of the potential measures to mitigate ad- ties and reducing cover for amphibians. verse effects of the alternatives on amphibians would parallel those described in the mitigation Other Lands — If large numbers of elk did not discussion for riparian and aspen woodland and migrate outside the Jackson Hole area, amphibi- wet meadow communities in the “Impacts on ans on BLM lands and private lands in Jackson Habitat” section of Chapter 4 and for water quan- Hole could be adversely affected in localized ar- tity and water quality in the “Impacts on the eas. Elk that are no longer being fed in the winter Physical Environment” section of Chapter 4. would likely forage more often in riparian woodland habitats outside the refuge on BLM and pri- For alternatives that would convert flood irriga- vate lands. This could result in further habitat tion to sprinkler irrigation (Alternatives 4, 5, and degradation and the loss of acreage in some areas, 6), one option would be to install spigots along which would negatively affect amphibians. pipelines, which could be used to disperse water in designated areas in order to re-create wet areas If large numbers of elk did migrate outside the for amphibians. Jackson Hole area, amphibians on federal, state, and private lands in other locations could be negatively affected in localized areas as a result of Cumulative Effects more intense browsing in riparian woodland habi- No cumulative effects on amphibians are expected tats, which could result in habitat degradation and as a result of impacts of the alternatives in combi- loss in some areas. In addition, grazing by both nation with impacts of reasonably foreseeable ac- livestock and elk on wet meadows could result in tions. reduced ecological condition, negatively affecting amphibians.

Conclusion Amphibians on the refuge are likely to be positively impacted under Alternative 6 as compared to Alternative 1 due to an increase in the amount and condition of willow habitat. However, the

429