Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 17 (2), April 2018, pp 327-335

Ethnomycological knowledge of three indigenous communities of Assam, India

Nepolion Borah, RL Semwal & SC Garkoti*

School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi-110067, India E-mail: [email protected]

Received 9 May 2017, revised 18 December 2017

The paper presents the ethnomycological knowledge related to identification of wild edible mushrooms of three indigenous communities, viz. Karbis, Biates and Khelmas inhabiting the South western part of Dima Hasao district of the Indian state of Assam. Across the communities, a total of 92 knowledge holders were identified through chain referrals method. Semi- directive interview and group discussion methods were employed for documentation of their knowledge. The key features of the knowledge of the studied communities were overwhelmingly identical as all of them used criteria like morphological characters, aroma, and habitat for identifying edible mushrooms. A total of 19 species of wild edible mushrooms were observed to be collected by them. Though was rare among the communities; they take certain precautions and remedies which were again broadly more or less common. To avoid poisoning, Karbis never cooked epiphytic and terrestrial mushrooms together. In case of poisoning, they used fresh or dried fruits of any of the species, viz. Garcinia lanceaefolia, Gracinia sp, Hibiscus sabdariffa and Antidesma sp as home remedy. The rich ethnomycological knowledge not only helping these communities overcome food and nutraceutical deficiencies but also contributing in income generation.

Keywords: Indigenous community, Traditional knowledge, Mushrooms, Mushroom poisoning, Folk , Karbi, Biate and Khelma tribes IPC Int. Cl.8: A61K 36/06, A01G 18/00, D05B 91/08

Wild mushrooms are one of the important natural Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, sources of food and income for many indigenous Sikkim and Tripura and is part of one of the 34 global communities across the world1-4. Edible mushrooms biodiversity hotspots10. Dima Hasao district in the state have nutritive values containing high amount of of Assam is socially, culturally and ecologically proteins (e.g. Lactarius hatsudak, Lentinula edodes), important area of the NEHR, inhabited by indigenous dietary fiber (e.g. Lactarius volemus, Karbi, Biate and Khelma communities known for their cornucopioides), vitamins (e.g. Cortinarius rufo- unique cultural practices. Practicing shifting agriculture olivaceus, Collybia albuminosa) and minerals locally called as Jhum is the core economic activity of (e.g. Clitocybe maxima, Catathelasma ventricosum)5. these communities. During rainy season (May-September) These also exhibit antioxidative (e.g. Hygrophoropsis for meeting nutraceutical needs and sometimes to earn aurantiaca, Hypholoma capnoides, Laccaria amethystina), livelihood they collect a range of wild edibles mushrooms. antitumour and hypercholesterolic properties (e.g. Clitocybe Though few studies related to wild edible maxima, Catathelasma ventricosum) 6-7. Mushrooms mushrooms have been carried out from different parts grow in a wide variety of habitats, but most of them of the NEHR2, 11-16, comprehensive studies are lacking grow on dead and decaying organic materials8. All wild on indigenous knowledge employed for identification, mushrooms growing in similar habitats and climatic utilization, addressing poisoning, mechanism of conditions are not necessarily edible as some of them transfer of knowledge and market potential of wild may be poisonous and at times fatal9. However, using mushrooms. Present study reports ethnomycological their ethnomycological knowledge indigenous communities knowledge of the abovementioned communities have been collecting and consuming wild mushrooms inhabiting the south-western part of Dima Hasao since time immemorial1. district of Assam. The study would not only help in The North Eastern Himalayan Region (NEHR) of preserving and protecting the fast eroding traditional India covers eight states, viz. Arunachal Pradesh, knowledge base but may also contribute in augmenting —————— sustainable livelihood and neutraceutical security of *Corresponding author the studied communities. 328 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 17, NO. 2, APRIL 2018

Methodology executive members of the traditional institutions (Mei of Karbis; Kalim Kabur Dan of Biates; Halam of Study area Khelma), church committees and local NGOs. Thus, The study was carried out in the South western part 37 knowledge holders (25 men and 12 women) were (Umrangso sub-division) of the Dima Hasao district identified from Sikilangso, 29 (23 men and 06 women) of Assam. After a detailed reconnaissance, three from Thingdol, and 26 (16 men and 10 women) from representative villages, viz. Sikilangso, Thingdol and Bangphiri village for information collection. Information Bangphiri inhabited predominantly by Karbi, Biate and related to wild edible mushrooms was collected Khelma communities, respectively, were selected from identified resource persons through semi-directive (Fig. 1). The altitude of the villages ranged from interviews and focused group discussions19 in two 700 m to over 900 m. The total population of the growing seasons (May – October) in 2016 and 2017. villages was 354, 505 and 183, respectively. Tropical During the data collection, specimens were photographed moist deciduous and sub-tropical forests were the and collected for further identification. Identification dominant vegetation of the study area which had a sub of the specimens was done based on their tropical humid climate17. The monsoon season starts in morphological characteristics after comparing with mid May and ceases in September with an average standard manual for mushroom identification8,20, annual rainfall of 1700 mm while the minimum and mycokeys available at www.mushroomexpert.com21 maximum temperatures during the period varied from and verified by mycologist at Gauhati University, 23 °C to 32 °C18. Assam. The plant specimens were identified with the 22 Data collection help of Flora of Assam and verified by taxonomist at Prior Informed Consent (PIC) requirements were Dibrugarh University, Assam. Specimens have been secured through the Assam State Biodiversity Board. preserved at the School of Environmental Sciences, A total of 92 knowledge holders (comprising 64 men Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. and 28 women) were identified from across all the three 19 Results and discussion villages/communities following “Chain Referrals” method with the help of headmen of the villages, Wild edible mushrooms A total of 19 species of wild edible mushrooms locally identified with different names by the studied communities belonged 13 genera and 13 families were recorded during the study. Of the 19 species, 13 species were terrestrial and others were epiphytic (Table 1). All the recorded species were considered as edible by the Karbis but only 11 and 12 by Biates and Khelmas, respectively, despite having similar traditional identification criteria. Mushroom species such as Agaricus spp, Boletus sp, Clavulina sp, and Termitomyces sp were not collected by the Biates and Khelmas. Among these, while Amanita chepangiana Tulloss & Bhandary, Amanita hemibapha Berk. & Broome were edible for the Khelmas but not for the Biates and Cantharellus cibarius Schwein was not considered edible by the Khelmas but by Biates. The Karbis of the study area have recently learned collection of Clavulina sp from the ethnic communities of Meghalaya. The growing season of most of the mushroom species (viz., Amanita chepangiana Tulloss & Fig. 1 — Location of the study area (S-Skilangso village, Bhandary, Amanita hemibapha Berk. & Broome, B-Bangphiri village and T-Thingdol village inhibited, respectively, by Karbis, Khelmas and Biates) in Dima Hasao District, Auricularia polytricha (Montagne) Saccardo, Boletus Assam, India sp, Cantharellus cibarius Schwein, Cantharellus sp, BORAH et al.: ETHNOMYCOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES OF ASSAM, INDIA 329

Table 1 — Wild edible mushroom species, their habitat and growing season collected by Karbis (K), Khelmas (Kh) and Biates (B) in Dima Hasao district of Assam, India Sl. No Species Habitat Collection Collecting period community 1 Agaricus semotus Fries.; Family: Agaricaceae; Terrestrial Sept-Oct K Local name: Mu-Kang-aer (K) 2 Agaricus sp; Family: Agaricaceae; Terrestrial Sept-Oct K Local name: Mu-Kang-aer-the (K) 3 Amanita chepangiana Tulloss & Bhandary; Family: Terrestrial June-Sept K, Kh Amanitaceae; Local name: Mu-voti (K), Partoi (Kh) 4 Amanita hemibapha Berk. & Broome; Family: Amanitaceae; Terrestrial June-Sept K, Kh Local name: Mu-voti (K) Partoi (Kh) 5 Auricularia polytricha (Mont.) Sacc.; Family: Auriculariaceae; Epiphytic June-Aug K, Kh, B Local name: Muplakplak (K), Pa-ibak (Kh, B) 6 Boletus sp; Family: Boletaceae; Local name: Mu-Virik (K) Terrestrial June-Sept K 7 Cantharellus cibarius Fries.; Family: ; Local name: Terrestrial June-Sept K, B Mu-et (K), Pa fit (B) 8 Cantharellus sp ; Family: Cantharellaceae; Local name: Musai (K), Epiphytic June-Sept K, Kh, B Pajong nakur (Kh, B) 9 Clavulina sp; Family: Clavulinaceae; Local name: Fuju-Akong-Simi (K) Terrestrial June-Sept K 10 Lactifluus corrugis (Peck) Kuntze; Family: Russulaceae; Terrestrial June-Sept K, Kh, B Local name: Muk-mog-lang (K), Rupsen (Kh, B) 11 Lentinus sp; Family: Polyporaceae; Local name: Muchopan (K) Terrestrial June-Sept K 12 Lentinus sp; Family: Polyporaceae; Local name: Mukangtang (K), Epiphytic June-Sept K, Kh, B Pasib (Kh, B) 13 Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél.; Family: Pleurotaceae; Epiphytic June-Sept K, Kh, B Local name: Mu-oktho (K), Rupatak (Kh, B) 14 Pleurotus sp; Family: Pleurotaceae; Local name: Rupatak (K), Epiphytic June-Sept K, Kh, B Rupatak (Kh, B) 15 Schizophyllum commune Fries (Batsch) Cooke; Family: Epiphytic May-Sept K, Kh, B Schizophyllaceae; Local name: Musi (K), Pasi chest (Kh, B) 16 Termitomyces sp; Family: Lyophyllaceae; Local name: Muplong (K) Terrestrial June-July K 17 Tricholoma sp; Family: Tricholomataceae; Local name: Mu-rikso (K), Terrestrial May-Aug K, Kh, B Patong (Kh), Patung (B) 18 Tricholoma sp; Family: Tricholomataceae; Local name: Mu-rik (K), Terrestrial May-Aug K, Kh, B Patong (Kh), Patung (B) 19 floccosus (Schwein.) Earle ex Giachini & Castellano; Terrestrial June-Sept K, Kh, B Family: ; Local name: Mu-kachar (K), Rupa domte (Kh), Laikak rupa (B)

Clavulina sp, Lactifluus corrugis (Peck) Kuntze, properties of Boletus sp23 and, anti-inflammatory Lentinus sp, Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél., properties of C. cibarius24, higher vitamin C contents Pleurotus sp, Termitomyces sp and Turbinellus in Turbinellus sp7, higher protein content and antioxidative floccosus (Schwein.) Earle ex Giachini & Castellano) properties of A. polytricha and S. commune25-26 and was from June through September. High humidity nutritional and medicinal values of Pleurotus spp27 and during the season provided suitable condition for the Tricholoma sp 7. growth of mushrooms4. Among the recorded species, Schizophyllum commune Fries had the longest growing Traditional identification criteria period (May to September) while Agaricus spp The studied communities could easily distinguish (September-October) and Tricholoma sp (June-July) between the poisonous and edible species of had shortest growing period (Table 1). mushrooms using their own traditional protocols. Of the recorded mushrooms, Termitomyces sp Broadly they used morphological characters (such as had the largest fruiting body while S. commune the shape, size and color), aroma, and habitat for smallest. The mushroom species consumed by the identification of edible mushrooms. ethnic peoples of study area have some pharmacological Coprophilus mushroom species (Agaricus spp) and symbiotically growing mushroom (Termitomyces sp) and nutraceutical properties. These include antioxidant 330 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 17, NO. 2, APRIL 2018

were collected from the specific habitats (Table 2). aquitissima leaf litter (Fig. 2 c). For A. chepangiana Presence of annulus on the of the Agaricus spp, and A. hemibapha growing in nearby oak and pine Amanita chepangiana and A. hemibapha was an forests, egg shaped pileus/cap during the initial additional identification clue for the studied growing stage determined their edibility for Karbis and communities (Fig. 2a). The Bodo community of Assam Khelmas (Figs. 2d&e). Local communities of Garhwal also considers mushrooms growing on the decomposed Himalaya also identify these mushroom species using cow dung without annulus as poisonous16. Presence of similar criterion3. Funnel shaped fruiting body and pink colour fluid in the fruiting body in Agaricus sp presence of powdery substances on its surface decided (called Mu-Kang-aer-the by the Karbis) was yet the edibility of Lentinus spp across the studied another criterion used by the community to determine communities (Table 2; Fig. 2f). C. cibarius was its ediblity (Fig. 2b). Similarly, P. pulmonarius was identified by Karbis and Biates by yellowish colour identified by its habitat or substratum. It grows on and funnel shaped fruiting body which grew on dead dead trunks of Bombax sp, Dysoxylum sp, Quercus tree trunks of Schima wallichii, Sterculia villosa and aquitissima and Erythrina indica. Clavulina sp was the Quercus aquitissima in jhum fallows (Fig. 2g). only mushroom identified based on peculiar branching A. polytricha growing on tree trunks in the forests was structure of the fruiting body growing on the Quercus identified by all the communities by its colour (dark

Table 2 — Traditional identification criteria of wild edible mushroom species of studied communities in Dima Hasao district of Assam, India

Name Traditional Identification criteria Amanita chepangiana The fruiting body is pure white in colour, grows initially in ovoid shape on the soil surface and after 2-3 days becomes umbrella shaped; prominent ring structure (annulus) is present on the stipe and the fruiting body has a pleasant aroma. Amanita hemibapha Similar to Amanita chepangiana except that the colour of the fruiting body is yellow. Agaricus semotus Grow near the khuties (Cowsheds) where cow dung is kept for decomposition and subsequently used as manure, white with brownish shadow on the upper side the cap or pileus is umbrella shaped with and prominent annulus on the stipe, pink colour fluid comes out when the stipe is cut or broken. Agaricus sp Resembles with Agaricus semotus, however, no pink colour fluid comes out when stipe is cut or broken. Auricularia polytricha Fruiting body is dark brown in colour and ear shaped. No other identical poisonous mushrooms in shape and colour grow in the oak or pine forests in the study area. Boletus sp Fruiting body is reddish in colour and when it is touched or pressed, the colour turns dark blue. In poisonous mushrooms of the identical morphological characteristics, the colour of the ventral side of the pileus is not reddish. Clavulina sp The fruiting body is branched. No morphologically identical poisonous mushroom grows on the litter layer of the oak forests. Cantharellus cibarius The fruiting body is yellow in colour, grows in patches, it is smaller than the identically looking yellowish poisonous mushroom species. Cantharellus sp The fruiting body is funnel shaped, pale yellow to orange in colour, grows on dead tree trunks, such as Schima wallichii, Sterculia villosa and Quercus sp in jhum fields. Lactifluus corrugis Milky juice (white colour) comes out when any part of the fruiting body is broken, grows in oak and pine forests. Lentinus sp Umbrella shaped fruiting body remains moist and odorless while the identical poisonous species has powdery substance (spores) on pileus with a characteristic odor. Lentinus sp Fruiting body is funnel shaped, grows in oak and pine forests, No other morphologically identical species grows in oak and pine forests of the study area. Pleurotus pulmonarius Light brown in colour, generally grows on the dead trees of Arhi (Callicarpa arborea), Teji (Dysoxylum sp) and Farklong (Bombax sp). Pleurotus sp Grows on the dead or rotten tree trunks with clusters of fruiting bodies. In immature stage it is soft and after 2-3 days becomes harder. Schizophyllum commune Grows on any dead tree trunks, small umbrella shaped ash colour fruiting body 1-2 cm in height. Termitomyces sp Only this umbrella shaped species grows with 30-40 cm long stalk on the termite mounds. Tricholoma spp Light gray colour on the upper side of the pileus and white stipe with unique scent. Turbinellus floccosus The fruiting body is funnel shaped, scaly pileus, orange to reddish orange in colour, grows in the jhum fields or nearby forests. BORAH et al.: ETHNOMYCOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES OF ASSAM, INDIA 331

Fig. 2 — Some of the wild edible mushroom species recorded in the study area- (a) Agaricus semotus (b) Agaricus sp (c) Clavulina sp (d) Amanita hemibapha (e) Amanita chepangiana (f) Lentinus sp (g) Cantharellus cibarius (h) Turbinellus floccosus (i) Tricholoma sp (j) Lactifluus corrugis (k) Boletus sp (l) Cantharellus sp (m) Pleurotus pulmonarius (n) Pleurotus sp (o) Schizophyllum commune (p) Lentinus sp. brown) and ear shaped fruiting body. The identification mushrooms and those grazed by cattle indicated their clue for T. floccosus was its funnel shaped and orange edibility for humans across the studied communities. to reddish orange fruiting body and scaly cap (Fig. 2h). Thus, the traditional protocols of all the studied In NEHR other than the studied communities, communities used more than one criterion for T. floccosus was also collected and sold in local market determining the edibility of individual wild mushroom by the Khasi community in Meghalaya12. However, in species collected by them. edibility of this mushroom species has been reported causing gastrointestinal disorder in northern USA and Frequency and quantum of collection Canada28. Many a times the traditional processing, Generally mushroom collection was not a dedicated cooking knowledge and practices determined the activity for majority of the collectors of the studied edibility of some mushroom species29. Edible Tricholoma groups as they collected these while returning from the spp were identified by aroma, light grey colour on the jhum fields after day long work or at times while upper side of the pileus and white colour on the stipe gathering other wild edible vegetables. However, for (Table 2; Fig. 2i). L. corrugis was identified by all the some it was a dedicated activity to earn part of their studied communities by its presence in specific habitats livelihood. Women of all the communities were and milky fluid in fruiting body (Table 2; Fig. 2j). involved more than men in mushroom gathering Similarly, Boletus sp, called ‘Mu-Virik’ by Karbis, was activity. Species such as A. polytricha, L. corrugis and identified by change in colour while pressing the S. commune that occurred in abundance were collected fruiting body (Table 2; Fig. 2k). Sometimes unique by all the communities in large amounts for selling aroma of certain mushrooms (A. chepangiana, besides self consumption. Species viz., A. chepangiana, A. hemibapha, Lentinus sp and Tricholoma spp) was used A. hemibapha, A. polytricha L. corrugis, Lentinus spp to differentiate the edible species from the poisonous and S. commune were collected frequently during the ones. Besides, presence of insects or worms on the growing season (Table 3). Clavulina sp, Boletus sp, 332 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 17, NO. 2, APRIL 2018

Table 3 — Frequency and quantum of collection (per capita per visit) of various wild edible mushroom species by the knowledge holders studied communities in Dima Hasao district of Assam, India Percentage of mushroom collectors Frequency of collection Amount Species name (Kg) Karbi Khelma Biate Agaricus sp 54.05 0 0 Occasional 0.5-1 Agaricus semotus 54.05 0 0 Occasional 0.5-1 Amanita chepangiana 100 96.15 0 Frequent 03-4 Amanita hemibapha 100 96.15 0 Frequent 3-4 Auricularia polytricha 100 100 100 frequent 5-6 Boletus sp 40.54 0 0 Rare 0.3-0.5 Cantharellus cibarius 86.47 0 86.21 Occasional 1-1.5 Cantharellus sp 62.16 73.08 86.21 Rare 1-2 Clavulina sp 86.49 0 0 Rarely 0.5-1 Lactifluus corrugis 100 100 100 Frequent 03-04 Lentinus sp 100 0 0 Frequent 2-3 Lentinus sp 100 65.38 65.52 Frequent 2-3 Pleurotus pulmonarius 100 100 100 Occasional 2-3 Pleurotus sp 8.12 3.85 13.7931 Occasional 1-2 Schizophyllum commune 100 57.69 41.38 Very Frequent 1-02 Termitomyces sp 100 0 0 Occasional 0.5-2 Tricholoma sp 78.38 100 100 Occasional 1-2 Tricholoma sp 78.39 96.15 96.55 Occasional 1-2 Turbinellus floccosus 40.54 80.77 86.21 Rare 0.5-2

Cantharellus sp, T. floccosus were collected rarely sp and Clavulina sp were also fried with brinjals, because of less occurrences in the study area. An tomatoes and dry fishes. individual could collect 5-6 kg of A. polytricha while 2-4 kg of A. chepangiana, A. hemibapha, Lentinus spp Precautions taken and remedies for mushroom and P. pulmonarius, per visit. Other species were poisoning collected at an average rate of 0.5-2 kg per individual Before preparing any mushroom dish, especially the per visit (Table 3). elderly women cross-check the collected mushrooms during washing particularly when these were collected Preservations of collected mushrooms by younger members or children of the family. Again, Only a few species of mushroom were preserved or Karbis believed that by mixing of terrestrial and stored as most of them were consumed fresh. The epiphytic mushrooms together, the recipe may turn preservation period after sun drying varied from poisonous. The Karbis invariably mixed some sour 1-2 days to 2-3 months. S. commune could be preserved vegetables such Hibiscus sabdariffa (Hanjarong) or for 2 to 3 months and did not lose its taste. Similarly, Polygonum sp (Hanjareng) with certain mushrooms A. polytricha could be preserved for more than one such as Agaricus spp, Boletus sp and Clavulina sp. week by sun drying or smoking above the hearths. They believed that by mixing these helped diluting Other species can be preserved for merely 1 or 2 days. toxins. The Khasi people of Meghalaya heat a small Species such as A. chepangiana, A. hemibapha, iron rod until it become red hot and dip it in the middle Pleurotus sp, Tricholoma spp and Cantharellus spp of the bowl containing cooked mushrooms which they 11 were never preserved by these communities. believe help remove the toxins . On the other hand, Biates believe that if the mushrooms were cooked with Traditional cooking methods brinjals and the curry turned dark green it indicates All the three communities preferred boiled presence of toxins. Similarly, Guzman30 reported that mushroom curries without using any sort of spices and mycophilic communities throughout the Mexico use oil except salt and traditional soda (Folo) made up of garlic as an indicator in mushroom dishes and if filtrate of ash of banana peels. Sometimes, mushroom black color appears on the dish, it was discarded species such as Lentinus sp, Tricholoma sp, Pleurotus immediately. BORAH et al.: ETHNOMYCOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES OF ASSAM, INDIA 333

Incidents of mushroom poisoning were extremely collective traditional knowledge system. According to rare among the studied communities. However, they them, they would go to jhum fields along with their possessed some traditional remedies for addressing elder family members at a very young age (7-8 yrs) and accidental mushroom poisoning. If someone suffers used to observe closely different activities performed from nausea, vomiting, chest or stomach pain and by the elders including collection of wild mushrooms. diarrhoea after consuming mushroom dishes; the Folk taxonomy, i.e., each edible mushroom species patient is given copper or silver coins dipped water for has a local name was another aspect that helped the drinking. This practice was common across the studied process of knowledge transfer from one generation to communities. In some cases the patient was given raw next among the studied communities. Folk taxonomy dry fishes to eat in order to induce vomiting. All the of the Biates and the Khelmas was observed to be three communities believed that by eating rice beer almost similar as their dialects were also more or less starter cakes (locally called ‘Horo’ by Karbis ) made similar. However, it was unique for the Karbis. In the up of rice powder and leaves of Albizia myriophylla or studied communities, the wild edible mushrooms were drinking strong rice beer also induces vomiting given local names based on their colour, shape and (Fig. 3a). Besides the Karbis also used either fresh or size/morphology of the fruiting body resembling with dried fruits of Garcinia lanceaefolia (Prnankso), the body parts of locally occurring domestic and wild Gracinia sp (Prankpi), Hibiscus sabdariffa (Hanjarong) animals. Folk taxonomies are generated from the and Antidesma sp (Thesobo) as home remedy in case traditional knowledge systems which are influenced by of mushroom poisoning (Figs. 3b,c,d). They believed the way people make sense of, and relate them with 32 that consumption of sour fruits of these species help their natural surroundings in everyday speech . Most diluting mushroom toxins. Similarly, to minimize the of the local names of mushrooms among Karbis were effects of mushroom poisoning, Sherpas of Nepal use prefixed with ‘Mu”. Similarly, the Biates and the Aconitum sp31. Khelma used ‘Pa’ as prefix or suffix to local names. Some folk taxa (e.g. Muvoti, Partoi and Patong) in the Knowledge transfer mechanism present study were found polytypic with the name used All the respondents reported that they received to refer more than one species. knowledge about the wild edible mushrooms from their parents and grandparents and hence part of their Market Economy of wild mushrooms Collection of wild edible mushrooms not only provided nutraceutical security to the studied communities but at times also contributed augmenting part of their household income. Among the recorded mushrooms, A. chepangiana, A. hemibapha, A. polysticha, L. corrugis, Lentinus spp, Pleurotus spp and S. commune were found to be sold in local market. About 61 % of the respondents sold wild mushrooms in local market. Most of the mushroom sellers (86 %) were women. Market price of dried A. polysticha was . 600-700 per kg. Dried S. commune fetched . 120 per kg. Other species were sold fresh at . 20-30 per kg. Most of the buyers were from nearby townships such as Umrangso and New Sangber.

Conclusion The studied communities collected a sizable amount

of a range of wild edible mushroom species from Fig. 3 — (a) Rice beer starter (b) Hibiscus sabdariffa (c) Garcinia various habitats between May and October. The lanceaefolia, and (d) Antidesma sp used as home remedies activity helped them in meeting their nutraceutical and for mushroom poisoning. Use of rice beer starter as home remedy sometimes livelihood needs as well. Despite similarity for mushroom poisoning was common across the studied communities while Karbis also used the aforementioned plant in the traditional protocols applied to identify wild species for the purpose. edible mushrooms by the studied communities, Karbis 334 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 17, NO. 2, APRIL 2018

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