DOCSLIB.ORG

Saeed Bagheri

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Saeed Bagheri EEdinburghCI Centre for InternationalG and GlobalL Law Gender Inequality and Women in Decision-making in Post- war Societies: Lessons from the Iraqi Kurdistan Saeed Bagheri Edinburgh Centre for International and Global Law Working Paper Series Gender Inequality and Women in Decision-Making in Post-war Societies: Lessons from the Iraqi Kurdistan Saeed Bagheri* ABSTRACT During the war with Islamic State in northern Iraq (2014-17), a notable number of the Kurdish women joined the Peshmerga (Iraqi-Kurdish fighters), the military forces of the Kurdish Regional Government (KRG) in an effort to prevent Islamic State advance into the oil-rich city of Kirkuk in northern Iraq. Beside causing ample international resonance, the presence of women fighters was publicized by the KRG as a sign of modernity and gender equality. However, once the war ended, in the peace negotiations between the KRG and the Iraqi government, the role of the Kurdish women was drastically resized. By looking at the events that took place in Kirkuk before and after Islamic State and the diplomatic follow-up, this study examines the role of the Kurdish women in a war to peace transition, focusing more specifically on the peace negotiations process to ensure that their effective and equal participation in decision-making is respected. Against the backdrop of the clash over the energy-rich city of Kirkuk and a complex power-sharing process in post-war Iraq, this paper provides an insight into respect for international human rights principles, management of gender equality, and the role of women in the creation of a new constitutional order. KEYWORDS: Islamic State, Kurdish Regional Government (KRG), Iraq, gender equality, peace-building. *** 1. INTRODUCTION This study looks into the role of the Kurdish women in the war to peace transition in Iraq after the fall of Islamic State. It focuses on the Iraqi Kurdish women’s role in peace-building processes rather than the Iraqi women’s role because of their active participation on the front lines of the war with Islamic State and their active role in the liberation of Kirkuk. More importantly, the study draws its inspiration from the provisions on gender equality and fundamental rights of women in the Draft Constitution of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region.1 The aim of this study is to evaluate the extent to which the Kurdish women’s voices have been heard not only as fighters but also as social and political participants in the peace-building processes in the post-Islamic State Iraq within the context of the social and political structure mainly shaped by men. By considering the long-term tensions between the Iraqi central government and the Iraqi Kurds over Kirkuk, therefore, the study seeks to identify the role of women in the KRG’s policies towards Kirkuk during the KRG’s military resistance against Islamic State in northern * Max Weber Post-Doctoral Fellow in the Law Department of the European University Institute (EUI), Florence, Italy [[email protected]]. 1 Draft Constitution of Kurdistan Region (Approved by Kurdistan Parliament – Iraq on the 24th of June 2009), available at https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s69g8g0z [last accessed 15 May 2019]. 1 Iraq. Concerning the image of women in the Peshmerga forces2 which was broadly used to construct a positive international picture of unity between Baghdad and the KRG and equality arguments in the war against Islamic State, the main question in the peace-building process which still remains is: where do Kurdish women stand, and do they accumulate power and position in decision-making structures involved in the post-Islamic State Iraq as a reflection of gender equality and human rights in the Iraqi and Kurdish legal system. Section 2 provides a general overview of the Iraqi Kurds unpredicted military resistance against Islamic State in Kirkuk. It focuses on the divisions and conflicts in Iraqi society after the war with Islamic State due to the mismanagement of the energy resources. More crucially, it demonstrates how the Kurdish women have been included in the KRG’s policies in the Islamic State era. In Section 2, the power-sharing and decision-making process in the post-Islamic State Iraq is evaluated from an international law perspective. This section examines the role of women in the decision-making process in post-war societies. Within this particular context, section 3 examines the role of the Kurdish women in the national reconciliation of the post-Islamic State Iraq which is considered in the context of the KRG’s legal and political system. The participation of the Kurdish women in the fight against Islamic State as a reflection of the changing nature of conflicts has made a distinct image of women in the KRG. Given the image- making of the Kurdish women in the KRG, their predicted role in the regional legislation is examined as a requirement of the decision-making process. 2. THE IRAQI KURDS VS. ISLAMIC STATE Before exploring the extent of the Kurdish women’s role in decision-making on war to peace transition in the post-Islamic State Iraq, it is worth commenting on their active role as fighters in the war with Islamic State within the Iraqi borders. This section explores the KRG’s military resistance against Islamic State in Kirkuk and the role of women in the KRG’s policies in the Islamic State era. A. The KRG’s Military Resistance against Islamic State in Kirkuk This section examines the war with Islamic State in Iraq, the confrontation between Islamic State and Peshmerga in Kirkuk, and the short-term conflicts between the Kurds and the Iraqi government after defeating Islamic State in northern Iraq, triggered by aspirations to control energy resources. Focusing on the long-term disagreements between the Kurds and the Iraqi government and the increasing disputes over the oil-rich city of Kirkuk after the fall of Islamic State, the KRG’s military resistance against Islamic State as an advantage to the Kurds are discussed. 2 According to Article 117 of the Iraqi Constitution, the only legal militia in the Iraqi system are the Iraqi armed forces and security services. Therefore, militias outside the framework of the armed forces are prohibited, but Regions such as the Iraqi Kurdistan are permitted to raise regional security forces and guards. Within this particular context, the KRG established Peshmerga as its militia. However, the Peshmerga’s status (as a part of the Iraqi defense system or a separate regional security force) is still a matter of controversy between the Iraqis and Kurds. See Crispin Smith, “Independent Without Independence: The Iraqi Kurdish Peshmerga in International Law”, Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 59(1) (2018), p. 254. See also Dennis P. Chapman, Security Forces of the Kurdistan Regional Government (California: Mazda Publishers, 2009). 2 The military resistance of the KRG against an offensive launched by Islamic State to take control of Kirkuk in 2014 created the ground for the KRG to seize Kirkuk for two years. The strategic advantages of the war with Islamic State for the Iraqi Kurds are addressed here as the major reason for triggering the tension between Baghdad and the KRG. Based on this, the Iraqi Security Forces’ assault against the Kurdish Peshmerga position is evaluated. Historically, the Kurdish ethnic strife against the central government of Iraq since the early 1960s formed the basis for the de facto civil wars between the two sides. During the US-led invasion of Iraq, Kurdish nationalists who were viewing Saddam Hussein’s administration as the major cause of the crushing the Kurds and an obstacle to their political, economic, social and cultural aspirations, enthusiastically supported the Iraqi freedom operation. The fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003 and the ratification of the new Iraqi Constitution in 2005 constituted the major milestones in Kurdish aspirations for their political objectives including the creation of an independent Kurdish state since the new Constitution recognized an autonomous Kurdistan region and KRG in northern Iraq. However, the political position of the KRG was gradually undermined by Iraq’s central government. Following the decision of the central government to off federal budget transfers to the KRG in 2015, a large segment of disappointed Kurdish people gradually lost trust in the KRG and the Iraqi central government and therefore was resentful of having to make sacrifices for a Kurdish nationalism anymore. The consensus view on the federal government’s exclusive power over foreign relations argues that even when governments have a considerable separation of powers for domestic purposes, it is common for the control of foreign relations, including signing energy deals with other countries, to be centralized in a single authority.3 Nevertheless, the KRG leadership has regularly complained about the centralized decision-making about the energy sector and its revenues. In other words, centralizing power entirely in the federal government was a trigger for rising disagreements and tensions between the KRG and Baghdad after the fall of Islamic State. Considering that States are continually undergoing a process of centralization or decentralization, it should be noted that if centralization of government is at odds with the integration or dissolution of the society, culture and economy, the process could lead to civil war, autonomy and secession.4 For this very reason, the Iraqi government’s efforts to centralize power and decision-making in Baghdad formed a basis for the Iraqi Kurd aspiration to create a Kurdish State. While decentralizing power to regional and local governments would balance the competing demands for democracy and unity through assigning specific authorities to the federal government in Iraq.5 The only certain point here is that the economic relationship between the KRG and Baghdad derived from mismanagement, uneven sharing, poor or lack of transparency in production and export records of the energy resources6 and therefore, denying the KRG proceeds from the energy revenues by the Iraqi government and causing the strategic mistrust between them.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Integration of Women in the US Military”, Études De L’IRSEM N°43
    THE INTEGRATION OF WOMEN IN THE U.S. MILITARY Lieutenant Colonel Arnaud Planiol Researcher, Defence and Society April 2016 To quote this paper Lieutenant Colonel Planiol A., April 2016, "The integration of women in the US military”, Études de l’IRSEM n°43. Legal deposit ISSN : 2268-3194 ISBN : 978-2-11-15-1006-7 THE INTEGRATION OF WOMEN IN THE U.S. MILITARY RECENTLY PUBLISHED 42- L’homme augmenté, réflexions sociologiques pour le militaire Agnès COLIN (dir.) 41- Defending Europe? A stocktaking of French and German visions for European defense Barbara KUNZ 40- Stratégies de mise en place des soft powers européen et russe en Moldavie après la Guerre froide Michael E. LAMBERT 39- Parlements et légitimité démocratique de la Politique de sécurité et de défense commune Général de division (2S) Maurice de LANGLOIS, Sara CANTO 38- Quelles stratégies face aux mutations de l’économie de défense mondiale ? Aude-Emmanuelle FLEURANT (dir.) 37- Les sanctions contre la Russie ont-elles un effet dissuasif ? Céline MARANGÉ 36- La stratégie américaine en Afrique Maya KANDEL (dir.) 35- Approche globale et Union européenne : le cas de la corne de l’Afrique Général de division (2S) Maurice de LANGLOIS (dir.) 34- Opinion publique et armées à l’épreuve de la guerre en Afghanistan Barbara JANKOWSKI 33- La puissance russe au Moyen-Orient : Retour ou déclin inéluctable ? Clément THERME 32- Les stratégies du smart power américain : Redéfinir le leadership dans un monde post-américain Maya KANDEL et Maud QUESSARD-SALVAING (dir.) 31- L’action extérieure de l’Europe à l’épreuve de l’Égypte et de la Corne de l’Afrique Chantal LAVALLEE 30- Accès aux espaces communs et grandes stratégies : vers un nouveau jeu mondial Frédéric RAMEL 3 THE INTEGRATION OF WOMEN IN THE U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services Articles of Interest 15 February 2019
    Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services Articles of Interest 15 February 2019 DACOWITS NEWS DACOWITS member, Dr. Jackie Young, passed away unexpectedly on Sunday after suffering from a stroke. Dr. Young served two 4-year tenures on DACOWITS (1993-1997 and 2015-2019). In December 2018, she was presented the Office of the Secretary of Defense Exceptional Public Service Award for her second term as a DACOWITS member. 1. Former state lawmaker was influential feminist, advocate for Native Hawaiians (13 Feb) Hawaii News, By HNN Staff Former state lawmaker Jackie Young, an influential feminist in Hawaii, died on Sunday. She was 84 years old. Young, an advocate of civil rights, was elected to the state House in 1992 and represented Kailua to Waimanalo. 2. Former Hawaii lawmaker Jackie Young dies at 84 (13 Feb) Star Advertiser, By Kevin Dayton State Sen. Rosalyn Baker, a longtime Maui lawmaker, a member of the Women's Legislative Caucus with Young, said "She was an amazing woman. She was one of the early feminists, and I really think of her as a trailblazer. She was just an incredible role model of a can-do person who works collaboratively with others and stood up for women." RECRUITMENT & RETENTION 3. Senior leaders gather to honor the Army’s top recruiters in a Pentagon ceremony (5 Feb) Army Times, By Meghann Myers The recruiters who brought in the most prospective soldiers over the last three months of 2018 earned a trip to Washington, D.C., and some face time with many of the service’s top officials, including a Monday ceremony in the Pentagon’s Hall of Heroes.
    [Show full text]
  • A Closer Look at Challenges Faced by Women in the Military
    10 Journal Student Research A Closer Look at Challenges Faced by Women in the Military Valerie A. Fly1 Sophomore, Applied Social Science: Economics Abstract Research surrounding female service members in the United States military has shown differences in the effect of the military on male and female mental health. However, the reasons for these differences, as well as higher rates of physical injury for women, have yet to be determined. The purpose of this study is to record the challenges faced by women in the United States military, as they themselves perceive them. Qualitative interview data is used to determine whether such challenges differ from those that male service members face, and what might cause any differentiation. Results show that gender discrimination is most commonly a result of the inherent differences in physical capacity for men and women. Mental distress discussed by participants is commonly caused by a fear of such discrimination integrated in the military culture over time. Therefore, perceptions of physical differences correlate with the differences in military experience for males and females. Keywords: women, military, servicewomen, challenges, discrimination A Closer Look at Challenges Faced by Women in the Military Gender roles and differences are highly debated in American culture. A particularly controversial discussion is gender in the military. Prior to a decision made by Defense Secretary Ashton Carter in December of 2015, females were not allowed to occupy combat positions in the military. The decision was finalized in March 2016 that these jobs would become available to women in all branches (Howell, 2016). Despite changes such as this, however, conflict over gender is not confined to the past.
    [Show full text]
  • GAO-20-61, FEMALE ACTIVE-DUTY PERSONNEL: Guidance and Plans
    United States Government Accountability Office Report to Congressional Committees May 2020 FEMALE ACTIVE- DUTY PERSONNEL Guidance and Plans Needed for Recruitment and Retention Efforts GAO-20-61 May 2020 FEMALE ACTIVE-DUTY PERSONNEL Guidance and Plans Needed for Recruitment and Retention Efforts Highlights of GAO-20-61, a report to congressional committees Why GAO Did This Study What GAO Found The role of female servicemembers in The Department of Defense (DOD) experienced slight increases in the overall the military has expanded in the last half percentage of female active-duty servicemembers from fiscal year 2004 through century as restrictions on female 2018 (15.1 percent in fiscal year 2004 to 16.5 percent in fiscal year 2018), with servicemembers serving on active duty, those percentages varying by pay grade category (see figure). During that including in combat, have been period, female enlisted and commissioned officers had higher annual attrition eliminated. DOD has also stated that rates than corresponding males. However, the gaps between male and female recruiting and retaining women is attrition rates have narrowed. For example, in fiscal years 2004 and 2018, female important in order to reflect the nation’s enlisted servicemembers’ annual attrition rates were 33.1 and 8.6 percent, population and ensure strong military respectively, and enlisted males’ annual attrition rates were 22.7 and 6.1 percent leadership. respectively. GAO’s statistical model found that the likelihood of separation for House Report 115-676 includes a female servicemembers is 28 percent higher than that of males. GAO’s literature provision that GAO review female review of selected studies on reasons why females separate from the military retention and promotion in the military.
    [Show full text]
  • Women in Combat: Issues for Congress
    Women in Combat: Issues for Congress Kristy N. Kamarck Analyst in Military Manpower September 1, 2015 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov R42075 Women in Combat: Issues for Congress Summary Over the past two decades of conflict, women have served with valor and continue to serve on combat aircraft, naval vessels, and in support of ground combat operations. The expansion of roles for women in the armed forces has evolved since the early days of the military when women were restricted by law and policy from serving in certain occupations and units. Women are not precluded by law from serving in any military unit or occupational specialty. However, a 1994 Department of Defense (DOD) policy prevented women from being assigned to units below brigade level where the unit’s primary mission was to engage directly in ground combat. This policy barred women from serving in infantry, artillery, armor, combat engineers, and special operations units of battalion size or smaller. On January 24, 2013, then-Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta rescinded the rule that restricted women from serving in combat units and directed the military departments to review their occupational standards and assignment policies for implementation no later than January 1, 2016. This recent policy change followed extensive reviews by various commissions and others on issues regarding women in the military and policies for their assignment and career progression. For example, the Duncan Hunter National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2009 (P.L. 110-417) established the Military Leadership Diversity Commission whose mandate was to conduct a study and report on the “establishment and maintenance of fair promotion and command opportunities for ethnic- and gender-specific members of the Armed Forces.” Among its recommendations, the commission stated that DOD should take deliberate steps to open additional career fields and units involved in direct ground combat to women.
    [Show full text]
  • INSIGHTS from the Women in Combat Symposium
    HARING U.S. Marine Corps (Andrew J. Good) U.S. Marine Corps (Andrew Marine prepares to depart on security patrol, Helmand Province INSIGHTS FROM THE Women in Combat Symposium By ELLEN L. HARING hen the U.S. Army Sergeant Bringloe rescued 11 soldiers despite invaded Iraq in 2003, suffering from a fractured tibia sustained Specialist Williams had a during the third rescue of the 11 evacuations. W skill set that was desper- At a recent event in Washington, DC, ately needed: Arab linguist. In 2009, Major Specialist Williams described translating Hegar’s skills as a medical evacuation pilot during combat foot patrols in Iraq without were in high demand. And in 2011, combat the benefit of Small Arms Protective Insert medics Olson and Bringloe spent days on plates in her vest because women were not foot patrols or dropping into hot spots in expected to be in combat, and Major Hegar Afghanistan rescuing wounded soldiers. In calmly described being shot down by insur- a particularly demanding 40-hour period, gents and the ground fight that ensued before Colonel Ellen L. Haring, USA, is a Reserve Civil Affairs Officer at the U.S. Army War College. ndupress.ndu.edu issue 70, 3 rd quarter 2013 / JFQ 55 COMMENTARY | Women in Combat Symposium a rescue team arrived to extract the Medevac from Canada and Norway. The third panel deployed in current operations is likely to end team. All these Servicemembers share a included men and women who studied the up in combat and must be trained and ready common trait. All are women and all hold combat exclusion policy and had important for that possibility.
    [Show full text]
  • Women's Role in Combat: Is Ground Combat the Next Front?
    ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; could become ofÞcers. The highest ofÞcer position WomenÕs Role in a woman could hold was that of the director of the womenÕs division of her particular service. This Combat: position would be temporary, lasting only four years. After her term was up, she would be either demoted, Is Ground Combat the or forced to retire. Women were banned from serving on combat ships and planes. Though it was not Next Front? speciÞcally stated within the law, legislators intended to ban women from being placed near ground combat zones as well. Separate divisions (WAC, WAVES, and Sylvia Wan WAF) were also created to manage the female recruits. The restrictions created by this law might have Women in the United States have not been integrated women into the military, but women were traditionally thought of as combat soldiers. However, also placed within a separate class, without the same they have recently been allowed to serve in more opportunities as their male counterparts. combat positions than in any other time in our Most of these restrictions might sound absurd nationÕs history. The only restriction that prevents now, but they were the reality for women up until women from being equal in the military is the ban on the mid-seventies. In 1978, the separate womenÕs women serving in ground combat positions. Is putting divisions of the services were abolished. The end of women in ground combat units merely the next these divisions signiÞed a higher level of equality step? When asked about women in ground combat, for women in the services. By this time, the only President Bush summed up his policy in four words restriction left from Public Law 80-625 was the 1 ÒNo women in combat.Ó President BushÕs stand is restriction barring women from serving on combat adamant against women serving in any combat role, ships and planes, as well as the unstated ban from especially ground combat positions.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services
    DEFENSE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON WOMEN IN THE SERVICES (DACOWITS) Quarterly Meeting Minutes 3March 2020 The Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services (DACOWITS) held a quarterly business meeting December 3, 2020. The meeting took place at the Double Tree by Hilton Washington DC – Crystal City, 300 Army Navy Drive, Arlington, VA 22202. 3 March 2020 Opening Remarks Colonel Elaine Freeman, DACOWITS Military Director and Designated Federal Officer, opened the March quarterly business meeting by reviewing the Committee’s establishment and charter. COL Freeman reminded those in attendance any comments made during the meeting by Committee members are their personal opinions and do not reflect a DACOWITS or DoD position. COL Freeman then turned the meeting over to General (Retired) Janet Wolfenbarger, DACOWITS Chair. Award Ceremony An award ceremony was held to honor the service of departing Committee member Colonel (Ret.) John Boggs, USMC. Gen (Ret.) Wolfenbarger offered words of recognition and thanks to Col (Ret.) Boggs. Gen (Ret.) Wolfenbarger closed by inviting Col (Ret.) Boggs to share departing remarks. Welcome Gen (Ret.) Wolfenbarger welcomed everyone to the meeting and discussed the significance of hosting the quarterly business meeting during March, which is also Women’s History Month. The 2020 Women’s History Month theme is “Valiant Women of the Vote.” Gen (Ret.) Wolfenbarger described how in 1901, the Army Nurse Corps was established, followed by the Navy Nurse Corps in 1908. During World War I, more than 21,000 nurses served in military hospitals in the United States and overseas. More than 400 military nurses died in the line of duty during World War I.
    [Show full text]
  • Recruiting Policies and Practices for Women in the Military Views from the Field
    C O R P O R A T I O N Recruiting Policies and Practices for Women in the Military Views from the Field Douglas Yeung, Christina E. Steiner, Chaitra M. Hardison, Lawrence M. Hanser, Kristy N. Kamarck For more information on this publication, visit www.rand.org/t/RR1538 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available for this publication. ISBN: 978-0-8330-9807-8 Published by the RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif. © Copyright 2017 RAND Corporation R® is a registered trademark. Limited Print and Electronic Distribution Rights This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law. This representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for noncommercial use only. Unauthorized posting of this publication online is prohibited. Permission is given to duplicate this document for personal use only, as long as it is unaltered and complete. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of its research documents for commercial use. For information on reprint and linking permissions, please visit www.rand.org/pubs/permissions. The RAND Corporation is a research organization that develops solutions to public policy challenges to help make communities throughout the world safer and more secure, healthier and more prosperous. RAND is nonprofit, nonpartisan, and committed to the public interest. RAND’s publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors. Support RAND Make a tax-deductible charitable contribution at www.rand.org/giving/contribute www.rand.org Preface On January 24, 2013, then–Defense Secretary Leon E. Panetta announced an end to the ban on women in combat.
    [Show full text]
  • Stress, Role Strain, and Health in Young Enlisted Air Force
    STRESS, ROLE STRAIN, AND HEALTH IN YOUNG ENLISTED AIR FORCE WOMEN WITH AND WITHOUT PRESCHOOL CHILDREN DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Denise L. Hopkins-Chadwick, MN, RN The Ohio State University 2005 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Nancy Ryan-Wenger, Advisor Dr. Victoria von Sadovszky ______________________ Dr. Kristi Williams Advisor Nursing Graduate Program ABSTRACT Currently women comprise 15% of the United States military force and 20% of newly recruited enlisted personnel. Statistics show there are gender differences in attrition. Women are at greatest risk to prematurely leave the service. Women leave most frequently due to pregnancy, medical problems, misconduct, performance shortfalls, or parenthood. Military women report that the stress of being in the military is highest among married women with no spouse present, younger enlisted women, and women of least education. Civilian working women report that stress is the highest during the years of having preschool aged children. This suggests that military women's stress may be related both to work and family roles, as well as from being women in the military. Work and family role strain can manifest as stress related symptoms. So, by negatively influencing the health of the individual, the net effect of stress related symptoms and role strain may be to decrease the overall mission readiness of the organization through decreased individual performance and increased attrition. Unfortunately, little is known about the effect of early motherhood on an enlisted career in terms of individual health and organizational mission readiness.
    [Show full text]
  • Women Veterans: Past, Present and Future Revised and Updated
    Women Veterans: Past, Present and Future Revised and Updated September 2007 Office of Policy and Planning Women Veterans: Past, Present, and Future Revised and Updated September 2007 Women are a vital part of the armed forces and the community of veterans. The study of women veterans begins with the history of women in the military and the changing role of women in the military. Women in the Military: A Historical Perspective in Brief Women have served valiantly in America’s wars and conflicts throughout our history. And although women were not formally under military command until the early part of the 20th century, they have served in various capacities, beginning with America’s War of Independence. During the American Revolution, it was not uncommon for wives, mothers, and daughters to follow their male loved ones into battle. While they tended to their men, they were often given rations in exchange for service to the troops, mostly tending to the wounded and serving as cooks, seamstresses, and launderers. Some women distinguished themselves on the battlefield for the Continental Army. For example, Margaret Corbin and Mary McCauley, who was a heroine in the Battle of Monmouth in 1778 and thought to be the model for the legendary Molly Pitcher, fought in the Battle of Fort Washington in 1776 (Holm, pp.3-4). Later during the Civil War, at least 400 women on both sides of the conflict disguised themselves as men and assumed combat roles alongside men. Women in surprisingly large numbers served in other unconventional roles as well, acting as spies, saboteurs, and couriers as well as taking an active part in the execution of the war.
    [Show full text]
  • 10Th Edition | 2019 Table of Contents Foreword
    10th Edition | 2019 Table of Contents Foreword . 1 Background . 1 Historical Background . 3 Chronology of Legal and Policy Changes . 5 Women on Active Duty . 17 Women in the Reserves and National Guard Components . 17 Minority Women . 17 Ground Combat Integration Progress . 18 Women Officers . 19 Enlisted Women . 19 Women Veterans . 20 Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Chronology . 20 Bibliography . 30 Tables 1 Women Who Served in Selected U.S. Military and Peacekeeping Actions 1917 – 2018 ..........................35 2 Active Duty Service Personnel by Branch of Service, Officer/Enlisted Status and Sex ................................36 3 Active Duty Service Women by Branch of Service, Enlisted/Officer Status, Race, and Latina Origin ...................37 4 Woman as a Percentage of All Active Duty Officers, as a percentage of Flag/General Officers, and as a Percentage of Colonels and Navy/USCG Captains .................38 5 Women as a Percentage of All Active Duty Enlisted Personnel and as a Percentage of Senior Enlisted Personnel ..................39 6 Guard and Reserve Component Personnel by Component, Officer/Enlisted Status, and Sex ................................40 7 Guard and Reserve Service Women by Branch, Enlisted/Officer, and Race/Ethnicity .............................41 8 Veterans by Sex, Age, Race, and Ethnicity ........................42 Figures 1 Active-Duty Servicewomen in the DoD Services by Officer/Enlisted Status 1984-2018 ........................... 43 2 American Veterans by Sex (in Millions) 1986, 1992, 2004, 2007, 2011, 2017 ............................ 44 ON THE COVER: U.S. Air Force graphic by Corey Parrish Foreword The tenth edition of Women in the Military: Where They Stand represents both change and continuity. The first eight editions were published by the Women’s Research & Education Institute (WREI) between 1991 and 2013.
    [Show full text]