omahawks are a ART & quintessential part of ARTISANS North American history ∏ Axes in : Tand culture, as one was added to every frontiersman’s kit. In New Part 111 Casse-têtes France these light hand-held axes were considered no less important. Because it was found that lighter (French Tomahawks) hatchets could be more conveniently carried by an individual than an by Kevin Gladysz & Ken Hamilton k Contributors actual axe while traveling in the dense forest or participating in Images k (Left): Detail of a print showing a Native carrying a hand- the ever increasing, now offensive held hatchet or casse-tête through his belt, featured in 1738 edition of “petite guerre” (war party wilderness Avantures du Sr. C. Le Beau, avocat en parlement, ou, Voyage curieux fighting), especially during the et nouveau parmi les sauvages de l'Amérique septentrionale… which was written by the adventurer and traveller Claude Le Beau, sent to colonial wars beginning in 1689, a in 1729 and returning to Europe two years later. Le Beau stated: “The smaller Canadian blacksmith-made Natives had different kinds [of wooden clubs]. They usually wore them version eventually developed but attached to their belts (sash). But since Europeans began trading with them, they abandoned all these weapons to take advantage of ours, whose was still loosely based on traditional 1 construction seemed more spiritual, in order to harm.” imported French axe patterns. Images k (Above): One of the only known presumed French casse-tête from a very tightly dated (Below): Shown here is a late 1690s Canadian militiaman on snowshoes These not only gradually replaced French Site, and likely used by one of the 150 soldiers garrisoned at Fort Gaspereau. Note that the carrying a hatchet through his sash. From Claude-Charles Bacqueville the imported small axe as a belt poll on this axe head is flattened and its blade slightly bent out of shape while the straight bottom of de La Potherie’s Histoire de L'Amerique septentrionale … written in the blade and the wide “triangular” shape, and eye height, might help further verify this as a French 1702 but not published until 1722. Bacqueville de la Potherie, who was accessory, but at the same time, the style axe. Excavated at Fort Gaspereau (1751-1756), Baie Verte, New Brunswick. (Parks Canada. controller of the Marine and of the fortifications in Canada, arrived in French Canadians also gave it a new Artifact number: 1E2G1-18. Photograph: Kevin Gladysz). Nouvelle-France in 1698 and remained there until 1701. local nick-name more befitting their ultimate use during this new era of colonial wilderness warfare: the and sword on long range, offensive which to walk through the woods “casse-tête” which can be translated wilderness campaigns against the as they are useless against axes that as meaning “head breaker.” English settlements. For example, we wear, the Natives having the one report written in the late 1670s strength to throw these axes at 30 Although the light-weight casse- by a friend of L’Abbé de Gallinée pas (paces), and with so much skill tête served foremost as a utilitarian (an explorer and missionary to the that ordinarily the axe's head lodges tool to perform menial wilderness Natives) described how the itself in the head of the one with 2 tasks, it was clearly thought of as would throw what were probably whom they are dealing.” a striking weapon by the French casse-têtes at the enemies’ heads: th and Natives (and occasionally as “We do not wear any swords in In the early 18 century, the a throwing weapon), because it this country, as much by the fact French residing in Canada almost increasingly replaced the bayonet that they are bothersome with universally adopted the word “casse-tête” to identify a small, common hatchet. This ironic term was a direct analogy to the Native war clubs, which were all too familiar to the

Image (Bottom of Opposite Page) k Taken from Bacqueville de La French because of their long Potherie’s Histoire de l'Amerique Septentrionale, written in 1702 but not involvement in the Iroquois th published until 1722, depicting a wooden club termed casse-tête. wars of the 17 century.

6 JOURNAL of the EARLY AMERICAS VOLUME ii ISSUE vi k DECEMBER 2012/JANUARY 2013 7 probably the one who best describes Images (Above, Right) k Line drawings Origin of the term casse-tête representing details from images contained in From A Wooden Club To A the evolution of the casse-tête going the Codex Canadensis dating to the late 17th Hatchet from representing a wooden club century. These otherwise identical hatchets The old French word “casse-tête” which can be translated to modern day to a hatchet: “Since these people are depicted in two different Native images English as meaning “head/skull cracker” or “head breaker,” derives directly At the dawn of the 18th century, have substituted wood casse-têtes from the Codex, each of whom carries a from the North-American Native use of a war club. Because there were hatchet in one hand. Take note of the tapered French published works relating for hatchets, which they have given several regional styles and/or tribally identifiable aspects of these clubs,3 we profile of the handles suggesting that the to the French colonies of North the same name, the battles are handles may have been inserted from the top should not be surprised that each Indian Nation had a name for various clubs 9 America started using the term bloodier.” down. Likely decorated (painted) for war, in their own language or dialect, although most commonly used Native terms each of these weapons is given a different casse-tête to designate a small iron today are from one of the Algonquian dialects, which translated, originally Algonquian name in the text next to the name axe as opposed to a wooden club. It is highly likely that the term of the two respective Native figures. The referred to a wooden, ball-headed war club. The Baron of Lahontan, an After nearly 80 years of wilderness “casse-tête” may have even been “Noupimingdach irriniouck” (i.e. Nippising esquire who visited Canada where he traveled extensively in the 1680s and warfare, the French adaption of in common use in Canada for man/men) carries a “Ouakacoual hache de early 1690s, stated: “ : This word signifies club. The Natives guerre” which combines the French “hache Casse-tête the Algonquian word and their quite some time because the term call it Assan Oustik, that is to say, that Assan means ‘break’ and Oustik de guerre” (battle axe) with what is clearly association of an iron casse-tête appears to be seen on fur trade an Algonquian word for axe where the word means ‘head’.4 Thus these two words mean ‘head-breaker’.” Although with a war-club are both un- inventory lists at Montreal as early “Ouakacoual” is similar to an “axe” in modern “assan” translates as a “stone,” and “Oustik” means “head,” in most 16 17 mistakable and understandable. as 1685 to reference a hatchet, or Ojibwa, for example, “waagaakwad” or “wakakwad” which implies something that is bent or Algonquian dialects,5 these two words nevertheless imply a “head-breaker.” crooked (i.e., “waagaa”),18 probably referring to the curved edge of the casse-tête. The “Hiroquois” Even by 1703 in his Nouveau voyage a very small axe, since that very Both Lafitau6 and Charlevoix7 describe in detail what these clubs originally (i.e., An Iroquois and apparently a Seneca) carries a hatchet with the name, “Attouge ache de aux isles de l'Amérique, Labat, who year a trade merchandise statement guerre” (Similar to the Iroquoian, Mohawk word for and axe or hatchet, “Ah-do-genh”)19 with the looked like. is writing about Guadeloupe, an included what appears to be a addition of the French words ([h]ache de guerre), meaning “battle axe.” It does not seem to be a “tomahawk,” an Algonquian term which implies a “cutting tree instrument,” which can similarly, island in the former French West quantity of 15 “cassetestte”(casse- for example, be seen in the Abenaki words for a sabre (i.e., “temig8ettehigan”), Indies, records the following: têtes) priced at 2 livres each, listed axe (i.e., “temahigan”) and beaver (i.e., “temakk8e”), because of his cutting teeth.20 Although the term frequently hand (like a Native war club). It is “However, in example of these along with a number of other axes.12 (Line drawing by Ken Hamilton.) translates to a striking or cutting therefore understandable why both Canadian gentlemen, he has had Significantly, some twelve years implement in many Algonquian terms are derived from an Indian made a small axe that he fitted with later, the inventory of a Montreal almost as though the writers felt “small battle-axes or casse-têtes” Native dialects, curiously, the war-club. Carried by a number of a cane handle measuring three pieds merchant included 100 small axes they needed to further clarify or (petites haches d’armes ou cassetêtes) 8 French in colonial North America individuals, the casse-tête would in length, that they call casse-tête.” valued at 25 sols, 28 “cassetestes” explain this term to their European priced at 1 livre each were listed never adopted the Proto- become a distinctive category of The Jesuit priest and teacher Pierre- valued at 40 sols a piece, and one readers by using comparatives. to be stowed aboard the ship La Algonquian word “tomahawk” weapon over time, with several François-Xavier de Charlevoix, who brand new large axe esteemed at What is clear is that most of these Gironde bound for Louisiana.15 13 throughout the colonial wars, notable variations (a particular blade published in 1744 a few volumes 6 livres on the same list, clearly French synonyms all seem to even though most of their allies shape, added spike or pipe etc…), on the history of New France, is indicating these were different reference small single-hand-held The term casse-tête, which was used were Algonquian speaking. They and used throughout New France. categories of axes. axes. For instance, even the 1726 several times on a list of goods did, however, adopt the “concept.” Images (Below) k Detail taken from the Baron of Lahontan’s 1703 edition of Voyages du baron edition of Saugrain’s dictionary, distributed to a number of voyageurs Coincidentally, the English slowly de Lahontan dans l'Amérique septentrionale, clearly showing the dual association of the term Throughout much of the first casse-têtes are now compared to in the upper countries during the th replaced the term “hatchet” with during the period, depicting a wood club described as “Club called casse-tête” while next to it is six decades of the 18 century, battle-axes while describing a Fox wars, was specified on two “tomahawk” at approximately the the iron equivalent, now popularly known in New France, and described by Lahontan as: “Axe 10 countless other historical records called small casse-tête.” Even Jean Bernard Bossu, a French captain and adventurer who Native incident, “We place a pipe separate occasions as representing same time the French adopted the explored the region of the Mississippi Valley during the 1750s, noted the following regarding reveal further details as far as the to the right of this Manitou…and an axe: “casseteste ou haches”(casse- term “casse-tête” for the same Native warriors: “...a casse-tête either a club or an axe…the young Natives never march without term “casse-tête” gradually coming we place around him as trophies, tête or hatchet).21 Officials drafting having a small axe...”11 implement, although their forms to represent a small, hand-held clubs, bows, arrows, quivers and the yearly inventory list at the are distinctive, as we shall see. It iron axe versus a wood ball head casse-têtes or battle-axes.”14 In fact, King's storehouses at Montreal seems that in the atmosphere of the or other type of Native war club. the Canadian casse-tête was so well also ‘officially’ adopt the term colonial French and Indian Wars In fact, many records provide us known that these small axes are not casse-tête as of 1747 when they beginning in the late 1600s, both with the colonial term “casse- only occasionally made in France, made a point of indicating that a European nations seemed to relate tête” alongside various European but the term was officially also used casse-tête corresponded to a small these small, light-weight, locally- synonyms such as hachots (hatchet), by them as early as 1732, because axe when they noted “…small axes made hatchets to a weapon instead haches d’armes (battle axe), petite even the Department of the Marine or casse-têtes”22 whereas previous of just a tool which was held by one hache (small axe), and hache (axe) storehouses in Rochefort mention years they simply used the term

8 JOURNAL of the EARLY AMERICAS VOLUME ii ISSUE vi k DECEMBER 2012/JANUARY 2013 9 “petites haches” or “haches petites” Burying the Hatchet The ensuing year, Montcalm wrote (small axes).23 Lastly, French in his Journal, supported by a 42 military personnel serving in New Casse-têtes became a standard tool similar account from Bougainville, France provide further insights and and weapon for not just the French that one casse-tête be distributed supplementary data concerning the but their Native allies as well, to all men, both Canadiens and casse-tête as a weapon. Echoing the whether gifted or sold to Natives at soldiers, at Saint-Jean in the winter 43 lack of reference to “tomahawk” in many fur trade posts or forts in New of 1757. Bourlamaque also lists French documents, the French use France. At Fort Niagara (Kings them as part of the supplies issued of a casse-tête in wilderness warfare trading post), the exchange rate set to Canadian militia during the 44 was clearly emphasised by Joseph- in 1739 dictated that a casse-tête Seven Year War, as do others in a 45 Charles Bonin, a soldier serving could be obtained for 2 raccoon few separate accounts. In April of during the Seven Years War, who pelts as opposed to 4 of these pelts 1760, instructions for the officers of wrote the following: “...he seized for a trade axe (hache de traite).30 In the Troupes de la Marine, who were a casse-tête* with which he wanted very special circumstances, these to walk with the milice to fight at to strike me on the head...(* Small hatchets were presented during Quebec, were to do the following: axe that is worn in the sash when ceremonial councils. A number of “They shall inspect the firearms, the travelling. The English call them nearly identical Native war or peace kettles, casse-têtes and generally all 24 k tomahawk).” Here, a primary analogies relating to a casse-tête or Image (Above) Detail of an engraving from Moeurs des sauvages ameriquains, comparées aux that we depend on in order to be moeurs des premiers temps ... Tome Second (1724 edition), written by the Jesuit Joseph-Francois source highlights this critical point an axe (hache) are recorded in both Lafitau, who travelled to New France from 1711 to 1717. This scene shows Natives doing a well armed and equipped, so that to modern researchers and frontier numerous English and French Calumet dance. Note the wooden club termed casse-tête, later replaced with a small axe or hatchet, we shall not lack anything at the 46 folklorists, that the French did not sources (see papers of Sir William which is used here along with the peace pipe or calumet in this ceremony. time of departure.” Some five years use the term “tomahawk.” earlier, Le Mercier at Québec wrote Johnson, for example). Many are 37 included in Father Pierre Potier’s incurred during a war campaign interpreters, cadets, and guides. that he did not wish to see the casse- Numerous French accounts from Huron dictionary, such as “Suspendre towards in 1746, During the Chickasaw campaign tête removed as a weapon from the all over North America verify the Image (Left) k Another detail taken from Le Casse-tête...c’est suspension d'armes” for example, included “1 casse-tête” of 1739, a number of officers Canadian militiamen’s kits “… due universal use of the term casse-tête. Le Beau showing what appears to be a Native and “2,800 porcelain (wampum) along with an interpreter and a to their usefulness in marches for man lifting a birchbark canoe. Note the small (Hanging the casse-tête--it is the A French military official wrote in beads in a large necklace,” which few other men received a total of the encampments.”47 axe of casse-tête tucked through the belt of his suspension of weapons), “Lever ou 38 1756 that when the Natives living breechclout at his backside. This hatchet’s head tourner Le Casse-tête Contre une was said to be delivered to “présenter 14 casse-têtes along with a guide in Canada left for war they were with its flared blade represents what is more nation...c'est lui déclarer La guerre” le casse-tête” (meaning “in order named Richardville who was Casse-têtes provided in campaigns than likely the illustrator’s artistic license rather 39 armed with “…a fusil, a small axe (Lifting or turning the casse-tête to present the casse-tête”) to given a single one. The following likely corresponded to plain or than an attempt to faithfully draw a typical North representatives of Hurons, Ottawas, decade, documents outlining the that we call casse-tête, and a lance American casse-tête. against a Nation--is to declare common hatchets although finer (spear).”25 That same year, the 31 Sauteux and Potawatomis from expenditures incurred at Fort versions were also recorded on war upon them). Potier gives 34 Chevalier de la Pause wrote that of New France from 1752 to 1755, more than a dozen Native phrases Detroit assembled at this Council. St. Frédéric in 1746 reveal that rare occasions. A statement of war during the storming of Fort Bull: had added on his family crest: “… involving the hache (axe) (the Frequently, wampum “war belts” these axes were again distributed munitions provided to a war party "The order was executed so quickly the arm of a Native, armed with symbol of war), such as: “to sharpen had a casse-tête motif woven into the to various military personnel, of Frenchmen returning from that the English had barely time a battle-axe, called in the Native the axe--it is to want to start bead pattern itself. including officers, canonier soldiers, and l’Île Royale [Cape 28 40 to close the gate that we tried in language, casse-tête…” In 1755, war” (affiler La hache...c'est vouloir Habitants and others. During the Breton Island] in 1745 listed what vain to break through with small Malartic, while describing what Commencer La guerre).32 Distribution of the Casse-tête Seven Years War, casse-têtes were may have been a very finely-made axes called casse-têtes...”26 The happened at General Bradock’s in New France stocked in high number in the casse-tête with file work. This last following year, De Rossel, who defeat, used parentheses to show Whether or not the Algonquian King’s storehouses and distributed one was described as a “casse-tête, was campaigning at l’Île Royale that a casse-tête was a type of axe: term “ouapon” is used for the While casse-têtes are often thought in great numbers. For instance, at with file work, one for…6 livres” 35 48 (Cape Breton Island) wrote: “…a “Then the savages fell upon them “provisions” issued to a Native war of as Native weapons, they Fort Frontenac in 1756, a quantity (Casseteste Limé, un pour…6.). casse-tête (this weapons looks like a from all sides, the casse-tête (an axe) party or donated to “cover” a warrior were also frequently carried by of 880 of these, recorded as stored Interestingly enough, Casse-têtes 27 29 36 small axe)…” while the Marquis in hand.” in his burial, these equipment voyageurs, issued to the milice in 4 separate casks, were included were also found in the homes of the Duquesne de Menneville, who and soldiers garrisons in New on an official statement prepared by Canadian Habitant such as Jean- allotments nevertheless usually 41 served as French Governor General included a casse-tête. Expenses France, and distributed to officers, the engineer named Le Mercier. Baptiste Charly, ex-voyageur turned

10 JOURNAL of the EARLY AMERICAS VOLUME ii ISSUE vi k DECEMBER 2012/JANUARY 2013 11 merchant at Montreal, who owned as making a number of different The usefulness of this style of a storehouses at Québec in 1747 in 1728 one iron casse-tête valued types of casse-têtes from scratch.59 military weapon in New France show a quantity of 5,464 “handles at 5 sols.49 Some two decades later, For example, Amiot at Chicago becomes clear as we observe the for axes, adzes, and casse-têtes at Gabriel Lemieux of Sainte-Thérèse had made 12 fancy casse-têtes at a surge of this tool in the King’s 3 sols [apiece]…”68 These records was recorded as owning a small very high price of 6 livres each,60 storehouses at Montreal during the therefore indicate that many of the casse-tête valued at 10 sols.50 whereas Louis Lefebvre, blacksmith War of the Austrian Succession casse-têtes issued or given during at Michilimackinac, made two with the designated name “casse- war time came with their own pre- Source of Production casse-têtes priced a 3 livres each and tête.” In 1747, 2872 casse-têtes fabricated handles. repaired one for 1 livres 10 sols.61 priced at 35 sols64 were inventoried As early as 1721, blacksmiths were That same year, Lefebvre forged a in these royal depots at Montreal, Size and Weight of Casse-têtes recorded as making “casse-têtes” casse-tête for the price of 4 livres whereas the officials at the King’s for local merchant-outfitters. The and inserted a steel cutting edge storehouses at Quebec recorded Since no official account defined the smith named Lavalée was credited on another casse-tête for the price 3481 uniformly-made casse-têtes exact weight of a casse-tête, we may by Monière, a Montreal merchant- of 2 livres.62 (casseteste unis) which were valued speculate that these hatchets may outfitter, for the supply of 57 casse- at 40 sols apiece.65 While many have been made light enough to têtes priced at 15 sols each.51 From of the casse-têtes stocked in these lift using one hand, carried around 1721 to 1753, a number of different royal depots were by this period tucked in a sash, though efficient blacksmiths (e.g., Boutin, Brunet, mostly locally made by colonial enough to use adequately as a small Campot, Dulude, Dumouchelle, blacksmiths, they were apparently axe. Initially, it is likely that very Jean-baptiste Coton dit Fleur- not always of good quality. De light Biscayan axes sent to New d'épée, and Lapromenade) were all Villiers, who was a captain in the France may have taken on the name documented in making hundreds colonial regular troops, commented of “casse-têtes” once in the colonies. Image (Above, Left & Right) k Detail of a Canadian voyageur and a Native c.1730. Take note of the way they are carrying what is probably a “casse-tête” through their sashes at their of casse-têtes or petits casse-têtes on the fact that 400 of his men The wish list of goods needed for backsides. This non-obstructive way of carrying a hatchet was convenient enough while it allowed (small casse-têtes) priced anywhere who smashed many boats that Quebec in 1721 included large for easy access when required. Notice that even in this sketch, a wide, triangular blade with a between 15 sols to 50 sols apiece, for were taken from an English convoy axes from Bayonne and “400 small straight bottom is shown to represent a “French” casse-tête. These particular representations of this same Montreal merchant who during the campaign of 1756 would hand-axes of ¾ livre [livre poid de casse-têtes are probably the most historically faithful of all known period French images as far as their original shapes/profiles and sizes. (Beinecke Rare Book & manuscript Library collection, outfitted many fur traders for the have demolished many more “… marc] at 15 sols [each]” revealing Yale University) In fact, during the Seven Years War , Joseph-Charles Bonin, a soldier serving in 52 upper countries. In the interior, without the terrible quality of the that these small axes (presumably New France, explicitly noted that a certain Native withdrew his casse-tête from his sash,69 while the blacksmiths Charles Chauvin casse-têtes provided by the Magasin casse-têtes), likely also from Bayonne, Pouchot, a French officer, indicated that they wore them through their sash at the rear: “They 53 66 [Natives]wear their mirror and their casse-tête on their backside.” (Ils portent leur miroir sur le cul (Detroit), Amiot (Chicago), (King’s storehouse).” were to weigh 0.81 lbs if we are to 70 55 & leur casse-tête.) Further, the two engravings featured in Le Beau’s 1738 edition of Avantures Beauchêne (Fort Ouiatenon), convert to modern pounds using the du sr C. Le Beau… show hatchets which are carried through the sash by Natives. Le Beau noted that th Michel Durivage Baillargeon (Fort Casse-tête Handles 18 century French the livre poids de certain Natives carried small axes “… hung at their sash” (pendu à leur ceinture).71 In light of this, St. Joseph ),56 Antoine Dehaître marc measurement unit.73 Another the Canadian militiaman would have likely worn this weapon very much like his Native ally although 57 little information is available as to how a soldier of the Compagnies Franches de la Marine would (Fort St. Joseph), and Charles Many of the casse-têtes heads two records point to the weight of have worn his while on campaigns. Interestingly, the inventory list of the personal effects 58 casse-tête Bonneau (Fort Ouiatenon) taken from the King’s storehouses the colonial-made versions. The first of the Detroit founder named Antoine Laumet dit de Lamothe Cadillac, captain in the Troupes de la marine, drawn up in 1711, included “…one sash [or belt] (ceinture) and a casse-tête,” indicating were recorded on invoices as Image (Above) k A sample of broken- may have been already hafted or account, dating to 1740, includes a here that the sash may have served to hold this implement.72 manufacturing and/or repairing off axe blade cutting edges found at Fort provided with a separate pre-made total of 18 casse-têtes supplied by an casse-têtes for different parties. Michilimackinac. Many of the Canadian- handle, since handles for casse- unknown blacksmith for Monière, a 75 Besides their normal repairs and made axes were recorded as being made têtes turn up on many inventories. Montreal-based merchant-outfitter, smith named Dumouchel. Each with a tempered steel cutting edge while many The Casse-tête in the Gulf restocking of firearms and mending French colonial blacksmiths working in the During the 1740s, for examples, where each hatchet was recorded as axe would have then presumably Colonies 1 kettles, a few of these artisans are interior were recorded as having “racéré” an weapons and munitions purchased weighing 1 /4 livres (poid de marc) weighed approximately 1.44 recorded as receiving both iron and axe or casse-tête. Potier at Detroit states that the by the King from certain individuals each74 (approximately 1.34 lbs per lbs (1.33 livres in poid de marc) The situation as far as term “racéré” designates “Resteeling an axe respectively, indicating that they steel bars for the axe bodies and and to retemper it, to re-add steel”63 deriving included 456 casse-têtes at 28 sols unit). Some ten years later, Monière manufacturing local hatchets in strong edges respectively. They not from the French word “acier” (steel). (Mackinac each along with a quantity of took note of 80 locally-made were slightly heavier than those Louisiana was far different than only added steel cutting edges to State Historical Parks Collection. Photograph: 450 “casse-tête handles” at 2 sols 6 casse-têtes weighing together 107 recorded a decade earlier. in Canada since the blacksmiths existing axes, but are also recorded Kevin Gladysz.) deniers apiece,67 while the King’s livres, which were credited to the located in these newly established

12 JOURNAL of the EARLY AMERICAS VOLUME ii ISSUE vi k DECEMBER 2012/JANUARY 2013 13 colonies may not have been as Le Maux included “30 small Images (Opposite Page) k (Images A &B): Hachet, or casse-tête, excavated at the Maison active, or fully established/equipped, hachots in the shape of casse-têtes at Milot in Quebec City and likely corresponding 81 in forging metal implements onsite 30 sols each.” Some twelve years to a mid-18th century French colonial-made A. as opposed to artisans working in later, another “thirty small hachots hatchet. Note that the weld line runs down the E. the towns up and down the St. in the shape of casse-tête” were center of the blade as seen from a top view. (Catalog number: 1QU-2150-glacière-373. Lawrence River. Many of the axes requested for the Natives of Ministère de la Culture, des Communications 82 sent to Louisiana were therefore Île Royale. et de la Condition féminine du Québec. likely manufactured in France. Laboratoire et Réserve d'archéologie du Québec. Photograph: Kevin Gladysz.)86 Apparently starting in 1716, a While writing a definition of Minister in France wanted to the word casse-tête, Dumont de (Images C &D): Side and bottom view of three hatchets found at Fort Michilmackinac equip the troops sent to Louisiana Montigny, an officer in colonial (1715–1781) and likely representing locally- B. with powder horns, shooting bags French Louisiana, revealed that made casse-têtes. Based on the size of the eye, and hatchets (Hachettes).76 Some there were further subcategories the second from the top hatchet here may three years later, four newly arrived of casse-têtes, where he describes a have originally been mid-sized axes which was worked down to a casse-tête size weapon or tool reinforcement companies received common hatchet type, as well as a at a later date. Note that from the bottom up “small hand-held axes” (petites haches specialized Native flat triangular viewpoint, the smaller casse-tête’s poll has been à main)77 instead of swords. When dagger-shaped blade, as both having filed in a semi-circular form around the eye at the “choil” (the notch where the blade meets Bénard de la Harpe went to Baye the name “casse-tête”: “It is a small the poll on the underside of the axe’s head), St. Bernard in 1721, on the present portable axe or else a bayonet in whereas the other two pieces have a straight F. day Texas Coast, his bales of goods which the handle is reversed so that shoulder filed perpendicularly across the blade included: “40 middle-sized axes or a wood handle can be inserted.”83 near the eye. Several other file-work variations at the “choil” area are known to exist on casseteste,” indicating that certain A few years later, Bossu, a French other archaeologically excavated French axes. C. mid-sized axes brought to the Gulf marine officer who travelled (Mackinac State Historical Parks Collection. colonies may have been viewed as through Louisiana starting in 1751, Photograph: Kevin Gladysz.) a casse-tête, which, significantly, stated that Native warriors carried (Image E): Hatchet found at the Fort Ouiatenon may have all been imported from “…a casse-tête or small axe that they site (1717-1791). The curved bottom may G. 78 84 indicate a late period French development the mother country. In 1732, use when sheltering in the woods.” or even local variation and not necessarily an 1,200 “casteste or hachots” (casse-têtes In 1754 Louisiana Governor artifact of English origin. (Tippecanoe County or hatchets) were included on a Kerlerec wrote that the bayonets Historical Association. Photograph: Kevin statement of merchandise necessary used by soldiers in Louisiana were Gladysz) for the Natives at Mobile.79 What useless when fighting against (Images F & G): Probable casse-tête found at the Fort Ticonderoga site bearing a single poinçon is interesting here is that the official Natives in the woods and that they on the left side of the blade representing what who wrote out this statement should be replaced with casse-tête: appears to be two initials within a square used the French term “hachot” to “So I felt that the casse-tête, which cartouche. Note that the eye of this hatchet’s designate a “casse-tête.” We have is a small hand ax, would anyway poll was likely originally of the rounded or oval- eye shape indicating that this was a Canadian- found that the word “hachot,” in be more suitable, in that it is a made tool or weapon. (Collection of the Fort D. fact, was a French sailor’s term that good weapon of defense, and it is Ticonderoga Museum. Photograph: Kevin meant a small hand-held hatchet, very useful for the soldier either Gladysz.) which was said to be used to rough- to cut the stakes for his shelter, his (Image H): Probable French casse-tête H. down timber.80 The term “hachot” firewood, serves to clear a passage excavated from the Fletcher Site in Bay City, Michigan (ca. 1740 -1770). One of four was also frequently used in reference in many circumstances or to make hatchets found there, this approximate 6" long to l’Île Royale (Cape Breton Island a carriage (pirogue) in other cases, head displays the typical French features of or Louisbourg). For example, in or finally to dig holes for the stakes a “choil”immediately after the eye, a slightly overlapping blade/eye area, and a wide 1745, presents for the Micmacs of used in an entrenchment that they 85 triangular-shaped blade with a straight bottom. Île Royale purchased at the port of would want to force.” (Image reproduced from Mainfort 1979:374, Rochefort through a man named Figure 40A; copyright MSU Museum, Michigan State University, Used with permission.)

14 JOURNAL of the EARLY AMERICAS VOLUME ii ISSUE vi k DECEMBER 2012/JANUARY 2013 15 Images (Right) k (Image I): French axes: French axes that in the old French territories, the exhibit a “choil” immediately after the eye/blade junction. About the Authors: Author of "The French Although there are several variations of this common Conclusion English style dominated and Trade Gun in North America," Kevin French axe feature and degrees of quality in workmanship, almost completely replaced French Gladysz lives and teaches in Ontario, it seems that the choked-up “choil” is a French axe trait In conclusion, by introducing the hatchet forms, especially seen in Canada, where he is actively researching most frequently encountered in North American examples, French-era material culture as well as various categories and terminology the British Indian Department studying 17th and 18th primary source from the 16th century Biscayan to the casse-tête at the of common axes, hatchets and their “standard pattern” pipe tomahawks French records relating to the history of fall of Canada in 1760. English examples usually either New France. have no “choil” at all, whereby the bottom of the axe eye features as well as the introduction through the War of 1812. However, merges into the bottom of the blade in a straight line with Since 1983 Ken Hamilton has been an of the casse-tête used by the French other than occasional hints of independent seventeenth and eighteenth- no separation, or that a “choil” is found at the end of an in North America, and addressing French decorative influences in century material culture researcher and extended flange. Even though there may be numerous craftsman focusing on French and Natives examples from both nations with none of these particular several misunderstood notions, specialized local pipe tomahawks, in the Northeast. He lives in central Maine features, it is nevertheless one useful identifying feature I. the authors hope that any future several old specialized casse-tête with his lovely Penobscot fiancée Nicole, that can often differentiate a French colonial-made axe archival research will now have a forms introduced by the French in and two boys, Samuel and Nathan. The or a casse-tête from a similar English colonial examples. th third, Neil is 24. All enjoy living history. Besides a wide, slightly triangular blade with a straight “face” to the name. Further, by using the early 18 century continued bottom, French axe blades also typically overlap the eye a much tighter sample of known to be widely used on the Prairies th slightly at its base and have a defined “choil” below it, with French axes (albeit a very small throughout the 19 century. In Endnotes for Axes in New France: one of several filed or ground eye terminations. group indeed), it is hoped that a future work the authors wish Part III: French Colonial-made Axes 1. French, Canadian made military axe with a by laying a more firm foundation to expand the important topic by Kevin Gladysz and fleur-de-lis mark on the opposite side. Ken Hamilton: for identifying common and to include the various French 2. Presumed French casse-tête with an angled eye bottom. apparent “French” axe features, specialty casse-têtes, including dagger 1 Claude Le Beau, Avantures du sr C. Le 3. Presumed French casse-tête with a straight other presumed French axes can be tomahawks (casse-têtes à dague), Beau,... ou Voyage curieux et nouveau parmi eye bottom. identified by their comparison to spontoon tomahawks (casse-têtes à les sauvages de l'Amérique septentrionale, 4. French Pipe tomahawk or casse-tête à pipe dans lequel on trouvera une description du marked “A. Lepoivrer F.P. Lecompte 1761.” the known examples, verification fleur de lys), spike tomahawks (haches by French archival records, and d’armes or casse-têtes pointus), and of Canada... (Amsterdam: Uytwerf, 1738), 296. (Translated by Kevin Gladysz) careful scrutiny of the source and course, pipe tomahawks (casse-têtes 2 Pierre Margry, Découverte et établissements Images (Left) k (Image J): English axe comparisons: English circumstances of any collected à pipe). “tomahawk” style axes typically either have a continuous bottom des Français dans l'ouest et dans le sud de example. k line from the eye (fig. 1), all along the blade bottom, or if a “choil” (Special thanks to Kathy Atwell at L'Amérique septentrionale, 1614-1754 is present, it is found at the end of an extended, sometimes long : mémoires et documents inédits ( : the Tippecanoe County Historical flange (fig. 2) at the eye blade junction, unlike a French type in which It was hoped that articles II and Maisonneuve, 1879), 353. the “choil” immediately rises to meet the blade bottom. Although Association, Francis Back, Aurélie 3 III in this series were able to Scott Meachum, Three Centuries of these two distinctive blade/eye transitions are common on English Desgens at the Laboratoire et Woodlands Indian Art (Altenstadt: ZKF introduce some of the fascinating colonial “tomahawk” style axes, if used, there may be considerable Réserve d'archéologie du Québec, Publishers, 2007), 67-74. subtle variations (fig. 3). These features are especially evident on the layers of inter-connected and 4 Phil Dunning at Parks Canada, Louis Armand de Lom d'Arce baron de well-known “English standard Pattern” pipe tomahawks. overlapping Native, French and Chris D. Fox at Fort Ticonderoga, Lahontan, Voyages du baron de Lahontan 1. Small “English hatchet” found at the Cherokee Village of English historical axe expressions dans l'Amérique Septentrionale, qui Michael Galban, Brian S. Jaeschke Tomotley, TN, (ca. 1751-76). and terminology that abound in contiennent une rélation des différens peuples 2. “English” tomahawk from Ft. Ligonier, PA, (1758-66). at Mackinac State Historic Parks, qui y habitent ... l'avantage que l'Angleterre 3. “English” tomahawk from Tomotley, TN, (ca. 1751-76). North American Frontier folklore, Dr. William A. Lovis at Michigan peut retirer de ce païs, étant en guerre avec la 4. “English” pipe tomahawk engraved "I. Fraser", from PA, (ca. as well as point out the physical J. State University, Jeff Pavlik, and France ...Tome premier (Amsterdam: CHez 1750-60), done in a “French” style but exhibiting an extended differences between the axes of the flange “choil”. Thomas Wojcinski) F. L'Honoré, 1728), 402. two European colonies. After the 5 Translation by Ken Hamilton. gradual emergence of the French 6 Joseph François Lafitau, Moeurs des casse-tête, and the subsequent sauvages ameriquains: comparées aux adoption of the "tomahawk" by the moeurs des premier temps. Tome troisième (Paris: Saugrain l'aîné, Charles-Estienne English, the two distinctive hatchet Hochereau, 1724), 178. “Le casse-tête, styles paralleled each other until ou masse d'armes, tient lieu d'épée, et de after the surrender of Canada. Then, massue, il est de racine d'arbre, ou d'un autre except for pockets of lingering bois fort dur, de la longueur de deux pieds, French influence by blacksmiths ou de deux pieds et demi, équarri sur les

16 JOURNAL of the EARLY AMERICAS VOLUME ii ISSUE vi k DECEMBER 2012/JANUARY 2013 17 côtés, et élargi ou arrondi à son extrémité Microfilm # 4637, p.6v-7. (no de projet Relations de la prise d'un entrepot anglois le comptes. - 1727-1737, Cote : P239, S1, D1. century merchants of Montreal: Microfilm 452, Sept. 8, 1731. de la grosseur du poing. On en voit de M620-1408.) 27 mars 1756, Rapport de l'archiviste de la 37 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.71, f.159, 160, reel M-847, Monière, vol. 1, p.211, April 5, 76 Archives nationales (Paris), Archives des différentes sortes dans les figures que j'ai 14 Cl. Marin Saugrain, Dictionnaire universel province de Québec pour 1932-1933: Tome 161, 163, 169. 1721. Colonies, série C13A, IV, f.117. Louvre 23 fait graver.” de la France ancienne & moderne, et de la 13 (Québec : Rédempti Paradis Imprimeur 38 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.71, f.159. 52 Gérin-Lajoie: – Tomahawks. juin 1716. (Fonds Francis Back) 7 Pierre-François-Xavier de Charlevoix, nouvelle ... (Paris: Saugrain, 1726), 1210. De Sa Majesté Le Roy, 1933). “L'ordre fut 39 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.71, f.160. 53 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.81, f.363-365v./ 77 Archives nationales (Paris), Archives des Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle (Translated by Kevin Gladysz) si promptement exécuté que l'Anglois eut 40 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.88, f.214, 218v, vol.83, f.294v-295. Colonies, série C13A,IV, f.500-507. (Fonds France, avec le Journal historique d'un 15 Archives du Fort de Rochefort- (La à pein le temps de fermer sa porte qu'on 226, 230. 54 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.118, f.7 Francis Back) voyage fait par ordre du roi dans l'Amérique Louisianne-1732) Évaluation des tonneaux tâcha inutilement d'enfoncer avec de petites 41 LAC-MG1-C11A vol.101, f.308v 55 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.96, f.352-352v. 78 Gérin-Lajoie, Tomahawks: Ref.: LAC- Septentrionnale, Volume 3 (Paris: Chez la pour les munitions es marchandises a haches appelées cassetestes...” 42 Le journal de M. de Bougainville. Février 56 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.73, f.262. MG 7 I A2, vol.8989, p.224. “Journal veuve Ganeau, 1744), 222. "...le Casse-tête: embarquer sur la flûte du Roy la Gironde pour 27 Journal de campagne à l'île Royale par 1757, Rapport de l'archiviste de la province 57 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.96, f.314-315/ historique….” signed Bénard de La Harpe. C'était une petite massue d'un bois très dur, la Louisianne 1732. LS-A de Rossel, Rapport de l'archiviste de de Québec pour 1923-1924: Tome 4 vol.119, fol.33./vol.117, f.440, 441, 442v. 79 LAC-MG 1-C13B – Corr. Gén. – dont la tête, de figure ronde, avoit un côté 16 John D. Nichols, Earl Nyholm, A la province de Québec pour 1931-1932 : (Québec: Ls.-A. Proulx, 1924), 251. 58 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.118, f.75 Louisiane. Microfilm F-581m 26 bis, fol.6f. tranchant." Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe Tome 12 (Québec: Les publications du "L'équipement distribué aux troupes du 59 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.118, f.399,399v, “Estat des marchandises qui sont necessaires 8 Jean-Baptiste Labat, Nouveau voyage aux (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Québec, Archives nationales du Québec et parti - à St.Jean...Le soldat...un casse-tête" 400. a la mobile pour les present des Sauvages isles de l'Amérique:contenant l'histoire naturelle Press, 1995), 140. Productions Holovision Inc., 1997), 381. 43 Louis-Joseph, marquis de Montcalm de 60 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.118, f.7. pendant l’année 1732” de ce pays... (A la Haye: P. Husson, P. Gosse, 17 Frederic Baraga, A dictionary of the (Translated by Kevin Gladysz). Saint-Véran, Henri Raymond Casgrain, 61 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.118, f.27. 80 Jacques Bourdé de Villehuet, Manuel des R. Alberts & C. Le Vier, 1724), 141. Otchipwe language, explained in English: this 28 Badier François Alexandre Aubert de Journal du marquis de Montcalm durant 62 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.117, f.448v-449. marins; ou , Explication des termes de marine (Translated by Kevin Gladysz) language is spoken by the Chippewa Indians, La Chesnaye-Desbois, Dictionnaire de la ses campagnes en Canada de 1756 à 1759 63 Pierre-Philippe Potier, Robert Toupin, (L'Orient: Chez Julien Le Jeune fils, 1773), 9 Pierre-François-Xavier de Charlevoix, as also by the Otawas, Potawatamis and noblesse, contenant les généalogies, l'histoire & (Québec, Impr. de L.J. Demers & frère, Pierrette L. Lagarde, Les écrits de Pierre 33. Histoire et description generale de la Nouvelle Algonquins, with little difference: for the use of la chronologie des familles nobles de France, 1895), 156. Potier (University of Ottawa Press, 81 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.27, f.90. France: avec le Journal historique d'un missionaries, and other persons living among l'explication de leur armes, & l'état des 44 LAC-MG18-K9.Fonds François-Charles 1996), 484. “R‹e›acerer un[e] hache & La 82 LAC-MG1-C11a, vol.37, f.209v. voyage fait par ordre du roi dans l'Amérique the above mentioned Indians (Cincinnati: grandes terres du royaume ... (Paris: La veuve de Bourlamaque. Volume 6, 2e partie (1756- retremper y remettre de l’acier” 83 L'établissement de la province de la Septentrionnale, Volume 5 (Paris: Chez J.A. Hemann, 1853), 394. Duchesne, 1776), 630. 1760). 64 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.89, fol.36v. Louisiane avec les moeurs des sauvages, leurs Pierre-François Giffart, 1744), 351. 18 John D. Nichols, Earl Nyholm, A 29 Le comte de Maurès de Malartic, Journal 45 Mémoire Pour Messire François Bigot, 65 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.89, f.42v. danses, leurs religions, etc. Poème composé (Translated by Kevin Gladysz) Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe des campagnes au Canada de 1755 à 1760 ci-devant Intendant de Justice, Police, Finance 66 Louis Antoine de Bougainville, Ecrits sur de 1728 à 1742 par Dumont de Montigny 10 Louis Armand de Lom d'Arce, baron (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota (Paris: E. Plon, Nourrit et Cie, 1890), 18. & Marine en Canada, Accusé: Contre le Canada: mémoires, journal, lettres (Sillery, ( Journal de la Société des Américanistes. de Lahontan. Voyages du baron de Lahontan Press, 1995), 145. (Translated by Kevin Gladysz) Monsieur le Procureur-Général du Roi en la Quebec: Les éditions du Septentrion, Tome 23 n°2, 1931), 416. « C'est une petite dans l'Amérique septentrionale… Volume 2 19 Michael Galban, personal 30 BANQ (À Québec) : Cote E1,S1,P312. Commission, Accusateur: Contenant l'Histoire 2003), 107. hache portative ou une bayonnette dont le (Amsterdam : François L'Honore, 1728), communication-9/30/2012. Tarif par l'intendant Hocquart pour servir de l'Administration du sieur Bigot dans la 67 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.82, f.187v. manche est renversé de telle sorte qu'il y 193. 20 Father Joseph Aubry, French Abenaki au garde-magasin du poste de Niagara Colonie, & des Réfléxions générales sur cettes 68 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.89, f.44v. puisse entrer un manche de bois. » 11 M. Bossu, Nouveaux voyages aux Indes Dictionary, 1755, Translated by Stephen dans la traite qui se fait audit poste pour le Administration, Volume 1 (Paris: P. Al. Le 69 J.C.B., Voyage au Canada dans le nord 84 M. Bossu, Nouveaux voyages aux Indes Occidentales; contenant une relation des Laurent (Portland, ME, Chisolm Bros. compte du Roi . - 21 mai 1739. Prieur, 1763), 39-40. de l'Amérique septentrionale fait depuis l'an occidentales : contenant une relation des différens peuples qui habitent les environs Publishing, 1995), 96, 459. 31 Pierre-Philippe Potier, Robert Toupin, 46 H.-R. Casgrain, Lettres et pièces 1751 à 1761 (Québec: Imprimerie Léger différens peuples qui habitent les environs du du grande fleure Saint-Louis, appellé 21 Library and Archives Canada-Colonial Pierrette L. Lagarde, Les écrits de Pierre militaires, instructions, ordres, mémoires, Brousseau, 1887), 146. grand fleuve Saint-Louis appelé vulgairement rulgairement le Mississippi ... Première partie Archives Series (Archives des Colonies): Potier (University of Ottawa Press, 1996), plans de campagne et de défense, 1756- 70 Pierre Pouchot, Mémoires sur la dernière le Mississipi... Première partie (Paris: Le Jay, ( (Paris: Le Jay, 1768), 49-50. "...un caffe- (Hereafter referred to as LAC): MG1- 287. 1760 (Québec: L.-J. Demers, 1891), 232. guerre de l'Amérique septentrionale ..., Volume 1768), 118. tête foit maffue ou hâche… Les jeunes C11A, vol.57, f.211, 212. 32 Pierre-Philippe Potier, Robert Toupin, (Ils feront la visite des armes, des chaudières, 3 (Yverdon, Switzerland: F.B. de Félice, 85 LAC - Colonies C13A, vol.38, f. 95. Sauvages ne marchent jamais sans avoir 22 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.89, f.36v. Pierrette L. Lagarde, Les écrits de Pierre casse-têtes et généralement de tout ce dont il 1781), 245. (Translated by Kevin Gladysz) “Kélerec à Machault, 15 septembre 1754.” une petite hâche ou un miroir pendu au 23 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol. 82, f.125; LAC- Potier (University of Ottawa Press, 1996), dépend d'être bien armés et équipés, pour que 71 Claude Le Beau, Avantures du sr C. Le (Fonds Francis Back) poignet." MG1-C11A, vol. 68, f. 124v. 283,284. rien ne manque au moment du départ.) Beau,... ou Voyage curieux et nouveau parmi 86 Camille Lapointe, Les outils de 12 Université de Montréal: Division des 24 J.C.B., Voyage au Canada dans le nord 33 Chrestien Le Clercq, Nouvelle relation de 47 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.100, f.178v-179. les sauvages de l'Amérique septentrionale, la Place-Royale (Gouvernement du Archives: Mémoire de marchandises. - 9 de l'Amérique septentrionale fait depuis l'an la Gaspésie… (Paris: Amable Auroy, 1691), (1755, octobre 20: Lettre de François- dans lequel on trouvera une description du Québec, Ministère de la culture et des mai 1685. - 1 document textuel: 6 pages; 34 1751 à 1761. (Québec: Imprimerie Léger 522 ; Le Page Du Pratz, Histoire de la Marc-Antoine Le Mercier au ministre.) Canada.. (Amsterdam: Uytwerf, 1738), 292. communications, 1994), 26, 27. x 22 cm ou plus petit.Page 6 de mémoire de Brousseau, 1887), 64-65. (Translated by Louisiane...Tome troisième (Paris: E. Bure, 48 LAC MG1-C11A, vol.84 f.145v. (Translated by Kevin Gladysz) marchandises de traite fournies par Claude Kevin Gladysz) La Veuve Delaguette, Lambert, 1758), 35. 49 BANQ (À Québec) : Inventaire de feu 72 LAC-MG1-C11E, vol. 15, f.81. Charron de la Barre à M. de Lavaltrie et 25 M. Fréron, Journal étranger (Paris: Chez 34 LAC-MG1-C11A, vo.115, f.266 J-Bte Charly, marchand bourgeois de Mtl 73 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol.42, f.81v, 82v. d'autres mémoires similaire par ordre de M. Jacques-François Quillau, 1756), 141. 35 Pierre Pouchot, Catherine Broué, (et ancien voyageur). "Un cassetête de fer- 74 Gérin-Lajoie, Axes. de Lachenaie. ("Lettre de M. de Parfouru, Gentilhomme Mémoires sur la dernière guerre de l'Amérique 5s." Cloture d'inventaire, 25 Nov. 1728. 75 Gérin-Lajoie: - Tomahawks. (in reference 13 Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du de Normandie, Lieutenant des Grenadiers septentrionale entre la France et l'Angleterre (Fonds Francis Back) to LAC-Monière, Blotter 1739-51, p.975. Québec (Hereafter referred to as BANQ) dans le Canada, A Monsieur***) Mars 1756 (Sillery, Quebec: Les éditions du 50 BANQ) (À Montréal). Not. G. Hodiesne (April 17, 1750). “Credit : Mr Dumouchel, (À Montréal) : Inventaire des biens de la - “Quand ils partent pour la guerre, ils sont Septentrion, 2003), 280. # 59, 17 Juillet 1750: Inventaire de Gabriel blacksmith, by Demarest.” communauté de Madeleine Just, veuve armés d'un fusil, d'une petite hâche qu'on 36 LAC-MG1-C11A, vol. 57, f.209, 211, Lemieux, habitant de Ste-Thérèse. (Fonds LAC-Account books of eighteenth-century de Jean-Jérôme de Beaulieu, marchand, nomme casse-tête & d'une lance.” 212, 212v, 212 ; BANQ) (À Montréal): Francis Back) merchants of Montreal: Microfilm reel de Villemarie en l'île de Montréal, 1697. 26 Les "Mémoires" du Chevalier de la Pause... Charles Nolan-Lamarque, Livres de 51 LAC-Account books of eighteenth- M-848, Monière, vol. 4, p.38-43, 79-81,

18 JOURNAL of the EARLY AMERICAS VOLUME ii ISSUE vi k DECEMBER 2012/JANUARY 2013 19