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The Routledge Companion to Strabo
Daniela Dueck
Looking in from the outside
Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315696416-3 Jesper Majbom Madsen Published online on: 27 Mar 2017
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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:29 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315696416, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315696416-3 writing ingeneral. of waysmuchinferiortotheculturallymorerefinedGreeks, aviewsharedwithlaterGreek also leaveslittledoubtthattheRomans,inhismind,werebarbarians andthereforeinanumber was abletoleadthepeopleinWesttowardsaculturallymore sophisticatedlifestyle.Yethe tribes intheWesternpartofempire,andadmireshow,under thereignofAugustus,Rome Rome andRomanculture.HecelebratestheRomansfortheir abilitytocivilizethebarbaric themselves, theGreek-speakingpopulationofEmpire,andtheirRomanrulers. intellectuals ofGreekorigin,perceivednotonlyRomebutalsotherelationshipbetween emperor ruledtheentireEmpire.ThischapterfocusesonhowStrabo,andprobablyother cal climatechangedfromchaosandcivilwartoanewformofgovernment,wheresingle over time.StrabospenttimeinthecapitalunderAugustansettlementasRome’spoliti of laterGreekintellectuals,wemaydevelopavaluablenotionhowviewsonRomeevolved perceived RomeandRomanculture,comparinghisthoughtsonwiththeviews ously studiedliterarymovementthatwecalltheSecondSophistic.StudyinghowStrabo commentator onRome,Romanhegemonyandculture,precedingthemorerigor from ItalyorthecityofRomeitself),andRomanwaylife.StraboisanearlyGreek tury CEintheportrayalofRomanpeople(heredefinedascitizensoriginating Greek intellectualsactivefromthelatefirstcenturyBCEtoearlydecadesofcen general. Thegeographerhimselfservesasastrikingexampleoftheambivalentattitudes This chapterpresentsStrabo’sperceptionofRome,Romancultureandpowerin in general,more thanitwasanacknowledgement oftheRomansasawhole. efforts to accommodate the commonwealth not only of the RomansinItaly,but Empire admiration oftheRomanswas thereforearecognitionofAugustus’manytalentsand his governed, andtothemorepositive attitudetowardstheGreekcommunitiesingeneral.Strabo’s tion ofAugustus,hisfamilyand thechangeshebroughttowayRomeandEmpire was Roman citizens.Strabo’spositive attitudewas,asweshallseebelow,closelytiedtohisadmira peers wereessentiallyoutsidersorsubjects,evenifprovincials ingreatnumberswerebecoming without anyrealopportunitytoinfluencethedecisionmaking processinRome.Straboandhis ties; theprovincialpopulationremainedalienatedfromRome’s politicalinstitutionsandsowas It shallbearguedthattheexplanationforthisambiguityrests onpoliticalandsocialreali When compared to later Greek intellectuals, Strabo offers a more nuanced approach to Strabo’s attitudetowardstheRomanpeople LOOKING IN FROM THE OUTSIDE Jesper MajbomMadsen 3 35
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ThiswouldhaveleftStrabo’sfamilyinanawkwardposition. suggests, havebeenforcedtoacknowledgeLucullus’victoriesinthewaragainstMithridatesand from being ratified, because by honouring Lucullus’ acts, Pompey and the Senate, would, he According tothegeographer,itwasPompeywhopreventedpromisesmadebyLucullus failing torecognizetheriskhisfamily,andofnotkeepingpromisesmadebyLucullus. him. was losing,changedsidestosupporttheRomangeneralLucullus,takingfifteengarrisonswith tion betweentheRomangeneralandStrabo’sforefather,who,havingseenthatMithridates father, Cn.PompeiusStrabo.Thecoincidenceofthenamehasinspiredideaaconnec been aRoman citizen is the nameStrabo, which wasthe the peoplefinallyconcededandgrantedhimrighttocelebratehisPonticvictories. to markhistriumph.Onlythreeyearslater,underpressurefrommembersofthearistocracy, the have misunderstoodthewholesituation.In66BCE,Luculluswasrecalledasaconsequenceof Strabo meantbysaying:“greatpromisesweremadeinreturn fortheseservices”(12.3.33). Persian culturecontinuedtoflourishlongafterthefallof the kingdom.Itisnotclearwhat in the war, might have lost their advanced position in Amasia, the former royal capital where may easily have felt no need to further promote Strabo’s family, who, as a result of their role suggest thatthefamilywas,atleastsomehow,thankedforitseffortsinwar.YetPompey ily, Strabo’sgrandfathermaywellhaveobtainedRomanrightsfromthegeneral;ifsothiswould Strabo’s grandfatherinthewar.IfnameStrabowasinspiredbyacognomenPompey’sfam- network. This,however,neednothavebeenbecausethegeneraldidrecognizeroleof of Pompey’sactswhenthelatterreturnedtocapitalin62BCE. late 60s,Lucullushadregainedsomeofhispoliticalcapitalandmanagedtoblocktheratification in the ThirdMithridatic War. his mother’s side mighthave been granted Roman rightsas a rewardfor his supportof Rome to thelegalstatusofhisforefathers,thoughperhapsonemightexpectthatgrandfatheron does notofferanyhintsthathewasaRomancitizen,normentionanythingrelated would haveenjoyedthesamelegalrightsasallotherRomancitizens.Inhis When StrabofirsttravelledtoRomein44BCE,hemayhavebeenaRomancitizenandso ity, whereGreekswerenotautomaticallyculturallysuperior tootherpeoples: where StraboquestionsEratosthenes’notionofamorerelativistic approachtoculturalsuperior in thenewlyestablishedRomanprovince. members ofthecity’sPersianelite,meantthatfamilyfelt betrayed bytheRomanauthorities may wellbethatthefamily’slossofesteemineyes peopleinAmasia,notleastamong Judging fromtheotheravailablesourcesattestingtoeventsinRome,Straboseems Indeed, StrabomaywellhavebeenrightthatPompeywaslessattentivetoLucullus’Pontic Strabo’s reservationsabouttheRomansandtheircultureis alsoillustratedinthepassage lex Maniliaandreturnedinshametothecapital,wherehewasnotawardedopportunity 2 Romans andCarthaginians, whocarryontheir governmentssoadmirably. (1.4.9) but manyoftheBarbariansare refined–IndiansandArians,forexample,and,further, according togoodqualitiesand badqualities;fornotonlyaremanyoftheGreeksbad, as enemies–Eratosthenesgoes ontosaythatitwouldbebettermakesuchdivisions also from those who advised Alexander to treat the Greeks as friends but the Barbarians the wholemultitudeofmankind intotwogroups,namely,GreeksandBarbarians, Now, towardstheendofhistreatise–afterwithholdingpraise fromthosewhodivide StraboexpressesstrongreservationsagainstPompeyandtheSenatewhomheaccusesof 1 What hasled some scholars to conclude that Strabo may have A ProvincialRoman Jesper Majbom Madsen 36 cognomen ofPompey the Great’s 3 Geography, Strabo 6 4 Inthe 5 It - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:29 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315696416, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315696416-3 categorized as“morerefinedbarbarians”(asteioibarbaroi,1.4.9)duetotheirrespectofthelaw. Romans werethereforestillbarbarians,hereusedinthesenseofculturallylessrefined,but than Greek culture, whichappearsas not onlyolder but alsomore advanced. InStrabo’seyes, and politicallyambitious,butpersistsinjudgingRomancultureaslesssophisticatedorrefined that availableinmostGreekcommunities.StraborecognizestheRomansashighlycompetent ity toorganizelarge-scaleprojects,andengineeringskillsofanentirelydifferentorderthan supplies andsewers(5.3.8).Thatkindofinfrastructurerequiredconsiderablepower,theabil while Romans were keen to build more practical and everyday installations like roads, water cities, accordingtowhichGreekswerelookingforbeauty,naturalharboursandfertileland, is alsoillustratedintheoverlysimplifiedaccountofhowGreeksandRomansorganizedtheir many ways,inferiorRomansisathemetowhichStraboreturns. they werehandlinginthemostdisgracefulmanner(8.6.23). masterpieces inordertobringthembackRome(3.4.19),withoutanyideaofthetreasures Romans’ admirationofGreekcultureleadingthemtocopyworksandcollect of rhetoric,andthosewhodidnot. between peoplewhoobeyedlaws,hadaflairforpoliticsandvaluededucationthepower implies thatthedistinctionbetweenGreeksandbarbarianswasanacknowledgedcategorization hand theideathatotherculturescanbejustascivilizedorsophisticatedGreekculture,and In thisseeminglysimplisticreproductionofEratosthenes’argument,Strabodismissesout remark onMagnaGraeciaingeneral: Roman citizens,andsoasaculturalsafe-havenin region,isfurtherillustratedbyhis less hecticandmoresophisticatedlife(5.4.7). also thatethnicorculturalRomansfromItalyandthecapital cametoNeapolisenjoya terminology wasstillinuse.StrabostatesthatthepeopleNeapolis werelegallyRomans,but ephebeia and famous musicandgymnasticfestival,differentGreekinstitutions, suchasagymnasium,an Naples), acitythatwasstillculturallypredominantlyGreekin thefirstcenturyCE;itboasteda again, Strabo compares Greek culture with Roman in his description of Neapolis (modern Greek cultureinMagnaGraeciaaftertheRomanshadwoncontroloverSouthernItaly.Once mostly withthesecondunderstanding,aswhenhediscussesfaithofGreekcitiesor ent culturalpotentials,butwerenotasculturallyrefinedtheGreeks(1.4.9).Strabooperates Greeks fromallotherkindsofpeoplewhomayhavebeenmoreorlesscivilized,anddiffer the termbarbarianappearsinpassagequotedabove,where word isusedtodifferentiate certain culturalrelativism,suchasthatadvocatedbyEratosthenes.Yettheotherdefinitionof (14.2.28). Noobviousculturalhierarchyisattachedtothisdefinition,whichcouldsuggesta “barbarian” isusedtodefinepeoplewhodidnotspeakGreekorspokewithdifficulties In hisGeography,Strabousestwoopposingdefinitionsofbarbarism.oneinstance, The notionofthemoresophisticatedGreekversuspracticalandpoliticalRoman Strabo’s notionoftheGreeks’culturalsuperiorityisalsounderlinedbyhisaccount That StrabostillsawNeapolisasaGreekcity,despitethefact thatitsinhabitantswerenow in truthbythe Romans, sincetheCampanithemselves havebecomeRomans (6.1.2). and theBrettii,othersby the Campani–thatis,nominallybybut completely barbarised,andsome partshavebeentakenandareheldbytheLeucani Graecia. Buttodayallpartsof it, exceptTaras,Rhegium,andNeapolis,havebecome power to such an extent that they called thispartof Italy, together with Sicily,Magna the earlierinhabitantsmuchof theinteriorcountryalso,andindeedhadincreasedin Later on, beginning from the time of the Trojan War,theGreekshad taken away from phratriae, andStrabomentionsthatGreekwasstillthedominantlanguage and Greek Strabo’s attitude towards the Roman people 37 7 Theimageofthecrudeand,in - - 8
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:29 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315696416, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315696416-3 integrated partoftheEmpire. were morehesitantaboutwhatRomehadtoofferandalsolessinclinedseethemselvesasan the currentscholarlyconsensusthatGreeks,asillustratedbywritingoftheirintellectuals, brought previously isolatedpeopletogether: ally refinedthantheEmpire’sGreekpopulation. cultural orethniccategorydefinedbyhowtheywerenotGreek,andlesscultur Greek intellectuals described the cultural inferiority of the Romans, whom they portrayed as a who arenotpresentedsympathetically. drew a clear line between Greeks, with whom he identified himself, and the Roman people, as Romanoramemberofcollectivitycitizens.Judgingfromwhathewrites, Roman culturetodisplaceGreekcivilization.ThisallsuggeststhatStrabodidnotseehimself an appealtohisfellowGreeksnotrelinquishtheirownvaluesorallowthelesssophisticated Rome orRomanculture as awholeoffered something lesssophisticated;thiscouldbe read as rectly. HiscommentscanbereadasaremindertoStrabo’sGreekreadersthatthecomingof Romans werealsolinguisticbarbarianswhostruggledtounderstandorpronounceGreekcor cities thatcouldstillbeclassifiedasGreek. culture alsobenefittedtheRomanswhovisitedormigratedtoNeapolis,fewother tinued topredominate.StraboassertedthatthepreservationofGreekcivilizationashost impoverishment ofallbutafewcities,whereGreekinstitutions,customsandtraditioncon the southernpartofItaly, encounter betweenGreeksandRomanshadledtoacultural the oldGreekcoloniesassumedcontrolovertheircities.JudgingfromStrabo’saccountof were indangeroflosingtheirowncultureiftheybecameRomans,orRomansfromoutside what StrabooffersisaviewofhowGreekculturewasunderpressure,butalsoGreeks when RomanCampani, of theGreekcommunitiesinMagnaGraeciatoaloweroratleastlesssophisticatedlevel here offersanotherexplicitcritiqueofRomeandtheRomans,whichheclaimsreducedmost part of the civic landscape, even though many of the inhabitants were Roman citizens. Strabo by the cultural conductof life in the city, and the fact that Greek institutions were an integral Neapolis wasprotectedfrombeingbarbarizednotbecausetheinhabitantsspokeGreekbut sophisticated wayofliving. by makingmilkintocheese, which accordingtoStrabowerefeaturesthattestifyamore Romans alsotaught the lessevolvedbarbarianstorefinetheiragriculturalproduce, forinstance life withoutwar,aswellto respectthelawandtopractisepoliticaldebate.Apparently, the how RomansunderAugustus’leadershiptaughtpeoplein Gaul andIberiahowtonegotiate description ofthegeographyinWesternpartEmpire, Strabodescribesindetail were considerablylesspreparedtoadmit,orwhichthey were perhapslessattentive.Inhis tion tothebarbariansattributesRomanpeoplearole whichlaterGreekcommentators later Greekintellectuals.TheaccountofRomeunderthereign ofAugustusbringingciviliza The in thechaoticandlargelyuncivilizedWest,whichStrabohimself nevervisited. ration forRomeinthepersonofAugustus,whowasableto civilizethelessrefinedbarbarians In ageneralapproachtoRome astheforceofcivilization,StrabodescribeshowRomans Yet, despitebeingcriticaloftheRomansandRomanculture,Strabowasstillfulladmi This disinclinationtowardsRomanculturecorrespondsinanumberofwaystohowlater Strabo leaveslittledoubtthatGreeksweretheRomans’culturalsuperiors,noting Geography’s multifacetedapproachtoRomeandRomanpowerdifferentiates Strabofrom Leucani andBrettiiassumedcontrolovertheGreekcities.Inshort, 11 10 Admiring Augustus Jesper Majbom Madsen 38 9 ThisscepticismtowardsRomanculturefits - - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:29 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315696416, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315696416-3 government forastatethesizeofRome. Dio ofPrusa,CassiusandPhilostratusallagreedthat monarchywasthebestformof of AlexandriadevotedtheirattentiontoAugustus,andlater GreekintellectualslikePlutarch, Strabo’s praiseofAugustanmonarchywasnotnovel.BothNicolaus ofDamascusandTimagenes future bypassingontheresponsibilityofgoodgovernmenttohisdescendants: progress, StrabowritesinpraiseofAugustuswhohadbothstabilizedtheEmpireandsecuredits his familyandonmonarchyundertherightrulerbeingonlywayforastatelikeRometo at the end ofBook6, which concludestheaccountofItaly. On theblessingsof Augustusand from developingmoresocialbehaviours: whom Strabocharacterizesasuncivilizedbecauseoftheirisolatedlives,whichpreventedthem civilize theWesttospecificpraiseforAugustus’roleincivilizingpeopleofNorthernIberia, In anotherparagraph,StraboshiftsfromageneraldescriptionoftheeffortsRomansmadeto Antony hadtakenwithhiminthecourseofcivilwar. stolen fromGreekcommunities(13.1.30;14.1.14).Notleastamongthesewerethe pieces that very importantly to Strabo – he restored many of the works of artwhich Roman generals had the inhabitantsincapital,whomhetriedtoprotectbyorganizingfirebrigades(5.3.7);and– educate theconqueredpeople,aswithNorthIberians;hewasconcernedsafetyof was the civilized emperor who was attentive to the needs of his subjects. He was the one to made everyefforttorightthewrongsofpreviousRomanleaders.InStrabo’sversion,Augustus the emperor,whoisportrayedasgoodandrightfulrulertreatedhissubjectsfairly Augustus’ partinRome’scivilizationoftheWestfitsStrabo’sgenerallypositiveportrayal teachers, someof whomwereStrabo’sfriends, andothershisformerteachers. Straboemphasizes Far moreimportant,apparently, wasthatAugustushadstudiedwithanumberofprolificGreek and othermenofletters. legitimacy dependedonwhether hetookadvicefromtheSenateorlearnedphilosophers chical rulewascarriedoutin practice.Yet,atleastintheeyesoflaterwriters,amonarch’s An essentialpartofStrabo’sportrayalAugustusisfoundinthesummaryRomanhistory Strabo, however,waslessconcerned aboutthepedigreeofAugustus’orTiberius’advisors. Caesar, fromthetimeheassumedabsoluteauthority.(6.4.2) allies thrivedinsuchpeaceandplentyasthatwhichwasafforded thembyAugustus ing itovertooneman,asafather;atallevents,neverhave theRomansandtheir But itwereadifficultthingtoadministersogreatdominion otherwisethanbyturn ment andoftheirrulersfromproceedingtoofarintheways oferrorandcorruption. as forRomeitself,theyhavebeenpreventedbytheexcellence oftheirformgovern But now,asIhavesaid,theywhollyceasedcarryingonwar;forboththe taught themoresavagehowtoliveunderformsofgovernment(2.5.26). brought intocommunicationwitheachotherpeopleswhohadbeenisolated,butalso or coldforsomeotherreasonill-suitedtohabitationbymany,andthusnotonly regions theyinhabited,becausethosewereeitherrockyorwithoutharbours The Romans,too,tookovermanynationsthatwerenaturallysavageowingtothe who livenearthesourceofIberus,nowtakefieldforRomans.(3.3.8) instead ofplunderingthealliesRomans,bothConiacansandPlentuisans, Cantabrians
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and theirneighbourshavebeensubduedbyAugustusCaesar; Strabo’s attitude towards the Roman people 13 Whatmatteredtomostintellectualswashowmonar 39 12 - - -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:29 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315696416, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315696416-3 culture inthereignofAugustus. Greek cultureorthinkingasawholewerealready,hadbecome,partofRoman thought that Rome was an Arcadian colony (5.3.3), readers are left with the impression that ence toRome’sputativebeginningasaGreekcity,notingthattheRomanhistorianCoelius so alsohisstrategyintheWest,onGreekintellectualvalues.SeentogetherwithStrabo’srefer Greek intellectuals,preparedthewayforillusionthatAugustusbasedhisgovernment,and government andtheworldofGreekeducationhigherlearning. two men.Thus,AugustusalsopersonifiedaconnectionbetweenRomanpowerorthe and friends,establishedanintellectuallink,atleastfromStrabo’spointofview,betweenthe rhetoric, togetherwiththefactthatheapparentlyworkedsomeofStrabo’sownteachers if there is no proof that Augustus and Strabo ever met, Augustus’ devotion to philosophy and that thecitywasveryGreekindeedbytimeAeneasreachedlandofTiber. before thearrivalofTrojansettlers,andstressthatSpartansotherGreekcolonistsensured the reign of Augustus make more explicit the claimthat Rome was an Arcadian colony well the Greekworld. room forGreekcivilizationinthenewworldorderbyestablishingalinkbetweenRomeand but hetapsintoatraditionamongGreekintellectuals,whointheageofAugustustriedtofind for Rome’sconquestsandlaterorganizationofthenewly won territories. Gallic WarsandAgrippa’saccountofhisreorganizationGaul,the ally inferiortribesinGaulandIberia.Hehadtorelyonthe textsofRomangenerals,Caesar’s Rome civilizingthebarbaricWestbypassingonwhatwere essentiallyGreekvaluestocultur was eitherGreekor,throughtheeducationofAugustus,inspired byGreekvalues,leadingto energy onchallengingAristotle’sworknaturalphilosophy(14.5.4). Augustus’ teacherswasXenarchusofSeleucia,theAristotelianphilosopherwhospentmuch teacher attheemperor’shousewhereMarcelluswasoneofhispupils(14.5.14;16.4.21). hear thatStraboandAugustussharedthefriendshipofAthenodorusTarsus,whoservedasa acquaintance thatStrabosharedwiththeemperor;laterinBook14andagain16,we ers thathehimselfhadalsoconsortedwithXenarchus.Butthephilosopherwasnotonly Apollodorus ofPergamum,withwhomAugustushadstudiedrhetoric(13.4.3). ing ofRomeunder Augustuspositingthenecessary leadershipinpacifying andcivilizingthe trend ortraditionwhichStrabo wouldhavediscernedfirst-handinRome.Strabo’sunderstand - people intheWest. leadership ofAugustusandthe gods,conqueringandreorganizingthelifeofnewlydefeated such asAgrippa,andauthors such astheAugustanpoets,toldstoriesofRomans,under the easily havefoundinspirationintheliterarymovement ageofAugustus.Romangenerals taught it how to live a life marked by a deeper understanding of political organization,can domination. Strabo’sperceptionthatRome,throughAugustus, hadcivilizedtheWestand have been inspired by trends among intellectuals in Rome who justified Rome’s right to world and thewesternpartofEmpire. heritage, evenifthecitywasnowinhabitedbynumberofdifferentbarbaricpeoplesfromItaly Strabo’s contemporaryhistorianwasthattheRomanshadnotforgottentheirallegedGreek barbaric butamixtureofthetwo,yetformAeolicdialect.Whatseemsconsequentialto both the loss of Greekinstitutionsand that the spoken language was no longer Greek or Dionysius wasnotblindtothechangeswhicholdArcadiancityhadundergoneandnotes That AugustuswaswellversedinGreekandthestudent of anumberprominent Dionysius ofHalicarnassusandotherGreekintellectualswhospenttimeinRomeduring Strabo was no doubtstronglyinfluencedby the Greek mentality andthe notion thatRome That Rome’sintellectualelite saw theirownpeopleasthenaturalmastersofworldwas a 17 WhetherStraboagreedwithCoeliusremainsundetermined, 19 Jesper Majbom Madsen 40 Commentaries, asevidence 15 Strabotellshisread- 20 Straboseemsto 14 Anotherof 16 Even 18 - -
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:29 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315696416, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315696416-3 came agoldeneranotonlyfortheRomans,butalsolandsunderhisrule. and AeneastalkaboutthefutureofRomanpeople,Vergilunderlinesthatwith on thegreatnessofAugustusinBook 6 ofthe to theprovinceofGalatia. brought backwithintheborderswhenhefounded the eparchyofPontusand added the region handed overtoAntony’sclientrulers.Also,itwasunder Augustus’ reignthatAmasiawas the manwhohaddissolvedanddestabilizedStrabo’shomeregionwhenPonticcitieswere don warandadoptrespectforpoliticslaw,AugustuswasalsotheonetodefeatAntony, respectful relationshipwithRome’ssubjects,orbyforcingthebarbariansinWesttoaban the learnedleaderwhotookituponhimselftomakeworldabetterplacebyestablishing power and prestige within the senatorial elite. To Strabo, Augustus may not only have been war andaperiodofalmostpermanentunrestfollowingwhatwasessentiallyquestformore from histravelsintheEasternpartofEmpire,wasthatAugustusputanendtodecades reign or the rule of the later Iulio-Claudian emperors. What he learned when in Rome, or provincial communities.StrabodidnotlivelongenoughtoexperiencetherestofTiberius’ and Tiberius,duringwhichpeaceprosperitywerereestablishedbothinItalythe to hisownhomeregion,aswelltheGreekworldingeneral,andreignofAugustus where the ambition of Rome’s political elite and civil war brought destruction and instability who hadreturnedfromserviceinGaulandIberia. Agrippa, othertextswrittenbyRomangeneralsandsenatorsoralaccountsfromindividuals to relyonmorecontemporarydescriptionsofthesituationinWest,suchaswork successful organizationofthetribesinGaulandIberia,however,Strabowouldhaveneeded porary accounts on Gallic geography (4.1.1). For the morerecent conquests, and for Augustus’ Accordingly, StraboneednotnecessarilyhavebeenwellversedinLatinordertousecontem Timagenes ofAlexandria,whousedtheGallicWarsasevidenceforhisownaccountGaul. used othertextswhenwritingaboutGaulandthathereadanumberofdifferentauthors,like and Britaininthe read Caesar’sGallicWars;itwasmostprobablyoneofhismainsourcesfortheaccountGaul his timeonLatinpoetry.ButthereiseveryreasontoassumethatheknewLatin,and indispensable respect andrecognitiontotheGreek communitieswhenhereturned stolenworks the readerthatcitywaswell organized. sense thatAmisuswasonceagain placedunderdirectRomanrule,andStrabocouldreassure (12.3.14). Onceagain,itisAugustus whorepairedthedamage,whenhefreedcity,in the according tothegeographer, fell intodespairafterAntonyhandedthecityovertoStraton are alsostressedinthebriefnoteoncityofAmisus,Strabo’s family’splaceoforigin,which, the battleofActium(12.3.6).Thenegativeconsequences Antony’s reorganizationofPontus Roman colonistsinHeracleaPontica,whichhisclientruler Adiatorixcarriedoutjustbefore lent; hepointsoutthatthetriumvirinstigated,oratleastwas informedabout,themassacreof Caesar’s murderers,andthenAntonyafterPhilippi.Strabo’sattitude towardsAntonyisambiva Asia MinorandontheGreekmainlandhadnochoicebutto supportfirstCassiusandBrutus, glory isconspicuousasatokenofforgivenessfollowingevents ofthecivilwars,whenGreeksin wars and protected Romans against the threat from the invading Parthians. in the barbarian tribesmayhavebeeninfluencedbyRome’spoets.Horaceoffersoneexampleofthis Unlike laterGreekintellectuals,StrabowascaughtbetweentheLateRepublicanperiod, We havelittlewayofknowinghowwellStraboreadLatinor,ifhedid,whetherspent Augustus appearsinStrabo’sversion asthealmostflawlessRomanleaderwhodemonstrated In a sense, Augustus’ focus on the Greek East and his promotion of Greece and its former Odes, wherehepraisesAugustusasthesaviourandfatherfigurewhobroughtanendto Geography. Atthesametime,ithasbeensuggestedthatStrabomayhave 23 Strabo’s attitude towards the Roman people 41 Aeneid aresimilar.Inthescenewhere Anchises 21 Vergil’s thoughts 22 princeps - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:29 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315696416, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315696416-3 and moremembersoftheprovincialelitenowhadrighttocallthemselvesRomans. the privilegedfewcouldhopetoovercome.Provincialswerestillsubjects,eventhoughmore ning of the first decade CE, there were clear ethnic boundaries in Roman politics which only background, menlikeL.CorneliusBalbusofGades,weresucceedinginRome,thebegin the Senateortoacareerasmagistratepro-magistrate.Eveniffew individuals ofprovincial political realitydictatedthatessentiallyonlymembersoftheItalianelitecouldaspiretoaseaton citizens withthesamelegalandeconomicrightsasthosecitizens,butattime, Roman citizen,hewasinapeculiarsituation.Hememberofthecollectivity numbers, were eager to become an integral part of Roman politics. Therefore, if Strabo was a same collectivityasthepeople inRome. reservations aboutRomansand theircultureanddidnotseethemselvesasbelongingto the integrated intoRome’spoliticalandadministrativeinstitutions, theyretainedunremitting men likePausanias,AristidesandPhilostratoslivedinanera whenGreeksweremuchmore after significant numbers of elite Greekshad become Roman citizens. Despite thefact that imperial administration,Greekintellectualsclungtotheir Greek culturalbackground,even belonging totheRomancollectivity.Still,despiteadmission totheSenateandpostsin magistrates ofGreekorigin,menlikeArrianandCassius Dio, manifestedastrongsenseof and RomansinItalythewesternprovinces,prevailed, eventhoughsenatorsand modated withintheRomanEmpire. to Apollo,assignsofhowGreekcivilizationwasacknowledged,admiredandslowlyaccom sees thefoundationofNicopolis,festivalAugustusintroducedandtriumvir’sdevotion the RomansweredisturbingpeacebyinterferingwithorderofGreekcommunities,Strabo into thenewcity(Paus.7.6.1).WherePausaniassearchesforarchaicGreece,andresentshow settlement, wherethevictorioustriumvirforcedpeopleinregionoutoftheirhomesand attitude tothefoundationofNicopolisstandsinstrongcontrastPausanias’criticism he wonthefirstofbattlesinwaronEgyptandAntony(7.7.6).Strabo’smorepositive tions, likeamusicandathleticfestivaloverseenbytheSpartans,conductedonsitewhere by thedecisiontofoundNicopolisatActiumasaGreekcitywithunmistakableinstitu of arttotheirrightful owners. ThathewasanadmirerofGreek culture isfurtherunderlined the Senateandinprovincialadministration. the late 1st–early second century, when members of the provincial elite found their way into ethnical boundariespersistedbetweenRomansfromItalyand theprovincialeliteuntilatleast the sametime.Theprovincialsremainedoutsiders in thepolitical sense ofthe word; cultural or created apoliticalparadoxwhereintheeliteinprovinceswerebothRomansandsubjectsat distance. TheSenateandmagistracieswerestilloccupiedbymembersoftheItalianelite,which the caseformostprovincials,Romanpoliticswasaspectatorsportwhichtheywatchedfrom as farfromaseatintheSenateonecouldbe.WhenStrabovisitedAugustanRome,was and someonewhomayhavecarriedthenamePompeiusashisnomengentile,Strabostillremained Even asamemberoftheelitefrompartcentralAnatoliawhichhadjustjoinedEmpire, citizen). Were Strabo not a Roman citizen, his sense of marginalization and disenfranchisement citizen). WereStrabo notaRomancitizen,his senseofmarginalizationand disenfranchisement elite, withwhomhehadverylittle incommonotherthanasetoflegalrights(ifhewasRoman ing ofhimselfandhisfellowGreeks andtheotherpeopleinRomecity’spolitical On theotherhand,therewaslittletosuggestthatGreeks,orprovincialsinsignificant Thus, itisnotsurprisingthatStrabo drewcleardistinctionsbetweentwogroups,oneconsist The notion of them and us, particularly in the relationship betweenGreekprovincials Conclusion: outsiderlookingin Jesper Majbom Madsen 24 42 - - - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 14:29 27 Sep 2021; For: 9781315696416, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315696416-3 their valuesrestedonthenorms,customsandknowledgeofGreekcivilization. that their cultural values were worth preserving, but also to convince Rome’s political elite that ness andthencetheculturalsuperiorityofGreeks;hehopedtoremindhisGreekreaders kingdoms founded by Alexander’s successors, Strabo was only too keen to underline the great- the principate,whereRomehadfinallysubduedmostofknownworld,includinglast distinguished himselffromRomansItalyandRomeitself.Standingonthebrinkof collectivity nor,unlikeCassiusDioandperhapsalsoArrian,asaRoman.Instead,heclearly ing toindicatethattheSenateandotherpoliticalinstitutionswouldwelcomeeliteprovincials. were actuallyinvolvedwasprobablyoflittleimportancetoStrabo,who,forhispart,sawnoth fellow Greekshadnoshare,wasincludedintheemperor’sadvisoryboard.Towhatdegreethey century CE.Inhislifetime,thegovernmentwasstableandpoliticalelite,inwhichhe Iulio-Claudian dynastyor,forthatmatter,thechallengesmonarchicalrulewouldfaceinfirst Roman generals,particularlyintheEast. Roman politics,aswellthenewemperor’seffortstorightwrongsperpetratedbyprevious considerably. StrabowasfavorablydisposedtowardsAugustusbecauseofhisabilitytostabilize tumult, instabilityandnofewerthanthreecivilwarsinwhichtheEast,particular,hadsuffered war andthereorganizationofpoliticalsysteminRomehadreplacedacentury chy introducedbyAugustus.WhenStrabowrotethe Like mostotherintellectualsintheimperialperiod,Strabowasfavourofformmonar western partoftheprovincesistiedmoretoAugustusasarulerthanRomansingeneral. underlined thesenseofGreeksuperiorityoverpoliticallydominantRomans. their culture,exemplifiedbytheimageofMagnaGraeciabeingbarbarisedRomans, endured bothculturalandpoliticalpressurefromRome.Strabo’scriticismoftheRomans of his oppressors. Citizen or not, Straboand his fellow Greeks played the roleof subjects and would havebeenyetmorepronounced,andStrabowascommentingonthelifeculture 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 2 Plut. himatriumph, togrant ecall ofLucullusandthestruggle seeMadsen2014b, 124–127. On e 1997, 99. ver 1969, 226–228. For otheroptionstohow StraboobtainedaRoman or therole ofStrabo’s inthe family Third Mithridatic War, seeStrabo12.3.33. oolf 1994, 127–130; Swain 1996, 70–71, 388–391, 396–400; 2000, Salmeri 87; König 2014, 246–247. From hiswritingwecandeducethatStrabodidnotseehimselfasamemberofRoman Unlike latercommentators,Strabodidnotlivetoseethereignandshortcomingsof Strabo’s admirationforRome’ssuccessinintroducingamorecivilizedlifestyleintothe E.g. Dueck 2000, Dueck 2000, Dueck 2000, All translationsofStraboar On ther See Clark Glo F 2014a, 23–28. see Plut. Pomp. 30.3. Pompey’s public support, seePlut. Dueck 2000, Dueck 2000, Plut Dueck 2000, Dueck 2000, W 7–8. see Paus. 9.27.3–4; 9.33.6. Philostra. VA . 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