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The Gender Power Structure of the U.S. Military: a Feminist Institutionalism Analysis

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The Gender Power Structure of the U.S. Military: a Feminist Institutionalism Analysis The Gender Power Structure of the U.S. Military: A Feminist Institutionalism Analysis Nicole Brunner PhD University of York Politics October 2013 Abstract This thesis provides a feminist institutionalism analysis of the gendered power structure of the U.S. military. It argues that femininity is placed in a disadvantaged position to masculinity in the U.S. Armed Forces, even as formal policies evolve and move the U.S. military toward formal gender equality. This thesis utilises aspects of new institutionalism theory to analyse how institutional change has occurred in respect to the gender power structure. It explicates processes of change that have occurred in the U.S. military and highlights the role of both agency and structure in the evolution of the institution. It also explores what factors of the institution continue to discriminate against women in order to explain why more change has not yet occurred, as of 2013. In order to evaluate the above issues, this thesis draws on data from interview and survey respondents to explicate their experiences in order to provide a clear picture of the masculine-oriented informal norms of the U.S. military institution. It also provides a case study of sexual assault in the military to evaluate the tension between stagnant informal norms and advancing formal policies. This thesis argues that the disadvantaged status of women in the U.S. military can be explained by evaluating the past formal policies and informal norms and values of the U.S. Armed Forces. 2 Table of Contents Abstract....................................................................................................................................................... 2 List of Figures............................................................................................................................................. 6 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................... 7 Author’s Declaration .................................................................................................................................. 8 Chapter One: Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 9 1.1 The Research Project......................................................................................................................... 9 (i) The Central Issue ............................................................................................................................. 9 (ii) Background of Discrimination ..................................................................................................... 11 Figure 1.1: Percentages of Female Flag Officers.......................................................................... 11 (iii) The Main Propositions ................................................................................................................ 13 1.2 Situating the Thesis in the Literature............................................................................................... 17 (i) Organisational Theory ................................................................................................................... 18 (ii) The Construction of Gender ......................................................................................................... 20 (iii) Gender and the Military............................................................................................................... 21 (iv) Feminist Perspectives of Women in the Military ........................................................................ 23 (v) U.S. Military Strategic Culture and American Militarism............................................................ 28 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 32 Chapter Two: Methodology Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 34 2.1 Theoretical Framework.................................................................................................................... 38 (i) Historical and Sociological Institutionalism.................................................................................. 39 (ii) New Institutionalism Theory of Gradual Change......................................................................... 41 Figure 2.1 Contextual and Institutional Sources of Institutional Change ..................................... 42 (iii) Exploring Obstacles to Change ................................................................................................... 46 2.2 Research Approaches ...................................................................................................................... 48 (i) Power Relations ............................................................................................................................. 52 (ii) Positioning .................................................................................................................................... 56 (iii) Research Process ......................................................................................................................... 60 (iv) Interpreting the Data .................................................................................................................... 62 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................. 64 Chapter Three: Historical Overview Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 67 3.1 Women in the First World War ....................................................................................................... 68 3.2 World War II ................................................................................................................................... 70 (i) Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps Legislation................................................................................ 70 (ii) Concerns and Double Standards................................................................................................... 74 (iii) WAC Legislation......................................................................................................................... 75 3.3 Policy Changes After the Two World Wars.................................................................................... 76 (i) Armed Forces Integration Act of 1948.......................................................................................... 76 (ii) Discriminatory Policies of the Armed Forces Integration Act ..................................................... 78 3.4 The Civil Rights Act Era ................................................................................................................. 80 (i) Legal Battles for Military Mother’s Rights ................................................................................... 81 (ii) Women’s Rights for Equal Benefits............................................................................................. 85 (iii) Changes in Higher Education Laws ............................................................................................ 86 3 (iv) Opposition to Women’s Equality Laws....................................................................................... 88 (v) DoD Policy Changes..................................................................................................................... 89 3.5 The U.S. Invasion of Panama and Military Combat Policy ............................................................ 91 (i) First Woman Commander in Battle............................................................................................... 91 3.6 The Gulf War and the Further Integration of Women..................................................................... 93 (i) Women’s Service in the Gulf War................................................................................................. 93 (ii) The DoD Ground Combat Rule.................................................................................................... 95 3.7 Female Soldiers’ Roles in the 2000s ............................................................................................... 97 (i) Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan ........................................................................................................ 97 (ii) Combat Policy .............................................................................................................................. 99 (iii) Don’t Ask Don’t Tell................................................................................................................. 101 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................... 102 Chapter Four: Militarisation and Gender Roles Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 105 4.1 Militarism and U.S. Society .......................................................................................................... 106
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