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could become ofÞcers. The highest ofÞcer position WomenÕs Role in a could hold was that of the director of the womenÕs division of her particular service. This Combat: position would be temporary, lasting only four years. After her term was up, she would be either demoted, Is Ground Combat the or forced to retire. Women were banned from serving on combat ships and planes. Though it was not Next Front? speciÞcally stated within the law, legislators intended to ban women from being placed near ground combat zones as well. Separate divisions (WAC, WAVES, and Sylvia Wan WAF) were also created to manage the female recruits. The restrictions created by this law might have Women in the United States have not been integrated women into the , but women were traditionally thought of as combat soldiers. However, also placed within a separate class, without the same they have recently been allowed to serve in more opportunities as their male counterparts. combat positions than in any other time in our Most of these restrictions might sound absurd nationÕs history. The only restriction that prevents now, but they were the reality for women up until women from being equal in the military is the ban on the mid-seventies. In 1978, the separate womenÕs women serving in ground combat positions. Is putting divisions of the services were abolished. The end of women in ground combat units merely the next these divisions signiÞed a higher level of equality step? When asked about women in ground combat, for women in the services. By this time, the only President Bush summed up his policy in four words restriction left from Public Law 80-625 was the 1 ÒNo .Ó President BushÕs stand is restriction barring women from serving on combat adamant against women serving in any combat role, ships and planes, as well as the unstated ban from especially ground combat positions. In every ground combat positions. Due in part to womenÕs since WWII, presidents have had to tackle the issue of participation in Desert Storm, Congress repealed the womenÕs role in the military. last shred of Public Law 80-625 by allowing women to WomenÕs role in combat has been consistently serve in combat positions for the Air Force and . changing from the founding of our country. The This removed the last legal barrier for placing women Þrst role that women played in the military was the in combat. 4 role of volunteer nurses. By the time of the Civil As a result of the danger women encountered War, the presence of female nurses was an accepted while in support positions during Desert Storm, part of the military. In 1901, the Army established President Bush (Sr.) called for the Presidential the Army Nurses Corp, allowing women an ofÞcial Commission on the Assignment of Women in the 2 position in the military. During WWII, the military Armed Forces (PCAWAF) in order to determine actively recruited women to Þll manpower shortages, whether women should be placed in more combat especially in clerical and secretarial work. As is positions. According to the study, women did usually the case for women participating in war not meet the physical requirements of ground efforts, when the war ended, they were demilitarized combat positions, and their presence could also be 3 and returned to traditional civilian roles. detrimental to unit cohesion for a number of reasons. Since then, the major changes for women in The commission also determined that if women were the military came from the WomenÕs Armed Forces allowed into combat positions, there would no longer Integration Act PL 80-625. This act opened up many be any legal standing to prevent women from being more positions for . included in the next draft. With a 10 against and 2 In 1948 Public Law 80-625 gave women a abstentions, the commission voted against allowing permanent place, both active and reserves, within women to serve in ground combat positions.5 all four military services. However the law placed The largest portion of the PCAWAF was dedicated restrictions women as well, such as a two percent to testimony and tests that showed that women, as limit on the proportion of women to men allowed a whole, did not meet the requirements for various to enlist, and only ten percent of the female enlisted ground combat positions. These studies tested both 115 men and women who were given the same training dangers without feigning chivalry.Ó9 The trained and requirements to meet. Within these studies, the solider is accustomed to meager accommodations and womenÕs physical performances were about 70% that lack of privacy. In the event that women were present of the menÕs performance. In response to the evidence in the units, operations and habits did not change. that some women did reach the physical standard, There have already been numerous reports of the PCAWAF stated, ÒThere is little doubt that some and misconduct toward women in women could meet the physical standards for ground the military. However, the levels of sexual harassment combat, but the evidence shows that few women (and any other crime for that matter) in the military possess the necessary physical requirements.Ó6 Those are far lower than levels of the same crime in the for lifting the ban on combat exclusion say that with civilian sector. On a whole, women actually encounter extra training more women would be able to meet less sexual harassment in the military than in the the same physical requirements. In a study by the civilian sector. According to Miller, a sociologist, a Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, more common way for men showing resentment 78% of the participating women were able to lift 150 of women being in the military is through gender pounds off the ground to a height of Þfty-two inches harassment. Constant scrutiny and sabotage are and could jog with 75 pound packs after six months examples of two forms of gender harassment women of physical training.7 The study showed that with endure when entering Þelds that are not traditional extra training, a large portion of women entering the for them. 10 Both of these methods generally force the military could be brought up to the same physical women to work harder, in order to earn the respect of standards as men. their male peers. 11 There is no way to regulate gender Despite the testimony and tests displaying that harassment because its methods are so subtle. Just as women (with the current levels of basic training) within the civilian world, given enough time, gender could not physically handle ground combat positions, harassment in the military will simply fade away as the damage to unit cohesion was the main reason the more women enter the military and can prove they commission voted for the ground combat exclusion. can work just as hard as their male counterparts. The commission outlined Þve different areas in The PCAWAF named pregnancy as the last which the presence of women could cause cohesion cohesion problem that could be caused by including problems. One, of women being unable to meet and women in ground combat units. However, birth endure the physical burdens required of each unit control methods have become advanced to such member. Two, awkward situations may arise due a level that a woman simply needs to take a birth to lack of privacy and forced intimacy. Three, the control shot in order to prevent her from being fertile presence of traditional western values that would for six months. The risk of a woman getting pregnant make the men feel it was their duty to protect the while on tour is very slim. According to the American female sex. Four, the forced working environment Civil Liberties UnionÕs Sara L. Mandelbaum, the could lead to possible dysfunctional relationships average time lost due to pregnancy is actually lower including, but not limited to, incidents of sexual then the average time lost for common male problems harassment. Five, fear of pregnancies that could arise (alcoholism for example).12 According to George from sexual relationships within the unit. Quester in an article for the International Security Group cohesion within combat units is thought journal, women who chose to leave the military to be one of the most important elements in service would not cause any more of a logistical accomplishing military tasks. The disruption of this problem than men who only serve for four years.13 element could mean disaster for the entire unit and According to a report, which focused on the any operation it may be carrying out.8 The lack of Department of DefenseÕs (DoD) policy on women privacy and forced intimacy is thought to disrupt in the military, compiled by the United States cohesion by causing sexual tension, and any number Accounting OfÞce for the Senate, Òabout 15 percent of problems resulting from it. Tension may exist, but it of all positions across the armed forces are closed does not have to detract from the effectiveness of the to women because they (1) are in occupations that unit. primarily engage in direct ground combat, (2) In reference to the lack of privacy during the collocate and operate with direct ground combat Persian , ÒÉ men and women serving side- units, (3) are located on ships where the cost of by-side in the Gulf demonstrated that they were providing appropriate living arrangements is capable of working together as teams; they could be considered prohibitive, or (4) are in units that comrades without ÒfraternizingÓ; they could share engage in special operations missions and long- tents without sharing beds; they could share common range reconnaissance.Ó14 The DODÕs rationale for 116 not including women in such positions is as follows. the combat exclusion state, if women are performing First, there is no need for women in these positions the same job and enduring the same amount of due to the availability of men who can perform danger, they should be able to receive the same the same jobs. Second, there is a lack of public and recognition. A womanÕs ability to receive promotions congressional support for women in ground combat is hindered by her inability to participate in combat positions. Third, the involuntary assignment of roles. There should be only one standard for both women into ground combat units is not supported by men and women. If women are to have equal rights, servicewomen today.15 The PCAWAF helped to shape then they should have the equal responsibility to civic the DoDÕs perception of public opinion on women in duty, including Þghting for their country. Opponents ground combat positions. of the current combat exclusion believe women The PCAWAFÕs report on a 1992 survey stated should have the same chance of being considered that only 12% of enlisted women and 10% of female for a combat position (as long as they meet the same noncommissioned ofÞcers would consider combat qualiÞcations) so that both men and women have the positions16 lead to the assumption that women do same opportunity for promotions. not want to serve in combat capacities. Instead, they All military personal receive basic combat would rather be in a more comfortable desk job over training; however, some women are now being being in the Þeld. This assumption is in not correct allowed training that was once reserved only for according to a study conducted by the RANDÕs men. The counter sniper training is now available National Defense Research Institute. The study to women who are serving as security in protecting found that, Òthe nature of the work involved in the airbases and planes. According to Ben Dolan, Army occupations does not seem to affect the willingness Guard Sgt. First Class, a former Marine sniper and of women to enter it. Neither the hard physical work the chief instructor for the only US military sniper of the engineering occupations nor the austere living school that accepts women, Òwomen can shoot better, conditions of the air support skills appear to deter by and large, and theyÕre easier to train because they women from seeking to work in the jobs. Additionally, donÕt have the inßated egos that a lot of men bring high-technology occupations that operate in relatively to these programs. Women will ask for help if they more comfortable circumstances do not necessarily need it, and they will tell you what they think.Ó He draw women in greater numbers.Ó17 Women choose also believes that women are more mentally suited their line of work for the same reasons men do. Their for being snipers. Women are being trained as counter decision is not necessarily based on the cushiness of snipers due to the rising number of hostile countries the job, but more likely tied to the utilization of their that use women as snipers. 20 The counter sniper abilities. training is typically thought of as combat training; Women today serve in various support and however, these women are not being put in combat supply positions that make it just as likely for them to positions. encounter enemy Þre as combat troops. According to With the current , more women Þnd Lt. Col. Frels, women have been routinely deployed themselves in combat than in any other war to in peace operations since Desert Storm. Peace date. Because the situation in Iraq is considered a operations, sometimes known as police functions, operation, the use of Military Police are not considered to be ÔwarsÕ and have no (MP) to conduct searches and seizures is very lines. However, military personal can become injured, common. Up until the mid-90Õs the combat operations even die, at the hands of insurgents and combat can that the MP took were usually short-lived, they served become necessary. 18 The justiÞcation that allows mainly as a support unit for infantrymen. However, for the assignment of women to peace operations the MPÕs in Iraq are now performing the exact same can be explained by the social theory held by Helen duties that all-male combat units are performing. 21 Hughes, Òthe greater the relative importance of The major difference between the infantrymen and actual war Þghting (especially ground combat), the the MP units is that the MP units tend to have a larger less the participation of women.Ó 19 This explains proportion of women. According to Captain Kellie the militaryÕs willingness to put women in possibly MeCoy, of the Army Airborne division, ÒOur doctrine dangerous positions, as long as the overall action is [on women in combat] was suited for with front considered a peace operation. lines. In Iraq, the front line is everywhere. Once you There are women who meet the physical leave the [base] camp, youÕre on the front line.Ó22 Capt requirements, who are interested in the positions from McCoy received the Bronze Star with combat ÒVÓ for which they are currently excluded, and are already valor in recognition for shooting her way out of an being put in harms way. Proponents for dissolving ambush. These women are already putting their lives

117 on the line every time they perform a routine patrol then they should also have equal civic responsibility. through Iraq. The Iraq war has seen the most service Porter and Adside reveal the beginnings of this women casualties and injuries, with 35 dead and 271 argument to be Òat least as old as the teachings of wounded.23 The woman who are caught in combat, Plato and Aristotle.Ó 27 Prt. Tracie Sanchez, a and Þght with valor, should be able to receive the with four children and machine gunner with the same awards and promotional recognition as their MP stated, ÒIt was my turn to serve the country and male unit members and fellow infantrymen whom protect our children.Ó28 The sentiment she expressed they are supporting. is prevalent with servicewomen currently serving in By ofÞcially prohibiting women from serving Iraq. Most would rather there not be a draft; however, in combat roles, even if they defensively serve in a if women are to be treated equally, they should also combat capacity, they are barred from promotions have the same civic responsibilities as their male in which combat experience is key. According to counterparts. Porter and Adside, who were graduate students Due to the high requirements of some combat from the Naval Post Graduate School, attaining a positions, it is quite understandable to assume that top rank position is very difÞcult without combat only a few women would be able to qualify for those command experience. Various combat positions are positions. According to Lt. Col. Charles King, the the traditional paths into the militaryÕs top leadership limited presence of women in combat positions may positions. 24 This hindrance of promotional status puts lead to the accusation that those positions not being women into a separate category from men; it ensures truly Ògender integrated.Ó He fears this will lead to that women would be unable to serve as chief of , the establishment of a female afÞrmative action that or any other high ranking ofÞcial, even if they are would actively set up quotas for the Services to meet otherwise qualiÞed. in order to create gender integration.29 Currently there are two different standards for the Because the presence of a certain number of physical Þtness test that is given to men and women. women in a unit would be hard to attain, there is The current physical Þtness test makes women appear a justiÞable fear that gender harassment will be over-weight and more unÞt in comparison to the harder and take longer to nullify. However, gender males who have a higher standard to achieve. Having harassment alone would not be a catalyst for a gender two different standards leads people to believe oriented afÞrmative action within the Services. The women are getting a break and are not as capable opponents of the combat exclusion would not push of performing certain jobs. According to Porter for a gender afÞrmative action, because it would and AdsideÕs research, the Army Physical Fitness be contrary to the justiÞcations they use to validate test is often misinterpreted as being an indicator women entering ground combat roles. for determining combat readiness. However, the Whether you are for or against allowing women general physical Þtness tests are not the same as the into ground combat roles, the current occupation in physical Þtness performance standards needed for Iraq is bringing the issue to light once more. Those speciÞc jobs. Lt. Col. Frels even stated that, ÒNone of who are for the combat exclusion state that women the Services have adequately studied or developed as a whole do not meet the physical requirements, job-speciÞc physical performance standards.Ó25 and their placement in otherwise all male combat Proponents of allowing women into more combat units would disrupt unit cohesion, and by allowing positions state that the Army (as well as other women in ground combat positions they would services) should establish physical requirements for become eligible for the draft. Those who are against all combat positions, and any others closed to women the combat exclusion argue that ground combat roles currently. These requirements can be used as a non- are essential to certain promotions, physical standards gender speciÞc guide to employ those who meet the need to be speciÞc to each specialty and they should physical requirements necessary for that military be the same for both men and women, and with equal specialty.26 civic responsibility comes equal civic duty. Women The PCAWAF highlighted an important argument have been allowed positions in various combat against placing women in combat roles, which stated positions; the only restriction that prevents women that if women were allowed into combat roles, there from being completely equal in the military is the would no longer be legal justiÞcation to prevent them ban on women serving in ground combat positions. from being eligible for the draft. For those who do not Should opening up ground combat positions be the want women to be eligible for the draft, this is a sound next step? Is our society willing to do away with argument. However, there are those that believe that if all gender distinctions within the military? Please women are to receive equal rights within civilian life think the issue through, because the answers to these questions may change the military as we know it. 118 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Curl, Joseph and Rowan Scarborough. ÒDespite Quester, George H. ÒWomen in Combat,Ó International pressure, Bush vows Ôno women in combat,ÕÕ Security 1, no. 4 (1977): 80-91. The Washington Times, January 12, 2005, sec. A01. Sisk, Richard. ÒThe women of war: In Iraq, death knows no frontline, not gender,Ó Daily Frels, Mary C. ÒWomen : Oxymoron or News Washington Bureau. December 14, Reality.Ó Strategy Research Project, U.S. 2004. Army War College, 1999. U.S. Department Of Air Force Agency Group 09, First General Accounting OfÞce National Security and Women Graduates From Sniper International Affairs Division. Gender Issues: School, April 17, 2001. FDCH Regulatory Information on DODÕs Assignment Policy and Intelligence Database, April 17, 2001. Direct Ground Combat DeÞnition, October 1998. Washington, DC: U.S. GPO, 1998. Worth, Richard. ÒDo Women have what it takes?Ó Women in Combat: The Battle for Equality,Ó Harrell, Margaret C., Megan K. Beckett, Chiaying Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, Sandy Chien, and Jerry M. Sollinger, The 1999. Status of Gender Integration in the Military: Analysis of Selected Occupations. Rand, 2002. http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/ FOOTNOTES MR1380/ 1 Rowan Scarborough and Joseph Curl. ÒDespite Holm, Jeanne. Women in the Military: an UnÞnished pressure, Bush vows Ôno women in combat,Ó Revolution, Novato, CA: Presido Press, 1992. The Washington Times, January 12, 2005, sec. A 01. Hughes, Helen MacGill. ÒWomenÕs Military Roles Cross nationally: Past Present and FutureÓ 2 Mary C. Frels, ÒWomen Warriors: Oxymoron or Gender and Society Vol. 9 No. 6 (1995): 757-775. Reality.Ó (Strategy Research Project, U.S. Army War College, 1999), 5. King, Charles. ÒThe Trivialization of Gender and Its Impact on ,Ó Strategy 3 Helen MacGill Hughes, ÒWomenÕs Military Roles Research Project, U.S Army War College, 2000. Cross nationally: Past Present and FutureÓ Gender and Society 9, no. 6 (1995): 761. Loeb, Vernon. ÒTeresa Broadwell Found Herself in the ArmyÑUnder Fire, in IraqÓ Washington Post, 4 Frels, ÒWomen Warriors,Ó 7. November 23, 2003, sec. D01. 5 Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Miller, Laura L. ÒNot Just of the Weak: Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the Gender Harassment as a Form of Protest President, November 15, 1992 (DC: U.S. for Army MenÓ Sociology Quarterly 60, no.1 Government Printing OfÞce 1992), 27. (1997): 32-51. 6 Ibid., 24. Moniz, Dave. ÒMore women bear wounds of war,Ó Honolulu Advertiser, May 1, 2005, sec A 7 Richard Worth, Women in Combat: The Battle for 21-2. Equality, (Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1999), 68. Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the 8 Presidential Commission on the Assignment of President, November 15, 1992. Washington Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the DC: U.S. GPO, 1992. President, 25.

Porter, Laurie M. and Rick V. Aside. ÒWomen in 9 Jeanne Holm, Women in the Military: an UnÞnished Combat: Attitudes, and Experiences Revolution, (Novato, CA: Presido Press, 1992), of US ,Ó MA Thesis, Naval 463. Post Graduate School, 2001.

119 10 Laura L. Miller. ÒNot Just Weapons of the Weak: 20 U.S. Department Of Air Force Agency Group 09, Gender Harassment as a Form of Protest First Women Graduates From Sniper School, for Army MenÓ Sociology Quarterly 60, no.1 April 17, 2001 (FDCH Regulatory Intelligence (1997): 37-38. Database, April 17, 2001).

11 Ibid., 39 21 Vernon Loeb, ÒTeresa Broadwell Found Herself in the ArmyÑUnder Fire, in Iraq,Ó Washington 12 Worth, ÒDo Women have what it takes?Ó 59. Post, November 23, 2003, sec. D01.

13 George H. Quester, ÒWomen in Combat,Ó 22 Richard Sisk, ÒThe women of war: In Iraq, death International Security 1, no. 4 (1977): 89. knows no frontline, not gender,Ó Daily News Washington Bureau. December 14, 2004. 14 General Accounting OfÞce National Security and International Affairs Division. Gender Issues: 23 Dave Moniz, ÒMore women bear wounds of war,Ó Information on DODÕs Assignment Policy and Honolulu Advertiser, May 1, 2005,sec. A 21. Direct Ground Combat DeÞnition, October 1998 (Washington DC, 1998), 16. 24Laurie M. Porter and Rick V. Adside, ÒWomen in Combat: Attitudes, and Experiences of US 15 Ibid., 4. military Personnel,Ó (Thesis, Naval Post Graduate School, 2001), 19. 16 Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces, Report to the 25 Frels, ÒWomen Warriors,Ó 28. President, 24. 26 Porter and Adside, ÒWomen in Combat,Ó 17. 17Margaret C. Harrell, and others, The Status of Gender 27 Ibid., 17. Integration in the Military: Analysis of Selected Occupations. Rand 2002. http://www.rand. 28 Vernon Loeb, ÒTeresa BroadwellÓ, D01. org/publications/MR/MR1380, xix. 29 Charles King, ÒThe Trivialization of Gender and Its 18 Frels, ÒWomen Warriors,Ó 9-10. Impact on Combat Effectiveness,Ó (Strategy Research Project, U.S Army War College, 19 Hughes, ÒWomenÕs Military Roles Cross nationally,Ó 2000), 11. 762.

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