Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Background report
unenvironment.org/assembly © United Nations Environment Programme, 2017 Published in September 2017
ISBN No: 978-92-807-3669-4 Job No: DTI/2130/PA
This document provides background information to the report of the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme to the 3rd session of the United Nations Environment Assembly “Towards a Pollution-Free Planet”.
This report has benefited from the oversight of the following individuals in UN Environment: Erik Solheim, Executive Director; Ibrahim Thiaw, Deputy Executive Director; Elliott Harris, Director, New York Office; Ligia Noronha, Director, Economy Division; Jacqueline McGlade, Director, Science Division; Mette Wilkie, Director, Ecosystems Division; Elizabeth Mrema, Director, Law Division; Jian Liu, Chief Scientist; Michele Candotti, Director, Policy and Strategy Division; Naysán Sahba, Director, Communication Division; Jorge Laguna-Celis, Secretary, Governance Affairs Office; Iyad Abumoghli, Director, West Asia Office; Juliette Biao, Director, Africa Office; Jan Dusik, Director, Europe Office; Leo Heileman, Director, Latin America and the Caribbean Office; Fatou Ndoye, Director a.i., North America Office; Dechen Tsering, Director, Asia and the Pacific Office.
Coordinating team: Ligia Noronha, Jacqueline McGlade, Tessa Goverse, Fanny Demassieux
Contributors: UN Environment: Ines Abdelrazek, Joana Akrofi, Keith Alverson, Wondwosen Asnake, Jacqueline Alvarez, Sandra Averous, Butch Bacani, Sylvia Bankobeza, Sam Barratt, Juan Bello, Patricia Beneke, Elisabeth Bernhardt, Matthew Billot, Ulf Bjornholm, Pierre Boileau, Oli Brown, Jillian Campbell, Garrette Clark, Tim Christophersen, Ludgarde Coppens, Stuart Crane, Christopher Cox, Nicolien Delange, Angeline Djampou, Jacob Duer, Habib El-Habr, Hilary French, Valentin Foltescu, Francesco Gaetani, Curt Garrigan, Dany Ghafary, Silvia Giada, Gabriel Grimsditch, Abdul-Majeid Haddad, Seraphine Haeussling, Achim Halpaap, Joakim Harlin, Bettina Heller, Kevin Helps, Mijke Hertoghs, Jiří Hlaváček, Shunichi Honda, Jason Jabbour, Maaike Jansen, Rob de Jong, Alexander Juras, Maarten Kappelle, Angela Kariuki, Tim Kasten, Sean Khan, Joy Kim, Brenda Koekkoek, Dianna Kopansky, Arnold Kreilhuber, Hartwig Kremer, Pushpam Kumar, Birguy Lamizana, Erick Litswa, Samantha Le Royal, James Lomax, Isabelle Louis, Monica Macdevette, Llorenc Mila i Canals, Maria Manguiat, Tomas Marques, Tomkeen Mobegi, Abdelmenam Mohamed, Anja von Moltke, Masato Motoki, Richard Munang, Jane Muriithi, Iyngararasan Mylvakanam, Kakuko Nagatani-Yoshida, Desiree Narvaez, Andreas Obrecht, Martina Otto, Zitouni Ould-Dada, Lena Perenius, Jordi Pon, Mahesh Pradhan, Rula Qalyoubi, Pierre Quiblier, Hala Razian, Audrey Ringler, Barbara Ruis, Heidi Savelli, Charles Sebukeera, Gemma Shepherd, Subratta Sinha, Soraya Smaoun, Steven Stone, Djaheezah Subratty, Lisa Svensson, Muralee Thummarukudy, Eisaku Toda, Elisa Tonda, Victor Tsang, Mia Turner, Frank Turyatunga, Eric Usher, Kaisa Uusimaa, Robert Wabunoha, Dirk Wagener, Emilia Wahlstrom, Jaime Webbe, Clarice Wilson, Edoardo Zandri, Laetitia Zobel, Jinhua Zhang, Ying Zhang; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Renata Clarke, Thomas Hammond; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Benjamin Schachter; Secretariat of the Barcelona Convention/Mediterranean Action Plan: Gaetano Leone, Tatjana Hema; Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam, and Stockholm Conventions: Carlos-Martin-Novella, Tatiana Terekhova; Secretariat of the Cartagena Convention: Christophe Corbin; Secretariat of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition: Helena Molin-Valdes; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity: Robert Hoft; Secretariat of the Montreal Protocol: Tina Birmpili, Executive Secretary; UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre: Lisa Ingwall-King, Corli Pretorius, Will Simonson; United Nations Children’s Fund: Jose Gesti Canuto Alex Heikens, Nicholas Rees, Hayalnesh Tarekegn; United Nations Development Programme: Natalia Linou, Tim Scott, Douglas Webb, Sophie Huikiri; United Nations Economic Commission for Europe: Ella Behlyarova, Kristof Doucot, Krzysztof Olendrzynski; Carolin Sanz Noriega; United Nations Institute for Training and Research: Jorge Ocana, Oliver Wooton Experts involved in the preparation of the sixth Global Environment Outlook: Giovanna Armiento, Simon Birkett, Colin Butler, Phil Dickerson, Nicolai Dronin, Paul Ekins, Mark Elder, Cristina Guerreiro, Linda Godfrey, Ania Grobicki, Joyeeta Gupta, Andres Guhl, Peter Harris, Jeremy Hills, Terry Keating, Gavin Mudd, John Muthama, Jacob Park, Atilio Savino, Joni Seager, Peter Stoett; and also Andrew Farmer, Richard Füller, Renat Perelet, Meriel Watts, Douglas Weir
An early draft of this report has been made public and has benefited from the comments and reviews from many Member States, private and public sector organisations as well as non-governmental organizations.
Citation United Nations Environment Programme (2017) Towards a Pollution-Free Planet Background Report. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.
UN Environment United Nations Avenue, Gigiri, Po Box 30552-00100 UN Environment Nairobi, Kenya promotes environmentally Tel: +254 20 762 3563 sound practices globally Email: [email protected] and in its own activities. Our Web: www.unenvironment.org distribution policy aims to reduce UN Environment s carbon footprint. Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Table of Contents
Executive summary 06
Introduction 10
1 Evidence of a polluted planet: The science, impacts and economic costs 14
1.1 Air pollution 14 1.2 Land and soil pollution 17 1.3 Freshwater pollution 21 1.4 Marine and coastal pollution 24 1.5 Cross-cutting sources of pollution 27 1.5.1 Chemicals 27 1.5.2 Waste 29 1.6 Costs of pollution 32
2 Addressing pollution: Governance frameworks, challenges and opportunities in the context of the 2030 Agenda 34
2.1 Global and regional environmental agreements and national regulations 34 2.2 Actual and potential benefits of addressing pollution 40 2.3 Challenges and gaps 43 2.4 The sustainable development goals: an opportunity to accelerate pollution action 44 2.5 Multiple stakeholders and multi-level engagement: central to improved environmental governance 47
03 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
3 Transitioning to a pollution-free planet 49
3.1 Targeted priority interventions 50 3.1.1 Interventions targeting “hard-hitting” pollutants 50 3.1.2 Interventions targeting key pollution areas 51 3.2 Transformative actions to shift the economy 54 3.2.1 Building circularity and resource efficiency into production processes, supply chains and key economic sectors 54 3.2.2 Incentivizing and redirecting finance and investments to less-polluting economic activities 55 3.2.3 Adopting ecosystem-based approaches and solutions to mitigate and manage pollution 58 3.2.4 Promoting green technologies to mitigate and manage pollution 59 3.2.5 Integrating policies to tackle pollution: The example of city-level actions 60 3.2.6 Incentivizing responsible consumption and lifestyles choices 62 3.3 Enablers 63 3.3.1 Balancing evidence-based decision-making and precautionary approaches 63 3.3.2 Improving environmental governance 64 3.3.3 Economic instruments 66 3.3.4 Education for change 67 3.3.5 Cooperation and partnerships 69
4 Conclusion 70
Annexes 71
Annex 1: Comparison of the magnitude and severity of four measures of pollution 71 Annex 2: Air, water, land and soil, freshwater and marine pollution – from sources to impacts on human health and ecosystems 72 Annex 3: The costs of pollution – global and regional 75 Annex 4: How pollution is reflected in various multilateral frameworks and environmental agreements 79 Annex 5: Regional multilateral environmental agreements, initiatives and networks 86 Annex 6: Analysis of the linkages between addressing pollution types and implementing Sustainable Development Goal targets 93 Annex 7: Cleaner technologies: impacts, benefits and limitations 97 Annex 8: Multi-stakeholder partnerships and platforms 99
References 106
Treaties and Conventions 122
Further information 123
04 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Background report Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Executive summary
Pollution today is pervasive and persistent. While the world has achieved significant economic growth over the past few decades, it has been accompanied by large amounts of pollution, with significant impacts on human health and ecosystems and the ways in which some of the major Earth system processes, such as the climate, are functioning. Though some forms of pollution have been reduced as technologies and management strategies have advanced, approximately 19 million premature deaths are estimated to occur annually as a result of the way societies use natural resources and impact the environment to support production and consumption. If consumption and production patterns continue as they are, the linear economic model of “take-make-dispose” will seriously burden an already- polluted planet, affecting current and future generations.
Pollution is not a new phenomenon; it is largely controllable and often avoidable, but considerably neglected. Better knowledge, alternative consumption and production models, as well as innovative technological solutions now mean that many countries, cities, and businesses are successfully tackling serious pollution issues. Encouragingly, more governments, industries and citizens are moving towards sustainable materials management, greater resource efficiency, less environmentally damaging chemistry, clean technologies, and circular economies, as part of a more comprehensive transformation towards a sustainable economy. Trade can lead to greater environmental burdens in countries that extract and produce resources, as such activities generate waste and emissions. But trade can also provide solutions in terms of improved environmental goods and services. However, the capacity to adequately tackle pollution varies hugely across regions, social groups and genders.
Pollution can have negative impacts and disproportionate burdens on women and men, and particularly on the poor and the vulnerable such as the elderly, children and the disabled, affecting their rights to health, water, food, life, housing and development. Many toxic dumpsites are located in poor areas, leading to environmental injustice. Pollution has significant economic costs from the point of view of health, productivity losses, health-care costs and ecosystem damages. These costs, already substantial, are expected to rise over time, not only because of the direct effect of pollution on health, but also the impact of weakened livelihoods, as well as the longer-term impact on ecosystem services, that in turn affect local communities, societies and economies. While a better understanding of the economic costs of pollution can inform decision- making and support more effective policies, the human costs of pollution are even more critical.
06 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Pollution poses a direct threat to respecting, protecting and promoting human rights and gender equality, international human rights obligations related to health, life, food and water, safeguarding a healthy and sustainable environment for present and future generations, and achieving the 2030 Agenda’s pledge to “leave no one behind”.
Responses by governments, business and citizens to pollution exist, but they remain limited in scope and scale. Global and regional environmental agreements provide a partial framework, but there are many gaps. For example, some agreements are target-based, some are time- bound, while others cover compliance-related actions, monitoring and reporting. Many countries have adopted national policy and legal frameworks to implement these agreements as well as addressing other pollution issues, but to date there are no legally binding agreements that systematically address pollution in all its forms. Voluntary initiatives and global alliances – on topics such as fuel efficiency improvements, cleaner air and lead in paint – have addressed some of the more urgent issues, yet much more remains to be done to control and prevent pollution.
Figure 2 Figure 1: Examples of impacts on human health and ecosystems
Example f mpacts n Human Health nd Ecosystems
ir ollution arine and oastal ollution
6.5 million people die annually as a result of poor air uality including 4.3 million 3.5 billion people depend on oceans as a source of food yet oceans are used as due to household air pollution waste and waste water dumps ower respiratory infections: 52 million years lost or lived with disability annually Close to 500 dead zones regions that have too little oxygen to support marine due to household or ambient air pollution including second-hand tobacco smoke organisms including commercial species Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases: 32 million years life lost or lived each 4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes of plastic waste enters the ocean every year from year with disability because of household air pollution and workers’ exposure inade uate waste management Ground level ozone pollution is estimated to reduce staple crop yields up to 26 per cent by 2030
Fres water ollution e i als
58 per cent of diarrhoeal disease due to lack of access to clean water and Over 100 000 die annually from exposure to asbestos sanitation and a major source of child mortality ead in paint affects children’s intellectual ability 57 million years of life lost or lived with disability annually due to poor water Children poisoned by mercury and lead develop problems in their nervous and sanitation hygiene and agricultural practices digestive systems and kidney damage Over 80 per cent of the world s wastewater is released to the environment Many impacts of chemicals such as endocrine disruptors and developmental without treatment neurotoxicants and long-term exposure to pesticides on human health and well-being and biodiversity and ecosystems are still to be fully assessed
and oil ollution aste
Open waste dumps and burning impacts lives health and livelihoods and affect 50 biggest active dump sites affect the lives of 64 million people including their soil chemistry and nutrition health and loss of lives and property when collapses occur Excessive exposure and inappropriate use of pesticides affects health of all - 2 billion people are without access to solid waste management and 3 billion lack men women and children access to controlled waste disposal facilities Stockpiles of obsolete chemicals pose a threat to people s health and the environment
Sources: Avnery et al. 2011; European Environment Agency 2013; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2016b; Jambeck et al. 2015, Prüss-Ustun et al 2016; Shepherd et al. 2017; United Nations Environment Programme 2016a and b; United Nations Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association 2015; World Health Organisation 2008
07 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Challenges and gaps limit the effectiveness of current actions. The key gaps are: (i) implementation, (ii) knowledge, (iii) infrastructure, (iv) limited financial and industry leadership, (v) pricing and fiscal, and (vi) behavioural.Existing international environmental agreements and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development present significant opportunities to accelerate actions to tackle pollution and improve the well-being of humans and ecosystems. The international framework for the Sustainable Development Goals encourages synergies between Goal 3 and its associated target to “substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination”, and others such as the targets for climate change, air quality, nutrient pollution and marine debris.
“Towards a pollution-free planet” is about encouraging a synergetic mix of actions and a whole- system, multi-beneficial policymaking approach that builds directly on existing internationally agreed environmental goals, including those relating to climate change, disaster and risk reduction and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with its numerous pollution-reducing targets. Transitioning to a pollution-free world can drive innovation and social equity throughout the economy, by seeing pollution prevention and regulation compliance as an opportunity to clean up everyone’s environment, create new jobs, improve economic productivity and protect the rights of this and future generations. A pollution-free planet is by far and away the best insurance for the survival and well-being of current and future generations of humans and ecosystems.
To advance this goal, this report has the following five overarching messages:
1. A global compact on pollution would make prevention a priority for all. It would also encourage policymakers to integrate prevention into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and national accounts;
2. Environmental governance needs to be strengthened at all levels – with targeted action on “hard-hitting” pollutants through risk assessments and enhanced implementation of environmental legislation (including multilateral environmental agreements) and other measures;
3. Sustainable consumption and production, through improved resource efficiency and lifestyle changes, should be promoted; waste reduction and management must be prioritized;
4. Investment in cleaner production and consumption will help to counter pollution, alongside increased funding for pollution monitoring, infrastructure, management and control;
5. Multi-stakeholder partnerships and collaboration are vital for the innovation, knowledge- sharing and transdisciplinary research needed to develop technological and ecosystem-based solutions.
This report suggests a framework for actions on pollution, centred on a dual track of actions that Member States and other stakeholders may wish to consider to curb pollution around the world. This framework proposes the following:
• Targeted interventions, based on risk assessments and scientific evidence of impacts, to address “hard-hitting” pollutants as well as areas of pollution (air, water, marine and coastal, land/soil), including cross-cutting categories (chemicals, waste)
08 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
• System-wide transformations to shift the economy toward greater resource efficiency and equity, circularity and sustainable consumption and production, and improved ecosystem resilience to support cleaner and more sustainable development
The dual track of actions is guided and underpinned by the two other elements of the framework:
• Five principles drawn from the Rio Declaration and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: universality, sustainability, integration, precaution and inclusiveness.
• Enablers, or broader supporting actions, that aim to shift incentives, correct market and policy failures and address some of the gaps and issues that make pollution so pervasive and persistent.
This report is a call to act towards a pollution-free planet.
09 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Introduction
The health of people and the planet is amounting to 12.6 million people in 2012, are central to the attainment of sustainable due to environmental causes, with at least development. The 2030 Agenda for 8.2 million attributable to non-communicable Sustainable Development embodies this environmental causes, and more than three in its commitment to “ensure that all quarters in just three regions (Figure 2) (Prüss- human beings can enjoy prosperous and Ustün et al. 2016). Low- and middle-income fulfilling lives and that economic, social and countries bear the brunt of pollution-related technological progress occurs in harmony illnesses, with a disproportionate impact on with nature” (United Nations 2015a). Health children. is the outcome of many factors, including access to basic sanitation, clean water, Pollution can take many forms, ranging from good nutrition, a clean environment and organic compounds and other chemical safe products (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016; substances to different types of energy. The United Nations Environment Programme severity of a pollutant for human health and 2016a; Commission on Pollution and Health ecosystems is based on its chemical nature, 2017). Pollution puts at risk the possibility of achieving these outcomes and hence health and well-being.
Pollution touches all parts of the planet. It is affecting our health through the food we eat, Pollution is not a new the water we drink and the air we breathe. phenomenon. Nor is action Approximately 19 million premature deaths to counter it. A substantial are estimated to occur annually as a result of framework of international the way we use natural resources and impact conventions and national the environment to support global production laws has been constructed and consumption (Ramaswami et al. 2016). to tackle some of the Even in the most remote areas of the polar harms and worst excesses. ice caps, the deep abyssal ocean and high Notable successes include mountains, pollutants such as heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants can be the ongoing repair of the found in plants and animals (Jamieson et al. ozone layer and the phasing 2017). out of numerous banned pesticides and chemicals. The World Health Organization has estimated that nearly a quarter of all deaths worldwide,
10 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Figure 1
Figure 2: Number of deaths attributable to environmental factors in 2012 by World Health Organization region
NumberWorld Healthof deaths rganization attributable to map environmental of deaths factors attributable in 2012 by to World the environment, Health Organization by region, region 2012
47 000 54 000 1.4 million 2.2 million 3.5 million 3. million Américas Eastern Europe Africa estern Pacific South-East Asia editerranean
Source: Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016
quantity or concentration and persistence. armed conflict zones, nuclear power stations, The specific harm caused by different pesticide stockpiles and waste landfills, pollutants depends not only on the form part of a longer-term legacy (Pure environment it is in (air, water or soil) but Earth 2017). also the mix of other pollutants that are present and the actual exposure (European The sources and types of pollution are highly Environment Agency 2013). diverse (Figure 3), as are the solutions to deal with them. For example, hazardous Some types of pollution are easily noticed, chemicals in paints, cleaning compounds, such as certain forms of contaminated water, dyes, electronic products, and many poor air quality, industrial waste, litter, light, other household substances can become heat and noise. Others are less visible, for pollutants if not managed correctly. Highly example the presence of pesticides in food, hazardous chemicals, such as mercury, mercury in fish, excess nutrients in the sea ammonium, ozone, and perchloric acid, and lakes, endocrine-disrupting chemicals in used in a range of industries, are toxic and drinking water, and other micro-pollutants in reactive and some have the potential to fresh and marine water. Some, such as those cause cancer, birth defects, induce genetic coming from abandoned industrial sites, damage, cause miscarriage, injury or death
11 Figure 3
Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Figure 3: Major sources of today’s pollution
Ma or sources of today s pollution
ri ulture and ood and-based farming food and agro-industry fisheries and a uaculture
ner Combustion plants fossil fuels biomass nuclear domestic solid fuel heating
ndustrial Chemicals mineral extractives forestry and paper products cement
Information technology home electronics construction and home-building products batteries anu a turin textiles apparel footwear and luxury goods pharmaceuticals (for example antibiotics)
er i es etail hospitality and tourism hospitals and health-care services
Trans ort Automobiles fuel use and supply engine emissions road (tyres surface) shipping aviation urban
Improper management of municipal solid waste (which includes e-waste plastics food waste organic aste waste and open burning) industrial waste (which includes e-waste construction and demolition waste) hazardous waste (which includes e-waste) sewerage effluents landfills (leachates)
from relatively small exposures if released and social costs of production in order to into the environment (Diamond et al. 2015). minimize pollution at a global scale. Ecosystem functions are put at risk as well (Diamond et al. 2015; Steffen et al. 2015). Pollution can have a particularly There are also many emerging and novel disproportionate and negative effect on the products, such as some therapeutic drugs and poor, the disadvantaged, the marginalized, nanomaterials, for which data on potential indigenous peoples, the disabled and the pollution effects are sparse. vulnerable, due to their general health status, potential higher exposures and Market demand on one side of the planet reduced resilience to social, environmental is often satisfied by labour, production, and economic risks. Pollution poses a and natural resources originating from direct threat to respecting, protecting and halfway across the globe. Fossil fuels promoting human rights and gender equality, now account for 50 per cent of the global international human rights obligations related trade volume. Research finds that trade to health, life, food and water, safeguarding leads to a redistribution of environmental a healthy and sustainable environment for burden towards countries that extract and present and future generations and achieving produce resources (International Resource the 2030 Agenda’s pledge to “leave no one Panel 2015a). As such, the environmental behind”. impacts and pollution generated by global consumption habits are disassociated from Solutions to help remove pollutants and those most impacted locally. Trade patterns, detoxify our environment exist around the policies and agreements can play a crucial world. These need to be expanded, shared, role in internalizing some of the environmental and scaled up in order to avoid risking
12 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
further exposure of humans and ecosystems ongoing responses, challenges to effective to current and future pollution as well as actions, and the opportunities that existing increasing the costs of clean up. Improved multilateral environmental agreements and risk assessment of new pollution sources is the Sustainable Development Goals provide also urgently needed. to reduce pollution. Part 3 concludes with a global framework for actions to tackle In Part 1 of this report, the evidence on pollution head-on and move towards a pollution is presented. Part 2 discusses pollution-free planet.
13 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
1 Evidence of a polluted planet: The science, impacts and economic costs
The latest global and regional environmental air pollution and loss of biodiversity (Vet assessments give an indication of the et al. 2014). Similarly there have been great magnitude of current pollution issues (United strides in global Earth observation and Nations Environment Programme 2016a-g; monitoring systems for air quality, ocean United Nations Environment Programme acidification, forest decline, detection of 2012a). For example, air quality is a problem marine oil spills and pollution from mine in nearly all regions; water pollution is a major tailings, as well programmes to track the cause of death of children under five years use of agrochemicals and the occurrence of age; nutrient over-enrichment of land and of eutrophication and harmful algal water is causing shifts in ecosystems and blooms (Group on Earth Observations loss of biodiversity; plastics in the ocean is 2017; Global Forest Watch 2017; Global on the rise and there is still no acceptable Ocean Acidification Observing Network “storage or disposal option” for processing of 2017) (Annex 1). However, significant data older-generation nuclear fuel. Pollution is even gaps continue to prevent us from having a affecting the way in which some major Earth comprehensive picture of the magnitude of system processes, such as the climate, are pollution across regions. functioning (Diamond et al. 2015; Steffen et al. 2015). 1.1 Air pollution
Significant improvements in the Air pollution is the world’s single greatest measurement of atmospheric precipitation environmental risk to health. Some 6.5 million chemistry make it possible to understand people across the world die prematurely every how atmospheric pollutants contribute to year from exposure to outdoor and indoor air ecosystem acidification and eutrophication, pollution (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016), and nine
14 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
out of ten people breathe outdoor air polluted infections account for 51 million years lost or beyond acceptable World Health Organization lived with disability per year due to ambient guidelines levels (World Health Organization and household pollution, and second hand 2016a). tobacco smoke (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016). In addition to the impact on human health, Air pollution disproportionately affects the other air pollutants cause climate change and most vulnerable, including those with mental affect ecosystems, such as short-lived climate disabilities (Oudin et al. 2016) and young pollutants including black carbon and ground- children (World Health Organization 2017a). level ozone (World Health Organization 2015) Approximately 2 billion children live in areas (Figure 4). where outdoor air pollution exceeds the guidelines, and 300 million in areas where The main sources of outdoor air pollution are outdoor air pollution is at least six times fossil fuel emissions from coal burning for higher (United Nations Children's Fund 2016). power and heat, transport, industrial furnaces, Some 570,000 children under age five die from brick kilns, agriculture, domestic solid fuel respiratory infections, such as pneumonia, heating, and the unregulated burning of waste attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution, materials such as plastics and batteries and second-hand smoke each year (World in open pits and incinerators (Figure 5). Health Organization 2017b). Lower respiratory Other important sources include wildfires
Figure 4: Air pollution from sources to impacts
ir pollution from sources to impacts
auses T T T T T olcanoes wildfires dust Power plants industry households transport (exhaust fumes storms sea salt spray and non-exhaust pollutants) agriculture waste treatment
SO2 NO3 PM BC Hm
FFERENT P P T T issions P LLUT NT Nitrogen and sulfur oxides primary particulate matter carbon monoxide black carbon ammonia volatile organic compounds heavy metals
PM O 3
For ation CHEM C L P T T TR N F RM T N Secondary particulate matter ozone sulphuric acid nitric acid
is ersion and MP CT F WE THER F T F on entration N T P GR PHY P T T olume/location of emissions fixed/point of mobile source lifetime in atmosphere weather capacity to contribute to secondary pollution topography
osure FF T FF T T T Acidification and eutrophication of water P T Breathing disorders cardiovascular and soil crop damage climate change Water and air purification reduction of plant diseases cancer heart and lung (both warming and cooling effects) biomass altered climate regulation through diseases impairment of neurological reduced visibility impaired photosynthesis carbon se uestration altered nutrient development and immune system reduced plant growth toxicity build-up cycling changes in ecosystems productivity in food chain
15 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Figure 5: Sources of some key air pollutants
Sulfur Nitrogen Carbon Ammonia dioxide oxides 2.5 monoxide compounds
>99% >99% 85% 92% 66% 3% energy energy energy energy energy energy
Power Industry Transport Buildings Fuel supply Non-energy Exhaust, brake Agriculture, coal, oil, gas, process and tyre and transport and solvents and bioenergy emissions road wear, waste and waste of fossil fuels Source: IEA analysis based on IIASA data. Source: International Energy Agency 2016
and the burning of peatlands, both of which has been decreasing in some cities (Sacks generate haze, sand and dust storms, as well et al. 2011; United Nations Environment as desertification, which often results from Programme 2016c). Climate change is also land degradation, including deforestation modifying weather patterns, affecting the and wetland drainage (Youssouf et al. levels and occurrence of pollutants and 2014, Morman and Plumlee 2013) (Box 1). airborne allergens, such as ozone and pollen,
Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) affects and in some cases exposing people to higher more people than any other air pollutant; concentrations over longer periods than in
levels of PM2.5 have remained largely constant previous decades (Albertine et al. 2014; Fiore
despite efforts to tackle the problem, but PM10 et al. 2012; Selin et al. 2009).
Box 1: The impact of fires on air quality: An example from Alaska
Alaska’s 2004 wildfire season was the worst on record, largely because of unusually warm and dry weather. Throughout central Alaska and Canada’s Yukon Territory, more than 11 million acres burned, an area equivalent to the states of New Hampshire and Massachusetts combined.
As forests and the underlying peat layer burn, they emit visible pollution in the form of smoke, soot, and ash. But the fires also generate other harmful pollution. Fires emit carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, plus nitrogen oxides, all of which, along with sunlight, are needed to make ozone. Unlike ozone in the stratosphere, which protects us from ultraviolet radiation, high levels of ozone in the troposphere, closer to ground level, can injure or destroy living tissue. Although the ingredients for ozone can be found in urban pollution, pollutants from fires might cause a significant increase in ozone levels, even far downwind from the fires.
From June to August, the fires produced approximately 30 teragrams of carbon monoxide (1 teragram is about 2.2 billion pounds), roughly equal to all the human-generated carbon monoxide for the entire continental United States during the same period. The NASA study estimated that the boost in carbon monoxide and other fire-emitted pollutants increased ground-level ozone by up to 25 per cent in the northern continental United States, and by up to 10 percent in Europe. (Beltler 2006).
16 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Indoor air pollution accounts for 4.3 million productivity of wheat, soybean and maize by deaths, 18 per cent of ischaemic heart up to 26 per cent by 2030, imposing costs of disease and 33 per cent of all lower between $17 billion and $35 billion (Avnery respiratory infections globally (United Nations et al. 2011). Methane emissions, a precursor Environment Programme and Climate and of ground-level ozone, are contributing to this Clean Air Coalition 2016). It in particular increase through uncontrolled releases into affects women, children, the sick and elderly, the atmosphere, mainly from livestock, poor and those in low-income groups, as they are management of landfills, leakages from gas often exposed to high levels of pollutants production and transport, and release from from cooking and heating (Figure 6). melting permafrosts.
One other key pollutant, ground-level 1.2 Land and soil pollution ozone, is responsible for an estimated 150,000 premature deaths every year (Lim Land and soil pollution is largely the et al. 2012). It is particularly dangerous for product of poor agricultural practices, children, the elderly, and people with lung or inefficient irrigation, improper solid waste cardiovascular disease. It reduces the ability management – including unsafe storage of of plants to absorb carbon dioxide, altering obsolete stockpiles of hazardous chemicals growth, thereby damaging ecosystems and and nuclear waste – and a range of industrial, their functions, as well as the health and military and extractive activities. Leachates productivity of crops. Over the past 100 years from mismanaged landfills and uncontrolled there has been a threefold increase in ground- dumping of waste from households, industrial level ozone concentrations in the northern plants and mine tailings can contain heavy hemisphere. Under current climate change metals, such as mercury and arsenic, as well projections, increases in ozone could reduce as organic compounds and pharmaceuticals,
Figure 6: The use of open fire for cooking and heating causes a number of respiratory diseases and other health effects
Household air pollution Health impacts Smoke released contributes to outdoor air pollution
CO
CO2 Soot particles And Respiratory diseases PM2.5 and RM10 others... Acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) in Benzene young children (pneumonia) Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD, breathing problems Lung cancer Asthma Other health effects Heart diseases/problems Kerosene Cataract (blindness) Lamp Burns from fire/flame Poisoning form ingesting fuels Open fire for cooking and heating
Source: World Health Organization 2011a
17 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
including antibiotics and microorganisms information about the location, severity and (Wellington et al. 2013). Pollutants easily potential risks of “pollution hotspots”. Without degrade land, soils and the underlying aquifers such information, it is difficult to prioritize and are hard to remove. Thus humans and challenges, allocate resources and implement wildlife living near former industrial sites (often very costly) solutions to protect and some reclaimed lands are at potential drinking water supplies and farmland. risk of continued exposure to pollution if sites are not decontaminated properly. Land The primary pollutants of concern in land and soil pollution is an increasing concern and soil include heavy metals such as lead, with the growth in demand for land for food mercury, arsenic, cadmium and chromium, production, housing and nature conservation, persistent organic pollutants and other against a limited supply. pesticides, and pharmaceuticals, such as antibiotics used for livestock management. Although many high-income countries have These degrade soil biodiversity and functioning, robust programmes to identify, assess and can reduce agricultural productivity, thus and remediate soil contamination, the negatively impacting livelihoods, disease problem persists with significant economic control and food security. They can also cause implications (European Environment a variety of non-communicable diseases, and Agency 2014; Pure Earth 2017). Many low- even death in humans and wildlife (Tóth et al. and middle-income countries lack basic 2016) (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Land and soil pollution – from sources to impacts on human health and ecosystems
Land soil pollution from sources to impacts
auses T T T T T Soil geochemistry geology and-based farming industry extractives waste salt landslides wastewater transport energy production
Hm
FFERENT P P T T issions P LLUT NT Heavy metals pesticides plastic debris and litter pharmaceuticals
For ation CHEM C L P T T TR N F RM T N Fumaric and phthalic acids
is ersion and MP CT F WE THER F T F on entration N T P GR PHY P T T eaching soil composition extreme weather events e.g. flooding desertification
osure FF T FF T T T Toxicity build-up in food chains P T Neurological development harmful disappearance of bees other insects and eduction of available food due to effects on the nervous digestive and butterflies reptiles birds and mammals contamination control of pests and immune systems lungs and kidneys congested alimentary systems leading to vectors reduction in productivity and cancer sterility and other reproductive starvation toxicity build up in fodder and cycling of nutrients distorted predator disorders immunity suppression prey soil microbial populations developing prey dynamics productivity of soil and increased antimicrobial resistance new resistant forms. livestock.
18 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Toxic heavy metal pollution is a public and may also cause delayed puberty (United health risk, especially for children and States National Toxicology Program 2012; pregnant women (World Health Organization World Health Organization 2010). Absorbed 2011b). Sources of heavy metal pollution lead is stored in bone but can be mobilized include a variety of industrial, household back into blood during pregnancy, becoming and agricultural activities, such as mining a renewed source of exposure for the mother and smelting operations, preparation of and the fetus. In lead-exposed women there nuclear fuels and electroplating (chromium, is secretion of small amounts of lead into cadmium), coal and other fuel burning, breast milk, further exposing infants (Ettinger pigment and dye production, chemical et al 2007; Ettinger et al. 2014). The Institute production, leather tanning, informal recycling for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) of lead-acid batteries and electronic waste, has estimated that in 2013 lead exposure poor incineration of hospital waste, and accounted for 853,000 deaths due to long- mismanagement of household and industrial term effects on health, with the highest burden waste. Heavy metals can become highly in low- and middle-income countries. The concentrated through ion exchange or Institute also estimated that lead exposure precipitation into soils and lie dormant. As accounted for 9.3 per cent of the global they do not decay, they pose a different kind burden of idiopathic intellectual disability, of challenge for remediation. Some plants 4 per cent of the global burden of ischaemic and microorganisms can be used to help heart disease and 6.6 per cent of the global remove heavy metals such as mercury, for burden of stroke (Institute for Health Metrics example in the treatment of mining tailings; and Evaluation 2016). the vegetation is then incinerated with gas treatment to recover the heavy metals. The world’s best-known heavy metal poisoning incident occurred with mercury in Some heavy metals are necessary for Minamata, Japan, during the 1950s and 1960s humans in minute amounts, while others (Yorifuji, Tsuda and Harada 2013). Exposure are carcinogenic or toxic, affecting the to mercury is linked to liver and brain damage central nervous system (mercury, lead, at high doses, and is a particular threat to arsenic), the kidneys and liver (mercury, the brain development of fetuses and young lead, cadmium, copper), skin, bones and children (Grandjean 2013). Mercury occurs in teeth (nickel, cadmium, copper, chromium). water, air and soil, but childhood exposure is Although the specific impacts vary by generally the result of industrial releases, such pollutant and exposure pathway, these often as in artisanal and small-scale gold mining cause developmental impairment and non- (Gibb and O’Leary 2014). The forthcoming communicable diseases. Once released Lancet Commission report on pollution and into the environment, these metals do not health estimates that in 2016, 16.7 million biodegrade and can jeopardize ecological and people, (65 per cent in Africa) are exposed human health for generations. to mercury in artisanal and small-scale gold mining, with an average of 2.96 disability Lead is one of the most harmful heavy metals, adjusted life years (Commission on Pollution especially to young children, because it can and Health 2017). Mercury bioaccumulates build up in the body over time and cause and magnifies in fish and shellfish, and is severe, long-term effects. Exposures once thus a source of dietary exposure to humans. thought acceptable are now known to be Other heavy metals of note in terms of human harmful; no safe exposure level has been exposure include beryllium and arsenic. identified. Blood lead concentrations as low as Beryllium is used in the nuclear weapons below 5 µg/dL may be associated, especially industry and chronic beryllium disease has in children, with reduced intelligence quotient been diagnosed in workers, despite exposure (IQ), reduced cognitive abilities, dyslexia, levels being below recommended guidelines behavioural disorders and hearing problems, (Michaels and Monforton 2013). The major
19 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
issue with beryllium is that secondary users children. Prolonged low-level exposure to and recyclers do not generally have the pesticides may induce chronic effects in expertise, resources or knowledge to prevent children, including birth defects, asthma, the disease in neighbouring communities and cancer and neurological alterations (Bouchard workers (Michaels and Monforton 2013). et al. 2011; Eskenazi et al. 2014; Raanan et al. 2015; Roberts and Karr 2012). The Globally, estimates indicate that at least number of women working as pesticide 1 million people are unintentionally poisoned applicators varies, but in some countries, every year by excessive exposure and women make up 85 per cent or more of the inappropriate use of pesticides, with health pesticide applicators on commercial farms effects on all (United Nations Environment and plantations, often working while pregnant Programme 2013a, Jeyaratnam 1990, or breastfeeding (Watts 2013a). Women are Thundiyil et al. 2008). The main driver for the also uniquely exposed to pesticides even use of synthetic chemical pesticides is the when they do not directly apply them. In reduction of the negative impacts of pests, Pakistan, where cotton is picked by women, a such as insects, diseases and weeds, on crop survey found that 100 per cent of the women yields, estimated in the 1990s to account for picking cotton 3-15 days after pesticides 40 per cent of the world’s losses (Chandler had been sprayed suffered acute pesticide et al. 2011). Since then, the intensive use of poisoning symptoms (Tahir and Anwar 2012). pesticides, alongside improved management In Chile, in 1997, of the 120 reported pesticide practices, has helped increase crop yields poisonings, 110 were women, nearly all by nearly 70 per cent in Europe and 100 per employed in the flower industry (Wesseling cent in the United States. However, their use et al. 1998). Other routes of exposure not has also created an almost universal human generally taken into account in exposure and environmental exposure to agricultural assessments include weeding and thinning chemicals and side effects, with well-reported sprayed crops, picking tea leaves, washing out effects among those experiencing acute pesticide containers, or washing pesticide- exposure (Caravanos et al. 2016; Jeyaratnam contaminated clothing (United Nations 1990; Thundiyil et al. 2008; Sharov et al. 2016; Environment Programme 2016i; Watts 2010). Task Force on Systemic Pesticides 2014). Pesticide exposure can cause lifelong harm Unsustainable lifestyles and consumption and increase the risk of preterm births, birth patterns, agricultural subsidies, and the defects, childhood mortality, reduced sperm expansion of monocultures are helping to function and a range of adult diseases. drive the use of agricultural chemicals and Adverse effects can also be carried in pesticides. This poses risks to ecosystem the womb. Women generally have higher services such as litter breakdown and nutrient percentages of body fat, which means that cycling, food production, genetic diversity, they carry more lipophilic pesticides and for biological pest control, and pollination. A longer periods, resulting in greater internal recent example of this is the use of a group of exposure and more bioaccumulation (Liew insecticides, known as neonicotinoids, which et al. 2014; Arrebola et al. 2015). This is have been linked to losses of bee colonies in especially true for indigenous populations in various countries. That research prompted the Arctic (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment the European Union to restrict the use of three Programme 2015). forms of neonicotinoids in 2013 (European Commission 2017). Pending further treatment, Some scientists have identified a connection residual agrochemicals on food products can between pesticides and breast cancer rates also directly expose people through their diet. (Schinasi and Leon 2014; Liew et al. 2014). While the importance of pesticides and The effects of chronic pesticide exposure breast cancer is not widely accepted among vary considerably among women, men and public health experts, a number of studies
20 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
suggest that some classes of pesticides microbial resistance worldwide (Hardell et al. (such as organochlorines) may be more 2003; Food and Agriculture Organization of carcinogenic to breast tissue than others the United Nations 2016a, United Nations (Høyer et al. 1998). It is also known that Environment Programme 2017c). women’s higher levels of hormonally sensitive tissue make them more vulnerable to the 1.3 Freshwater pollution effects of endocrine-disrupting substances, with pregnant and breastfeeding women at Freshwater bodies are heavily affected by particular risk, as well as children exposed pollution, particularly by a range of nutrients, at a time when they are developmentally agrochemicals and pathogens from untreated vulnerable (Watts 2007; Watts 2013b). wastewater, and heavy metals from mining (Caravanos et al. 2016) and industrial The rise of antimicrobial resistance as effluents (Figure 8). Polluted water is also a result of overuse and improper use of more likely to host disease vectors, such as antimicrobials, including antibiotics used in cholera-causing Vibrio and parasitic worm- food production, is now a globally significant transmitted schistosomiasis, also known issue. A major concern is that this may as bilharzia. The main impacts are changes cause rapid changes to the microbial to habitats and ecosystems, especially composition of soil, freshwater and biota, wetlands; the loss of aquatic biodiversity; and drive the development of multistrain changes in species composition, ecosystem
Figure 8: Water pollution – from sources to impacts on human health and ecosystems
Freshwater pollution from sources to impacts
HC
auses T T T T T Geology flooding landslides storm surges Agriculture hazardous industrial and municipal solid waste pharmaceuticals wastewater.
Hm NO3 EDC
FFERENT P P T T issions P LLUT NT Nitrates phosphates heavy metals pesticides endocrine disrupting chemicals pharmaceuticals
For ation CHEM C L P T T TR N F RM T N Cocktail effects e.g. relating to leachates from landfills and air emissions in waters with primary pollutants
is ersion and MP CT F B T , GE L GY, F T F on entration CL M TE, WE THER N P T T T P GR PHY Topography and run-off climate and weather biotic and physicochemical composition of water geology
osure FF T FF T T T Eutrophication harmful algal bloom P T Impairment of neurological functions due such as blue-green algae changing Provisioning services (e.g. productivity of food to harmful algal bloom and development habitats toxicity reduction in coral reefs flucial stocks and species and fish (e.g. blue baby syndrome) heart and population size of species such stocks) habitat or supporting services (e.g. kidney diseases cancer sterility and as frogs feminization of fish changes to species distributions and functions other reproductive disorders increased widespread population impacts affecting antimicrobial resistance habitats and maintenance of genetic diversity)
21 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
functioning and service provision, including the fishing industry and people’s livelihoods. water quality improvement (Steffen et al. Improved sanitation is helping to counteract 2015); the spread of waterborne diseases; these trends (Figure 9), although untreated changes in the productivity of food chains; sewage continues to be discharged into and contamination and blockage of drainage the environment (Figure 10). Wastewater by plastics and other improperly managed management is therefore of basic importance solid waste. The increasing presence of to environmental sustainability, and to pharmaceuticals, antimicrobials and new ensuring access to clean water for all (United micro-pollutants in water are also emerging Nations World Water Assessment Programme concerns (Hardell et al. 2003). 2017; UN-Water 2016).
Over 80 per cent of the world's wastewater is Nutrient pollution (nitrates and phosphates) released to the environment without treatment caused by the over-application of (United Nations World Water Assessment agrochemicals continues to pose a significant Programme 2017). Globally, 58 per cent of threat to biodiversity and ecosystem services diarrhoeal disease – a major driver of child globally. Such pollution is projected to mortality – is due to a lack of access to clean continue rising beyond 2020, with growth water and sanitation (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016; concentrated in Asia, South and Central United Nations Environment programme America, and sub-Saharan Africa. High- 2016j). Every year, 57 million years of life are income countries, for instance in Europe, lost or lived with disability due to poor water, also suffer from freshwater pollution such as sanitation, hygiene and agricultural practices high nitrate levels in drinking water. Between (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016). 10 per cent and 20 per cent of all groundwater monitoring stations in the European Union In Latin America, Africa and Asia, severe have registered nitrate levels that exceed pathogenic pollution was found in one third the 50 mg/l limit (European Environment of all rivers, putting at risk people’s health Agency 2015). Although a natural process, and endangering the use of river water for eutrophication can be accelerated by irrigation, industry and other purposes. Severe excessive nutrient loading from point and organic pollution, found in one seventh of all non-point sources, leading to increasing rivers, and severe and moderate salinity, found algal growth in receiving environments in one tenth, further threaten food security, and the development of oxygen-depleted
Figure 9: Proportion of population using improved sanitation facilities in 2015
Source: World Health Organization/ United Nations Children’s Fund 2015
22 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Figure 10: Trends in organic pollution (measured as biological oxygen demand concentrations) in rivers between 1990-1992 and 2008-2010
Source: UNEP2016j
zones. Nutrient pollution is one of the most Arsenic in drinking water can come from pervasive water quality issues on a global geological processes and mining. The scale, interfering with many human water best-documented case of wide-scale uses and causing major shifts of species in geogenic arsenic poisoning comes from ecosystems. Bangladesh, where bore holes for drinking water were not tested (World Health Heavy metals and pollutants from oil and gas Organization 2016b). In Bangladesh today, exploration and oil sands can accumulate 25 per cent of households drink water in groundwater, lakes and reservoirs, contaminated with arsenic at levels above contaminate aquifers with potentially the World Health Organization guideline explosive methane levels, and pollute streams value of 10 parts per billion (Pathey 2015). receiving water discharges and downstream communities following dam removal. The Other contaminants that can be found extraction of oil from sand in western Canada in streams and freshwater systems has resulted in a trillion litres of waste stored include plastics, ingredients of personal in tailing ponds (Environmental Defence care products, pharmaceuticals, insect 2017); this is likely to continue to grow each repellents, stimulants, fire retardants and year. Evidence of contamination of water surfactants, non-ionic detergent metabolites, from fracking for shale gas production is perfluorinated compounds and nanomaterials under consideration in various parts of the (Osborn et al. 2011). Particular concerns for world (Olmstead et al. 2013). In Europe the health of both people and freshwater following different positions being taken, organisms include potential bioaccumulation, a number of conditions and provisions on endocrine disruption, sex reversal in fishes the protection of human health and the and molluscs, and carcinogenic effects arising avoidance of environmental risks have been from some of these pollutants (Kolpin 2002; proposed (German Advisory Council on the World Health Organization and United Nations Environment 2013). Environment Programme 2013).
23 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
1.4 Marine and coastal pollution cancers (Davis et al. 2009, O’Neil et al. 2012). At least 500 dead zones have been recorded Oceans and coastal waters receive a in coastal areas around the world (Shepherd large percentage of their waste and et al. 2017). These are having an impact pollutants – including plastic debris, nutrients, on fishing communities (Rochman et al. oil, heavy metals and radioactive waste – from 2013) and the productivity of fish stocks. land-based sources (Jambeck et al. 2015; Aquaculture can also be a significant source Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific of pollution, because of outflows of nutrient- Aspects of Marine Environment Protection rich waters, the risk of disease transmission 2016). The rest comes from the shipping from captive to wild stock, and, in some cases, industry, fisheries and other sea-based the use of antibiotics (Figure 11). sources. The number of large oil spills (greater than Nutrient loads into coastal areas rose by 700 tonnes) from tankers annually, has between 10 per cent and 80 per cent between been decreasing, with the average number 1970 and 2000, increasing eutrophication and of large oil spills now at 1.7 per year since hypoxia, hindering tourism, and negatively 2010 (International Tanker Owners Pollution impacting economic livelihoods. The Federation Limited 2017). However, oil from associated harmful algal blooms can cause spills nearshore can have locally devastating acute poisoning as well as liver and colorectal impacts on the environment, with the clean-up
Figure 11: Marine and coastal pollution– from sources to impacts on human health and ecosystems
Marine and coastal pollution from sources to impacts
auses T T T T T Storm surges climate change and-based farming food and agro-industry fisheries and a uaculture landslides floods oil and energy sector waste wastewater packaging sector extractives pharmaceuticals
NO3 Hm EDC
FFERENT P P T T issions P LLUT NT Nitrates and phosphates heavy metals (from mining and seabed extractives industries) lead booster biocides pesticides endocrine- disrupting chemicals pharmaceuticals waste and plastics
For ation CHEM C L P T T TR N F RM T N Chemical cocktail effects surrounding marine extraction and oil drilling sites
is ersion and MP CT F C T L F T F on entration ENG NEER NG, M R NE B T , P T T WE THER, CL M TE N Storm surges climate change ref.ocean and coastal circulation geology and coastal erosion marine biota e.g. macrophytes and coral reefs T P GR PHY
osure FF T FF T T T Eutrophication harmful algal blooms P T Impairment of neurological toxicity impact on seabird populations Provisioning services (e.g. productivity of food benthic development noxious fumes skin and other species disappearance of fauna shellfish fish stocks and coral reefs) habitat or disorders heart kidney disease algae corals invertebrates and fish supporting services (e.g. impairment of physical cancer sterility and other reproductive species feminization of fish thyroid structures widespread population impacts affecting disorders hormonal disruption disorders in whales and other mammals habitats and maintenance of genetic diversity) control disruption to local food chains of pests and vectors changed predator prey dynamics
24 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
introducing further chemicals into the ocean. the year 2050; one study has demonstrated a Radioactive waste leaked into the ocean is clear correlation with the build-up of mercury also an important source of pollution, as in seafood (Sunderland and Mason 2007; evidenced by the UN Scientific Committee on Straub 2009). the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) in light of the events in Fukushima (United Booster biocides, introduced as a substitute Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects for tributyltin, are broad-spectrum anti- of Atomic Radiation 2017). Currently there foulants, which – together with persistant are no legal instruments to control leakage of organic pollutants – can disrupt local radioactive materials into the oceans. marine habitats such as coral reefs and seagrass beds, and disturb organisms at Although the concentration of some the base of the food chain. Just as with chemicals that have been banned for over many other pesticides, they are persistent 20 years is declining, the same trend is not and pervasive (Price and Readman 2013). seen in the most recently regulated chemicals, Records of persistent organic pollutants such as mercury. This is a concern, as it found in beached plastic pellets in relation means that high levels of mercury persist in to modelling of the distribution of plastic the environment, and that humans and wildlife debris in the ocean (Figure 12) indicate that who rely on fish resources for their source this form of pollution reaches all large marine of protein continue to be exposed (Island ecosystems; such research raises concerns Sustainability Alliance CIS Inc et al. 2013). for ecosystem health, as well as the health of Some studies show that, if current pollution the more than 3.5 billion people who depend and deposition rates continue, mercury levels on the ocean as their main source of food in the global environment could double by (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
Figure 12: Marine and coastal pollution risks in large marine ecosystems
a) Nutrient risk: The nutrient risk indicator takes into account both the amount of nutrients discharged from land, by rivers to each large marine ecosystem, and the extent to which these added nutrients will lead to harmful algal growth. b) Persistent organic pollutants risk: Global distribution and hotspots show that polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have spread around the global oceans, including to remote areas. c) Floating plastic debris risk based on the amount of plastic debris per unit area of each large marine ecosystem estimated from models. This map is for plastic pieces of about 5 mm diameter and bigger. Estimated distribution of smaller plastic particles is similar.
Sources: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (2016); Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen 2014; Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization and United Nations Environment Programme 2016.
25 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
United Nations 2016b; Béné et al. 2015). Mediterranean Action Plan 2015). A recent Persistent organic pollutants have long been report on plastics indicates that replacing known to accumulate in the tissues of marine plastic with metal or paper alternatives would mammals, birds and other species, causing have significant negative environmental problems for the human populations that impacts; a more effective approach to depend on them as their main food source. reducing the presence and impacts of plastic This is especially true for indigenous peoples, in the environment is to improve plastics such as those living in the circumpolar region recovery, strengthen the environmental of the Arctic, where marine organisms are the performance of the plastics supply chain, traditional source of food. and boost efficient consumption practices (Trucost 2016). Marine litter and debris can cause physical harm to marine life through entanglement, Plastic debris – which fragments into ghost fishing, and ingestion; it can also act as pieces of less than 5 mm but does not a carrier for persistent bio-accumulative and biodegrade in the marine environment – toxic substances. Marine litter can provide can now be found in all the world's oceans habitats for microbial communities; act as and seas, even in remote areas such as a potential vector for disease; and transport deep trenches and uninhabited islands in invasive alien species across the ocean (Zarfl the Pacific Ocean far from human contact and Matthies 2010). (Simcock and Kamara 2016; Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Three quarters of marine litter is now Environment Protection 2015). Research composed of plastic (United Nations on the physical and toxicological effects of Environment Programme and International microplastics provides evidence of trophic Solid Waste Association 2015). According transfer in planktonic food chains as well to the latest estimates, between 4.8 million as the direct uptake of microplastics by tonnes and 12.7 million tonnes of plastic marine invertebrates (Zarfl and Matthies waste enter the ocean every year due to 2010; Wright et al. 2013). Ingestion of inadequate waste management (Jambeck microplastics by fish has been shown to et al. 2015). cause physiological stress, liver cancer, and endocrine dysfunction, affecting female Between 1.15 million tonnes and 2.41 million fertility and the growth of reproductive tissue tonnes of the plastic waste that enters the in male fish. These effects are thought to ocean every year is carried by rivers, with three be caused by the plastic itself (physical quarters of the deposits occurring between components and chemical ingredients) May and October. The top 20 rivers feeding as well as from chemical pollutants that into the seas, mostly located in Asia, account absorb into the plastic from the surrounding for 67 per cent of the global total (Lebreton seawater. Under laboratory conditions, nano- et al. 2017). size microplastics have been shown to cross cell membranes, resulting in tissue damage The Mediterranean Action Plan/Barcelona (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Convention, adopted in 2013, outlines legally Diversity 2016). binding measures to prevent and reduce marine litter. Concerted action has proven The impacts of ocean acidification are most effective in the region. Between 2003 and visible on marine species with calcareous 2013, pollutant loads showed a consistent skeletons, such as corals and plankton; reduction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons these form the base of many marine food (98 per cent), mercury emissions (94 per webs. Coral reefs are therefore particularly cent) and the heavy metals lead (81 per cent), vulnerable to ocean acidification, nutrients zinc (89 per cent) and chrome (88 per cent) and other forms of pollution (Wilkinson (United Nations Environment Programme / et al. 2017). These changes are threatening
26 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
marine ecosystems and fisheries globally; and kidney damage. While the full range of they are also likely to have a major impact impacts of every chemical has yet to be fully on tourism and the protein source of more assessed, long-term exposure to certain than 275 million people (Food and Agriculture categories of substances such as endocrine Organization of the United Nations 2016b; disruptors,developmental neurotoxicants Béné et al. 2015). pesticides are known to be deleterious to environmental and human health (Prüss- One potential source of pollution is deep Ustün et al. 2016; United Nations Environment sea mining. Such activities are still in the programme 2016a; European Environment exploration phase. An area of roughly Agency 2013). With so many new chemicals 1.5 million km2 is currently nder contract and materials continuously being designed with the International Seabed Authority, with and released on the market, it is important mining expected to begin in about two years. that we adequately manage chemicals Recent research warns in particular about over their entire life cycle – from extraction, the plumes that mining in the deep sea would production, formulation and use, through create. These plumes consist of sediment to final disposal. Very little is known about re-suspensions containing, among other their behaviour when they are released into things, heavy metal particles. They could the environment, for example, when they are travel for hundreds of kilometers, smothering transported by water or air; how they bio- marine ecosystems in their path. Scientific accumulate in the environment; or how they knowledge is still limited on the impacts of ultimately affect biodiversity and ecosystems deep sea mining on deep sea ecosystems, (European Environment Agency 2013). but scientists are increasingly calling for a precautionary approach (Boetius et al. 2017). One of the challenges in dealing with chemicals is the gap in publically accessible 1.5 Cross-cutting sources of pollution data and consumer information on chemical performance and safety throughout different 1.5.1 Chemicals supply chains. This type of information is also lacking on the chemical composition Following industrial disasters such as of products, articles waste streams and the gas leak in Bhopal, India; mercury residues. This is especially true in some exposure in Minamata, Japan; and cadmium developing and transition economies, poisoning in Itai-Itai, Japan, public concern due to the absence of national legislation, over pollution has resulted in numerous a lack of access to information on the chemicals and heavy metals being identified environmental and health effects of handling as of serious concerns to public health. toxic chemicals,lack of funding, and poor While chemicals have benefits for human technological and human resources. All of society, they also have significant harmful these effects combined mean that such impacts. The impacts of chemicals on countries are potentially more vulnerable people and other living organisms vary from to, and disproportionally affected by, cell mutagenesis to neurological damage, toxic hazards. Multilateral environmental damage to reproduction and development, agreements and key global and regional metabolic effects, immunotoxicity, processes such as the Strategic Approach pulmonary inflammation and the emergence to International Chemicals Management of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Over (SAICM) can play a vital role in improving 100,000 people die annually from exposure to this situation. asbestos, and lead in paint is known to affect children’s IQ (United Nations Environment Of the tens of thousands of chemicals on the Programme 2016a). Children poisoned by market, relatively few have been thoroughly mercury and lead also develop problems evaluated to determine whether they might in their nervous and digestive systems cause adverse effects on human health
27 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
and the environment (Strempel et al. 2012) chemicals regulation, over 145,000 chemical (Figure 13). Moreover, the assessment of substances have been preregistered. A reset the health risk of chemical substances of the United States chemical inventory focuses primarily on the effects of individual is expected to give an estimate of the substances for determining the doses of number of chemicals in commerce as toxicological concern, and have a limited being between 14,000 and 15,000. In June ability to evaluate the combined impact 2017, the International Council of Chemistry of chemical mixtures (United Nations Associations Global Product Strategy Environment Programme 2013a; United Chemicals Portal provided access to data for Nations Environment Programme 2013b). over 4,500 chemicals (International Council of The European Union Registration, Evaluation, Chemistry Associations 2017). Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) legislation requires companies to Major routes of human and environmental identify and manage the risks linked to the exposure to pollutants are through food and substances they manufacture. However, water intake (for example pesticide residues), this legislation focuses only on individual through exposure to toxic chemicals in the substances, disregarding the effects of workplace, and from specific consumer combined exposure to mixtures of chemicalFigure 13products found in some detergents, textiles, and physical agents (Sarigiannis and Hansen cosmetics, construction materials and 2012). To date, under the pre-registration furniture (United Nations Environment requirement of the European Union’s Programme 2016a; Ke et al 2015). Food
Figure 13: Testing of chemicals and data gaps
Testing of chemicals and data gaps
2 660 chemicals with measured data
95 000 CUTE U T C B -C NCENTR T N B EGR T N industrial chemicals T C TY F CT R H LF-L VE
Note: Out of a set of 95,000 industrial chemicals, 2,200 had data on acute aquatic toxicity, 1,000 on the extent to which they build up in the environment (bio-concentration factors), and 220 on how long it takes them to break down (biodegradation half-lives) Source: Strempel et al. 2012
28 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
safety is intimately linked to the quality of While deliberate attacks on oil facilities the environment, where food is produced, and industrial environmental emergencies and then further down the chain in food may capture the headlines (Khoshnaw and processing, washing, and preparation. The Adamson 2017), the influence of conflicts joint Food and Agriculture Organization of the and insecurity on the management of waste United Nations/World Health Organization and chemicals, and their impact on air quality, committee on food additives carries out food soil and water remains largely undocumented safety risk assessments on food additives, (Weir 2017). Improvements in military contaminants and residues of veterinary guidelines and conduct could help reduce drugs residues. the most severe incidents, while remote monitoring could provide early warnings of Releases of ionizing radiation and exposure serious pollution hazards as well as inform of workers from nuclear and coal power emergency humanitarian responses. generation, (McBride et al. 1978) and the materials needed for solar energy remain a 1.5.2 Waste concern (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation 2017). Waste generation nearly doubled between Most of the exposure risks for occupational 1970 and 2000 (United Nations Environment cancer are preventable. About 125 million Programme and International Solid Waste people in the world are exposed to asbestos Association 2015) and continues to grow. at the workplace. According to World There is a clear relationship between Health Organization estimates, more than municipal solid waste per capita and 107,000 people die each year from asbestos- national income levels (Figure 14). related lung cancer, mesothelioma and asbestosis resulting from occupational The total volume of urban waste in exposures. One in three deaths from 2010 – made up of municipal solid waste occupational cancer is caused by asbestos including food waste, commercial and (Prüss-Ustün 2016). industrial waste, and construction and
Figure 14: Waste generation by income level
1 000
Canada
800 United States Switzerland Denmark Ireland 600 Malta Bulgaria Bhutan Chile Belgium Norway 400 Slovakia Japan Georgia Iceland Burundi Armenia MSW generation per capita (kg/yr) Benin Kazakhstan 200 Uzbekistan Pakistan Philippines Gabon Namibia Ghana 0 Swaziland 200 1 000 10 000 100 000 Low Lower-middle Upper-middle High
GNI per capita (USD)
Source: United Nations Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association 2015
29 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
demolition waste but excluding agricultural, out of recycled materials with toxic chemicals forestry, mining and quarrying wastes – was still present (International Persistent Organic estimated at 7 billion to 10 billion tonnes Pollutants Elimination Network 2015). (United Nations Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association 2015). Dumpsites around the world are sources of Disasters such as earthquakes and industrial complex pollution mixtures, with emissions accidents contributed between 1 million and of gases such as methane, electronic waste, 30 million tons of disaster waste per incident other hazardous waste and leachate of (United Nations Environment Programme and heavy metals all mixed together (Caravanos International Solid Waste Association 2015). et al. 2016). They are home to an estimated Industrial and hazardous waste generation 15 million informal waste pickers, who is shifting from the developed to emerging scavenge for food and recyclables (Binion economies, which are often poorly prepared and Gutberlet 2012). Such activity diverts to safely manage these waste streams. between 20 per cent and 30 per cent of Overall, it is estimated that at least 2 billion municipal solid waste to recycling at little to people worldwide lack access to solid waste no cost to business or government; however, collection (United Nations Environment the waste pickers are highly exposured to Programme and International Solid Waste chemical hazards and face significant risk of Association 2015). physical injury. It is estimated that 50 of the biggest active dumpsites affect the lives of The best approach to deal with waste is not to 64 million people, including their health and create it, not least because of the premature loss of lives and property when landslides and deaths caused by the way we produce and collapses occur (United Nations Environment consume natural resources (Ramaswami Programme and International Solid Waste et al. 2016). It is also important to review and Association 2015). Poor people are especially introduce modern, environmentally sound vulnerable as the dumpsites are often technologies for the chemical destruction surrounded by informal settlements (Table 1). of waste, waste-based energy systems, and waste recycling. Waste recycling should In developing countries, the priority is to avoid recycling of waste containing persistent phase out open dumping, waste burning organic pollutants and other hazardous and uncontrolled waste disposal, but there chemicals to avoid their appearance in is also a need to focus on the reduction new products. So far, there is evidence of of waste at source; this can serve as the persistent organic pollutants and brominated foundation from which countries can drive flame retardants that appear in new products, prevention, reuse, recycling and recovery. including products for children, manufactured Waste reduction at source can be achieved
Table 1: Human impacts of recent events at dumpsites
Event Year Human impact Landslide in Shenzhen, China, triggered by 2015 at least 69 people were killed collapse of a construction waste disposal site
Poor waste management at dumpsites First seven months of 2016 750 deaths
Waste landslide at Koshe landfill in Addis 2017 at least 115 people were killed Ababa, Ethiopia
90 metre dump collapse in Colombo, Sri 2017 145 houses buried and 32 people Lanka killed
Sources: Yang et al 2016, United Nations Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association 2015; and newspaper articles (Maasho 2017, Aneez and Sirilal 2017)
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through city cleaning, waste segregation, and for 37 per cent of the total anthropogenic the collection and safe disposal of waste to mercury emissions to the global atmosphere. sanitary engineered landfills, subject to certain Besides the use of mercury, this sector is compliance requirements. Waste reduction also closely linked to deforestation, land at source also has the potential to promote degradation and increased social, economy resource and materials management as part and health problems. Because operations of the transformation towards a sustainable are often located on riverbanks, it is economy. estimated that 50 per cent of the mercury released by artisanal gold mining into Waste is especially of concern to small island terrestrial systems is discharged directly states. These countries, very often tourist into water streams (Kocman et al. 2017). As destinations and ports of call for international such mines are often outside national waste shipping, must address the increased control regimes, official data on their waste waste flows generated by such activities, in volumes is limited. addition to the often already complex waste management issues they face (United Nations It is estimated that global generation of Environment Program and International Solid electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste) Waste Association 2015). Given their climate amounted to 41.8 million metric tons in 2014; vulnerability, limited land space and often- this is forecast to rise to 50 million metric tons limited institutional capacity for pollution in 2018, an annual growth of between 4 per management, a weather-related event can cent and 5 per cent (Box 2). Only a limited quickly lead to flooding. Unmanaged waste number of countries have national electronic then becomes a health and ecosystem waste legislation and an official take-back hazard. The lack of waste management in system. Out of the estimated 41.8 million coastal areas and tourist destinations overall metric tons, only 6.5 million tons were also leads directly to inputs of trash and estimated to have been collected by official plastic into the ocean. take-back systems and other collection mechanisms (Baldé et al. 2015). Mining generates one of the world's largest waste streams, often containing high Food waste globally has been estimated to concentrations of compounds that have be as high as one third of all food produced serious effects on ecosystems and humans. for human consumption – nearly 1.3 billion The annual global production of mine waste tons (Food and Agriculture Organization of the is estimated to approach 100 billion tonnes, United Nations 2011). Of this, countries in the with about 90 per cent of this being waste developed world waste as much food as is rock and the rest tailings (data updated from produced in all of sub-Saharan Africa, roughly Mudd and Boger 2013). Artisanal small-scale 230 million tons. The problem for human gold mining has been identified as the largest health and ecosystems from food waste anthropogenic source of mercury, accounting lies in the spoilage, the ecosystem impacts
Box 2: Impacts of e-waste
E-waste contains hazardous materials such as heavy metals (including cadmium, chromium, mercury and lead) and chemicals (such as brominated flame retardants and chlorofluorocarbons). E-waste management is of grave concern in developing countries, where recycling and treatment infrastructure is limited and the legal and institutional capacity is less stringent. Illegal and illicit transboundary movements of e-waste and trade in second-hand products have complicated the e-waste issue in destination countries. In particular, unsound management and burning of e-waste, often exposes people to harmful substances (including dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals) (Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2011), with serious health consequences such as altered thyroid function, reduced lung function, birth defects, reduced childhood growth, negative mental health outcomes, impaired cognitive development, cytotoxicity and gene toxicity (Baldé et al. 2015 2013). Hazardous substances such as lead and mercury may leak from discarded and illegally dumped e-waste into surface and groundwater.
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caused by insect pests and rodents feeding environment for millennia, posing a long- off this waste, and resources (fertilizers, term threat to humans. Major disasters, pesticides, energy) used to produce and such as those with the nuclear power plants supply that is never eaten. Aflatoxins, toxic in Chernobyl and Fukushima, have varying fungal metabolites, increasingly occurring in impacts depending on the emission profile staple crops, are contaminating food supplies and geography. throughout the world. If eaten, they can have toxic effects on humans and livestock. 1.6 Costs of pollution Ingestion of low levels of aflatoxins over a long period has been implicated in primary Pollution has significant economic costs liver cancer, chronic hepatitis, jaundice, as a result from impacts on human health, cirrhosis and impaired nutrient conversion. productivity losses, health-care costs Aflatoxins may also play a role in other and ecosystem damages. A review of the conditions, such as kwashiorkor, an outcome literature illustrates the enormous scale of of childhood malnutrition. Aflatoxins can be the economic impact of pollution (Table 2, removed through moisture control of grain Annex 3). Many of these economic costs stores; however in many developing countries, are unacknowledged, unaccounted, non climate controlled storage facilities are often monetised and remain outside the domain of not available. evaluation of public policies.
There is still no acceptable “storage or In 2013, the global welfare costs associated disposal option” for the radioactive with air pollution were estimated at about waste generated from the processing $5.11 trillion (World Bank and Institute of older-generation nuclear fuel (United for Health Metrics and Evaluation 2016). Nations Scientific Committee on the The welfare costs of mortality related to Effects of Atomic Radiation 2017; European outdoor air pollution were estimated at Commission Joint Research Centre and about $3 trillion, and $2 trillion from indoor European Academies’ Science Advisory air pollution. Mortality costs from outdoor Council 2014). Medical wastes such as air pollution are projected to rise to about cobalt 60 used in radioactive imaging $25 trillion by 2060 in the absence of more (X-rays and so on) all end up in the same stringent measures (Organisation for waste stream as spent fuel rods. Poorly Economic Co-operation and Development managed nuclear waste could remain in the 2016a).
Table 2: Summary of some of the costs of pollution based on the literature
Pollution Costs % of Gross Domestic (2015 billion US$) Product Indoor and outdoor air pollution 5 322 7.2
Chemicals (volatile organic compounds, lead, mercury) 480 0.4
General waste 216 0.3
Land degradation and desertification in Africa (42 countries) 127 12.3
Land degradation in Asia (46 countries) at 2013 price Not available 6.6
Note: see Annex 3 for more details on assumptions, methods and sources Sources: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2016), World Bank and Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (2016), United Nations Environment Programme and Principles for Responsible Investment Association (2010), Economics of Land Degradation and United Nations Environment Programme (2015), Economics of Land Degradation and United Nations Environment Programme (2017)
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Declining water quality also has a wide While a better understanding of the staggering range of economic impacts, including economic costs of pollution can inform those related to human health, ecosystem evidence-based decision-making and support health, agricultural and fisheries productivity, more effective policies, the human costs and recreational uses. With regards to of pollution are even more critical. The human health, the welfare cost of mortality United Nations has appointed two Special from unsafe water is remarkable in many Rapporteurs, the UN Special Rapporteur developing countries. In Africa, mortality on the implications for human rights of the costs from unsafe water (calculated using environmentally sound management and the value of statistical life) is estimated at disposal of hazardous substances and $252 billion (costs are expressed in 2015 wastes, and the UN Special Rapporteur on prices), an equivalent of 4 per cent of gross human rights and the environment. domestic product (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2016b). In The role of the UN Special Rapporteur on 2004, losses due to inadequate water and human rights and chemicals is to provide sanitation services in developing countries up-to-date information on the adverse impact were estimated at $260 billion a year. This is of the improper management and disposal equal to 10 per cent of the gross domestic of hazardous substances and wastes on the product of some poor countries. full enjoyment of human rights. This includes the human rights implications of waste The Lancet Commission on Pollution and recycling programmes and the transfer of Health estimates that the costs of low polluting industries, industrial activities and productivity from pollution-related diseases technologies from one country to another. are between 1.3 per cent and 1.9 per cent The Rapporteur also investigates trends in of gross domestic product in low-income e-waste and the dismantling of ships, and countries; between 0.61 per cent and 0.82 per provides support to victims of human rights cent in low-middle income countries; and violations relating to the environmentally around $53 billion in 2015 in high and upper sound management and disposal of middle-income countries (Commission on hazardous substances and wastes (United Pollution and Health 2017). Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner 2017). The work of the Special These are conservative estimates, given that Rapporteur reveals that it is possible to not all pollutants and waste are included. prevent much of the human suffering caused Even given the limitations of the research by pollution, which disproportionately affects described, it is clear that inadequate attention people and communities that are already to pollution can lead to substantial economic vulnerable. costs. The evidence of the physical and economic cost of pollution presented here, though just indicative of the scale of pollution impacts, provides a clear-cut case for immediate action.
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2 Addressing pollution: Governance frameworks, challenges and opportunities in the context of the 2030 Agenda
The first Principles of both the 1972 2.1 Global and regional Stockholm and 1992 Rio Declarations focus environmental agreements on the human right to a safe and clean and national regulations environment. The Stockholm Declaration describes “the fundamental right to freedom, Multilateral environmental agreements and UN equality and adequate conditions of life, in resolutions provide a governance framework an environment of a quality…”, while the Rio for targeted and time-bound actions, while Declaration states that humans “are entitled some also include compliance-related actions, to a healthy and productive life in harmony monitoring and reporting. Such agreements with nature” (United Nations 1972 and and resolutions also enable the exchange 1992). These declarations, have together of resources and information as well as the with other principles informed many national sharing of technologies and best practices constitutions over the past three decades. for controlled international trade; they also At the same time, voluntary environmental promote international partnerships to address initiatives have supported more formal pollution, including among non-state actors. environmental agreements, resulting in progress in some areas. But even more robust A number of multilateral environmental governance frameworks are required to agreements address different types of bring us closer to a pollution-free planet. The pollution. For example, the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals provide an the Paris Agreement on climate change will be opportunity to accelerate the implementation a major step forward in tackling air pollution, of targeted and time-bound actions on as the root causes of global warming and pollution, which have been hitherto limited air pollution largely overlap. Addressing and inadequate. short-lived climate pollutants could avoid
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Box 3: Reduction of sulphur in air emissions in Europe and Asia
The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution was established in 1979 and has been particularly successful in connecting scientific evidence with policy options. The greatest success, following the 1985 Sulphur Protocol and subsequent protocols, has been the reduction in acidification, or “acid rain”, which was causing significant damage to soils, lakes and streams and the built environment, including historic buildings and cultural monuments. Abatement measures – such as flue gas desulphurization and the development of low-sulphur fuels – have led to a total reduction of about 80 per cent of sulphur emissions since 1990 (Maas and Grennfelt 2016). As a result, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems are now recovering and the critical loads are being exceeded only in limited parts of Europe.
The Asia-Pacific Clean Air Partnership provides an example of positive action. The Partnership has provided a platform for countries to share air quality management experiences, good practices and lessons learned. A number of transport measures have been applied in Asia, with many countries in the region adopting European standards or similar for vehicles and fuels regulation (Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Nepal, Singapore, Republic of Korea, Thailand). For example, some countries have introduced requirements for reduced sulphur content in diesel fuel; others have replaced two-stroke engine motorcycles and tricycles with four-stroke alternatives that rely on less-polluting gaseous fuel. Megacities in countries such as China, Japan, Republic of Korea and Singapore havetaken action. Positive options include introducing sustainable transport options such as rail and electric vehicles usage have significantly alleviated air quality (United Nations Environment Programme 2015a).
as much as 0.5°C of warming and prevent of environmental governance, and training of 2.4 million premature deaths from air pollution customs officers and technicians. (United Nations Environment Programme and World Meteorological Organization 2011). Global conventions provide a legal framework Specific air pollution-related agreements, such for international governance of seas and the as the Convention on Long-Range Trans- ocean, prevention of pollution from ships, boundary Air Pollution, provide additional as well as dumping at sea, and are often protocols to address transboundary issues, complemented by regional agreements and such as acid rain (Box 3). conventions on specific seas (Annex 5). Freshwater pollution is mostly addressed With regards to chemicals and waste, existing by regional agreements looking at specific multilateral environmental agreements enable transboundary water basins, while land actions notably in relation to ozone-depleting and soil pollution is indirectly addressed by substances, persistent organic pollutants, the United Nations Convention to Combat certain hazardous industrial chemicals and Desertification and chemicals and waste pesticides in international trade, of hazardous conventions and processes. and household waste, and more recently mercury, with the entry into force of the The Convention on Biological Diversity’s Minamata Convention on 16 August 2017 Aichi Biodiversity Targets call for a decrease (Annex 4). Such legally binding approaches in pollution and demands specific actions at the global level are essential to addressing on excess nutrients. Most of the other the most critical and complex pollution environmental agreements at the regional or challenges. Several of the multilateral global level have an indirect impact on various environmental agreements enjoy universal pollution areas, but many areas remain or near universal ratification. A clear success unaddressed. story is that of the Montreal Protocol and its Multilateral Fund. As of June 2017, the Fund Annexes 4 and 5 provide a summary of the had provided roughly $3.7 billion to more than mandates of global and regional agreements 140 countries to phase out ozone-depleting on pollution. The potential of global and substances, with lasting influence on regional environmental agreements to achieve innovation, technology transfer, strengthening their objectives related to pollution is not
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necessarily fully utilized due to various factors, landscape. Most countries have adopted including the lack of capacity and financial national policy and legal frameworks to resources to assist parties and stakeholders. respond to these agreements and to address Whereas global and regional environmental some of the other pollution issues. initiatives such as the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management can Today, a majority of UN Member States help to safely manage some of the most recognize environmental rights. As of 2015, polluting substances, some other pollutants over 100 countries guaranteed their citizens are not covered. Some pollutants do not have a right to a healthy environment, with the substitutes or alternatives, while others are majority of countries building this into their too pervasive. national constitutions (Figure 15) (data updated from Boyd 2012). Although no In some regions, ministerial environment international agreement explicitly recognizes and health forums support integrated the right to a healthy environment, national action to tackle environmental risks constitutions have played a vital role at the affecting health. Their integrative role offers forefront of human rights and environmental significant opportunities for upscaled protection. The majority of constitutional and impactful results and exchange of environmental rights include substantive, experiences within and across regions. procedural, and emerging rights, such as Formal legal agreements are often the right to health and food, while others complemented by non-legally binding refer to policy-based, reciprocal-duty, and policy frameworks and initiatives, such miscellaneous provisions. as the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) (United Figure 15 indicates countries that recognize Nations Environment Programme 2017d), the right to a healthy environment, either the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, and through their national constitutions, legal the Global Programme of Action for the frameworks, or ratification of regional or other Protection of the Marine Environment from agreements. Also shown are the few countries Land-based Activities (GPA). that do not recognize this right. However, in some of these countries, subnational However, global and regional agreements governments recognize rights to a healthy cover only a part of the pollution governance environment. UN Environment, in collaboration
Figure 15: Map of countries that recognize the right to a healthy environment as of 2015
Source: updated from Boyd D.R. 2012
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with the UN Special Rapporteur on Human have more than 100 instruments covering Rights and the Environment and the UN Office imports and exports, product standards, of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, occupational exposure limits, bans and works to assist countries to operationalize restrictions, registration schemes, framework and implement these rights, which make a legislation, and so on (United Nations difference to people’s lives. Institute for Training and Research 2012). To date, 167 countries have national legislation Progress can also be tracked in some specific addressing the issues covered by the Basel areas of pollution. By 2015, 109 Member Convention, 142 of which have specific States had adopted air quality standards; chemicals or waste legislation. As of 2017, 73 had a specific air quality policy, act or rules 65 countries had legally binding controls on (Figure 16); and 104 had vehicle emission lead in paint. In water pollution management, standards (Figure 17) (United Nations 41 per cent of 130 countries surveyed in 2012 Environment Programme, 2016k). indicated that they had fully implemented, started or advanced implementation of Legislation, regulations, and standards integrated water resources management for chemicals and waste management plans or the equivalent (United Nations are diverse and complex. Some countries Economic and Social Council 2017).
Figure 17: Ongoing actions taken by countries to address air pollution Figure 3
Where is the world in taking action to improve air quality
Non-solid fuels access
Cook/heating stoves
ehicle emission standards
Fuel sulfur content
Public transport
Industrial energy efficiency
Clean production incentives
Waste burning
aws and regulations
Air uality standards
0 No. of Countries 193
Countries that have implemented policies and activities Countries that are in the process of implementing policies and activities Countries that have yet to adopt or implement activities Data were not available
Source: United Nations Environment Programme 2016k
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Figure 16: Air quality laws and regulations
Source: United Nations Environment Programme 2016k
However, implementation, compliance and manner to developing countries. Up to enforcement remain a great challenge, 90 per cent of e-waste is illegally dumped especially in developing countries, due after being declared “second-hand goods” to factors such as a lack of institutional (United Nations Environment Program capacity, absence of interministerial and International Solid Waste coordination, and the limited availability of Association 2015). information, training and national guidance materials on how to enforce relevant Voluntary initiatives and global alliances laws. High-income countries also face have been instrumental in driving improved enforcement problems. For instance, the responses (Box 4) aand faster actions, transboundary movement of hazardous as seen in the case of fuel efficiency waste, which is regulated by the Basel improvements and cleaner air (Boxes 5 and Convention, is often not properly controlled, 6). These strategic initiatives help leverage and resulting in large amounts of hazardous and motivate key stakeholders to deliver on waste being exported in an unregulated planned outcomes.
Box 4: Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management: A voluntary, non-binding approach
The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) is an international, voluntary, and non-binding approach to achieving the goal of protecting human health and the environment from the harmful effects of chemicals by 2020. Its global approach covers all agricultural and industrial chemicals throughout their life cycle. It addresses significant health and environmental harms caused by chemical exposure and is the only global forum in which the full range of known and newly discovered health and environmental concerns associated with the chemical life cycle can be identified, assessed and addressed. It aims to support the development of an overall, preventive chemicals management system in every country; it also aims to address a set of emerging policy issues including, among others, chemicals in products (United Nations Environment Programme 2015b) electronics, nanomaterials, lead in paint, endocrine-disrupting chemicals, environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants, perfluorinated chemicals, and the transition to safer alternatives to highly hazardous pesticides (Watts 2015). Significant progress has been achieved in the areas of risk reduction, governance, capacity building and technical cooperation. Less progress has been measured in the areas of knowledge and information, and few data are available to assess progress related to illegal international traffic. The ongoing multi-stakeholder process on sound management of chemicals and waste beyond 2020 offers opportunities to agree on measurable goals and actions that contribute to achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in the area of chemicals and waste management.
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Box 5: Eliminating lead in fuels and paint through partnerships
Over the course of ten years, the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles – a public-private partnership formed by UN Environment – supported more than 80 countries. Governments, the oil and auto industries, and civil society have worked together to support a global shift to unleaded fuels. To date, only three countries still use small amounts of leaded fuels, all of which are set to stop by the end of 2017. This massive shift prevents an estimated 1.2 million premature deaths every year. Studies have shown that blood lead levels drop dramatically in countries that ban leaded petrol. It also has a positive impact on children’s intellectual ability (Tsai and Hatfield 2011).
Figure 18: The use of unleaded petrol in 2002 (left) and today (right)
Now that lead in automobile fuels has been almost completely phased out, decorative paint is one of the largest sources of exposure to lead. Although global regulation on white lead paint started as early as 1921, decorative paint containing lead is still sold in many developing countries. They are used in homes and schools, on furniture and toys, exposing children to this dangerous neuro-toxic pollutant. As of April 2017, regulation on lead paint is in place in 65 countries. The Lead Paint Alliance is working towards the goal of having regulation in place in all countries by 2020. Countries that introduced new regulations include India, Kenya, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Thailand. Many paint manufacturers, including AkzoNobel and PPG Industry, the two largest global companies in the sector, have committed to phasing out lead paint. However, there are concerns that voluntary labelling and certification efforts by industry are insufficient, and that government action on lead paint laws may be required.
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Box 6: Climate and Clean Air Coalition: A voluntary partnership model
Established in 2012, the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) is a voluntary partnership of governments, the private sector, civil society and other stakeholders committed to “achieve concrete and substantial action to accelerate efforts to reduce short-lived climate pollutants”. Concerted global action to reduce these pollutants has the potential to prevent an estimated 2.4 million premature deaths annually from outdoor air pollution, significantly reduce the estimated 4.3 million deaths and other health impacts from indoor air pollution, and avoid more than 52 million tons of crop losses annually, while reducing the near-term warming of up to 0.5° Celsius by 2050.
The membership has grown from 7 to 115 partners including 53 countries, 17 intergovernmental organizations and 45 nongovernmental organizations. The Coalition combines strong science, high-level political will, and partnership leadership, with a range of cost-effective measures to reduce emissions, commitments by partners to implement actions at home and a Trust Fund to finance some initial collective activities. This is delivered through 11 initiatives targeting transformational change in household energy, cooling, bricks production, oil and gas production, agriculture, transport, solid waste, and national/local planning. A Scientific Advisory Panel keeps the Coalition abreast of new scientific developments on short-lived climate pollutants to better inform policies.
2.2 Actual and potential benefits employment opportunities. Renewable energy of addressing pollution provided jobs for 9.8 million people worldwide in 2016, compared to 5.7 million in 2012 Limited and inadequate as current responses (International Renewable Agency 2013 and may be, it is evident that tackling pollution has 2017). Waste recycling and reuse also offers already brought multiple benefits. Projections the chance to convert waste into economic indicate that further actions have the potential opportunities, including jobs. The scope and to enhance health and well-being and the extent of these opportunities depends on the economy. Many case studies already point availability of the secondary materials market, to the multiple benefits of tackling pollution which can be local (compost), national or (Table 3). Two success stories in particular regional (glass, fertilizers) or global (ferrous show what can be achieved: the healing of and non-ferrous materials), depending on the ozone layer (Box 7) and the phasing out of the material recovered (United Nations lead in fuel (Box 5). Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association 2015). As secondary Traditional pollution control that relies on materials replace virgin materials (for end-of-pipe technologies has been shown to example phosphate from fertilizer nutrient reduce polluting substances, such as in the recovery) they reduce the resource and
case of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen environmental footprint of growth, but they
oxides (NOx). However, these technologies can also have income and job impacts on also require materials and energy upfront, primary exporting countries. Thus, careful and, as a consequence, may increase and inclusive transition planning is required environmental impacts (International for those affected by these transformations Resource Panel 2017a). Resource efficiency (United Nations Environment Programme over the whole production-consumption 2017b). Environmental technologies that system can generate products which are help to control and prevent pollution also identical or have the same functionality bring tremendous trade and investment as when using traditional technologies opportunities. It is estimated that the global and processes, while also reducing market for environmental goods and services critical emissions and mitigating resource reached $866 billion in 2011, and is expected requirements and environmental impacts to rise to $1.9 trillion by 2020 (Bucher et al. in the upstream processes (International 2014). Resource Panel 2017b). Innovation in the chemicals sector opens Moving to less-polluting and nature-based up new ways to use existing resources at technologies also offers economic and lower cost or more productively through
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Table 3: Selected examples of multiple benefits of tackling pollution
Pollution area Intervention Benefits of interventions Air pollution Regulation United States Environmental Protection Agency regulations issued between 2004 and 2014 to limit air pollution generated benefits of between $157 billion and $777 billion (2010 prices). Costs of implementation were estimated to be between $37 billion and $44 billion. This is a clear indication that benefits outweighed costs by a ratio of at least 4 to 1 (World Bank and Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation 2016). Air pollution The health welfare benefits of reducing air pollution in China in the period 2015 reduction to 2025 were estimated at $125 billion (2015 prices). (Sun et al. 2016) Shipping emissions A review of the health impacts of shipping emissions found that on-time (2020) implementation of a global low-sulphur fuel cap for shipping would prevent some 200,000 premature deaths due to a reduction in toxic fumes, mainly in coastal communities in the developing world (Seas at Risk 2016). Freshwater Access to clean Access to improved drinking water can yield substantial welfare gains to many drinking water and developing countries. The World Health Organization (2012) estimates the sanitation benefits of avoided mortality from universal access to improved drinking water to be $3 billion per year (2015 prices) for sub-Saharan Africa, Asia (East, South, South-East and West), Latin America and the Caribbean. The benefits of water pollution control amounted to 7.4 billion (2015 prices). This includes averted mortality from unsafe drinking water, externality effects from agriculture, and other costs. Chemicals Strengthened In Uganda, the benefits of strengthening the governance of chemicals and waste governance management for the agriculture sector are estimated to be $1.98 billion over of chemicals the period 2011 to 2025. Crop yield gains are estimated at 20 per cent in the management cultivated areas concerned (Kateregga 2010). Reduction of global If global mercury emissions could be reduced by 50 per cent to 60 per cent mercury emissions before 2020, the resulting prevention of water and fish contamination, and exposures to pregnant women and children, could reap global economic benefits of between $2.2 billion and $2.7 billion in 2020 (Sundseth et al. 2010).
Box 7: Healing the ozone layer
The ozone treaties (The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer) have ensured that to date more than 99 per cent of the historic baseline levels of consumption and production of harmful ozone-depleting substances have been phased out. Through the Multilateral Fund, nearly $3.7 billion has been allocated to developing countries. As a result, the ozone layer is healing; it is expected to be restored by the middle of the century.
Health impacts: Up to two million cases of skin cancer may be prevented each year by 2030 (Van Dijk, Van Staalduinen and Van der Sluijs 2013). Further, 283 million cases of skin cancer (including 8.3 cases of melanoma) will have been avoided, 1.6 million deaths from skin cancer prevented and 46 million cases of cataracts prevented for those born between 1890 and 2100 in the United States alone (United States Environmental Protection Agency 2015).
Economic impacts: The phase-out of ozone-depleting substances has avoided reductions in agricultural and fishery yields. During the period 1987 to 2060, $460 billion worth of damage to agriculture, fisheries and materials such as plastic and wood will have been avoided (United Nations Environment Programme 2012b).
Climate change impacts: International action to protect the ozone layer averted 135 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions between 1990 to 2010 (Molina et al. 2009). In October 2016, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted the Kigali Amendment, in which they agreed to phase down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). These measures are expected to avoid up to O.5°C of global warming by the end of the century, while continuing to protect the ozone layer.
Ecosystem impacts: Averting dangerous climate change and reducing the exposure of wildlife and plants to ultraviolet light will also have enormous benefits for ecosystem functioning.
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the development of safer alternatives to contribute to more than 570,000 additional the hazardous chemicals currently used in premature deaths, mostly in coastal industry, and the supply of new chemical communities (International Maritime resources (United Nations Environment Organization 2016). Programme 2013a). Forecasts indicate that total savings across industry from • Scenarios developed by the Organisation green chemistry developments could reach for Economic Co-operation and $65.5 billion, and that it represents a market Development (OECD) suggest that opportunity worth approximately $100 billion specific measures to further reuse by 2020 (Pike Research 2012). nutrients in agriculture and reduce both domestic and agricultural discharges Various scenarios, projections and stories of of nitrogen and phosphorus could bring success highlight the opportunity, added value significant benefits. By 2050, nitrogen and multiple benefits of accelerating action to and phosphorus surpluses in agriculture tackle pollution: could be almost 20 per cent less than in a baseline scenario, the effluent of nutrients • Under its “Clean Air Scenario”, the in wastewater could fall by nearly 35 per International Energy Agency projects that cent, total nutrient loads to rivers could an increase of 7 per cent in total clean be reduced by nearly 40 per cent for energy investment for the period 2012- nitrogen and 15 per cent for phosphorus 2040 could prevent 1.7 million premature compared to baseline. These would deaths from outdoor air pollution and require a combination of measures on 1.6 million deaths from household nutrients: 1) an increase in fertilizer use pollution in 2040 compared to the efficiency, 2) higher nutrient efficiencies baseline scenario. Investments focus on in livestock production, 3) using animal advanced pollution control technologies, manure instead of synthetic nitrogen mostly to comply with stricter vehicle and phosphorus fertilizers in countries emissions standards, witha more rapid with a fertilizer-dominated arable system, transformation of the energy sector, as 4) investments in sewage systems well as stronger efforts to improve energy that separately collect urine from other efficiency. Under the scenario, most people wastewater in household, and 5) recycling in urban areas gain access to efficient treated wastewater back into agriculture cookstoves by 2030, and in rural areas to significantly reduce wastewater nutrient by 2040. As a result, the share of India’s flows and fertilizer use (Organisation for population exposed to air with a high Economic Co-operation and Development concentration of fine particulate matter 2012). could fall to less than 20 per cent in 2040, down from more than 60 per cent today. • Well-planned and appropriate ecosystem In China, this figure shrinks from well over restoration, compared to the loss of half to below one quarter, and in Indonesia ecosystem services, may provide and South Africa it falls to almost zero benefit-cost ratios of 3:75 in return on (International Energy Agency 2016). investments, as well as an internal rate of return of between 7 per cent and • The Finnish Meteorological Institute 79 per cent, depending on the ecosystem concluded a study on “Health Impacts restored and its economic context (Kumar Associated with Delay of MARPOL Global 2017). Thus, in many cases ecosystem Sulphur Standards”, which shows that a restoration can provide some of the most five-year delay (from 2020 to 2025) in the profitable public investments including implementation of global sulphur limits generation of jobs directly and indirectly in ships by the International Maritime related to an improved environment and Organization (IMO) and its parties would health. Ecological restoration can further
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act as an engine of economic growth result in them being treated as dumping and a source of green employment (Kumar grounds. 2017). • Knowledge gaps continue to hinder 2.3 Challenges and gaps effective action on pollution, despite the fact that access to pollution- Despite current actions and environmental related information has improved governance frameworks, the problem of dramatically alongside advancements pollution persists and remains pervasive. in information technology and the New pollution issues continue to emerge for continual implementation of pollutant which responses have yet to be developed. release and transfer registers (PRTRs) While successful responses to the pollution by countries throughout the world. There challenge exist, their scope, scale and is a need, however, for much greater effectiveness are still limited. Evidence of the awareness of information on the sources continuing trends and impacts of pollution of pollution, the pathways of exposure, demonstrates the tenacity of the problem. and the impacts and solutions. Emerging Many multilateral environmental agreements issues and new research findings on the are not as effective as they could be for lack impacts on health and ecosystems need of institutional capacity or resources. But to be taken into account. There is also other challenges and gaps are limiting the insufficient information disclosure, and efficacy of current actions on pollution; they a limited understanding of pollution’s also point to a neglect of pollution issues. social, health and gender dimensions. Without broader public awareness, The following key gaps help to explain why the socio-political pressure needed to pollution is still an issue: prevent and mitigate pollution will not follow. Information disclosure and greater • Implementation gaps are due to awareness will enable the development a lack of resources; inadequate of more effective interventions, support administrative, financial, institutional meaningful and effective participation, and technical capacity; and the absence and empower the public to play a role in of interministerial coordination and ensuring that government institutions and political will. Absence of interministerial the regulated community and business coordination is a key reason why action meet their legal obligations and strengthen does not happen. Many sectors contribute implementation. to pollution, and action will only follow if there is interministerial coordination and • Infrastructure gaps exist with regards a greater consciousness with regards to monitoring pollution, collecting and to pollution and its social and economic disposing of waste, treating wastewater, impacts. In many countries, there is a facilitating recycling and improving food focus on economic development and storage, among other areas. Major forms raising livelihood standards at the expense of pollution exist due to the absence of of pollution prevention. Information infrastructure such as monitoring systems, on the costs of inaction to society, the wastewater and sewage treatment plants, economy and the health of individuals controlled waste collection, reception and and highlighting the benefits of action are disposal, facilities for recycling and food therefore key to informing public policy. storage, etc. This lack of infrastructure The absence of enforceable rights on the not only prevents better practice, but environment within a country’s border (for also enhances hazards associated with example in villages, indigenous lands), pollution, such as waste dump collapses, and beyond the borders (for example in flooding of sewage water or water runoff the oceans, atmosphere and open lands) that leads to mobilization of dangerous
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chemicals from storage or remobilization treatment of these ecosystems as dumps of chemicals already in the environment, and sinks for waste. Externality caused e.g. pesticides, or disease outbreaks by upstream actions are often difficult after natural disasters. Investing in to include in compliance downstream. infrastructure improvements is key to Plastics in the oceans is a case in point: addressing pollution.a the environmental costs of producing and using plastics are not internalized, such • Leadership gaps by development banks, that a lack of actions upstream in the value finance institutions, and industry, in chain has downstream impacts through insufficiently making pollution avoidance rivers and streams that open into the sea. and control central to their decision- One of the key barriers to change is the making, are also hindering progress fact that the economic costs of pollution on the pollution reduction and control are not integrated in policy and decision- front. This gap is especially evident making. This results in choices that are with regards to requirements related to made without full knowledge of the trade- pollution information disclosure, due offs. diligence, pollution prevention approaches, internalization of pollution costs, and green • There is insufficient recognition by financing. Improved assessments and different actors that producer and reporting of pollution exposure risks and consumer choices have pollution internalization of environmental costs of consequences. Such choices – even in activities and products are key to cleaner the presence of pollution policies and production and consumption investment regulations – can be made out of habit, decisions. The integration of the a feeling that one person or firm cannot economic costs of pollution into product make a difference, a free-rider problem, pricing would incentivize companies peer pressure or the lack thereof, social and consumers to make more informed norms and practices, short termism, choices and would create pressure and even the absence of information on on producers to reduce their pollution products and alternative affordable options footprint and adopt better practices. (United Nations Environment Programme 2017a). • Mispricing, and the invisibility of ecosystem values and externalization 2.4 The sustainable development of pollution costs result in wastage and goals: an opportunity to over-use; the treatment of ecosystems as accelerate pollution action dumps and sinks for waste; and choices made without full knowledge of what is The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable being consumed or traded off. Subsidies Development offers a great opportunity to for, for example, energy, water, electricity enhance and accelerate action to tackle and commodity crops, also result in pollution. Pollution prevention, control wastage and overuse. Lack of valuation and reduction will also create multiple of ecosystem goods and services, opportunities for achieving the Sustainable such as those from oceans, rivers, Development Goals in a mutually beneficial land, wetlands, and others result in the manner.
a An ongoing evaluation of the Independent Evaluation Group, “Towards a Clean World for all – World Bank Group’s Support to Pollution Management”, to be released later this year, will provide further insight into how to address pollution challenges.
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Every pollution area described under Part 1 is 2016). One key approach is the decoupling of addressed by one or more targets. Addressing economic and human activity from resource pollution helps to reduce poverty (Goal 1), as use (Goal 8) through enhanced resource it improves health and worker productivity and efficiency (European Environment work days. Addressing pollution also protects Agency 2016). the poor, as these are often most exposed to pollution for lack of options in where they Other goals and related targets that are work, live or how they cook or what they eat or essential to reduce and prevent pollution, drink. Addressing pollution also contributes to such as Target 6.3 under Goal 6, which poverty alleviation by supporting Target 15.9 aims to improve water quality by reducing on “integrating ecosystem and biodiversity pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing values into national and local planning, the release of hazardous chemicals and development processes, poverty reduction materials. Not only could it significantly strategies and accounts”. Addressing reduce the number of deaths from diarrhoeal pollution in all its forms helps to fight hunger diseases; it could also provide incentives for and ensure the provision of safe food year more innovative water resource management round (Target 2.1), as it tackles the food practices, including recycling and safe reuse. safety issues of irrigation with untreated Target 14.1 already addresses pollution wastewater or sewage as well as the growing explicitly by requesting “the prevention and of food on contaminated soil. In all actions significant reduction of all kinds of marine against pollution, it is also important to ensure pollution, in particular from land-based women’s equal participation, decision-making activities, including marine debris and nutrient and access to opportunities and resources pollution”. (Goal 5). In this respect, the provision of clean water (Goal 6) and energy (Goal 7) also Clean household energy (Goal 7) and access reduces the domestic burden of women to to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern carry water and their exposure to indoor air energy can cut air pollution indoors, which pollution from cooking activities. will particularly benefit women and children. Sustainable transport, waste management, Under Goal 3 on health and well-being, one buildings and industry (Goal 11 on inclusive, target (Target 3.9) is central, requiring that safe, resilient and sustainable cities and by 2030 we “substantially reduce the number settlements) will lead to cleaner air in cities. of deaths and illnesses from hazardous Those policies could prevent more than six chemicals and air, water and soil pollution million deaths each year due to air pollution and contamination”. Human health and and mitigate climate change and its impacts the environment are compromised by the (Goal 13). mismanagement of chemicals and waste, which form a fundamental obstacle to the Another group of Sustainable Development achievement of sustainable development. Goals is instrumental in enabling the effective This is strongly linked to how we produce implementation of actions to address various and consume (Goal 12) and our ability to forms of pollution. Goal 16 provides the reduce resource degradation, pollution and momentum for good governance, public waste. Indeed, environmental impacts and access to environmental information, pollution cannot be effectively mitigated public participation and access to justice unless raw material inputs into production for all in environmental matters. Goal 17 and consumption systems are decreased, is an enabler for achieving all Sustainable since the magnitude of what goes into Development Goals and focuses on means of these systems determines the final waste implementation, such as finance, technology, and emissions released to the environment capacity development, global partnerships (United Nations Environment Assembly of and policy coherence. Goal 4 promotes the United Nations Environment Programme quality education so that people acquire the
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knowledge and skills needed to promote urbanization, could be at odds with movement sustainable development and sustainable towards a pollution-free planet. A case in point lifestyles (Target 4.7). is Target 2.3, which aims to double agricultural productivity by 2030. This may result in A fundamental principle of the 2030 Agenda increased air, land and freshwater pollution, is to “leave no one behind”. In the context in a business-as-usual scenario, whereas of pollution, this means that no group or Target 8.4 endeavours to decouple economic community is made to bear a disproportionate growth from environmental degradation. share of the harmful effects of pollution. Modelling studies suggest that sustainable Sustainable development is not possible consumption and production (Goal 12) without a healthy population. Goal 10 – the policies are the most effective in reducing inequality goal – includes the specific trade-offs (Obersteiner et al. 2016). target: “By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of Figure 19 visualizes how addressing pollution all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, supports the achievement of the Sustainable ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other Development Goals. Annex 6 provides a status” (Target 10.2). detailed mapping of the specific targets that are benefiting from addressing pollution; it All Sustainable Development Goals are also explores in a preliminary way how the interlinked and indivisible. While there international environmental governance is ample scope for synergies between landscape is currently set up to address progress towards the goals and reducing pollution. pollution, there is also a potential for conflict. For example, achieving targets related The 2030 Agenda also provides business with to economic growth, industrialization, an opportunity to respond to the Sustainable infrastructure, agricultural development andTable 3 Development Goals and act on pollution. In
Figure 19: Acting on pollution for the Sustainable Development Goals
cting on pollution for the ustainable evelopment Goals
Cleaner environments improve health Growing food on non-contaminated Actions on pollution substantially reduce and worker productivity and work days soils helps to fight hunger and ensure the number of deaths and illnesses from the provision of safe food round hazardous chemicals and air water and soil pollution and contamination
A clean environment enables uality Pollution reduction as well as Better managed freshwater ecosystems education and education enables e uality for example through and cleaner water significantly reduce ac uisition of knowledge and skills needed reduced burden of fetching clean the number of deaths from diarrhoeal to promote sustainable development and water cleaner indoor air uality and diseases sustainable lifestyles better health enable gender e uality
Access to affordable reliable educed exposure to pollution Pollution avoidance through adoption sustainable and modern energy can leads to improved health and of green technologies and ecosystem cut air pollution indoors which will well-being of workers and therefore based solutions fosters innovation particularly benefit women and children increased productivity and and sustainability in industry and economic growth infrastructural sectors
Pollution governance and actions can Sustainable transport waste esource efficiency and circularity ensure that no group or community is management buildings and in materials and input use reduce made to bear a disproportionate share industry lead to cleaner air in cities pollution and waste and contribute of the harmful effects of pollution to sustainable consumption and production
Clean energy and low carbon policies Action on marine pollution reduces Integrating ecosystem and biodiversity reduce air pollution and mitigate climate potential bioaccumulation of toxic values into development plans and change impact at the same time substances as well as habitat poverty reduction strategies supports destruction and help maintain better land management and avoids healthy fisheries and ecosystems pollution
Good pollution-related governance Global partnerships to address reduces environmental burdens and pollution can have positive injustices and can enhance availability implications to health jobs worker of saved resources for the underserved productivity planet and well-being
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its 2017 report, the Business and Sustainable technical and financial assistance. There Development Commission proposes to are several benefits of having the global business leaders an alternative to business and regional environmental agreements as usual, in the form of a business strategy in work together, and more synergistically line with the Sustainable Development Goals with other initiatives. Supporting voluntary (Business and Sustainable Development initiatives such as the Global Programme Commission 2017). The report shows the of Action for the Protection of the Marine linkages between business needs and the Environment from Land-based Activities, global goals. It identifies at least $12 trillion the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, the in opportunities, of which the 60 biggest are Batumi Action for Cleaner Air, the Global in food and agriculture, cities, energy and Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, the Global materials, and health and well-being. At least Partnership on Marine Litter, the Global 23 of these opportunities can deliver on Partnership on Nutrient Management, pollution avoidance, reduction, mitigation and the Global Wastewater Partnership, the rehabilitation. Lead Paint Alliance, Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles, the Global Mercury Partnership, the Partnership for Action 2.5 Multiple stakeholders and on the Green Economy, Principles for multi-level engagement: Sustainable Insurance, and so on can central to improved provide the integrating, catalytic, and environmental governance scaling up power of partnerships and initiatives for layered actions and next steps. Strengthening and building on multilateral environmental agreements will require greater • Engaging diverse actors and stakeholders: multi-level and multi-actor involvement, To protect the environment and human coordination and policy coherence, across health, use resources in a sustainable global, regional, national, subnational and way, and combat pollution, we will need local levels. Improving environmental commitments and action from all parts governance calls for the following: of society: governments (national, sub- national and local), business and industry, • Strengthening the science-policy-society civil society, the academic and scientific interface: Bringing knowledge flows community, youth groups, farmers and into policy requires a rigorous political the individual consumer. Involving diverse economy analysis, a systemic monitoring actors early in the discussions enhances system that includes both indicators and the understanding of the problem and targets, including on resource footprints the viability of proposed solutions. It may of production and consumption (Giljum also make it easier to attract the support et al. 2015); taking science to various of parties who might otherwise show communities; incorporating traditional, reluctance. business, and other knowledge into science; and bringing all of this combined • Engaging industry and the business knowledge into policy formulation. community in solutions: One of the key reasons for the success of the Montreal • Supplementing and complementing legal Protocol was that relevant industrial agreements and conventions with more sectors showed leadership and assisted outcome-based and voluntary initiatives: the transition through new technologies International and regional agreements and improved practices. The transition require national implementation, which in brought significant investment in the turn requires appropriate infrastructure, innovative redesigning of products and capacity, local partners and direct equipment to use greener chemicals.
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Such investment has stimulated more Pollution cannot be resolved solely through efficient production processes, including global and regional multilateral agreements, with regard to energy efficiency. even with better coordination and synergies. The problem of pollution is closely connected • Integrating innovations in production with behavioural and technology choices, systems with social considerations, production and consumption practices, competitiveness and employment: industrial processes and pricing policies, Increases in resource efficiency along the financial and business sector orientation, and whole production and consumption chain social norms that are centred on a culture of are necessary to reduce pollution and its consumerism and irresponsibility with regards environmental impacts on a system-wide to the environment and impacts on people's basis. Changing production systems health. involves converting existing production facilities and training personnel in new technologies and processes while retaining existing jobs. Thus, the protection of the environment goes hand in hand with social development and economic growth.
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3 Transitioning to a pollution- free planet
Transitioning towards a pollution-free planet This section proposes a framework for seeks to eliminate the waste, hazardous actions that Member States and other pollutants, and pollution of air, water stakeholders may wish to consider to and land that emanates from man-made curb pollution around the world. It seeks activity and that degrades ecosystems to reinforce integration and coherence and impacts human health and welfare of in the way society responds to social, living species. Research on global material environmental and economic challenges flows and material and environmental related to pollution. It fully recognizes footprint indicators, indicates that the level that what already has been achieved by of development and well-being in wealthy governments and stakeholders needs to be industrial countries has been achieved largely built upon and can be reproduced in other through highly resource-intensive patterns countries and settings through experience of consumption and production, which are sharing, support and the adoption of good not sustainable, even less replicable to other practices. parts of the world (International Resource Panel 2016a). Instead, transitioning to a The framework is centered on a dual track of pollution-free planet with development and actions: well-being for all needs innovation, targeted and time-bound action (with focus on the • Targeted interventions, based on risk most urgent and ‘hard hitting’ pollutants’ assessments and scientific evidence and polluted areas), as well as a longer of impacts, to address: i. ‘hard-hitting’ term system wide shift in the economy to pollutants; ii. Areas of pollution (air, water, be low carbon, circular and less toxic while marine and coastal, land/soil) including the reducing the overall use of resources. This cross-cutting categories of chemicals and transition can only take place if preventive waste. They can be both based on global and curative actions are accompanied by and regional environmental agreements, or system-wide enablers, based on opportunity direct action beyond these to address the and innovations. most pressing problems.
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• In parallel, there is a critical need for accelerating mitigation efforts using system-wide transformations to prevent polluter pays approaches (sustainability) and control pollution, toward greater resource efficiency and equity, circularity (iv) Precautionary approaches are essential and sustainable consumption and for guiding change, as so much is production, and improved ecosystem still unknown. These ensure not just resilience to support cleaner and more responsibility but stewardship by different sustainable development societal actors (precautionary).
Both targeted interventions as well as (v) Multiple benefits of action on pollution transformative actions need to be supported require integrated policies and cross- by system-wide enablers, that aim to shift ministerial approaches (integrative). incentives, correct market and policy failures Innovation, collaboration, and leadership and address some of the gaps and issues that are central to tackling pollution, especially make pollution so pervasive and persistent, to cross media, transboundary, and legacy avoid and reduce pollution in the medium and pollution, in an effective and impactful the long term. manner.
The Rio Principles and the 2030 Agenda 3.1 Targeted priority interventions for Sustainable Development guide this framework for actions. 3.1.1 Interventions targeting “hard-hitting” pollutants The five principles that underpin the proposed global action agenda – universality, The evidence in Part 1 highlights a number inclusiveness, sustainability, precautionary of hard hitting pollutants and those that and integration – respectively imply that: have crossed exposure thresholds (where these have been established). Part 2 shows (i) Everyone in society is responsible for that – despite the existence of international taking action towards a pollution-free agreements and other initiatives – important planet (universality). While national gaps remain in addressing pollution. Targeted governments have a clear role in enabling interventions are needed to eliminate or and guiding actions and including pollution reduce risks posed by these pollutants. management into development agendas, states and local authorities, communities, Table 4 gives an overview of the main businesses, multi-stakeholder partnerships categories of these hard-hitting pollutants and citizens have a clear responsibility to based on what could be done to reduce their act. risk to human health and ecosystems. Possible near-term interventions to address priority (ii) Access for all to environmental areas mostly at a global and multilateral level information and data, regulatory have been identified where: frameworks, education and public participation, land and resource rights 1. Relevant multilateral environmental are key to effective actions and enhanced agreements exist, but where access to justice in environmental matters implementation and enforcement need to (inclusiveness) be strengthened and scaled up in those countries party to them through enhanced (iii) Multiple and long-term risks to human expertise and support health and well-being, especially to women, children and vulnerable groups, 2. Scientific evidence exists to reduce ecosystem health and future generations pollution risks, but policy action at all levels require a preventive approach while are required
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3. Emerging scientific evidence concerning of pollution mostly at a national or regional human health and the environment level, although they also take into account warrants a greater understanding of the the transboundary aspects of pollution. nature and magnitude of risks. Many of these interventions are applicable across one or more of the pollution areas. 3.1.2 Interventions targeting key pollution Many forms of pollution are interlinked as areas they cross these areas. For example, the issue of nutrient pollution from land-based In addition to targeting specific hazardous runoff is a significant aspect of pollution that substances, many interventions can help affects freshwater and marine environments. tackle or prevent particular forms of Plastics often originate on land or upstream pollution at all levels. Many of these forms of and find their way to the coastal and marine pollution are already covered by multilateral environment through rivers, waterways, and environmental agreements or other streams. It is thus important to use river initiatives, while others are new and based basin or ecosystem approaches to control on emerging knowledge. Fifty examples of and manage pollution flows as pollution focused and actionable policy options are crosses boundaries. provided below. They target specific forms Table 4
Table 4: Types of action required per pollutant categories, based on scientific evidence
Types of action required per pollutant categories, based on scientific evidence
e i als Pollutants ienti i e iden e e ti e Fo us o tion
Persistent Organic Pollutants under Stockholm International pollution reduction action Need to scale up implementation action (through for Convention (e.g. PCB-polycholorobyphenyl PBDEs- already agreed (mainly through example identification of alternatives financing Polybrominated dyphenil ethers multilateral environmental agreements strengthening institutional and technical capacity DDT-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane Endosulfan). compliance assistance teams and industry support) Ozone depleting substances under the Montreal Protocol For countries that are Parties to these multilateral Mercury.(Minamata Convention) environmental agreements ensure full Asbestos (I O Convention) implementation and compliance with the Basel otterdam and Stockholm conventions the Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on ong-range Transboundary Air Pollution and the Minamata Convention on Mercury
Highly hazardous pesticides Scientific evidence exists to advance risk Enforce emission and release standards if in place Phosphorus and nitrogen reduction action establish standards if none exist ead Apply best available techni ues and best Other heavy metals (cadmium arsenic chromium) environmental practices Environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants Identify and promulgate further appropriate risk reduction-measures at the national and possibly Chemicals included under the otterdam Convention international level (Measures may include bans Selected solvents (for example. trichloroethylene) restriction standards labelling economic incentives) P/ C (vinyl chloride/polyvinyl chloride) including full implementation of the Globally Harmonized Certain fluorinated compounds (for example PFAS) System for Classification and abelling of Chemicals (GHS) Selected flame retardants Improve resource efficiency and sustainability in PM2.5 PM10 (particulate matter) production methods to increase recycling and reuse of material where feasible and in accordance with Black carbon international regional and national re uirements Sulfur dioxide (catalysts solvents etc.) Nitrogen oxides Implementation of the Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals Strengthening of multilateral processes that complement multilateral environmental agreements or catalyse actions. e.g. the Strategic Approach for International Chemicals Management (SAICM) the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) the Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from and-Based Activities (GPA) the 10- ear Framework of Programmes of Action on Sustainable Consumption and Production (10 FP) ead Paint Alliance among others
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals Emerging scientific evidence concerning Need to scale up research and knowledge-sharing to Nanotechnology risk to human health and environment better understand nature and magnitude of risks in Neonicotinoids particular in developing countries Certain pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics Apply precautionary approach
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Air pollution quality and quantity (flow) monitoring systems in surface water and groundwater 1. Develop air quality policies and strategies at the subnational, national and regional levels to 16. Define national and water-body standards comply with World Health Organization air quality to provide an ongoing picture of the quality guidelines of available water resources and to identify opportunities and risks in relation to human and 2. Invest in air quality monitoring networks, ecosystem health assessment systems, institutional capacity 17. Improve data collection and sharing, build and information disclosure to the wider public capacity for data quality assurance and control in order to address gaps in capacity, data, and make information on water quality freely information and awareness available to the public 3. Reduce emissions from major industrial and 18. Provide safe drinking water and access to manufacturing sources sanitation for all by 2030 4. Adopt and enforce advanced vehicles emissions Land/soil pollution standards 19. Adopt agroecological practices and integrated 5. Develop and adopt electric and hybrid vehicles pest management and establish guidelines for 6. Provide access to public transport and non- the reduction and efficient use of fertilizers and motorized transport infrastructure in cities environmentally friendly pesticides in agriculture
7. Increase investment in renewable energy and 20. Reduce point-source pollutants, such as heavy energy efficiency metals from industry, and diffuse pollutants including pesticides and inefficiently used 8. Improve access to clean cooking fuels and green fertilizers in agriculture technologies for residential heating 21. Reduce the use of antimicrobials, including 9. Protect and restore ecosystems to avoid erosion, antibiotics in the livestock sector, to avoid fires and dust storms unintended releases into the environment and food chain, and increase public awareness and 10. Reduce emissions of ammonium and methane international collaboration on research and from agriculture product development
11. Designate and expand green spaces in urban 22. Invest in building the knowledge of all those areas associated with the design, construction, operation and closure of tailings dams 12. Enhance climate change activities of Governments and businesses to better tackle 23. Remediate contaminated sites local and regional pollution 24. Invest in long-term environmental monitoring Water pollution following industrial closures
13. Increase treatment, recycling and reuse of Marine and coastal pollution wastewater to reduce the amount of untreated wastewater discharged into freshwater bodies by 25. Do not discharge untreated wastewater and at least 50 per cent by 2030 reduce excess nutrient runoff from agricultural systems into the marine environment 14. Adopt and enforce national guidelines for freshwater ecosystem management to protect 26. Restore and conserve coastal ecosystems and restore wetlands and other natural systems and wetlands to reduce the amount of that contribute to water purification excess nutrients and other pollutants such as heavy metals entering coastal and marine 15. Establish, improve and harmonize (in situ) water environments
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27. Prevent and reduce marine litter, including 37. Provide reliable and effective consumer microplastics, and harmonize monitoring and information on the impacts of consumer assessment methodologies to facilitate the products throughout their life cycles adoption of reduction targets 38. Introduce eco-labelling schemes 28. Reduce or phase out the use of certain types of plastic (e.g. microbeads, packaging, single-use 39. Introduce producer responsibility schemes to plastics) and promote their recovery collect, treat and safely recycle waste from production and consumption 29. Develop efficient governance frameworks and strategies for the prevention and minimization 40. Improve knowledge relating to chemicals in of the generation of marine plastic litter, in products throughout their life cycle (production, particular from land-based sources, and make use, consumption and disposal) producers more responsible for the sustainable 41. Extend product lives design, recovery, recycling and environmentally sound disposal of their products 42. Reduce exposure to lead from battery recycling, pottery, ammunition, paint and contaminated 30. Regulate the leaking of radioactive waste into sites the ocean 43. Phase out mercury use in a number of 31. Establish waste collection systems in coastal specific products by 2020 and manufacturing areas and monitor programmes for marine litter processes by 2025, and phase down use in to inform upstream interventions dental amalgams and mining
Chemicals and waste 44. Phase out the production and use of asbestos and ensure its sound disposal 32. Adopt sound chemicals management and advance sustainable chemistry within business 45. Accelerate efforts to eliminate PCBs approaches, policies and practices (polychlorinated biphenyls) to meet the Stockholm Convention deadlines for phasing 33. Improve the enforcement of existing out the substances by 2025 and disposing of regulations on the transboundary movement them completely by 2028 of hazardous waste, in particular toxic waste streams from developed to developing 46. Increase publicly available information and countries monitor data on the presence of chemicals in the environment, in humans and in pollution 34. Increase efforts to deploy locally safe, effective, hotspots affordable and environmentally sound alternatives to chemicals of concern, including 47. Minimize the generation of waste, and improve DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), PCBs its collection, separation, reuse, recycling, (polychlorinated biphenyls), asbestos, lead and recovery and final disposal through policy mercury frameworks and regulations at the national and subnational levels 35. Accelerate the implementation of the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions, the 48. Eliminate uncontrolled dumping and open Minamata Convention and the Strategic burning of waste Approach to International Chemicals 49. Increase material and energy recovery of waste, Management in a coordinated manner at the including through recycling national level 50. Reduce food waste throughout value chains, 36. Establish and strengthen pollutant release and including at the consumer level transfer registers (PRTRs) to measure progress and provide baseline data on chemical emissions
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3.2 Transformative actions to shift (v) Integrating policies to tackle pollution, with the economy a specific emphasis on city-level action
Transitioning to a pollution-free world (vi) Incentivizing responsible consumption and requires placing a high priority on policies lifestyles choices and actions that promote and enable a radical decoupling of economic growth To truly achieve a pollution-free planet, a from natural resource consumption and system would need to be put in place to environmental impacts (International track pollution over time and assess the Resource Panel 2015a). This can be effectiveness of the above actions. achieved through reuse, recycling, and remanufacturing, all key strategies for 3.2.1 Building circularity and resource reducing both greenhouse gas emissions efficiency into production processes, and other environmental and resource supply chains and key economic sectors pressures (International Resource Panel 2015b).The transition can also drive Production and supply chains need to become innovations in the economy, as regulatory circular and responsible, and focused on the compliance can be an opportunity rather than 3 Rs – reduce, reuse, recycle. Where waste a cost. Innovations can draw on a fusion of is produced, it is regarded as a resource, an technologies – digital, biological, information investment and an employment opportunity. and connectivity technologies (Schwab This involves the use of life-cycle thinking 2016) – to not only clean the environment, across the value chain to ensure the efficient but also to drive economic productivity use of natural resources in ways that prevent and create jobs. In order for this to happen, pollution and strengthen the economy. production and supply chains must be made Seeking to remove toxic chemicals from cleaner; products and services must be reused materials has to be part of this circular designed to be reusable, durable, recoverable approach. and recyclable; and new business models must be developed while creating good Systemic changes aiming at preventing and best practice platforms. Leadership, pollution require a complete life-cycle policy certainty and investments in talent approach. The transition must be underpinned are critical to incentivizing innovations by greatly increased knowledge and data (Nidumolu et al. 2009). about the current state of natural resources in the environment, trends, as well as their Key actions required to achieve system-wide, use at different levels of society. A thorough long-term change include the following: analysis can assist policymakers in identifying both the most important challenges, such (i) Building circularity into production as the prevention of problem shifting, or processes and supply chains and key new pollution from substitutes, as well as economic sectors opportunities for effective regulatory, fiscal, social or technical policy interventions. This (ii) Incentivizing and redirecting finance and implies the need for a systemic monitoring investments to less-polluting and cleaner system that includes both indicators and economic activities targets, including on resource footprints of production and consumption. (iii) Adopting ecosystem-based approaches and solutions to mitigate and manage The use of life-cycle approaches in the pollution regulation of toxic chemicals is key, as the hotspots can be delineated and targeted (iv) Promoting green technologies to mitigate for regulation. Gathering data to identify and manage pollution substances that pose a risk based on known
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Box 8: Life cycle management to address pollution and improve production chains in industries: The example of a Ugandan organic produce cooperative
Rural Community in Development (RUCID), a cooperative in Uganda that produces organic dried fruits and fruit juices, adopted Life Cycle Management concepts, which resulted in the cooperative making systemic changes in their production chain, in relation for example to their resources and waste, relationships with their suppliers. They were supported by a conducive policy environment that backs organic agriculture. Applying the Life Cycle Management approach led them to adopt new technical solutions, including increased fuel efficiency in their boilers, which had been identified as a hotspot; replacing fuelwood with biogas produced from their own waste (with significant increase in efficiency and product quality); and turning waste streams into new market opportunities (for example producing pineapple suckers from the crowns, instead of wasting them). They reported a 25 per cent increase in revenue in the first year after applying the new approach. More info: http://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/case-study-rucid-fruit-juices-and-sun-dried-fruit-crisps/ intrinsic properties through watch lists is Table 5 provides examples of measures that another way to improve regulation. The lack of can be taken at every stage of the production knowledge on how chemicals spread globally or supply chain of any given sector in order to through the use and recycling of everyday prevent, better manage, and reduce pollution. products such as textiles, toys and electronics is an obstacle for resource efficiency and 3.2.2 Incentivizing and redirecting finance a pollution risk. While individual producers and investments to less-polluting can decide to adopt such an approach, economic activities transformative change can only materialize if individual companies’ efforts are supported Financial regulators and institutions have by an enabling environment (Schwab 2016). an important role to play in preventing and For example, nine countries in the European mitigating pollution and reducing its negative Union and the Asia-Pacific region (Japan’s impacts. They can do this in the following ways: Sound Material Cycle Policy is one example), have set targets with indicator frameworks for • Internalizing the costs of pollution in resource efficiency (Straub 2009; financial decisions: Pollution impacts Japan 2013). that were previously considered by financial institutions to be externalities In order to incentivize life-cycle and circular are becoming more material.b A range approaches to material and product flows, of environmental risk analysis tools and the costs of pollution must be integrated into techniques are already being developed, production and supply chains. including the use of “environmental scenario risk analysis”, which then Although all economic sectors need to revisit influence financial flows. The primary focus their production and supply chain processes, of innovation in this market has been at the four sectors are provided here as examples of firm level, however there are also examples the changes required: of innovation being driven at the industrial sector level, often in response to new -- Food and agriculture systems regulations on environmental and social -- Extractives/mining sector risk management. Policies that implement -- Terrestrial transportation a price signal that steadily increases at the -- Building and construction pace of decoupling successes moves the discussion to net costs, innovation and
b Financial institutions have been addressing environmental sources of risk for many years through compliance with regulation, voluntary industry policies and products such as environmental pollution liability insurance (also known as environmental impairment liability insurance). But these impacts have always previously been considered externalities.
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Table 5: Examples of actions to prevent, better manage and reduce pollution in key economic sectors uildin s and onstru tion se tors address sources of indoor pollutants, such as Heating, as such pollutants, indoor of sources address and systems and Air- onditioning (HVA ) Ventilation or chemicals in building materials, such particulates toxic from plastics and compounds construction paint, plaster, as products for building and construction related strengthen end users and S Es) to governments, and products building for standards environmental processes construction housing strategies government consumers as well through (land use, at urban level approaches enable integrated to etc.) transport, waste, district energy, infrastructure, principles in policies, building design and in operations and principles in policies, building design and operations maintenance including demolition and management of processes, waste construction programmes recovery such as and networks, as well incentives industry initiatives mortgages,green leases, etc. choices, and decisions on lifestyle consumer behaviour including buildings and appliances Promote use of certification Promote to approach as an systems,
Support development of life-cycle approaches and databases approaches • Support of life-cycle development suppliers, (designers, contractors, • Engage stakeholders from including choices, housing on decision-making • Enhance In all countries, minimi e the environmental impact of impact environmental the minimi e countries, all In of application through buildings of operation and construction and sustainable building policies.• As approaches life-cycle duty heavy furthertechnologies cheaper, become and develop electricity switch to need to transport, trucks, and aircraft efficiency as guiding efficiency and energy • Apply resource of building materials and on-site construction • educe toxicity resource and materials building recycled of use • Upscale • • Supportthrough buildings sustainable of mainstreaming influence efficiency to and energy of resource • aise awareness Trans ort se tor Trans ort New approaches to urban planning will be re uired to achieve achieve to urban planning will be re uired to New approaches this transportcombine public transport and electric with active transport, this can include oning vehicles to be added should be electric as from 2030. By 2050 be added should electric as from to vehicles the complete global fleet should be electric. electricity switch to need to duty transport, trucks, and aircraft than 50 low sulfur fuels of not more and introducing petrol parts per million (aiming ultimately at 10 parts per million) priced mass and reasonably (including women and children), and/or public transport systems transit (walking and cycling) be built and existing roads to in all new roads that will result transport include facilities for active to being upgraded Urban mobility systems need to maximi e shared vehicle trips. vehicle shared maximi e • Urban mobility systems need to mobility plans that integrated developed • ities need to Develop national road maps for only electric vehicles all new maps for only electric vehicles national road • Develop heavy • As technologies further and become cheaper, develop 6 level of Euro emission standards • Adopt cleaner vehicle including eliminating leaded • Adopt cleaner fuels standards, all friendly to safe, effective, cities should have • All large transport • ountries and cities should adopt policies for active clean bus fleets • ities should introduce Table 5 Table tra ti es li uid oil aseous tra ti es reser es and solid ineral reduce resource use during production resource reduce scenarios on demand and supply that are accurate more societal needs and ecologically viable and integrate constraints water use and including for methane pollution reduction, tailings and small-scale gold mining of ores, transported and used for the recovery produced, are and on mill tailings leach solutions the efficiency and reduce maximi e technologies to safety waste and ensure consumption of water and minimi e facilities and waste disposal methodologies of tailings storage depletion of to risks and costs related environmental and degradation, loss, soil erosion ecosystems, biodiversity and mitigation hierarchy indicators, and water pollution through systems monitoring and other land uses manage coexistence of extractive informed decisions and trade-offs. make and sustainable development activities towards extractive services environmental reduce and social risks impacts to environmental approach an integrated asymmetries of information and have chain along the whole value material availability information and data on recycle and certificationdiligence processes schemes with legislation and countries of in both countries of production and regulation from responsibility environmental ensure consumption to minerals”.) destination (e.g. “conflict to source The extractives/materials/mining sector needs to lower its needs to sector The extractives/materials/mining and practice that best standards footprint and ensure overall becomes normal practice: soil and water pollution of air, waste, reduce • inimi e providing assets by and stranded scarcity resource • Address chain technology in the production best available • Promote use in artisanal eliminate mercury feasible, • educe, and where that management of chemicals (notably cyanide) safe • Ensure extraction new mineral into • Support and research investment internali e • Engage with and hold companies accountable to and industries to connection between governments • Increase from revenues manage and redirect to with government • ork information on and access to further• Encourage transparency of and availability of minerals rate recycling • Increase due standards, between market-based • Enhance coherence Food and a ri ulture s ste s and a ri ulture Food
agricultural practices on farm rather than perpetuating bad on farm rather practices agricultural follows the principles of ecosystem management, sustainable footprint and buildings resilience land and water use, reduced of farming systems diversity and increasing managing pests, weeds, and disease good on farm chemical input management including the use of personal and disposal of containers e uipment, storage protective maps, as well enabling conditions for specific innovations sustainable food systems at national and local more towards level reduce sustainable products, more produce accountable to post-harvest losses and losses along supply chains, reduce fork farm to food chain from food waste in the entire internali ing the costs of field by the playing level fertili ers to pollution diets, nutritious and diverse more healthy, education around of food foods and the reduction consumption of locally grown waste
Incentivi ing the uptake of more sustainable, climate-smart of more and Incentivi ing the uptake systems and technologies at the farm production agroecological and landscape levels good/sustainable reward subsidies to current • ecalibrate that landscape approach/management • Adopt the integrated • Apply the principle of minimum harm in using pesticides, road and transformative strategies integrated more • Develop and producers • Engage and hold food manufacturers pesticides and chemical to approach • Adopt a polluter-pays sustainable consumption of food through more • Promote
T T PT P T
PP - T
T Examples of actions to prevent, better manage and reduce pollution in key economic sectors economic pollution in key manage and reduce better of actions to prevent, Examples
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investment rather than just price and fears highly polluting. They also have the option of losses. By explicitly linking price rises to maintain at least part of their funding to efficiency gains, the political discourse to these activities but use it as leverage around the effects of the policies and to engage with the companies to explore action broadens. means of reducing their impact by, for example, adopting environmentally • Requiring the disclosure of costs and sustainable production methods, such risks of pollution: Enhanced reporting on as renewable energy, water-efficient environmental and social impacts enables irrigation and waste prevention, reuse more responsible portfolio choices by and recycling. investors. Increased disclosure can be voluntary, but decision-makers have a key • Rewarding risk reduction strategies: role to play in levelling the playing field Insurance pricing can reward risk through mandatory requirements. reduction efforts from companies, private and public sector investors, • Creating incentives for reorienting local authorities or individuals. As risk financing away from companies and managers, insurers also help communities activities that pollute and towards understand, prevent and reduce risk greener technologies (United Nations through risk research and analytics, Environment Programme 2017b): catastrophe risk models, and loss Financial institutions can refrain (“divest”) prevention measures. There are many from any further investment or lending examples of insurance industry initiatives to companies or activities identified as on pollution and climate change (Box 9).
Box 9: Examples of actions by insurers on pollution
Examples of innovative insurance industry initiatives on pollution and climate change include the following:
Since 2009, the Brazilian insurer, SulAmérica has encouraged the use of water-based paints in its accredited auto shops to repaint damaged vehicles. In 2013, it launched its responsible disposal programme for its home and business insurance clients. In partnership with Ecoassist Serviços Sustentáveis, the programme provides services to collect, separate and recycle home appliances, consumer electronics and furniture. Since the start of the programme, 76 collections have been made in 19 cities of seven states. About 2,300 items have been collected, totalling 9.2 tons of waste, which have been disposed of in an environmentally responsible way.
Allianz offers tailor-made insurance products for large-scale renewable energy projects, green building insurance, and advisory services to cover facilities or offices that have been built or refurbished to be more resource efficient. For retail clients, examples include special discounts on car insurance for drivers with fuel-efficient vehicles, property insurance for roof-mounted solar panels, and investment products that allow customers to invest their money in funds that support sustainable development.
In May 2015, AXA became the first global financial institution to divest from companies most exposed to coal-related activities, amounting to €500 million. It also committed to tripling its green investments to more than €3 billion by 2020, mainly in clean technology, green infrastructure and green bonds. In November 2015, Allianz announced that it would stop financing coal-based business models, affecting investments worth about €4 billion, and committed to double its wind power investments to €4 billion. Moreover, in April 2017, AXA became the first global insurer to disengage from underwriting insurance for coal-intensive businesses.
Munich Re, the world’s largest reinsurer, has dealt with renewable energy risks for more than 20 years. To extend its competence, Munich Re established Green Tech Solutions Corporate Insurance Partner to pool expert resources and know-how, offering insurance solutions for photovoltaics, solar thermal power, wind energy, LED technology, and energy efficiency projects to cater to stakeholder needs across the renewable energy value chain. Munich Re also offers green property insurance products that enable entities such as schools and municipalities that suffer a loss to rebuild according to the LEED® Green Building certification. Furthermore, Munich Re has joined forces with Impact Hub Munich to support social entrepreneurs and initiatives such as Hawa Dawa (“air medicine”), which aims to empower citizens, organizations and cities to work towards cleaner and healthier air through a bottom-up air quality monitoring technique that provides remote, real-time and in situ air quality data, anytime, anywhere.
All these insurers are signatories to the Principles for Sustainable Insurance (PSI), a global sustainability framework and initiative developed by UN Environment’s Finance Initiative and endorsed by the United Nations Secretary-General and insurance executives.
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• Addressing market distortions and Box 10: The Tropical Landscapes Finance Facility, economic signals: Multiple price Indonesia misalignments occur through our economies, from energy to water to food, In October 2016, the Indonesian Government and key partners launched an initiative to provide access to long- conveying only partial information about term finance for projects and companies that stimulate actual scarcity values or full costs to green growth and improve rural livelihoods. The Tropical human health through pollution or other Landscapes Finance Facility will leverage public funding to provide access to long-term finance at affordable externalities. Until prices are aligned and rates to support smallholder producers and other land reflect full costs, new investment vehicles users’ investment in sustainable Indonesian landscapes. The Facility aims to provide a mix of loans and grants to for green finance face an uphill struggle, drive renewable energy production, reduce deforestation overcoming the distortions in underlying and forest degradation, and restore degraded lands (International Institute for Sustainable Development economic signals. Fiscal policy options 2016). exist to address these market failures, and are discussed in the “Enablers” section (Section 3.3).
Innovative financing In 2014, the Ocean Cleanup (The Ocean Cleanup 2014) – which supports the Public-private partnerships can be an development of advanced technologies to effective way to catalyse investment rid the world’s oceans of plastic – launched in cleaner technologies and to support a crowdfunding campaign that successfully innovation. In Chile, Cleaner Production mobilized 38,000 backers from 160 countries, Voluntary Agreements have been signed raising over $2 million in 100 days. with 10 industrial sectors, and more than 1,200 companies have participated in 3.2.3 Adopting ecosystem-based approaches their application. The Government of Chile and solutions to mitigate and manage provides 70 per cent of the funding to cover pollution the sustainability assessment of the sector, internal audit, technical assistance, training, Ecosystems play a vital role in reducing certification, impact studies and the overall quantities of pollutants in air, water and soil. coordination of the agreements. Private Pollution-regulating services provided by companies cover the remaining 30 per cent of ecosystems greatly alleviate the harmful the costs involved. effects of pollution on human health. Managing and restoring ecosystems can In complex situations, tailor-made solutions consequently enhance the provision of need to be developed that analyse the root pollution regulation across rural as well causes of the pollution problem, the levers as urban landscapes. Efficient agriculture for action. An example of this is the approach techniques, organic farming, and integrated to landscape management in Indonesia landscape management can significantly (Box 10). reduce pesticide and nutrient run-off into groundwater and surface water, and limit Crowd funding has also emerged as a new ammonia emissions. financing model. Instead of relying on wealthy individuals and institutional investors making Green infrastructure can be used to great large financial commitments, it seeks small effect in urban areas to improve air quality. financial commitments from a large number Examples include vegetative barriers, such of people. An example is SunFunder (www. ashedges, and green or “living” walls and sunfunder.com), which aims to crowdfund roofs. Low-level, dense vegetation structures solar installations for the 1.3 billion people such as hedges, which form dense barriers, who live without electricity, a shift that can are particularly effective at reducing the flow significantly reduce household air pollution. of pollution from streets to curbwalks and
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adjacent properties. Morocco, for example, entirely. Cleaner lighting, for example, has been successful in building a greenbelt offers great environment and health of trees around Ouarzazate and greening benefits (see Box 12). Some of these the surrounding drylands using treated emerging technologies include those for wastewater and clean energy for irrigation. clean energy, industry, health, transport, waste management and agriculture. Natural and artificial wetlands serve as natural For example, a recent project in Nepal water filters (Box 11). The diverse plants and replacing traditional brick kilns that had microorganisms that occur in natural wetlands collapsed in the 2015 earthquake with have the potential to: i) remove between 20 per more efficient kilns reduced particulate cent and 60 per cent of metal pollutants; ii) matter emissions by 60 per cent and retain 80 per cent to 90 per cent of sediment reduced coal consumption by up to 50 per from run-off; and iii) eliminate 70 per cent to cent when compared to traditional kilns 90 per cent of nitrogen from the water flowing (Climate and Clean Air Coalition 2016). through them. Artificial wetlands can have Biotechnology is being used for cleaning similar pollution-retention capacities and are oil-contaminated environments using frequently used to treat municipal or industrial bacteria or fungi for decontamination. greywater, wastewater and stormwater run-off. Drone technology helps to monitor crops, leading to substantial reductions in the use Phytoremediation (Gratão et al. 2005) uses of resources, particularly fertilizers and plants to restore soils contaminated by heavy water. However, some green technologies metals, such as those found in mine dumps can also involve trade-offs, as seen with and polluted industrial sites. It involves green energy, between reduced carbon the absorption of heavy metals in the soil emissions but increased material use by the plant roots, stems and leaves. The (International Resource Panel 2016b). heavy metals can then be removed from the Hence the need to address product design environment through harvesting. and material use early in the development of these technologies. 3.2.4 Promoting green technologies to mitigate and manage pollution • Recycling technologies recover valuable materials from waste or wastewater, Three categories of technological solutions preventing pollution of the environment serve to address pollution: and avoiding the use of new materials. In the area of water treatment, new • Pollution prevention and reduction technologies are being used to transform technologies are more energy/resource wastewater into drinking water and a efficient and create less pollution in their source of energy. A level playing field for life cycle than those they replace. They environmental standards and a sustainable may also eliminate the source of pollution business model are required for recycling
Box 11: Wastewater treatment with constructed wetlands: An example from China
Constructed wetlands are an emerging, environmentally friendly engineering system employed in China. They require lower investment and operation costs while providing higher treatment efficiency and more ecosystem services than conventional wastewater treatment methods. Introduced to China in 1987, constructed wetlands systems used for wastewater treatment have rapidly increased in number, particularly since the late 1990s. Although the number of such systems in operation is still relatively small, their development has accelerated in recent years. However, land availability, institutional limitations, and public education will be ongoing challenges for the further development of this technology. Although there are still economic and social concerns related to the effective use of constructed wetlands, their strong performance and environmental benefits – not only for wastewater treatment, but also for other ecosystem services, especially in the preservation of biodiversity – make them increasingly attractive and practical for further use (Liu et al. 2009; Yang et al. 2008, Zhang et al. 2009).
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Box 12: Cleaner lighting
A switch to electric lighting is the most promising pathway to eliminating the risks associated with fuel-based light sources, while also contributing to climate change mitigation (United Nations Environment Programme 2014a). Improved lighting technologies for use by women and children will yield particularly significant health benefits by significantly reducing indoor air pollution. These include improved illumination in health-care facilities, and safe and efficient lighting systems distributed and promoted where housing is dense and poorly defended from fire, also potentially making urban spaces safer for women. The potential savings and benefits estimated for 120 developing countries and emerging economies, if they were to transition from fuel-based lighting (kerosene and candles) to solar-powered lanterns, are up to 120 million barrels of kerosene a year and 1.31 million tons of candles a year. This would be equivalent to 42 million tons a year of carbon dioxide and $17 billion a year of residential revenue savings (United Nations Environment Programme 2014b). However, it must also be remembered that these lanterns also contain hazardous chemicals, and the extent to which they can be recycled is as yet not known.
markets to expand and increase resource of open commons, while also encouraging recovery, environmental and health solutions based on local or traditional protection, efficient resource use. In the knowledge. A parallel challenge is how to absence of a recycling market, materials make the technologies more affordable to will be exported to countries with low everyone and compatible with development environmental standards for re-export to goals and national environmental, socio- the originating countries. economic, and cultural priorities. Mechanisms to support developing countries with issues • Pollution tracking, treatment, and of technology transfer are, as a consequence, control technologies to monitor pollutant part of many multilateral environmental emissions and releases. Such smart- agreements. sensoring technologies can track the use of dangerous substances, such as Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best mercury, so it is known where it is used, Environmental Practices (BEP) also need to how much and how, and where it goes. be more systematically defined, as is done by This is relevant for all such chemicals and some multilateral environmental agreements, important for trade policy and use. such as the Stockholm Convention or the Oslo and Paris (OSPAR) Convention. Best Technology information, diffusion, trade and Available Techniques and Best Environmental transfer Practices evolve over time in the light of technological advances, economic and social Overcoming the challenges of pollution factors, and changes in scientific knowledge technology information, diffusion and transfer and understanding. Developing countries requires putting in place supporting policies, also have the opportunity to harness the providing technology users with the choices potential of North-South and South-South they need, and reducing risks for investment. collaboration in order to stimulate technology There is also a need for information on what transfer and long-term domestic economic works and what does not, costs and benefits, growth. and the potential to use local solutions based on local knowledge. Although technological 3.2.5 Integrating policies to tackle pollution: and ecosystem-based solutions exist to The example of city-level actions address many pollution problems, information about the cost-benefits and successes Local governments are key players in the and failures in deploying technologies move towards a pollution-free world. Cities, arnot always available to decision makers, which have both a high concentration of particularly those in developing countries. emission sources and a high density of people, feel keenly the impacts of pollution. The challenge is how to diffuse these At the same time, cities can benefit from technologies more widely through some form efficiencies related to density and economies
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of scale. While local context and culture of cities around the world. Others link shape the solutions and actions that local back to traditions, such as repair shops, governments can take, there are a number while others are longer-term in nature and of concerns that are common to all cities require more planning and resources, such of the world. Irrespective of their level of as turning landfills into powerhouses, or development, most cities are contributing moving towards a circular economy. What to and experiencing increasing episodes each entails in terms of data gathering and of air pollution that exceed World Health analysis, strengthening of institutional and Organization standards for air quality. These enforcement capacity is determined by the come from transport, industry or open waste local context. burning. The non-urban and transboundary share of air pollution in cities cannot be While local governments have authority to underestimated. Another common concern act over some matters, they are dependent is groundwater, soil and air pollution from on their national frameworks and support different types of waste. systems. Coherence across the national, regional and city levels is key to policy Figure 20 shows a number of solutions for effectiveness. Cities need the capacity and addressing pollution from waste. Some are resources to implement relevant policies quick wins and easy to implement, such as effectively. For example, they must be able the ban on single-use plastic bags, which to issue building permits that enforce is being applied in an increasing number national building codes that harness Figure 5
Figure 20: Examples of integrated city-level solutions to address pollution from waste streams Examples of city-level solutions to address pollution from waste streams Examples of integrated city-level solutions to address pollution from waste streams
City- egion strategies towards a circular economy RG N C W TE RE UCE epair and upcycling shops educing food waste Sharing schemes Composting facilities olume-based waste disposal fees Sustainable public procurement Economic incentives towards REU E zero-waste C N TRUCT N N EM L T N W TE Ban on single-use plastic bags Design for deconstruction and material mining and containers
Waste collection system ecycling facilities increase E-W TE RECYCLE in recycling rates Design for longevity reuse of parts Take-back obligation for producers Deposit schemes for plastic Formal recycling facilities for metal mining glass bottles and paper
Ban on open landfills EN F L FE VEH CLE P E Ban on open burning Take-back obligation for producers Waste to energy
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energy and resource efficiency potentials. by extending their use through design, National urban policies help shape city maintenance and upgrades, and (3) by planning, the urban-rural nexus, and urban recovering broken products through repair, design. Cities’ compactness allows their refurbishment or remanufacturing. services to be concentrated and shared, which reduces the environmental impact • Providing product sustainability per capita. information (for example, through labelling or consumer campaigns) to 3.2.6 Incentivizing responsible consumption enable and encourage consumers to and lifestyles choices drive sustainability through the products they buy, and the way they (re)use, As the middle class expands, incomes rise, recycle or discard them. Insights into and aspirational messaging and advertising purchasing behaviour indicate a growing continue to promote consumerism, current interest in products that are considerate consumption patterns will increasingly of the environment and social concerns lead to resource constraints and increased (Grocery Manufacturers Association and pollution. All parts of society have a role Deloitte 2009). In some sectors, certified to play in encouraging more responsible production has grown considerably. For consumption. Governments need to invest in instance, the global market share of infrastructures, such as new public services certified coffee increased from 15 per to enable increased and sustainable mobility, cent in 2008 to 40 per cent in 2016 (Potts and instruments, for example, to regulate et al. 2014). Guidelines for providing advertising of some especially polluting product sustainability information have products. Governments must also use been developed to support companies, public procurement to enhance the market governments and organizations to drive for more sustainable goods and services. transformative change in this area, and to Businesses have to systematically integrate help prevent greenwashing and consumer sustainability into core business strategies confusion (United Nations Environment and develop innovative solutions to meet Programme and International Trade consumer needs through more resource Centre 2017). efficient and cleaner production. Educators in formal and non-formal education sectors, civil • Sharing-economy initiatives, such as society organizations, community groups and vehicle-sharing models, are other examples consumer associations can equip students of how companies and individuals and the general public about sustainable are trying to adopt more sustainable consumption, so that they can integrate it consumption practices. For these into their daily lives and future professions. companies, consumer needs are met (and International organizations can facilitate quality of life enhanced) in creative ways synergies and scale up impacts. Global policy that do not depend on the ownership of frameworks like the 10-Year Framework of the physical infrastructure. Transformative Programmes on Sustainable Consumption shifts introduce resource efficiency and and Production offer platforms to bring these eco-innovation to companies’ business initiatives and partners together. Examples strategies. of powerful game changers include the following: A movement towards a pollution-free planet from the consumption side will require • Extending product lifespans to reduce the changes in collective and individual mindsets, rates at which we consume resources and values and behaviours, alongside changes in produce waste. This can be done (1) by policies and regulations. As Wangari Mathai simply using products such as telephones famously said: “It’s the little things citizens do and computers for a longer time, (2) that will make a difference”.
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3.3 Enablers diseases and ecosystem impacts involve many stages of causality. The causal chain Enablers are crucial to creating incentives, can be affected by many interdependent, co- correcting market and policy failures, and causal risk factors. addressing gaps and other issues. Enablers facilitate transformative actions that can drive The question of when there is sufficient a preventive pollution agenda. They address evidence to justify action cannot be answered some of the key issues that make pollution so by science alone. The strength of the pervasive and persistent. evidence depends on the costs of being wrong with actions or inactions, including 3.3.1 Balancing evidence-based decision- their impacts on different age groups and making and precautionary approaches genders; the various risks to current and future generations; costs and benefits for the Providing timely scientific and empirical agents of the activities that pose potential information in an accessible manner to threats to health; and the availability of policymakers is at the heart of strengthening feasible alternatives. Waiting for very strong the science-policy interface. An analysis of evidence before acting means missing nine major pollution areas has shown that opportunities to act preventively and avert there is a considerable time lag between the future harm through more precautionary establishment of the science on pollution approaches. issues and policy action – let alone the first signs of harm reduction (Figure 21) (United In tackling pollution, the boundaries of Nations 2015b). These time lags, which knowledge are continuously changing. are often caused by economic, social and Expanding and sharing knowledge through legal factors, need to be addressed to avoid open access systems as a policy measure unnecessary costs and harm to human well- will help to enhance the exchange of evidence being and the environment. Further research and experiences under real-life conditions. is also needed to identify the environmental Decisions can be made on overall policies, and pollution impacts of resource use and but also on specific projects. Environmental, management; such information can inform health and human rights impact assessments targeted policy actions. can be powerful tools in the analysis of selected projects, plans, programmes or The key challenge in dealing with pollution is policies (Organisation for Economic Co- that processes leading to health risks, chronic operation and Development 2017b).
Figure 21: Time lags in years between science and policy for selected environmental issues
Science: Early warning to Mercury scientific confidence causality G Asbestos
Acid Rain Policy Action: National
Tobacco Policy Action: Regional DDT Policy Action: Global Climate Change
PCB G2
Lead Impact/Harm reduction Ozone Layer 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Source: United Nations 2015b
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3.3.2 Improving environmental governance similar courts or tribunals (Pring et al. 2016). With or without the existence of these specific The environmental rule of law as well as sound courts, what is critical is for judiciaries, and effective institutions make it possible for prosecutors, and so on, to be trained in being societies to respond to pollution in a way that able to deal with environmental cases and take respects fundamental rights and principles them seriously. Effective institutions can lead of justice and fairness, including for future to potentially significant novel approaches generations and across national borders. in dealing with pollution. Recently a court in India granted the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers The challenge is not necessarily to create the same legal rights as a person in order new regulatory measures, but to improve to deal with the massive pollution affecting their effectiveness using knowledge, these rivers. This followed a decision by the experience, technologies and tools that Government of New Zealand to grant the same are already available. Corruption can be a rights to its Whanganui river. major deterrent for good pollution-related governance. Polluters may bribe corrupt Regulatory and public policy innovations regimes, administrations or individual officials to encourage them to turn a blind eye on Several innovations can be used to improve illegal activities. Corruption can lead to a regulatory functioning and public policy loss of revenue from uncollected fines, or for pollution management. Experimental to an inability to prevent or stop pollution. research is ongoing in some developing Integrating behavioural insights in the formal countries to assess whether setting up rules and practices that govern public information feedback loops between industry organizations is a way to improve public and government can help improve regulatory policies (Organisation for Economic Co- functioning through a reduction in costs operation and Development 2017c). to both and improvements in efficiency (Harvard University 2017). This must be done Enhancing regulatory, enforcement and carefully, however, to avoid regulatory capture. judiciary capacity Regulations should ultimately be based on open, participatory processes that are The implementation of measures under the informed by the best possible scientific data. multilateral environmental agreements and other forums often remains a challenge, very Strengthened national registration processes often due to the lack of proper regulatory can be based on producer disclosure, as is and enforcement capacity and contradictory the case in many developed economies. The policies. Building capacity and skills, and a use of life-cycle approaches in the regulation sense of urgency is essential and needs to of toxic chemicals is key as it allows hotspots be a continuing process that must be rooted to be identified and targeted for regulation. in an understanding of the legal basis for Gathering data to identify substances implementation and enforcement. that pose a risk based on known intrinsic properties through watch lists is another way Institutional changes are required to equip the to improve regulation. entire enforcement chain, including customs, police, prosecutors and judiciaries worldwide Mainstreaming preventive approaches to effectively deal with environmental cases and strengthen the overall institutional The adoption of measures to prevent pollution landscape to combat pollution. Today there is fundamental to the long-term transition are over 1,200 environmental courts or to a pollution-free planet. Such measures tribunals in 44 countries at the national, state require information on exposure to pollutants or provincial level, with some 20 additional and mixtures of pollutants in all media as countries discussing or planning to establish well as in workplaces and households.
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Prevention as an approach to pollution is pollution, to all areas that are affected, linked to poverty and human rights, gender so that the affected public can take the as well as protection of vulnerable groups. necessary measures to protect themselves. Mainstreaming such approaches requires the Information disclosure from the regulatory support of the World Bank group as well as community is also needed for public financial regulators, through the introduction supervision of compliance by industries of environmental risk and pollution stress and public institutions. In this context, the testing during financial decision-making (G20 Aarhus Convention is highly relevant; the Green Finance Study Group (2017)). Convention is the world’s widest-reaching set of regulations guaranteeing citizens Active citizen participation through effective access to information, participation rights and environmental information systems based on access to justice in environmental matters, data gathering, monitoring and open access with an innovative civil society engagement mechanism to support its work. To be able to tackle pollution effectively, governments need an informed citizenry Pollutant release and transfer registers that has easy access to justice. Citizens (PRTRs) are powerful tools that facilitate must also be able to participate in decision- citizen participation by providing easy and making and in protecting human health and open access to data and information on environment from pollution. All citizens, emissions and other waste management including children, have the right to know, activities (including pollution prevention engage, and participate. Governments can activities) involving toxic chemicals in their ensure public access to information and communities. Such registers empower protect fundamental freedoms in accordance the public to make informed decisions on with national legislation and international the consequences of such activities to agreements (Target 16.10) and in line with human health and the environment, and to Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration and the take action. The registers have also been Bali Guidelines for the Development of demonstrated to be very effective tools to National Legislation on Access to Information, assess the impact of green technologies Public Participation and Access to Justice in and other pollution prevention measures Environmental Matters. implemented by industrial facilities (DeVito et al 2015; Ransom et al 2015) (Box 13). Effective public participation can only be ensured through transparent and effective The Pollutant Release and Transfer Register environmental information systems and (PRTR) in Japan and Public Disclosure of disclosure based on data gathering, Industrial Pollution (PROPER) in Indonesia monitoring and open access to information also estimate releases of pollution and report on emissions to air, land and water and on them publically. Pollutant release and in products known to the public through transfer registers also serve as a mechanism portals on pollutants being discharged, to foster pollution prevention, and bring about publishing standards, air and water monitoring change within and among industries. In systems, and permit systems of discharging recent years the Organisation for Economic wastewater or effluent, noise pollution Co-operation and Development (OECD) has permissible levels and so on. Open data and been promoting the harmonization of these citizen science, such as in the role of water registers (Organisation for Economic Co- and air quality monitoring or the measurement operation and Development 2017a). of biological indicators such as bird or frog counts, also have a promising role to play. Cultivating a culture of compliance by all
Local authorities must also publish relevant To ensure effective implementation, information, such as in the case of air compliance and enforcement, efforts should
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Box 13: Pollutant release and transfer registers in the United States: Toxics release inventory
In the United States, data from the Toxics Release Inventory was instrumental in the enactment of the Clean Air Act Amendments in 1990 and the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990. In recognizing the potential of the inventory to be a powerful pollution-prevention tool, the authors of the Pollution Prevention Act expanded the information required to be reported by facilities under the previously established inventory reporting requirements to include information specific to pollution prevention and preferred waste management techniques. Toxics Release Inventory data were also used to identify priority pollutants as part of the establishment of effluent guidelines for the pharmaceutical sector. It was also used to assess the impact of pollution-prevention practices implemented by United States facilities between 1991 and 2012 (Ransom et al. 2015). The results of this analysis indicated that these facilities prevented between 5 billion and 14 billion pounds of toxic releases in aggregate. Many successful voluntary initiatives between the United States Environmental Protection Agency and industry to reduce pollution have been based on the Toxics Release Inventory dataset. Two notable examples are the 33/50 Program, and the Resource Conservation Act National Partnership for Environmental Priorities (United States Environment Protection Agency 1999).
be made to strengthen the capacity of without an appropriate price, while the enforcement agencies to implement and environmental cost of economic activity enforce laws and regulations through various is largely ignored. The following economic innovative mechanisms. Efforts should also instruments could be deployed to correct this be made to engage private corporates and situation. citizens, and encourage voluntary compliance. Building a strong compliance culture Proper pricing of resources within institutions, the private sector and communities is essential to ensuring effective Pricing resources properly through fiscal compliance and enforcement. This can be policies not only reduces environmental achieved through information and education damage but can also generate substantial programmes based on sound science that domestic public revenues. Removing explain how change behaviour can protect the fossil fuel subsidies altogether would raise environment; education of industry and the $2.9 trillion annually, while reducing global community about the benefits of environmental carbon emissions by more than 20 per cent regulation and its compatibility with economic and premature deaths from air pollution growth; and the provision of support to help by 55 per cent (Coady et al. 2015). These businesses comply with their legal obligations, revenues can be used for different purposes; recognizing that this is the most cost-effective for example they can be allocated to the means of promoting compliance. general budget to support investments in clean technologies, natural capital and 3.3.3 Economic instruments social infrastructure, as illustrated in the case below (Box 14). The cost of pollution to national economies is often neglected. Pollutants are emitted
Box 14: Fossil fuel subsidy reform in Indonesia
In late 2014 and early 2015, the Government of Indonesia initiated a range of reforms to gasoline and diesel subsidies. A new social assistance scheme was introduced alongside the reforms to compensate for the impact of the higher energy prices. The fuel subsidy reforms resulted in savings of 211.3 trillion Indonesian Rupiah (Iskandarsyah 2016), which has allowed an increase in investments in social welfare and basic infrastructure (e.g. food security, connectivity, maritime, public transport infrastructure in Jakarta) through increased budgets for ministries, state-owned enterprises and transfers to regions and villages.
These fossil fuel subsidy reforms are expected to result in a decline in energy consumption and fuel switching which is estimated to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by over 9 per cent relative to the 2030 baseline (Asian Development Bank 2015). If higher prices cause a reduction in the growth of vehicle ownership and an increase in the supply of higher-quality fuels, local air pollution is also expected to decline, which could have major health impacts given worsening urban air quality (Global Subsidies Initiative and International Institute for Sustainable Development 2012).
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Fiscal incentives to stimulate systemic and polluting industries need to be rolled back behavioural changes to prevent and reduce in favour of financial support for clean and pollution sustainable approaches.
Through pricing measures and incentives, Pollution charges and fees introducing toxicity of a compound into the levy for example, fiscal policies can shift Charges and fees are required to consumer and producer behaviour towards operationalize polluter-pays approaches and a more sustainable path, and help to reduce make pollution control central to decision- pollution, improve health and address global making. Pollution charges are fees based challenges such as climate change, or nutrient on the quantity of pollutants discharged overload. Removal of fossil fuel subsidies is into the environment, while user charges estimated to reduce global carbon dioxide can be levied, for example, to collect and/or emissions by more than 20 per cent and dispose of waste, or treat polluted water and premature air pollution related deaths by soils. Funds collected in this way can then 55 per cent and a carbon tax in China could be placed in a clean country or city fund to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 30 per address improvements to environment and cent by 2030 and save 4 million lives by health linkages, and to offset some of the discouraging coal use. (Parry et al.2016) Fiscal costs of pollution. incentives should be implemented alongside other policies including regulatory measures, 3.3.4 Education for change such as emission standards, and information tools, such as labelling and communication Education is critical if patterns of development campaigns. Combined, this complementary are to shift towards more sustainable, cleaner mix of policies and incentives can effectively practices; it is also a fundamental human stimulate the systemic and behavioural right, and essential for the exercise of all changes. human rights. Education promotes individual freedom and empowerment as well as The case studies below provide examples of generating important development benefits. how such successful policy mixes work in Notably the Convention on the Rights of the practice (Boxes 15 and 16). Child contains specific language on education related to the environment. Education will New taxation schemes that put more burden thus enable the actualization of the rights on resource use and pollution and favour of the child in order to promote future sustainable production as well as re-use, engagement on pollution, environment and repair and recycling need to be significantly climate change matters. extended, while subsidies that benefit
Box 15: Reducing plastic bag litter in Ireland
In Ireland, a levy on plastic bags has led to a reduction in plastic bag use from an estimated 328 bags per capita before the introduction of the levy in 2002 to 14 bags per capita in 2012. The levy was introduced at a rate of $0.20 (EUR 0.15) per plastic bag and increased to $0.31 (EUR 0.22) in 2007. After its introduction, the distribution of bags in retail outlets dropped by 90 per cent and there has been a significant reduction in plastic bag litter. This reduction has also had an impact on the marine environment and coastal pollution. Results from beach surveys indicate a reduction in the number of plastic bags found on beaches from a mean high of 17.7 per 500 meters in 2000 to a mean of 5.5 bags per 500 meters in 2002 (Marine Litter in European Seas – Social Awareness and Co-Responsibility 2017). Revenues from the levy are earmarked to an environment fund which is used to cover the administrative costs of the levy, support waste management, recycling centres, litter clean-up and other environmental initiatives (Lyons 2013). The introduction of the levy was preceded by stakeholder consultations and an extensive national publicity campaign which helped overcome resistance to the levy among the public and retailers (Withana et al. 2014).
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Box 16: Environmental taxes in Chile (Chile 2013)
Chile faces several environmental problems relating to climate change, atmospheric pollution, congestion and motor vehicle pollution. To help address these challenges, the Government of Chile adopted a General Tax Reform Bill in September 2014, which introduced three new green taxes. The taxes are expected to raise over $170 million annually, with revenues allocated to the general budget.
• A carbon dioxide tax of $5/ton on emissions from stationary sources with boilers or turbines (with an aggregated capacity of 50 MW or more). The tax targets large facilities (food processing, refinery, and the electricity sector) and covers approximately 40 per cent of the country’s carbon emissions. Small plants and those operating on non- conventional renewable energy (biomass) are exempt from the tax.
• A tax on local pollutantsc from stationary sources, which takes into account local air quality factors, the social costs of each pollutant and population density in the municipality in which the facility is located.
• A one-time tax on new light and mid-size vehicles which takes into account the vehicle’s urban performance and nitrogen oxide emissions.
The tax on local pollutants which varies by pollutant and municipality (local authority district) is an innovative mechanism designed to reflect local conditions. The tax rates were deliberately introduced at a low level to increase their political and public acceptance. The necessary monitoring, measurement, recording and verification of emissions for taxes is ensured by the use of the Chilean single window Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (Leighton 2015).
In particular, lifelong learning on pollution can the same effect without the damaging direct encourage changes in knowledge, attitudes exposure to pollution. and practices and empower learners to effect change. As the subject of education is quite Experience-based education on pollution can specific in terms of its aims to change daily take many forms. In India, significant positive habits not only in childhood but at any age, results in terms of changing knowledge and traditional teaching will not be sufficient; it practices were achieved through water and will have to become more innovative and air quality monitoring projects for school-age renewable. Discovery and experiential learning children (Alexandar and Poyyamoli 2014). are essential to raising people’s awareness In China, a key aspect of plans to reduce of personal responsibilities of our common air pollution includes offering training and future. Those who are exposed directly to degree programmes in green engineering and the impacts of pollution have demonstrably renewable energy. Within UN Environment, a different perspectives on the issue. In a massive open online course on nutrient and study carried out in Shanghai, parents of wastewater management provides an open hospitalized children perceived pollution learning opportunity for learners seeking to as a much worse problem than care-givers understand the links between land-based in the general community (Wang et al. activities and water pollution. Additional 2015). Likewise a study on haze in Malaysia examples can be found throughout the revealed higher levels of knowledge, and world through an analysis of education for of participation in actions to address haze, sustainable development approaches and among those who regularly practised outdoor methodologies. sports compared to the general population (De Pretto et al. 2015). In both cases, the Gender-responsive access to knowledge groups that saw, first-hand, the impacts of and education on pollution can be a driver pollution were more able to participate in of change. Studies show that women, when finding a solution. Education seeks to build informed, are more likely to act on sustainable
c Local pollutants concerned: Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
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consumption than their male peers (United Development Goals and act on pollution (see Nations Environment Programme 2016h). Part 2). As pollution actions can help achieve these goals, key strategic partnerships Providing courses and training are not the only can be built around action on pollution. links between education and pollution. In fact, Voluntary initiatives include the Climate and both the public and private sector regularly Clean Air Coalition, the Global Partnership turn to universities as centres of innovation on Marine Litter, the Global Partnership on in pollution reduction technologies and Nutrient Management, the Global Wastewater sources of important research. Such research Partnership, the Lead Paint Alliance, the and innovation tend to be cross-disciplinary Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles, involving students and faculties from the Global Mercury Partnership, the Global programmes ranging from environmental Alliance towards alternatives to DDT, and sciences to economics to engineering and Principles for Sustainable Insurance, among design. others. These parternships can provide the integrating, catalytic, and scaling up power The UN Environment Global Universities needed to drive layered actions and next Partnership on Environment and steps, and to strengthen compliance with Sustainability, a network of over 800 higher global and regional environmental education institutions, supports members agreements (Annex 8). as they directly tackle pollution reduction. Building an understanding of pollution- Truly transdisciplinary research partnerships prevention approaches, recognizing best are needed to bridge the social, economic, practices, and providing a platform for political and environmental domains. There is universities to network and share their a need for more disaggregated data to better experiences ensures that students are able understand the different health impacts of to live sustainable, low-pollution lifestyles some pollutants on women, men, children on campus. and the elderly. There is very little research on how such impacts are shaped by social 3.3.5 Cooperation and partnerships and occupational roles, and how they vary across political and economic contexts and Cooperation between countries, cities and over time. It is therefore important to carry out groups can help bring to the fore success research on pollution and health taking into stories and opportunities to share knowledge, account the regional and national contexts, experiences of what did and did not work gender dimensions, economic vulnerability in countries, key sectors, and regions. and geospatial differences. There is also Cooperation and partnerships can reduce a need to better understand the economic asymmetries of information and capacity; costs of pollution’s impacts on health and leverage actors and actions where they are productivity. most needed; highlight the multiple benefits of actions; and shift focus from the global to the Finally, and importantly, partnerships can local, or vice versa. Partnerships also connect help bridge financial resources and technical businesses and other stakeholder groups knowledge gaps. Depending on the nature on pollution issues in different parts of the of the cooperation, knowledge can be world, North-South, South-South, and North- shared about successful and failed policies South-South. They can enhance the capacity and solutions, enabling countries leapfrog to deliver, measure and monitor change, by in terms of knowledge, technological and engaging key stakeholders in the design and nature-based solutions. Many innovative planning of initiatives. partnerships can be developed around research and development of alternative Partnerships with business can help products, new product designs and transform markets in line with the Sustainable sustainable solutions.
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4 Conclusion
The environment is the resource base level champions and commitments, as well that sustains both economic and social as action at the local level. To achieve high- development. While pollution affects all of level political commitment in key economic us, it has a particularly negative impacts on sectors, there is a need to go beyond the women, children, the elderly, workers, the environmental ministries and to include sick and people living in low-income areas. other relevant ministries such as finance, As a consequence, pollution constitutes agriculture, industry, urban, transport, energy a significant impediment to achieving and health. There is also a need to engage sustainable development and ensuring that local government, civil society organizations, no one is left behind. A pollution-free planet business leaders, industries, trade unions and would protect and restore the ecosystems citizens at large. Reporting on the progress that we rely on for our food, water, air and that comes from acting on pollution – whether livelihoods, thus helping to improve human through voluntary measures or formal well-being and prosperity, especially for laws – is a crucial step in this transition. the poor and the disadvantaged. Pollution Encouragingly, more governments, industries is to a large extent socially constructed. and citizens are moving towards sustainable Transitioning to a pollution-free planet is not materials management and a circular only possible; it is an imperative. Eliminating economy, with greater resource efficiency, pollution would be the best insurance policy sustainable chemistry, and clean technologies for future generations, as it would improve the as part of the transition towards a green integrity of the ecosystems they will need to economy (SITRA 2017). Across the world, survive. there remain enormous differences in the capacity to tackle pollution effectively. No one A successful transition towards a pollution- must be left behind. This report is a call to free planet requires political leadership, high- action towards a pollution-free planet for all.
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Annexes
Annex 1: Comparison of the magnitude and severity of four measures of pollution
The latest global environmental assessments which can lead to nutrient over-enrichment give an indication of the magnitude of current of ecosystems. The declining availability of pollution issues. Four proxy indicators renewable water is a problem in Central and stand out as indicative of the similarities West Asia as well as North Africa. The level and differences that exist worldwide. Fine of reporting on the chemicals and waste particulate matter, and hence air quality, conventions has also been mapped as a proxy remains a problem in nearly all regions; for action on chemicals and waste. the same is true of fertilizer consumption,
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Annex 2: Air, water, land and soil, freshwater and marine pollution – from sources to impacts on human health and ecosystems
Air Human impact Ecological effect Ecosystem services impacted Fine particulate matter Breathing disorders Loss of visibility Changes in productivity
(PM2.5, 10) containing Cardiovascular disease Impaired photosynthesis sulphates, nitrates, ammonia, Cancer sodium chloride, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, organic carbon, mineral dust, and water Black carbon - a specific type Breathing disorders Albedo reduction and thus Cooling of fine particulate produced Cardiovascular disease further contribution to Changes in productivity from energy production and (World Health Organization climate change incomplete combustion 2017b) Impaired photosynthesis Cancer Nitrogen oxides emissions Lung irritation Acidification Altered nutrient cycling; from transport, energy Eutrophication increased system losses production Ammonium emissions from Lung irritation Eutrophication Reduced food provisioning; agriculture increased net primary productivity Sulphur dioxide Premature deaths Acidification Loss of biodiversity Damage to buildings Ground level ozone Impaired immune system; Reduced plant growth; Reduced plant biomass and breathing disorders, increased plant susceptibility net primary productivity; cardiovascular effects, to stress altered climate regulation some reproductive and through carbon sequestration development effects (World Health Organization 2017b) Heavy metals, including lead Neurological development, Toxicity build-up in food Reduction of available food and mercury, from transport, harmful effects on the chains due to contamination energy production, industrial nervous, digestive and sources, contaminated immune systems, lungs sites, extractives industry, and kidneys (World Health unregulated burning of waste Organization 2015) Benzene - used in petroleum Range of acute and long term High acute toxic effect on Potential reduction of plant products including motor adverse health effects and terrestrial plants and some biomass, long term reduction fuels and in other chemical diseases, including cancer aquatic life (World health of marine populations in solvents and aplastic anaemia (World Organization 2017a) polluted areas Health Organization 2017b)
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Land and soils Human impact Ecological effect Ecosystem services impacted Heavy metals from Neurological development, Toxicity build-up in food Reduction of available food sedimentary and harmful effects on the chains due to contamination aerosolization processes, nervous, digestive and transport, energy production, immune systems, lungs and industrial sources, kidneys contaminated sites, extractives industry Pesticides Cancer; sterility and other Disappearance of bees, Control of pests, vectors reproductive disorders other insects and butterflies, reptiles, birds and mammals Plastic debris and litter Various leachates causing Congested alimentary Reduction in productivity and potential harmful effects systems, leading to cycling of nutrients starvation. Toxicity build-up Distorted predator prey in fodder and prey dynamics Pharmaceuticals from use of Increased antimicrobial Soil microbial populations Provisioning services antibiotics in livestock resistance developing new resistant Productivity of soil and forms livestock
Freshwater Human health Ecosystem Ecosystem services Nutrients (nitrates and Impairment of neurological Eutrophication, harmful Provisioning services: phosphates) functions due to harmful algal blooms such as blue- Productivity of coral reefs algal blooms, and green algae (cyanobacteria), and fish stocks development, e.g. blue baby changing habitats Habitat or supporting syndrome services: changes to species distributions and functions Heavy metals Impairment of neurological Toxicity Provisioning services: development, heart, kidney Productivity of food and fish disease stocks Pesticides Cancer; sterility and other Reduction in population size Control of pests, vectors reproductive disorders of species such as frogs Endocrine disrupting Hormonal disruption Feminization of fish Habitat or supporting chemicals services: Widespread population impacts, affecting habitats and maintenance of genetic diversity Pharmaceuticals Increased antimicrobial Reproductive disorders of Provisioning services: resistance fish Productivity of fish and stock Waste, building debris and Consumption related Reduced alimentary Provisioning services: plastics functioning; mortality Productivity of fluvial stocks related to entanglement and and species ingestion of fish Habitat or supporting services
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Marine Human health Ecosystem Ecosystem services Nutrients (nitrates and Impairment of neurological Eutrophication, harmful algal Provisioning services: phosphates) development, cancers due to blooms Productivity of coral reefs harmful algal blooms and fish stocks Oil Noxious fumes; skin Disruption to local food Provisioning services: disorders chains Accumulation of various chemicals, productivity of benthic fauna, shellfish and fish stocks Habitat or supporting services: Impairment of physical structures Heavy metals e.g. from Impairment of neurological Toxicity; impact on seabird Provisioning services: mining and seabed extractive development, heart, kidney populations Productivity of food and fish industries disease stocks (Royal Society 2017) Habitat or Supporting Services: widespread population impacts
Booster biocides Cancer; sterility and other Disappearance of algae, Control of pests, vectors reproductive disorders corals, invertebrates and fish species Pesticides Cancer; sterility and other Impacts on seabird Changed predator prey reproductive disorders populations and other dynamics species Endocrine disrupting Hormonal disruption Feminization of fish, thyroid Habitat or supporting chemicals disorders in whales and other services: Widespread mammals population impacts, affecting habitats and maintenance of genetic diversity Pharmaceuticals Increased antimicrobial Reproductive disorders of Provisioning services: resistance fish Productivity of fish and stock Waste, debris and plastics Consumption related Reduced alimentary Provisioning services: functioning; mortality Productivity of aquatic related to entanglement and stocks and species ingestion Habitat or supporting services: Widespread population impacts Light, heat and noise Disruption to migratory Provisioning services: patterns, spawning and productivity of aquatic echolocation systems organisms Habitat or supporting services: changes in trophic dynamics
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Annex 3: The costs of pollution – global and regional
Different valuation techniques are used to data is available. The value of statistical life assess the monetary costs of mortality and for countries where original studies were not morbidity to establish unit values. These available was estimated based on 2005 OECD include a cost-of-illness approach and direct VSL base value. The reference VSL value was monetary valuation techniques such as stated adjusted for differences in per capita gross preference (SP) or revealed preference (RP) domestic product, with an income elasticity methods to assess the willingness-to-pay of 1.2 with a range of 1.0 to 1.4 for sensitivity (WTP) to reduce environmental risks. analysis for low- and middle-income countries. For high-income countries, a central The welfare-based approach is typically more value of 0.8 is assumed, with a range from 0.6 appropriate for evaluating the full economic to 1.0 for sensitivity analysis. costs of premature mortality, which include the loss of various valuable things to an Mortality costs from outdoor air pollution are individual apart from their paychecks, such as projected to rise to about US$ 25 trillion by consumption, leisure, good health, and simply 2060 in absence of more stringent measures. being alive. This value is reflected in the At regional and national scale, China’s welfare willingness to pay (WTP), which captures the costs from mortality were the highest at marginal trade-offs that individuals are willing nearly US$ 1 trillion followed by European to make to reduce their chances of dying. OECD countries with a combined total of The value of statistical life (VSL) represents US$ 730 billion. In Africa, welfare costs of the sum of many individuals’ willingness to premature deaths were estimated at over pay for marginal reductions in their mortality US$ 450 billion representing 7.9 per cent of risks. It is not the value of any single person’s Gross Domestic Product, with a larger share life or death, nor does it represent a society’s attributed to indoor than outdoor air pollution. judgment as to what that value should be. In South and South-East Asia, India had the highest share of welfare costs from mortality The willingness-to-pay approach is best suited of about US$ 220 billion out of a combined for analyses of economic welfare, and it total of US$ 380 billion (2015 prices) has become the standard approach in high- (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and income countries for valuing mortality risks Development 2016a). associated with pollution. The welfare costs of mortality reported were estimated using the Hazardous chemicals and E-waste further willingness-to-pay approach, using the value exacerbate pollution impacts. It is estimated of statistical life. However, willingness-to-pay that the world generated 41.8 million studies are still lacking in many parts of the metric tons of e-waste in 2014 withE-waste world. As such, it is practical to implement a generation forecast to increase to 50 Mt by welfare-based approach by adjusting some 2018. Through better e-waste management “base VSL” from the original context, where strategies and standards, countries can curb data are available. potential health problems, lower greenhouse gas emissions and also provide economic The welfare costs of mortality reported, were incentives for recovering valuable metals estimated using the WTP approach using from redundant, or end-of-life electronics the value of statistical life. However, WTP devices. The Costs of Inaction on the Sound studies are still lacking in many parts of the Management of Chemicals report estimates world, as such it is practical to implement a total health-related pesticide costs for welfare-based approach by adjusting some smallholders in sub-Saharan Africa from “base VSL” from the original context where 2005-2020 at US$ 90 billion, assuming a
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continued scenario of inadequate capacity for E-waste is a relatively new but rapidly growing pesticides management in this region (United cause of land, water and air pollution in many Nations Environment Programme 2013). developing countries.
Table 1: Global costs of pollution
Nature of Method used Assumptions Costs (2015 % of GDP Source impact billion US$) Indoor and Value of statistical life Estimated based on 5 322 7.2 Organisation for outdoor air (VSL) 2005 OECD VSL base Economic Co- pollution value. For low- and operation and (Welfare costs of middle-income countries, Development mortality and morbidity) a central value of 1.2 is (2016a). World assumed, with a range Bank and Institute from 1.0 to 1.4 for for Health Metrics sensitivity analysis. For and Evaluation high-income countries, (2016). a central value of 0.8 is assumed, with a range from 0.6 to 1.0 for sensitivity analysis. Chemicals External costs were Other heavy metals 480.4 0.4 United Nations (Volatile applied to data on with potentially toxic Environment organic releases of NOx, effects, such as arsenic, Programme compounds SOx, volatile organic cadmium and lead, were and Principles (VOCs),, compounds, particulate excluded due to lack of for Responsible mercury) matter and mercury global data. Investment based on the IPCC Association business as usual (2010). scenario, which includes the probable trajectory of future quantities of a range of pollutants. General waste To value external costs The study assumedthat 216 0.3 United Nations for general waste and the damage values per unit Environment pollutants of waste and pollution Programme analysed, studies use wouldincrease in line with and Principles objective techniques population and wealth for Responsible that rely on observable (measured asGDP in Investment environmental changes purchasing power parity Association and market prices. per capita). (2010).
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Table 2: Regional costs of pollution Economics of Land Economics and Degradation United Nations Environment (2015). Programme of Land Economics and Degradation United Nations Environment (2017) Programme Forthcoming for Organisation Co- Economic and operation (2016a). Development Organisation for Organisation Co- Economic and operation (2016b). Development Organisation for Organisation Co- Economic and operation (2016b). Development Source 12.3 6.6 0.2 4.3 7.9 % of GDP 127 797 252.5 Welfare costs of Welfare mortality 450 Costs (2015 billion US$) The present value of the cost inaction value The present of cereal in terms of the value measured induced soil erosion loss due to crops the next 15 years nutrient depletion over with (2016–30) is about 4.6 trillion PPP USD, of 286 billion Purchasing an annual value (PPP) USD (127 billion USD/ Parity Power at 2011 constant dollar), which is year about 12.3% of the GDP to equivalent 42 countries empirical analysis of A continental level of 487 area and permanent cropland arable than with more cultivated million hectares types, which account for 87.43% of 127 crop in and permanent cropland arable the total of 44 countries and 2 provinces Asia, across (2018-2030). a span of 13 years China over production crop annual aggregate Total soil loss induced NPK top loss due to depletion amounts about 1.31 billion tons crop 53% of the annual total or close to The corresponding in the region. production of this annual loss at the weighted value prices amounts close to crop average 732.7 billion USD. Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL base in per capita Adjusted for differences value. GDP with an income elasticity of 1.2 a 1.4 for sensitivity analysis of 1.0 to range for low- and middle-income countries. For of 0.8 value high-income countries, a central 1.0 for 0.6 to from is assumed, with a range sensitivity analysis. Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL base as described above. value Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL base in per capita Adjusted for differences value. GDP with an income elasticity of 1, and and adjusted for post-2005 income growth inflation. Only economic costs of mortality included. were Assumptions ) Replacement costs approach loss Productivity approach Replacement Costs, Loss Productivity Nutrient Loss through of Statistical Value (VSL Life costs of (Welfare mortality) Value of Statistical Value (VSL) Life costs of (Welfare mortality) Value of Statistical Value (VSL) Life costs of (Welfare mortality) Method used Off-site and on-site loss in productivity including decline in ecosystem services On site and off impacts 974,000 deaths from outdoor air pollution in 2010 1,177,000 deaths from indoor air pollution in 2013 542,855 deaths in unsafe 2013 from water 700,000 deaths from 700,000 deaths from indoor and outdoor air pollution Physical impacts Land Degradation and soil pollution Land Degradation Outdoor and indoor air pollution Water Water Pollution Air Pollution Nature Nature of impact Asia South and South-East Asia Region Africa
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Table 2: Regional costs of pollution (continued) World Bank and World Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (2016). for Organisation Co- Economic and operation (2016a). Development for Organisation Co- Economic and operation (2016a). Development Health World Regional Organization, Europe Office for and Organisation Co- for Economic and operation (2015). Development Source 0.09 3.4 2.1 1.5 3.6 % of GDP 1849 400 730 299 1 029 Costs (2015 billion US$) Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL base in per capita Adjusted for differences value. GDP with an income elasticity of 1.2 a 1.4 for sensitivity analysis of 1.0 to range for low- and middle-income countries. For of 0.8 value high-income countries, a central 1.0 for 0.6 to from is assumed, with a range sensitivity analysis. Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL base in per capita Adjusted for differences value. GDP with an income elasticity of 1.2 a 1.4 for sensitivity analysis of 1.0 to range for low- and middle-income countries. For of 0.8 value high-income countries, a central 1.0 for 0.6 to from is assumed, with a range sensitivity analysis. Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL base in per capita Adjusted for differences value. GDP with an income elasticity of 1.2 a 1.4 for sensitivity analysis of 1.0 to range for low- and middle-income countries. For of 0.8 value high-income countries, a central 1.0 for 0.6 to from is assumed, with a range sensitivity analysis. Only included countries for which data was during the study period. available Assumptions al production, biodiversity and ecosystem services are not included or inadequately represented. A synthesis of studies not included or inadequately represented. and ecosystem services biodiversity are al production, Value of Statistical Value (VSL) Life costs of (Welfare mortality) of Statistical Value (VSL) Life costs of (Welfare mortality) of Statistical Value (VSL) Life costs of (Welfare mortality) Value of Statistical Value (VSL) Life costs of (Welfare mortality) Method used 101,000 deaths in 2010 229,000 deaths in 2010 164,231 deaths in 2010 1,147,000 deaths from 1,147,000 deaths from indoor air pollution in 2013 905,000 deaths from outdoor air in 2010 (China only) Physical impacts Outdoor air pollution Outdoor air pollution Indoor air pollution Outdoor and indoor air pollution Outdoor and Indoor air pollution Nature Nature of impact Notes: * Where a range of values is given, only lower bound estimates are included in calculating the total benefits through out all the tables benefits through included in calculating the total only lower bound estimates are is given, of values a range Notes: * Where of estimation the year continues from been converted US$ 2015 prices assumed a linear trend have The costs of pollution intervention to a methodologies, data and assumptions used the different to be sensitive to likely b Estimated costs are Bank (2017) database, http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf the World of the 2015 GDP obtained from as a percentage expressed c Costs are at: http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=MEI_PRICES available adjusted for changes in inflation using OECD Indices were The values d e Other impacts of air pollution for example, on agricultur of 90%, https://www.oecd.org/environment/ proportion costs of air and water pollution – often in excess a very large of the total OECD (2008) indicate that the health impacts represent by ministerial/40501169.pdf NorthAmerica (USA only) OECD Europe WHO European Region Europe Combined Total Region East Asia & the Pacific
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Annex 4: How pollution is reflected in various multilateral frameworks and environmental agreements
Multilateral environmental agreements Principle 13 of the Rio Declaration on and related initiatives and frameworks Environment and Development (1992) form the overarching international legal added that states shall develop national law basis that supports governments and other regarding liability and compensation for the stakeholders in addressing environmental victims of pollution and other environmental issues and sustainable development. They damage. States shall also cooperate in an play a critical role in the analysis of linkages expeditious and more determined manner to between pollution, human well-being and develop further international law regarding the environment and are a tool-set that liability and compensation for adverse effects helps to achieve international and national of environmental damage caused by activities environmental objectives. Environmental within their jurisdiction or control to areas pressures such as air pollution, contamination beyond their jurisdiction. Principle 16 calls of water and soil with hazardous chemicals upon national authorities to endeavor to and waste, uncontrolled waste generation promote the internalization of environmental and disposal, and ecosystem disruption costs and the use of economic instruments, have both direct and indirect effects which taking into account the approach that the can be felt immediately as well as over the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of medium to long term in the achievement of pollution, with due regard to the public interest the agreements’ goals, as well the goals of and without distorting international trade and other international and national environmental investment. initiatives. The principles envisaged in the Stockholm International environmental principles and Declaration and Rio Declaration have declarations subsequently been reflected in various multilateral environmental agreements. The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment Key global multilateral environmental (Stockholm Declaration (1972) was the agreements, initiatives and frameworks first instrument to recognize the impact of pollution in water, air, earth and living beings. The United Nations Recommendations on Principle 6 of the Declaration proclaims that the Transport of Dangerous Goods (1956) the just struggle of the peoples of all countries establishes principles for all aspects of against pollution should be supported. classification, packaging, testing, and labelling Principle 7 calls on states to take all possible of dangerous goods. The recommendations steps to prevent pollution of the seas by are presented in the form of “Model substances that are liable to create hazards Regulations on the Transport of Dangerous to human health, to harm living resources Goods” that present a basic scheme of and marine life, to damage amenities or to provisions that allow uniform development interfere with other legitimate uses of the of national and international regulations sea. Principle 22 provides that states shall governing the various modes of transport; yet cooperate to develop further the international they remain flexible enough to accommodate law regarding liability and compensation for any special requirements that might have to the victims of pollution be met. The recommendations have been and other environmental damage caused used for determining classes of wastes under by activities within the jurisdiction or the Basel Convention and in developing the control of such States to areas beyond Globally Harmonised System of Classification their jurisdiction. and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS).
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The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of be discharged during normal operations, or International Importance especially as released accidentally as a result of collisions Waterfowl Habitat (1971) provides measures or stranding of ships. The Convention, further, for the conservation and wise use of seeks to regulate the handling of substances wetlands. According to the Article 3 of the that would present a major hazard to either Convention each Contracting Party shall marine resources or human health or cause arrange to be informed at the earliest possible serious harm to amenities or other legitimate time if the ecological character of any wetland uses of the sea. in its territory and included in the List has changed, is changing or is likely to change The Convention on the Prevention of Marine as the result of technological developments, Pollution from Land-Based Sources (1974) pollution or other human interference. The obligates Parties to eliminate, if necessary by 4th Strategic Plan of the Convention for the stages, pollution of the maritime area from period 2016-2024 highlights that wetlands land-based sources and strictly limit pollution play a key role in economic activity linked to of the maritime area from land-based sources. transportation, food production, water risk management, pollution control, fishing and The Barcelona Convention for the Protection hunting, leisure and the provision of ecological of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution infrastructure. (1976) and its Protocols seeks to protect the maritime waters of the Mediterranean The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Sea from substances that could harm the Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other living resources, cause hazards to human Matter (London Dumping Convention) (1971) health, and impair quality of seawater. aims to control and prevent pollution of Seven Protocols addressing specific the sea by the dumping of waste and other aspects of Mediterranean environmental matter that is liable to create hazards to conservation processes have been adopted marine life. since 1976:
The Convention on International Trade in • Dumping Protocol: Protocol for Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora the Prevention of Pollution in the (1973) seeks to regulate international trade Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from in endangered animals and plants and their Ships and Aircraft (1976) amended as products. It does not specifically provide for Protocol for the Prevention and Elimination pollution control in its articles. However, its of Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea objectives to reduce pressures on wildlife by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft or would include reduction of pressures resulting Incineration at Sea (1995) from habitat loss and pollution. E.g. the impact of pollution on sea turtle populations • Prevention and Emergency Protocol: and their habitat has been recognized by Protocol Concerning Cooperation in the Conference of the Parties through the Preventing Pollution from Ships and, adoption of “The Guidelines for evaluating in Cases of Emergency, Combating marine turtle ranching proposals submitted Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea (2002), pursuant to Resolution Conf. 11.16 (rev. which replaced the Protocol Concerning COP15)”. CITES works closely with the Cooperation in Combating Pollution INTERPOL Pollution Crime Working Group of the Mediterranean Sea by Oil and to tackle pollution crime. other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency (1976). The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) • LBS Protocol: Protocol for the Protection (1973) aims to eliminate pollution of the sea of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution by oil and other toxic substances which might from Land-Based Sources (1980)
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• The Land-based Sources and Activities from vessels and pollution from or through the Protocol: Protocol for the Protection of the atmosphere Mediterranean Sea against Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (1996) The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1983) • Specially Protected Area and Biodiversity seeks to conserve migratory species by Protocol: Protocol Concerning Specially ensuring that Contracting Parties take the Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in necessary action, individually and collectively, the Mediterranean (1995) to avoid species becoming endangered. It does not specifically provide for pollution • Offshore Protocol: Protocol for the control in its articles. However, its objectives Protection of the Mediterranean Sea have been expanded to include reduction of against Pollution Resulting from the impact of pollution on migratory species. Exploration and Exploitation of the Based on the reports on Management of Continental Shelf and the Seabed and its Marine Debris (UNEP/CMS/COP11, Inf. 27, Subsoil (1994) 28 and 29) the Conference of Parties in 2014 adopted Resolution 11.10 on Management • Hazardous Wastes Protocol: Protocol of Marine Debris encouraging Parties to on the Prevention of Pollution of the implement monitoring processes in order Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary to assess the cumulative environmental Movements of Hazardous Wastes and impacts of pollution on migratory species their Disposal (1996) and take relevant actions. The Strategic Plan for Migratory Species 2015-2023 defines its • Integrated Coastal Zone Management Target 7: Multiple anthropogenic pressures Protocol: Protocol on Integrated Coastal have been reduced to levels that are not Zone Management in the Mediterranean detrimental to the conservation of migratory (2008) species or to the functioning, integrity, ecological connectivity and resilience of their The International Convention for the Safety habitats. The pressures concerned may include of Life at Sea (SOLAS) (1980) specifies those relating to climate change, renewable minimum standards for the construction, energy developments, power lines, by-catch, equipment, and operation of ships, compatible underwater noise, ship strikes, poisoning, with their safety. The Convention’s Chapter VII pollution, disease, invasive species, illegal and - Carriage of dangerous goods covers unsustainable take and marine debris. construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous liquid chemicals in bulk and The Vienna Convention for the Protection requires chemical tankers to comply with the of the Ozone Layer (1985) and the Montreal International Bulk Chemical Code (IBC Code). Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987) seeks to protect human The United Nations Convention on the Law of health and the environment against adverse the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982) provides the legal effects resulting or likely to result from human framework for international governance of activities which modify or are likely to modify seas and oceans. Article 194 of the UNCLOS the ozone layer. prescribes measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment, The Montreal Protocol was designed to taking into consideration international rules reduce the production and consumption, and national laws. The Convention seeks to as well abundance of ozone depleting control pollution from land-based sources substances in the atmosphere. The protection pollution from seabed activities subject to of the ozone layer would result in reduced national jurisdiction, pollution from activities production, import, and export of ozone- in the Area, pollution from dumping, pollution depleting substances.
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The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal The preamble to Basel Convention Protocol Protocol on Substances that Deplete on Liability and Compensation for Damage the Ozone Layer (2016) (not yet in force) Resulting from Transboundary Movements of commits Parties to cut the production and Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1999) consumption of hydrofluorocarbons by provide that states shall develop international more than 80 percent from 2019-2047 and and national legal instruments regarding thereafter. liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. The International Code of Conduct on Pesticide Management (1985) is the The International Labour Organization framework on pesticide management for Chemicals Convention (1990) (No. 170) all public and private entities engaged in, or specially addresses the protection of associated with, production, regulation and workers from harmful effects of chemicals management of pesticides. The new Code at the workplace. Because of the tri-partite of Conduct on Pesticide Management, which composition of the International Labour was approved by the FAO Conference in Organization, under whose jurisdiction the 2013 and recognized by the WHO Executive Convention was negotiated, it includes Board in January 2014, provides standards obligations for governments, suppliers, of conduct that serve as a point of reference employers and workers regarding the safe in relation to sound pesticide life cycle management and handling of chemicals. This management practices, in particular for ranges from developing coherent policies to government authorities and the pesticide the establishment of information exchange industry. The Code of Conduct is supported by mechanisms. technical guidelines that are developed by the Panel of Experts on Pesticide Management. The Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation The Basel Convention on the Control of (OPRC) (1990) aims to facilitate international Transboundary Movements of Hazardous cooperation and mutual assistance in Wastes and Their Disposal (1989) was preparing for and responding to major oil adopted to protect human health and the pollution incidents that threaten the marine environment against the adverse effects of environment and coastlines, and to encourage hazardous wastes. Parties have committed countries to develop and maintain the to protect, by strict control, human health capability to respond to major oil pollution and the environment against adverse effects emergencies involving ships, offshore units, which may result from the generation and seaports, and oil handling facilities. The management of hazardous wastes and other Convention, which entered into 1995, currently wastes. Each party shall take the appropriate has 108 Parties. In 2000, the Protocol on measures to ensure that persons involved Preparedness, Response and Co-operation in the management of hazardous wastes to pollution Incidents by Hazardous and or other wastes within it take such steps as Noxious Substances (OPRC-HNS Protocol) are necessary to prevent pollution due to was adopted, extending the scope of the hazardous wastes and other wastes arising Convention to hazardous and noxious from such management and, if such pollution substances. occurs, to minimize the consequences thereof for human health and the environment; parties The UN Economic Commission for Europe shall undertake to review periodically the Espoo Convention on Environmental Impact possibilities for the reduction of the amount Assessment in a Transboundary Context and/or the pollution potential of hazardous (1991). According to the Article 2 (1) the wastes and other wastes which are exported Parties shall, either individually or jointly, to other states, in particular to developing take all appropriate and effective measures countries. to prevent, reduce and control significant
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adverse transboundary environmental impact biota resulting from climate change which from proposed activities. Through Decision have significant deleterious effects on the II/14 on the amendment to the Convention, composition, resilience or productivity of which entered into force on 26 August 2014, natural and managed ecosystems or on the the Meeting of the Parties decided to allow operation of socio-economic systems or Member States of the United Nations situated on human health and welfare. The ultimate outside the UN Economic Commission for objective of this Convention according Europe region to become Parties to the Article 2 and any related legal instruments Convention. that the Conference of the Parties may adopt (Kyoto Protocol for Climate Change, 1997 The Convention on Biological Diversity and Paris Agreement (2015) is to achieve, in (1992) does not specifically mention pollution accordance with the relevant provisions of the in their articles. However, it provides that Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gas conservation and sustainable use of biological concentrations in the atmosphere at a level diversity is of critical importance for meeting that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic the food, health and other needs of the world interference with the climate system. Such population. The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity a level should be achieved within a time- 2011-2020, including the Aichi Biodiversity frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to Targets, adopted at the Tenth Meeting of the adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure Conference of the Parties under decision X/2, that food production is not threatened called for a decrease in pollution as one of the and to enable economic development to direct pressures on biodiversity. proceed in a sustainable manner. The goal Aichi Biodiversity Target 8 provides that of the Marrakech Declaration for Health, by 2020, pollution, including from excess Environment and Climate Change is to reduce nutrients, has been brought to levels that are pollution-related deaths by promoting better not detrimental to ecosystem function and management of environmental and climate biodiversity. risks to health.
The Cartagena Biosafety Protocol (2000) The UN Economic Commission for Europe aims to protect biological diversity and human Convention on the Protection and Use health from the potential risks arising from of Transboundary Watercourses and the import and export of living modified International Lakes (Water Convention) organisms. The Protocol addresses the need (1992) aims to protect and ensure the to protect human health and the environment quantity, quality and sustainable use of trans- from the possible adverse effects of the boundary water resources by facilitating products of modern biotechnology. cooperation. It provides an intergovernmental platform for Parties to prevent, control and The Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary reduce pollution of waters causing or likely Protocol on Liability and Redress to the to cause transboundary impact. Measures Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2010) taken under the convention shall not directly contributes to the conservation and or indirectly result in a transfer of pollution sustainable use of biological diversity by to other parts of the environment. Initially providing international rules and procedures negotiated as a regional instrument, it turned for liability and redress relating to living into a universally available legal framework for modified organisms. trans-boundary water cooperation, following the entry into force of amendment in February The United Nations Framework Convention 2013, opening it to all UN Member States. on Climate Change (1992) presents the framework to tackle "adverse effects of The Protocol on Water and Health (1999) climate change" (Article 1), which means seeks to protect human health and well- changes in the physical environment or being by better water management, including
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the protection of water ecosystems, and by including chemical pollution, salinization preventing, controlling and reducing water- and exhaustion of aquifers as well as forest related diseases. The Protocol is the first coverage losses due to climatic factors, international agreement of its kind adopted consequences of air pollution and frequent to attain an adequate supply of safe drinking wildfires. The 10-year strategic plan and water and adequate sanitation for everyone, framework to enhance the implementation and effectively protect water. of the Convention (2008–2018) took these concerns into consideration. The Protocol on Civil Liability and Compensation for Damage Caused by The Convention on the Law of the Non- the Transboundary Effects of Industrial navigational Uses of International Accidents on Transboundary Waters (2003) Watercourses (1997) commits Watercourse establishes international civil liability for all States to, individually and, where appropriate, damages caused on humans, transboundary jointly, prevent, reduce and control the waters and the environment. pollution of an international watercourse that may cause significant harm to other The International Convention on Civil watercourse States or to their environment, Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC) including harm to human health, to the use of (1992) was adopted to ensure that adequate the waters for any beneficial purpose or to the compensation is available to persons who living resources of the watercourse. suffer oil pollution damage resulting from maritime casualties involving oil-carrying The Joint Convention on the Safety of ships. It places liability for such damage Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety on the owner of the ship from which the of Radioactive Waste Management (1997) polluting oil escaped or was discharged. It applies to spent fuel and radioactive waste covers pollution damage resulting from spills resulting from civilian nuclear reactors and of persistent oils suffered in the territory, applications and from military or defense including the territorial sea, of a State Party to programmes if and when such materials are the Convention. transferred permanently to and managed within exclusively civilian programmes, or The United Nations Convention to Combat when declared as spent fuel or radioactive Desertification (UNCCD) (1994) requires waste for the purpose of the Convention by parties to combat desertification and the Contracting Party. The Convention also mitigate the effects of drought. According applies to planned and controlled releases to the Convention “land degradation” means into the environment of liquid or gaseous reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and radioactive materials from regulated nuclear dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or facilities. economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, The Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous land uses or from a process or combination Chemicals and Pesticides in International of processes, including processes arising Trade (1998) does not specifically mention from human activities and habitation patterns. pollution in its articles. However, the Under the regional implementation Annex substances it controls are those likely to V, the Desertification Convention provides cause pollution and harm human health guidelines and arrangements for the effective and the environment. It seeks to promote implementation of the Convention in the shared responsibility and cooperative efforts country parties of the Central and Eastern among Parties in the international trade of European region, which are affected by hazardous chemicals in order to protect unsustainable exploitation of water resources human health and the environment from leading to serious environmental damage, potential harm. It also seeks to contribute to
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the environmentally sound management of production, use, trade, release and storage of these chemicals when their use is permitted persistent organic pollutants. by facilitating information exchange about their characteristics, potential dangers, safe International Health Regulations (IHR) (2005) handling and use by providing for a national are meant to help the international community decision-making process on their import and prevent and respond to public health risks export and by disseminating these decisions and emergencies that can have devastating to Parties. impacts on human health and economies.
The UN Economic Commission for Europe The Strategic Approach to International Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Chemicals Management (SAICM), adopted Public Participation in Decision Making and by the First International Conference on Access to Justice in Environmental Matters Chemicals Management on 6 February 2006, (1998). In order to contribute to the protection is a policy framework to promote chemical of the right of every person of present and safety around the world. The objective of future generations to live in an environment Strategic Approach is to achieve sound adequate to his or her health and well-being, management of chemicals throughout their each Party shall guarantee the rights of life cycle so that by 2020, chemicals are access to information, public participation produced and used in ways that minimize in decision-making, and access to justice adverse impacts on human health and the in environmental matters in accordance environment. The “2020 goal” was adopted with the provisions of this Convention by the World Summit on Sustainable (Article 1). Pursuant to Decision IV/5 of 2011 Development in 2002 as part of the on accession to the Convention by non-UN Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. The Economic Commission for Europe member Strategic Approach is not legally binding. states, all UN Member States are encouraged to accede to the Convention). Under the The Bali Declaration on Waste Management Convention the Kyiv Protocol on Pollutant for Human Health and Livelihood (2008) Release and Transfer Registers (2009) was reaffirms the commitment, of parties to the adopted. The objective of this Protocol is to Basel Convention and from other states, to enhance public access to information through the principles and purposes of the Basel the establishment of coherent, integrated, Convention, including the fundamental nationwide pollutant release and transfer objective to protect, by strict control, human registers in accordance with the provisions health and the environment against the of this Protocol, which could facilitate public adverse effects resulting from the generation, participation in environmental decision- transboundary movement and management making as well as contribute to the prevention of hazardous wastes and other wastes. and reduction of pollution of the environment. All UN Member States can join the Protocol, The objective of the Minamata Convention on including those which have not ratified the Mercury (2013) is to protect the human health Aarhus Convention and those which are not and the environment from the adverse effects members of the UN Economic Commission of mercury and mercury compounds. Its for Europe. preamble recognizes the substantial lessons of Minamata Disease, in particular the serious The Stockholm Convention on Persistent health and environmental effects resulting Organic Pollutants (2001), reaffirming from the mercury pollution, and the need to Principle 16 of the Rio Declaration, seeks to ensure proper management of mercury and protect human health and the environment the prevention of such events in the future. from persistent organic pollutants. The Convention calls upon Member States to restrict and ultimately eliminate the
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Annex 5: Regional multilateral environmental agreements, initiatives and networks
Regional multilateral environmental Republic with a strong political commitment agreements, initiatives and networks are also (Ostrava Declaration) accompanied by significant platforms for enhancing synergies a compendium of meaningful actions to and cooperation in tackling global pollution protect the health and well-being of European issues at the local level, while benefiting citizens and the environment they live from the localized knowledge bases that in. The Environment and Health Process cannot be easily accessed at the global level. enhances synergies and cooperation and an For example, the Pan-European Strategic important platform to tackle the causes and Framework on Greening the Economy consequences of pollution. provides a platform for a coordinated regional approach to a green and inclusive economy, There is need for additional resources or operationalized by the Batumi Initiative on efforts to enhance the capacity of weak Green Economy (BIG-E) at present comprising regional initiatives, specifically in Africa, 115 commitments to actions by 25 countries Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean. and 12 organizations. There is also a need to further develop joint initiatives – on topics such as environment and The degree of focus on the various types and health, environment and water, environment elements of pollution varies from one region and agriculture – or to integrate them into the to another, but across all the five regions, concept of the green or circular economy. water and air pollution are given a greater focus. The various regional agreements, Africa networks and initiatives have established or are in the process of establishing 1. African Ministerial Conference on the databases, tools and joint actions taking Environment (AMCEN) (established 1985) into consideration the different sectoral and regional experience, cultural and political 2. Air Pollution Information Network practices and challenges as regards pollution for Africa (APINA) (1997) (network control. The available data reflects in detail of scientists, policy makers and the character and focus of the particular private sector and non-governmental region, including policy and regulatory gaps. organisations from Africa) The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum, for instance, relies on data from Africa, Asia and 3. Harare Resolution on Prevention Latin America and the Caribbean to support and Control of Regional Air Pollution the development of solutions to air pollution- in Southern Africa and its Likely related problems and promote effective Transboundary Effects (1998) cooperation among nations at the regional, hemispheric and global scales. 4. Dakar Declaration on the Phasing-out of Leaded Gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa The European Environment and Health (2001) Process (EHP) and its Ministerial Conference provide a unique intersectoral policy platform 5. The Maputo Declaration on the that brings together the environment and Prevention and Control of Regional Air health sectors and partners to shape policies Pollution in southern Africa and its likely and actions to reduce the adverse health Transboundary Effects. (2003) impact of environmental threats through effective environmental health interventions. 6. Health Strategy of the African Union The latest conference held in Ostrava, Czech (2006)
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7. Regional Policy Framework on Air 18. Bamako Convention on the Ban of Pollution (2008) the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and 8. Algiers Declaration on Health Research in Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa (2008) Africa (1991).
9. Ouagadougou Declaration on Waste 19. Convention for Cooperation in Management for Human Health and the Protection, Management and Livelihood (2008) Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Atlantic Coast of the 10. Southern African Development West, Central and Southern Africa Region Community (SADC) Regional Policy (Abidjan Convention) and the Additional Framework on Air Pollution (Lusaka Protocol to the Abidjan Convention Agreement 2008) Concerning Cooperation in the Protection and Development of Marine and Coastal 11. Eastern Africa Regional Framework Environment from Land-based Sources Agreement on Air Pollution (Nairobi and Activities in the Western, Central and Agreement 2008) Southern African Region (LSBA Protocol - 2012) Convention for the Protection, 12. West and Central Africa Regional Management and Development of the Framework Agreement on Air Pollution Marine and Coastal Environment of (Abidjan Agreement-2009) the Eastern African Region (Nairobi Convention) and its Protocol Concerning 13. 13. North African Framework Agreement Co-operation in Combating Marine on Air Pollution Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the Eastern African Region 14. Southern Africa Development Community Protocol on Regional Air Quality and 20. Regional Convention for the Conservation Atmospheric Emissions of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environmen (Jeddah Convention) and 15. Libreville Declaration on Health and Protocol Concerning the Conservation of Environment in Africa (2008) recognizes Biological Diversity and the Establishment the need for further research to increase of Network of Protected Areas in the Red understanding of the vulnerability of Sea and Gulf of Aden (2005), Protocol humans to environmental risk factors, Concerning the Protection of the Marine particularly in Africa. It calls upon Environment from Land-Based Activities countries to develop or update national, in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (2005), subregional and regional frameworks and Protocol Concerning Technical in order to address more effectively the Cooperation to Borrow and Transfer issue of environmental impacts Experts, Technicians, Equipment and on health. Materials in Cases of Emergency (2009).
16. West, Central and Southern Africa Region Asia Regional Contingency Plans and other Means of Preventing and Combatting 1. The Association of Southeast Asian Pollution Incidents (2011) Nations (ASEAN) (1967)
17. The African Convention on the 2. ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Conservation of Nature and Natural Haze Pollution (2002) Resources (2003).
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3. Central Asian International Environmental of environmental management and Forum sustainable development.
4. Intergovernmental Networks on Regional 18. The Convention to Ban the importation Air Pollution in Asia and the Pacific Region into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control 5. The Acid Deposition Monitoring Network the Transboundary Movement of for East Asia (EANET) (1998) Hazardous wastes within the South Pacific Region (Waigaini Convention) 6. Joint Forum on Atmospheric Environment (1995 ) objectively seeks to reduce and in Asia and the Pacific eliminate transboundary movements of hazardous and radioactive waste, to 7. Asia-Pacific Regional Forum on Health minimize the production of hazardous and Environment and toxic wastes in the Pacific region and to ensure that disposal of wastes 8. The Asia Pacific Clean Air Partnership in the Convention area is completed in (APCAP) an environmentally sound manner. The Convention applies the strict controls 9. Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce of the Basel Convention to the South Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (CCAC) Pacific area, and ensures that hazardous waste cannot travel from New Zealand or 10. Clean Air Asia’s Integrated Programme for Australia to another Pacific country, or to Better Air Quality in Asia (IBAQ) Antarctica.
11. Asian Co-benefits Partnership (ACP) 19. Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the 12. The Long-range Transboundary Air Marine Environment from Pollution (1978) Pollutants in North East Asia (LTP) and Protocol concerning Regional Co- operation in Combating Pollution by Oil 13. The Northeast Asian Subregional and other Harmful Substances in Cases of Programme for Environmental Emergency (1978). Cooperation (NEASPEC) 20. The Action Plan for the South Asian Seas 14. Framework Convention on Environmental Programme (1995) Protection for Sustainable Development (Central Asia) (2006) 21. Action Plan for the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Marine 15. The Convention on Conservation of Nature and Coastal Areas of the East Asian in the South Pacific (Apia Convention) Region (1994).
16. Malé Declaration on Control and 22. The Action Plan for the Protection, Prevention of Air Pollution and Its Likely Management and Development of the Transboundary Effects for South Asia Marine and Coastal Environment of the (1998) Northwest Pacific Region (1994)
17. Regional Environmental Centre for Europe and North America Central Asia (CAREC) (1998) creates opportunities to attract to Central Asia the 1. European Environment and Health advanced knowledge, best international Ministerial Board (EHMB) practices and technologies in the field
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2. The Barcelona Convention for the • Offshore Protocol: Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (1976) and its Protocols against Pollution Resulting from seeks to protect the maritime waters of Exploration and Exploitation of the the Mediterranean Sea from substances Continental Shelf and the Seabed and that could harm the living resources, its Subsoil (1994) cause hazards to human health, and impair quality of seawater. • Hazardous Wastes Protocol: Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution of the Seven Protocols addressing specific Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary aspects of Mediterranean environmental Movements of Hazardous Wastes and conservation processes have been their Disposal (1996) adopted since 1976: • Integrated Coastal Zone Management • Dumping Protocol: Protocol for Protocol: Protocol on Integrated the Prevention of Pollution in the Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Mediterranean (2008) Ships and Aircraft (1976) amended as Protocol for the Prevention 3. Batumi Action for Cleaner Air (2016– and Elimination of Pollution in the 2021) hosted by the United Nations Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Economic Commission for Europe: a Ships and Aircraft or Incineration at voluntary initiative supporting countries’ Sea (1995) efforts in improving air quality and protecting public health and ecosystems. • Prevention and Emergency Protocol: 108 commitments have been submitted Protocol Concerning Cooperation in by 27 countries and 4 organizations. Preventing Pollution from Ships and, in Cases of Emergency, Combating 4. European Agreement concerning the Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea International Carriage of Dangerous (2002), which replaced the Protocol Goods by Road (ADR) (1968). Concerning Cooperation in Combating Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by 5. The United Nations Economic Oil and other Harmful Substances in Commission for Europe Convention on Cases of Emergency (1976). Long-range Trans-boundary Air Pollution (1979) and its Protocols : • Land-based Sources Protocol: Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean a) Protocol on Long-term Financing Sea against Pollution from Land-Based of the Cooperative Programme for Sources (1980) Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long- range Transmission of Air Pollutants in • The Land-based Sources and Activities Europe (EMEP) (1984); Protocol: Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against b) Protocol on Reduction of Sulphur Pollution from Land-Based Sources Emissions or their Transboundary and Activities (1996) Fluxes by 30% (1985);
• Specially Protected Area and c) Protocol on Control of Emissions Biodiversity Protocol: Protocol of Nitrogen Oxides or their Concerning Specially Protected Transboundary Fluxes (1988); Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (1995)
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d) Protocol on Control of Emissions of Impact Assessment (1991) and the Volatile Organic Compounds or their Protocol on Strategic Environmental Transboundary Fluxes (1991) Assessment (2003).
e) Protocol to the Convention on long- 11. Alpine Convention (1991) and its range Transboundary air pollution Protocols encourage parties to adhere to concerning the further reductions of the basic principles of all the activities not Sulphur Emissions (1994). harmful to humans, animals and plants and their habitats. f) Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (1998) 12. Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats g) Protocol to the Convention on long- (1979). range Transboundary air pollution on Heavy Metals (1998) 13. River Basin Conventions (Danube (1994), Elbe (1990), Oder (1996), Rhine (1999)) h) Protocol to Abate Acidification, seek to ensure that surface waters and Eutrophication and Ground-level groundwater within river basins are Ozone (1999). managed and used sustainably and equitably; improve water quality and i) Protocol to the Convention on long- reduce hazardous pollution to ensure that range Transboundary air pollution to human health and the aquatic ecosystem abate acidification, eutrophication and of the waters are not threatened by ground-level ozone (1999) hazardous substances.
6. The United Nations Economic 14. Agreement for cooperation in dealing Commission for Europe Convention on with pollution of the North Sea by oil the Transboundary Effects of Industrial and other harmful substances (Bonn Accidents (1992). Agreement) (1983) is applicable whenever the presence or the prospective 7. Helsinki Convention on the Protection of presence of oil or other harmful the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea substances polluting or threatening to Area (1992). pollute the North Sea presents a grave and imminent danger to the coast 8. The United Nations Economic or related interests of one or more Commission for Europe Aarhus Contracting Parties. Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision Making 15. The Convention on the Protection and Access to Justice in Environmental of the Black Sea Against Pollution Matters (1998) and the Kyiv Protocol on (Bucharest Convention) and its Protocol Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers on Protection of the Black Sea Marine (2009) (All UN Member States can join the Environment Against Pollution from Protocol). Land Based Sources (1992), Protocol on Cooperation in Combating Pollution 9. Convention for the Protection of the of the Black Sea Marine Environment Marine Environment of the North-East by Oil and other Harmful Substances in Atlantic, “OSPAR Convention” - (1992) Emergency Situations; and Protocol on the Protection of the Black Sea Marine 10. The UN Economic Commission for Europe Environment Against Pollution ~by Espoo Convention on Environmental Dumping
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16. Framework Convention for the Protection c) The Protocol Concerning Pollution of the Marine Environment of the Caspian from Land-Based Sources and Sea (Tehran Convention) and the Protocol Activities (1999) Concerning Regional Preparedness, Response and Co-operation in Combating 6. Convention for the Protection of the Oil Pollution Incidents (2011), and the Marine Environment and Coastal Area Protocol for the Protection of the Caspian of the South-East Pacific (1981) (Lima Sea against Pollution from Land-based Convention) obligates Parties to take Sources and Activities (2012). measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment and Latin America and the Caribbean coastal area of the South-East Pacific and to ensure appropriate environmental 1. The Forum of Ministers of Environment of management of natural resources. Latin America and the Caribbean 7. Convention for Cooperation in the 2. Regional Action Plan for Protection and Sustainable Development Intergovernmental Cooperation on Air of the Marine and Coastal Environment Pollution for Latin America and the of the Northeast Pacific (Antigua Caribbean (2014) Convention) and Plan of Action for the Protection and Sustainable Development 3. Regional Intergovernmental Network on of the Marine and Coastal Environment of Atmospheric Pollution of Latin America the North-East Pacific and the Caribbean The Antarctic Treaty System 4. Regional Agreement on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous 1. Protocol on Environmental Protection to Wastes (1992) (not yet in force) the Antarctic Treaty (1991)
5. Convention for the Protection and 2. Convention for the Conservation of Development of the Marine Environment Antarctic Seals (1972) in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) (1983) calls on 3. Convention on the Conservation of Parties to take appropriate measures to Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980) control pollution of the wider Caribbean (CCAMLR) Sea region from land based sources, ships, dumping, sea bed activities, and 4. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting airborne sources. It covers the marine (ATCM) adopts Measures, Decisions environment of the Gulf of Mexico, the and Resolutions for implementing the Caribbean Sea and the areas of the principles of the Antarctic Treaty and Atlantic Ocean and is complimented by the Environment Protocol and provide the following protocols: regulations and guidelines for the management of the Antarctic Treaty a) The Protocol Concerning Co-operation area. The Decisions address internal in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider organizational matters of the meeting. Caribbean Region (1983). The Resolutions are not legally binding on Contracting Parties but they can provide b) The Protocol Concerning Specially guidance on the implementation of the Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) Antarctic Treaty system. The Measures, in the Wider Caribbean Region (1990). once approved, are legally binding on the Consultative Parties.
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5. The Committee for Environmental 5. Protection of the Arctic Marine Protection (CEP) provides advice Environment (PAME) mandated to and formulate recommendations to address policy and non-emergency the Parties in connection with the pollution prevention and control measures implementation of the Environment for the protection of the Arctic marine Protocol Protocol(German Environment environment from both land and sea- Agency 2016). based sources
The Arctic Council 6. Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG) incorporates activities to 1. Arctic Contaminants Action Program prevent and control disease and injuries (ACAP) mandated to prevent adverse by monitoring the impact of pollution and effects from, reduce, and ultimately climate change on health and Sustainable eliminate pollution of the Arctic Development of the people living in the environment. Arctic
2. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) mandated to provide reliable and sufficient information on the status of, and threats to, the Arctic environment, including scientific advice on actions to be taken to support Arctic governments in their efforts to take remedial and preventive actions relating to contaminants
3. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) mandated to develop common responses on issues of importance for the Arctic ecosystem, including responses on conservation opportunities and political commitments.
4. Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response (EPPR) mandated to contribute to the protection of the Arctic environment from the threat or impact that may result from an accidental release of pollutants or radionuclides.
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Annex 6: Analysis of the linkages between addressing pollution types and implementing Sustainable Development Goal targets
The figures below map out how addressing Development Goal targets. The logos in the pollution through multilateral environmental centre provide an indication of the institutions agreements and other international initiatives that play a key role in tackling that type of contributes to achieving Sustainable pollution.
Air pollution
1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food poor and those in vulnerable situations production systems and implement and reduce their exposure and resilient agricultural practices that vulnerability to climate-related increase productivity and production, extreme events and other economic, that help maintain ecosystems, that social and environmental shocks and strengthen capacity for adaptation to disasters climate change, extreme weather, 3.4 reduce premature mortality from drought, flooding and other disasters non-communicable diseases and that progressively improve land and 3.9 reduce the number of deaths and soil quality illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air pollution and contamination
ODS -Protection against UV radiation 15.5 Take urgent and significant action 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by to reduce the degradation of natural reducing pollution, eliminating habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity dumping and minimizing release of and, by 2020, protect and prevent the hazardous chemicals and materials, extinction of threatened species halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing POPs - recycling and safe reuse globally Waste - CH emissions pesticides 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated 4 water resources management at all Healthy ecosystems help levels, including through transboundary to mitigate the spread cooperation as appropriate and impact of pollution by 6.a By 2030, expand international both sequestering and cooperation and capacity-building eliminating certain types ROTTERDAM support to developing countries in 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly of air, water and soil Mercury CONVENTION water- and sanitation-related activities reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in pollution Preventing “dangerous” and programmes, including water particular from land-based activities, harvesting, desalination, water including marine debris and nutrient human interference efficiency, wastewater treatment, pollution ADDRESSING with the climate system recycling and reuse technologies and 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts programmes, including water of ocean acidification, including Pollution reduced harvesting, desalination, water through enhanced scientific efficiency, wastewater treatment, cooperation at all levels Sound management of recycling and reuse technologies chemicals to minimize adverse impacts on the environment and human health.
AIR POLLUTION 13.2 Integrate climate change 7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to measures into national policies, affordable, reliable and modern energy strategies and planning Kyoto Protocol services 13.3 Improve education, The Paris Agreement 7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the awareness-raising and human and share of renewable energy in the institutional capacity on climate global energy mix change mitigation, adaptation, impact 7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of reduction and early warning improvement in energy efficiency Utilizing cleaner and more 13.a Implement the commitment resource-efficient 7.b By 2030, expand infrastructure and undertaken by developed-country approaches that minimize upgrade technology for supplying parties to the United Nations wastes and pollutants can modern and sustainable energy Framework Convention on Climate carbon stocks - reduce pollution - bring about economic services for all in developing countries, Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly Sustainable Production and Consumption opportunities and better in particular least developed countries, $100 billion annually by 2020 from all small island developing States and Reduced anthropogenic pressures quality of life for sources to address the needs of consumers and producers landlocked developing countries, in developing countries in the context of alike accordance with their respective meaningful mitigation actions and programmes of support transparency on implementation and fully operationalize the Green Climate Fund through its capitalization as soon as possible
8.4 Improve progressively global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to 12.1 Implement the 10-Year Framework decouple economic growth from of Programmes on Sustainable environmental degradation Consumption and Production Patterns, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of developing countries 12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources 12.4 By 2020, achieve the 9.1 Develop quality, reliable, environmentally sound management sustainable and resilient of chemicals and all wastes infrastructure, including regional and throughout their life cycle, in trans-border infrastructure, to support accordance with agreed international economic development and human frameworks, and significantly reduce well-being, with a focus on affordable their release to air, water and soil in and equitable access for all order to minimize their adverse impacts 9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable on human health and the environment industrialization and, by 2030, 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce significantly raise industry’s share of waste generation through prevention, employment and gross domestic reduction, recycling and reuse product, in line with national 12.6 Encourage companies, especially circumstances, and double its share in large and transnational companies, to least developed countries adopt sustainable practices and to 9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and integrate sustainability information into retrofit industries to make them their reporting cycle sustainable, with increased 12.c Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuel 11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe, resource-use efficiency and greater subsidies that encourage wasteful affordable, accessible and adoption of clean and consumption by removing market sustainable transport systems for all, environmentally sound technologies distortions, in accordance with national improving road safety, notably by and industrial processes, with all circumstances, including by expanding public transport, with special countries taking action in accordance restructuring taxation and phasing out attention to the needs of those in with their respective capabilities those harmful subsidies, where they vulnerable situations, women, children, 9.a Facilitate sustainable and resilient exist, to reflect their environmental persons with disabilities and older infrastructure development in impacts, taking fully into account the persons developing countries through specific needs and conditions of 11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per enhanced financial, technological and developing countries and minimizing capita environmental impact of cities, technical support to African countries, the possible adverse impacts on their including by paying special attention to least developed countries, landlocked development in a manner that protects air quality and municipal and other developing countries and small island the poor and the affected communities waste management developing States
Direct Action Protect
Reduce emissions, Best practice Resilience, adaptation
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Land and soil pollution
15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, 1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and 2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure restoration and sustainable use of women, in particular the poor and the access by all people, in particular the terrestrial and inland freshwater vulnerable, have equal rights to poor and people in vulnerable ecosystems and their services, in economic resources, as well as access to situations, including infants, to safe, particular forests, wetlands, mountains basic services, ownership and control nutritious and sufficient food all year and drylands, in line with obligations over land and other forms of property, round under international agreements inheritance, natural resources, 2.2 By 2030, end all forms of 15.2 By 2020, promote the appropriate new technology and malnutrition, including achieving, by implementation of sustainable financial services, including 2025, the internationally agreed targets management of all types of forests, microfinance on stunting and wasting in children halt deforestation, restore degraded 1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the under 5 years of age, and address the forests and substantially increase poor and those in vulnerable situations nutritional needs of adolescent girls, afforestation and reforestation globally and reduce their exposure and pregnant and lactating women and 15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, vulnerability to climate-related extreme older persons restore degraded land and soil, events and other economic, social and 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural including land affected by environmental shocks and disasters productivity and incomes of desertification, drought and floods, and small-scale food producers, in strive to achieve a land particular women, indigenous peoples, degradation-neutral world family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, 15.5 Take urgent and significant action including through secure and equal to reduce the degradation of natural access to land, other productive habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity resources and inputs, knowledge, and, by 2020, protect and prevent the financial services, markets and extinction of threatened species opportunities for value addition and 15.6 Promote fair and equitable non-farm employment. sharing of the benefits arising from 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food the utilization of genetic resources and production systems and implement promote appropriate access to such resilient agricultural practices that resources, as internationally agreed increase productivity and production, 15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and that help maintain ecosystems, that biodiversity values into national and strengthen capacity for adaptation to local planning, development processes, climate change, extreme weather, poverty reduction strategies and drought, flooding and other disasters accounts and that progressively improve land 15.a Mobilize and significantly increase and soil quality financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems ODS -Protection against UV radiation 3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination POPs - pesticides Waste - CH4 emissions 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in Healthy ecosystems help particular from land-based activities, to mitigate the spread including marine debris and nutrient and impact of pollution by pollution both sequestering and eliminating certain types ROTTERDAM 14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per of air, water and soil Mercury CONVENTION 5.a Undertake reforms to give women cent of coastal and marine areas, pollution equal rights to economic resources, as consistent with national and Preventing “dangerous” well as access to ownership and international law and based on the best human interference control over land and other forms of available scientific information ADDRESSING with the climate system property, financial services, inheritance and natural resources, in accordance with national laws Pollution reduced Sound management of chemicals to minimize adverse impacts on the environment and human health. 13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all LAND/SOIL POLLUTION countries 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and 13.2 Integrate climate change equitable access to safe and affordable measures into national policies, drinking water for all strategies and planning 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating 13.3 Improve education, Kyoto Protocol awareness-raising and human and The Paris Agreement dumping and minimizing release of institutional capacity on climate hazardous chemicals and materials, change mitigation, adaptation, impact halving the proportion of untreated reduction and early warning wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally Utilizing cleaner and more 6.4 By 2030, substantially increase resource-efficient water-use efficiency across all sectors approaches that minimize wastes and pollutants can and ensure sustainable withdrawals carbon stocks - reduce pollution - bring about economic and supply of freshwater to address Sustainable Production and Consumption opportunities and better water scarcity and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from Reduced anthropogenic pressures quality of life for consumers and producers water scarcity alike 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate 6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes 6.a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in 8.1 Sustain per capita economic water- and sanitation-related activities growth in accordance with national and programmes, including water circumstances and, in particular, at least harvesting, desalination, water 7 per cent gross domestic product efficiency, wastewater treatment, growth per annum in the least recycling and reuse technologies and developed countries programmes, including water 8.3 Promote development-oriented harvesting, desalination, water policies that support productive efficiency, wastewater treatment, activities, decent job creation, recycling and reuse technologies entrepreneurship, creativity and 6.b Support and strengthen the innovation, and encourage the participation of local communities in 11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce the formalization and growth of micro-, improving water and sanitation number of deaths and the number of small- and medium-sized enterprises, management people affected and substantially including through access to financial decrease the direct economic losses services relative to global gross domestic 8.4 Improve progressively, through product caused by disasters, including 2030, global resource efficiency in water-related disasters, with a focus on consumption and production and protecting the poor and people in endeavour to decouple economic vulnerable situations growth from environmental 11.7 By 2030, provide universal access degradation, in accordance with the 12.4 By 2020, achieve the to safe, inclusive and accessible, green 10-Year Framework of Programmes on environmentally sound management and public spaces, in particular for Sustainable Consumption and of chemicals and all wastes women and children, older persons and Production, with developed countries throughout their life cycle, in persons with disabilities taking the lead accordance with agreed international 11.a Support positive economic, social 8.9 By 2030, devise and implement frameworks, and significantly reduce and environmental links between policies to promote sustainable their release to air, water and soil in urban, peri-urban and rural areas by tourism that creates jobs and promotes order to minimize their adverse impacts strengthening national and regional local culture and products on human health and the environment development planning
Direct Action Protect
Reduce emissions, Best practice Resilience, adaptation
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Freshwater pollution
15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, 16.5 Substantially reduce corruption 1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme 2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure 3.1 By 2030, reduce the global restoration and sustainable use of and bribery in all their forms poverty for all people everywhere, access by all people, in particular the maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 terrestrial and inland freshwater 16.6 Develop effective, accountable and currently measured as people living on poor and people in vulnerable per 100,000 live births ecosystems and their services, in transparent institutions at all levels less than $1.25 a day situations, including infants, to safe, 3.2 By 2030, end preventable deaths particular forests, wetlands, mountains 1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the nutritious and sufficient food all year of newborns and children under 5 and drylands, in line with obligations proportion of men, women and children round years of age, with all countries aiming under international agreements of all ages living in poverty in all its 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural to reduce neonatal mortality to at least 15.2 By 2020, promote the dimensions according to national productivity and incomes of small-scale as low as 12 per 1,000 live births and implementation of sustainable definitions food producers, in particular women, under-5 mortality to at least as low as 25 management of all types of forests, 1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and indigenous peoples, family farmers, per 1,000 live births halt deforestation, restore degraded women, in particular the poor and the pastoralists and fishers, including 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, forests and substantially increase vulnerable, have equal rights to through secure and equal access to tuberculosis, malaria and neglected afforestation and reforestation globally economic resources, as well as access land, other productive resources and tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, 15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, to basic services, ownership and inputs, knowledge, financial services, water-borne diseases and other restore degraded land and soil, control over land and other forms of markets and opportunities for value communicable diseases including land affected by property, inheritance, natural resources, addition and non-farm employment 3.8 Achieve universal health coverage, desertification, drought and floods, and appropriate new technology and 2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable food including financial risk protection, strive to achieve a land financial services, including production systems and implement access to quality essential degradation-neutral world microfinance resilient agricultural practices that health-care services and access to safe, 15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservation increase productivity and production, effective, quality and affordable of mountain ecosystems, including that help maintain ecosystems, that essential medicines and vaccines for all their biodiversity, in order to enhance strengthen capacity for adaptation to 3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the their capacity to provide benefits that climate change, extreme weather, number of deaths and illnesses from are essential for sustainable drought, flooding and other disasters hazardous chemicals and air, development and that progressively improve land and water and soil pollution and 15.5 Take urgent and significant action soil quality contamination to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species ODS -Protection against UV radiation
4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners POPs - acquire the knowledge and skills pesticides Waste - CH4 emissions needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly Healthy ecosystems help through education for sustainable reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in to mitigate the spread development and sustainable lifestyles, particular from land-based activities, and impact of pollution by human rights, gender equality, including marine debris and nutrient both sequestering and promotion of a culture of peace and pollution eliminating certain types ROTTERDAM of air, water and soil Mercury CONVENTION non-violence, global citizenship and 14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and pollution appreciation of cultural diversity and of protect marine and coastal ecosystems Preventing “dangerous” culture’s contribution to sustainable to avoid significant adverse impacts, human interference development including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their ADDRESSING with the climate system restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans Pollution reduced Sound management of chemicals to minimize adverse impacts on the environment and human health. 6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all FRESHWATER POLLUTION 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to 13.1 Strengthen resilience and adequate and equitable sanitation adaptive capacity to climate-related and hygiene for all and end open hazards and natural disasters defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those Kyoto Protocol in vulnerable situations The Paris Agreement 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous chemicals and materials, Utilizing cleaner and more halving the proportion of untreated resource-efficient wastewater and substantially increasing 12.1 Implement the 10-Year approaches that minimize recycling and safe reuse globally Framework of Programmes on wastes and pollutants can 6.4 By 2030, substantially increase Sustainable Consumption and carbon stocks - reduce pollution - bring about economic water-use efficiency across all sectors Production Patterns, all countries Sustainable Production and Consumption opportunities and better and ensure sustainable withdrawals taking action, with developed countries Reduced anthropogenic pressures quality of life for and supply of freshwater to address taking the lead, taking into account the consumers and producers water scarcity and substantially reduce development and capabilities of alike the number of people suffering from developing countries water scarcity 12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated management and efficient use of water resources management at all natural resources levels, including through transboundary 12.3 By 2030, halve per capita global cooperation as appropriate food waste at the retail and consumer 6.6 By 2020, protect and restore levels and reduce food losses along water-related ecosystems, including production and supply chains, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, post-harvest losses aquifers and lakes 12.4 By 2020, achieve the 6.a By 2030, expand international environmentally sound management 8.1 Sustain per capita economic cooperation and capacity-building of chemicals and all wastes growth in accordance with national support to developing countries in throughout their life cycle, in circumstances and, in particular, at least water- and sanitation-related activities accordance with agreed international 7 per cent gross domestic product and programmes, including water frameworks, and significantly reduce growth per annum in the least harvesting, desalination, water their release to air, water and soil in developed countries efficiency, wastewater treatment, order to minimize their adverse impacts 8.2 Achieve higher levels of economic recycling and reuse technologies on human health and the environment productivity through diversification, 6.b Support and strengthen the 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce technological upgrading and participation of local communities in waste generation through prevention, innovation, including through a focus improving water and sanitation reduction, recycling and reuse on high-value added and management labour-intensive sectors 8.4 Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and 9.1 Develop quality, reliable, endeavour to decouple economic sustainable and resilient growth from environmental infrastructure, including regional and degradation, in accordance with the trans-border infrastructure, to support 10-Year Framework of Programmes on 11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all to economic development and human Sustainable Consumption and adequate, safe and affordable housing well-being, with a focus on affordable Production, with developed countries and basic services and upgrade slums and equitable access for all taking the lead 11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive and 9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainable 8.5 By 2030, achieve full and sustainable urbanization and industrialization and, by 2030, productive employment and decent capacity for participatory, integrated significantly raise industry’s share of work for all women and men, including and sustainable human settlement employment and gross domestic for young people and persons with planning and management in all product, in line with national disabilities, and equal pay for work of countries circumstances, and double its share in equal value 11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per least developed countries 8.8 Protect labour rights and promote capita environmental impact of cities, 9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and safe and secure working including by paying special attention to retrofit industries to make them environments for all workers, 7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access to air quality and municipal and other sustainable, with increased including migrant workers, in particular affordable, reliable and modern energy waste management resource-use efficiency and greater women migrants, and those in services 11.7 By 2030, provide universal access adoption of clean and precarious employment 7.2 By 2030, increase substantially the to safe, inclusive and accessible, green 10.1 By 2030, progressively achieve and environmentally sound technologies 8.9 By 2030, devise and implement share of renewable energy in the and public spaces, in particular for sustain income growth of the bottom and industrial processes, with all policies to promote sustainable global energy mix women and children, older persons and 40 per cent of the population at a rate countries taking action in accordance tourism that creates jobs and promotes 7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of persons with disabilities higher than the national average with their respective capabilities local culture and products improvement in energy efficiency
Direct Action Protect
Reduce emissions, Best practice Resilience, adaptation
95 Towards a Pollution-Free Planet
Marine and coastal pollution
15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, 1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men and 2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure restoration and sustainable use of women, in particular the poor and the access by all people, in particular the terrestrial and inland freshwater vulnerable, have equal rights to poor and people in vulnerable ecosystems and their services, in economic resources, as well as access to situations, including infants, to safe, particular forests, wetlands, mountains basic services, ownership and control nutritious and sufficient food all year and drylands, in line with obligations over land and other forms of property, round under international agreements inheritance, natural resources, 2.2 By 2030, end all forms of 15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, appropriate new technology and malnutrition, including achieving, by restore degraded land and soil, financial services, including 2025, the internationally agreed targets including land affected by microfinance on stunting and wasting in children desertification, drought and floods, 1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the under 5 years of age, and address the and strive to achieve a land poor and those in vulnerable situations nutritional needs of adolescent girls, degradation-neutral world and reduce their exposure and pregnant and lactating women and 15.5 Take urgent and significant action vulnerability to climate-related extreme older persons to reduce the degradation of natural events and other economic, social and 2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity environmental shocks and disasters productivity and incomes of and, by 2020, protect and prevent the small-scale food producers, in particular extinction of threatened species women, indigenous peoples, family farmers, pastoralists and fishers, including through secure and equal access to land, other productive resources and inputs, knowledge, financial services, markets and opportunities for value addition and non-farm employment 3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, reduce marine pollution of all kinds, water-borne diseases and other in particular from land-based activities, ODS -Protection against UV radiation communicable diseases including marine debris and nutrient 3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce the pollution number of deaths and illnesses from 14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and hazardous chemicals and air, protect marine and coastal water and soil pollution and ecosystems to avoid significant adverse contamination impacts, including by strengthening POPs - their resilience, and take action for their Waste - CH emissions pesticides restoration in order to achieve healthy 4 and productive oceans Healthy ecosystems help 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts to mitigate the spread of ocean acidification, including and impact of pollution by through enhanced scientific both sequestering and cooperation at all levels eliminating certain types ROTTERDAM 14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate of air, water and soil Mercury CONVENTION harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, pollution 6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate unreported and unregulated fishing and Preventing “dangerous” and equitable sanitation and hygiene for destructive fishing practices and human interference all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of implement science-based management ADDRESSING with the climate system plans, in order to restore fish stocks in women and girls and those in the shortest time feasible, at least to vulnerable situations levels that can produce maximum Pollution reduced 6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating sustainable yield as determined by their Sound management of biological characteristics dumping and minimizing release of chemicals to minimize hazardous chemicals and materials, 14.7 By 2030, increase the economic adverse impacts on the benefits to small island developing environment and human halving the proportion of untreated States and least developed countries health. wastewater and substantially increasing from the sustainable use of marine recycling and safe reuse globally resources, including through sustainable 6.5 By 2030, implement integrated management of fisheries, aquaculture MARINE AND COASTAL water resources management at all and tourism levels, including through transboundary 14.a Increase scientific knowledge, POLLUTION cooperation as appropriate develop research capacity and transfer 6.6 By 2020, protect and restore marine technology, taking into account water-related ecosystems, including the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Kyoto Protocol mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, Commission Criteria and Guidelines on The Paris Agreement aquifers and lakes the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of Utilizing cleaner and more developing countries, in particular small resource-efficient island developing States and least approaches that minimize developed countries wastes and pollutants can 14.c Enhance the conservation and carbon stocks - reduce pollution - bring about economic sustainable use of oceans and their Sustainable Production and Consumption opportunities and better 8.4 Improve progressively, through resources by implementing Reduced anthropogenic pressures quality of life for 2030, global resource efficiency in international law as reflected in the consumers and producers consumption and production and United Nations Convention on the Law alike endeavour to decouple economic of the Sea, which provides the legal growth from environmental framework for the conservation and degradation, in accordance with the sustainable use of oceans and their 10-Year Framework of Programmes on resources, as recalled in paragraph 158 Sustainable Consumption and of “The future we want” Production, with developed countries taking the lead 8.9 By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products
12.1 Implement the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production Patterns, all countries taking action, with developed countries taking the lead, taking into account the development and capabilities of 9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure and developing countries retrofit industries to make them 12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable sustainable, with increased management and efficient use of resource-use efficiency and greater natural resources adoption of clean and environmentally 12.4 By 2020, achieve the sound technologies and industrial environmentally sound management processes, with all countries taking of chemicals and all wastes action in accordance with their throughout their life cycle, in respective capabilities accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment 12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse 12.8 By 2030, ensure that people everywhere have the relevant information and awareness for sustainable development and lifestyles in harmony with nature 12.b Develop and implement tools to 11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse per monitor sustainable development capita environmental impact of cities, 13.2 Integrate climate change measures impacts for sustainable tourism that including by paying special attention to into national policies, strategies and creates jobs and promotes local culture air quality and municipal and other planning and products waste management
Direct Action Protect
Reduce emissions, Best practice Resilience, adaptation
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Annex 7: Cleaner technologies: impacts, benefits and limitations
The list below provides some examples of cleaner technologies, and of some of their impacts and benefits and limitations.
Type of Source Technologies to Impacts/Benefits Limitations Pollution Prevent Pollution Air Pollution Road Transport • Clean petrol/ diesel Reduce carbon dioxide • Most clean vehicles vehicles technologies emissions, fine particles technologies depend on (including filters) and other pollutants, clean fuels • Electric cars therefore resulting in • Electric vehicles still have improved human health limited range Agriculture • Improved fertilizer • Encourages efficient use • When mismanaged, (nutrient) and manure of fertilizer emissions from field management (including • Handling manure as a spread manure has the field application and solid versus a liquid helps potential to pollute air, storage) to decrease emissions. land, and water resources through deposition. • Restrict agriculture • Encourages efficient residue burning ploughing after harvesting • Investment in good ploughing machine has relatively high cost Energy Renewable energy sources • Little to no global • Biomass plants raise production and include wind energy, greenhouse gas concerns about air distribution geothermal energy, solar emissions, improved emissions and water use energy, and hydropower public health and similar to fossil fuel plants environmental quality, • Materials and metal increase gender equality requirements may be • A vast and inexhaustible exacerbated energy supply Freshwater Industrial waste Adsorption process Simple design and can High operational costs Pollution (treatment and removal of involve low investment in organic contaminants in terms of both initial cost wastewater treatment) and land required Domestic • Anaerobic wastewater • Less waste produced than • Production of odours; wastewater treatment, advanced aerobic treatment does not remove and sewage tertiary treatment • Methane produced as ammonia-nitrogen; (membrane filtration, energy source Temperature must be ozonation) maintained year-round. • Relatively low-labor and • Constructed wetlands/ low-energy • Need for preliminary green infrastructure treatment of wastewater; • Simple, durable and easy may require relatively large • Small-scale decentralized to maintain systems; biodigestors; land area septic tanks; composting • Clean and low-cost energy • Not attractive on large toilets; duckweed lagoons alternatives to fuelwood scale; challenge in linking • Improved indoor air quality markets with productions sites. For example for ecosan
Agricultural Integrated pest • Proper wastewater When mismanaged, has the runoff and Waste management, efficient treatment can provide potential to pollute air, land, fertilizer use (improved water for agriculture and water resources nutrient use efficiency), (reusability) enhanced product • Nutrient recovery from formulations, erosion manures control, livestock waste management and treatment • Cost savings for farmers
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Type of Source Technologies to Impacts/Benefits Limitations Pollution Prevent Pollution Freshwater Radioactive Multinational repositories Since some countries are For the time being, many Pollution Waste limited in area, or have countries would not accept (continued) unfavourable geology, nuclear waste from other multinational repositories countries under their can help in safer national laws. management of radioactive waste. Land Pollution Agricultural Agroecology; minimum • Reduces pollution activities or zero tillage for soil • Nutrient recovery from structure and health; manures organic and permaculture; agroforestry; pasture • Cost savings for farmers and grass-fed livestock systems; alternate wetting and drying in rice; reversion back to mixed (crop and livestock) farming systems ensuring nutrient recycling on-farm (crops and pasture consumed by livestock and nitrogen returned to the ground through manure and other organic matter Marine Domestic waste Storm water filters Reduces pollution and Construction and Pollution water and (see freshwater pollution) prevents flooding maintenance costs are sewage relatively high Large-scale oil New generation trawler to 100% recyclable and light spills recover oil spills weight Plastic waste • Redesign of products • Possibility of harmful • Recycling is not a • Washing machine filters atmospheric emissions; profitable option costly and requires large for many polymers, • Recovery/recycling and volumes to generate requires large amounts conversion to other energy to justify investments products • Closing the material loop in infrastructure which • Innovations in alternative and increase recyclability smaller countries or materials of products, for example islands would not have • Ocean cleanup (for turning fishing gear into • Alternative materials example with long floating carpets may not be possible to barriers) • Preventing synthetic fibres scale up, also caution that these need to be • Oceans clean up prevents thoroughly tested in by-catch of unwanted fish marine conditions so that and other marine species. we do not create a bigger Designed for large-scale problem deployments • Oceans clean up is only at pilot stage and only “end- of-pipe” solution. Does not address the root cause of the problems Agricultural Integrated pest Proper wastewater When mismanaged, has the runoff and Waste management, efficient treatment will result in potential to pollute air, land, fertilizer use (improved water for agriculture and water resources nutrient use efficiency) (reusability); nutrient and enhanced product recovery from manures; formulations; erosion cost savings for farmers control, livestock waste management and treatment
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Annex 8: Multi-stakeholder partnerships and platforms
A range of partnerships address pollution. from government, private sector, civil society Some of the more global ones are discussed and international organizations. Its secretariat below: is based at UN Environment. Link: www.unep.org/transport/pcfv Air pollution The Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI) – Established in 2012, the Climate and Clean Air brings together six global partners, including Coalition (CCAC) is a voluntary partnership UN Environment, to promote cleaner and more of governments, the private sector, civil efficient vehicles. The Initiative is now working society and other stakeholders committed with 65 countries and aiming to reach 100; to “achieve concrete and substantial action it is the leading climate change and mobility to accelerate efforts to reduce short-lived initiative, supporting countries to develop climate pollutants.” The Coalition combines policies to double the efficiency of their strong science, high-level political will, and vehicle fleets. Improving the fuel economy of partnership leadership, with a range of cost- fleets is one of the most effective measures effective measures to reduce emissions, to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Doubling commitments by partners to implement the fuel efficiency of the global fleet will go actions at home and a Trust Fund to finance from an average of 8 litres per 100 km to 4 some initial, collective activities. This is litres/100 km globally, and reduce annual delivered through 11 initiatives targeting carbon dioxide emissions by 2 gigatons per transformational change in household year by 2025. The Initiative supports countries energy, cooling, bricks production, oil and gas have introduced diversified taxation systems, production, agriculture, transport, solid waste, in which cleaner and more efficient cars and national/local planning. A Scientific pay less tax than dirty cars. Countries that Advisory Panel informs the Coalition’s policy have introduced such policies have seen an discussions and keeps the Coalition abreast improvement in the efficiency of their vehicle of new scientific developments on short-lived fleets of 20 per cent to 30 per cent in only a climate pollutants. few years. Link: www.globalfueleconomy.org The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles is a leading global public-private The Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves partnership that supports countries on the is a public-private partnership hosted by introduction of cleaner fuels and vehicles. the UN Foundation to save lives, improve The Partnership was created at the World livelihoods, empower women, and protect Summit on Sustainable Development in 2000 the environment by creating a thriving global and has spearheaded a programme to phase market for clean and efficient household out leaded petrol worldwide. This goal has cooking solutions. The Alliance’s “100 by almost been achieved, bringing major health 20” goal calls for 100 million households to and societal benefits. (Studies estimate that adopt clean and efficient cookstoves and more than 1 million premature deaths are fuels by 2020. The Alliance is working with a being avoided every year.) The Partnership is strong network of public, private and non- now supporting countries around the world profit partners to accelerate the production, with the introduction of cleaner diesel fuels deployment, and use of clean and and the introduction of advanced vehicles efficient cookstoves and fuels in developing standards. It has also recently started countries. activities to promote trade of cleaner used Link: http://cleancookstoves.org/home/index. vehicles. The Partnership has 75 members html
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The United for Efficiency-en.lighten initiative education, nutrition, water and sanitation, is the UN Sustainable Energy for All’s energy immunization and child health combine their efficiency “accelerator” for lighting, appliances respective advocacy, policy development, and equipment. Its goal is to accelerate programme delivery and financing assets to the transformation of global markets to dramatically increase access to pneumonia- more energy-efficient refrigerators, room fighting interventions among the most- air conditioners, lighting products, electric affected populations. motors, and distribution transformers. Link: http://everybreathcounts.info/ United for Efficiency comprises a country and regional portfolio that is supported UN Environment and the World by the Global Environment Facility and Meteorological Organization (WMO) have the is implemented in collaboration with the following overarching themes of collaboration United Nations Development Programme. with regards to observations and assessment Other public and private partners, including of the atmosphere: leading manufacturers such as Philips Lighting, Osram, ABB, Arcelik and Mabe, a) Observations, analysis and applications of support the initiative with technical atmospheric composition, its evolution and expertise. United for Efficiency also supports impacts countries with environmentally sound management throughout the product’s b) Coordination of climate observations, lifecycle, such as by properly collecting assessment of climate science and its lighting products containing mercury, properly application decommissioning transformers that contain PCBs and choosing low-global warming c) Sustainable Development Goals in relation potential refrigerants in air conditioners and to the above. refrigerators. It is active in over 30 countries across Latin America, Africa, and Asia, and In relation to atmospheric air pollution has a large suite of tools and resources emissions with consequences for climate that equip policymakers to understand the change and air quality the collaboration opportunities and steps needed to start focuses on greenhouse gases including transforming their markets to efficient reactive greenhouse gases (e.g. methane) appliances and equipment. in the context of developing and using Link: http://united4efficiency.org/ observation-based applications, such as the Integrated Global Greenhouse Gas To ensure the continued success of the Information System (IG3IS). Campaign Every Breath Counts, to raise awareness about, and spur investment in, Regardless of the strategies and child pneumonia prevention, diagnosis, and mechanisms applied to track progress in the treatment. The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF), implementation of the Paris agreement, the the UN Environment Programme and the ability to implement World Health Organization have created an long-term policies and manage them Every Breath Counts Coalition. The Campaign, effectively requires consistent, reliable, and launched by the UN Children’s Fund, raises timely emissions information. This is greatly awareness about, and spurs investment in, enhanced by IG3IS, jointly implemented by child pneumonia prevention, diagnosis, and the World Meteorological Organization and treatment. The Coalition mobilizes partners UN Environment at country and sub-country from a variety of sectors, disciplines and levels. UN Environment also works jointly movements to invest more in the fight with the World Meteorological Organization, against childhood pneumonia. Leaders Member States, and the private sector, to from such diverse sectors as household air jointly explore funding opportunities (and pollution, sustainable energy, climate change, synergies with other relevant initiatives)
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to facilitate the roll-out and implementation in partnerships under the Global Programme of countries and the long-term sustainability of Action are now all fairly well established with the service. defined governance structures and recognized Link: https://public.wmo.int/en/resources/ as providing a forum for exchange of bulletin/integrated-global-greenhouse-gas- knowledge and best practices. A key success information-system-ig3is factor is the composition of the partnerships, which span broad stakeholder representation. The Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) was launched at the 14th session of the Poorly managed wastewater can have far- Commission on Sustainable Development reaching negative consequences for nature (CSD- 14) in New York on 11 May 2006. It and humans alike. Established in 2013, the aims to promote the sustainable development Global Wastewater Initiative is a voluntary of bioenergy and provides a platform for multi-stakeholder partnership working to cooperation and knowledge exchange address wastewater-related issues, prompt between national governments, international coordination and encourage investments in organizations and other partners. The Global wastewater management. The Initiative is also Bioenergy Partnership generates scientific working towards having wastewater viewed knowledge on sustainable bioenergy. Its as a valuable resource instead of a waste main functions are to i) promote global product. It is part of the Global Programme of high-level policy dialogue on bioenergy and Action and is hosted by UN Environment. facilitate international cooperation, ii) support Links: www.unep.org/gpa/gwi and national and regional bioenergy policy- http://web.unep.org/gpa/what-we-do/global- making and market development, iii) favor wastewater-initiative the transformation of biomass use towards more efficient and sustainable practices, The Global Partnership on Nutrient iv) foster exchange of information, skills and Management was established under the technologies through bilateral and multilateral aegis of UN Environment’s Global Programme collaboration, and v) facilitate bioenergy of Action for the Protection of the Marine integration into energy markets by tackling Environment from Land-based Activities. This specific barriers in the supply chain. UN global partnership consisting of government, Environment is one of the founding members research and academia, agricultural and of the Partnership and led the development fertilizer producer organizations, regional and of the Partnership’s 8 Bioenergy Sustainability international intergovernmental organizations, Indicators of the Environmental basket. non-governmental organizations and UN Link: http://www.globalbioenergy.org/ agencies; aims to harmonize otherwise aboutgbep/history/en/ fragmented efforts to address the nutrient challenge. Some of the partners are India’s Marine pollution Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change; the International Fertilizer Industry The Global Programme of Action for the Association; the United States Environmental Protection of the Marine Environment from Protection Agency; the United Nations Food Land-based Activities was adopted in 1995. and Agriculture Organization; the United By mandate from countries since 2012 the States Department of Agriculture; the Ministry programme focuses on marine pollution of Infrastructure and Environment of the in relation to three source categories; Netherlands; and the Centre for Ecology and nutrient, litter, and wastewater. All three Hydrology. partnerships, the Global Partnership on Link: http://nutrientchallenge.org/partner- Nutrient Management, the Global Partnership directory on Marine Litter, and the Global Wastewater Initiative have advisory capacity and engage The Global Partnership on Marine Litter is in science-policy interface activities. The a global partnership gathering international
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agencies, governments, academia, private efficiency, UN Environment and International sector, civil society and individuals. Rice Institute in 2011, the Sustainable Participants contribute to the development Rice Platform promotes resource-use and implementation of the Partnership’s efficiency and sustainability in the global activities. Contributions may be in the form of rice sector through an alliance that links financial support, in-kind contributions and/ research, production, policymaking, trade or technical expertise. The main purposes of and consumption. The Platform connects the partnership are: To reduce the impacts stakeholders across regions and sectors to of marine litter worldwide on economies, find and implement local solutions for rice ecosystems, animal welfare and human smallholders that will improve livelihoods, health, To increase awareness on sources of reduce costs and protect the environment. marine litter, their fate and impacts including From its establishment, the Platform has (micro) plastics uptake in the food web and grown from 4 to 70 institutional partners associated transfer of pollutants, To enhance today. international cooperation and coordination Link: http://www.sustainablerice.org/ related to marine litter and to assess and explore emerging issues related to marine The Global Soil Partnership promotes litter. sustainable soil management activities Link: http://www.unep.org/gpa/what-we-do/ including preservation and restoration at the global-partnership-marine-litter global, regional and local levels. Voluntary Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management The Ocean Plastic Working Group is a cross- contribute to addressing global challenges industry group of corporations focusing on and meeting international commitments reusing plastic recovered from the ocean including the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable (through the creation of an operational and Development; the Zero Hunger Challenge; commercially viable ocean plastic supply climate change adaptation and mitigation, chain) and potentially improving plastics especially in the light of the Paris Agreement management in the upstream production on climate change; the commitment to processes as well. The group, led by Dell, combat desertification and land degradation include among others UN Environment, and mitigate the effects of drought; the Aichi General Motors, Microsoft, Banca Intesa Sao Biodiversity Targets; and efforts to secure Paulo and Trek Bikes and is likely to expand land tenure under the Voluntary Guidelines further in the coming months. on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of World Aquariums against Marine Litter National Food Security. was officially launched on 27 July 2017 Link: http://www.fao.org/global-soil- by European Union Commissioner for partnership/en/ Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Karmenu Vella. The initiative calls on all Chemicals and waste aquariums to join a global awareness-raising action about marine litter to give their visitors The Global Partnership on Waste a vivid idea of how serious the issue is and Management is an open-ended partnership what each of us can do about it. Aquariums for international organizations, governments, are ideal partners to showcase this growing businesses, academia, local authorities and problem and to engage thousands of people, civil society. It was launched in November by presenting practical solutions. 2010 to enhance international cooperation among stakeholders, identify and fill Land/soil pollution information gaps, share information and strengthen awareness, political will, and With the aim of increasing its focus on food capacity to promote resource conservation security, climate change impacts and resource and resource efficiency. The Partnership also
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aims to complement existing work in the area Chemicals and Health Branch. The Global of waste with a holistic approach which is alliance is a key stakeholder and undertakes a a noted gap in waste management at large. number of activities within the context of the The holistic approach is meant to facilitate Road Map for the Development of Alternatives coordination among different waste sectors to DDT. The Road Map provides a thematic and related activities, to avoid duplication guide and sketch the steps that are needed of efforts and to improve efficiency and for the development and deployment of effectiveness by complementing rather than alternatives to DDT for the purpose of disease competing. vector control to Parties to the Stockholm Link: http://www.unep.org/gpwm/ Convention and other global stakeholders. Link: http://www.unep.org/chemicalsand The Global Mercury Partnership brings waste/what-we-do/science-and-knowledge/ together governments, intergovernmental persistent-organic-pollutants-pops/toward- organizations, non-governmental alternatives-ddt/global organizations, industry and academia to reduce the environmental and health risk The Global Alliance on Health and Pollution of mercury. Eight priority areas for action is a collaborative body, made up of more than have been identified: artisanal and small- 50 members and dozens of observers that scale gold mining, coal combustion, cement advocates on behalf of its low- and middle- production, chlor-alkali production, mercury- income country members for resources containing products, waste management, and solutions to pollution problems. As an mercury supply and storage, and advocacy and coordination network, the atmospheric transport and fate of mercury. Alliance seeks to build demand for pollution The Partnership develops sector-specific prevention and mitigation programs that are technical guidelines, delivers technical implemented by its members. The Alliance assistance to projects to reduce mercury, and builds public, political, technical and financial provides forums for information exchange support to address pollution globally, tracks and mutual learning. pollution impact and interventions, promotes Link: http://www.unep.org/chemicals scientific research on pollution and raises andwaste/global-mercury-partnership awareness on the scope and impacts of all types of pollution. The Alliance also directly The Lead Paint Alliance is a cooperative assists low- and middle-income countries initiative jointly led by the World Health to prioritize and address pollution through Organization and the United Nations health and pollution action planning and Environment Programme to focus and other development planning processes, in catalyse efforts to achieve international coordination with its members. goals to prevent children’s exposure to lead Link: www.gahp.net from paints containing lead and to minimize occupational exposures to lead paint. Its Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) Elimination broad objective is to promote a phase-out of Network (PEN) establish in 2009 by a the manufacture and sale of paints containing decision of the Conference of the Parties lead and eventually to eliminate the risks to the Stockholm Convention. The Network that such paints pose. Lead is one of ten is coordinated by a secretariat, hosted by chemicals of major public health concern. UN Environment Chemicals and Health Link: http://www.unep.org/noleadinpaint Branch. The Secretariat works in close collaboration with the Basel, Rotterdam The Global Alliance for Alternatives to DDT and Stockholm Conventions Secretariat. as a vector control was establish in 2009 The Network is a global multi-stakeholder by the Conference of the Parties to the mechanism that promotes and encourages Stockholm convention. The secretariat of the the environmentally sound management of Global Alliance is hosted by UN Environment PCBs with a view to attaining the Stockholm
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Convention goals: the 2025 goal of phasing sustainable consumption and production out the use of equipment containing PCB in developing and transition countries. and the 2028 goal of the treatment and Specifically,RECPnet - the Global Network for eliminations of the recovered PCB. The Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production Network leads the way toward elimination of aims to improve resource efficiency and PCB in accordance with the Basel Convention environmental performance of businesses Technical Guidelines by defining strategies and other organizations through scaling and facilitating activities; providing targeted up and mainstreaming the application of assistance; developing guidance materials; RECP methods, techniques and policies. raising awareness; and encouraging global Furthermore, the network has developed and regional coordination and exchange of experience in the application of cleaner information among stakeholders. production practices, circular economy Link: http://www.unep.org/ and eco-innovation approaches within their chemicalsandwaste/what-we-do/science-and- advisory function, supporting new business knowledge/persistent-organic-pollutants-pops/ models in SMEs of various value chains pcb-forgotten-legacy/pcb to implement more sustainable practices at the core of their business identity. Cross-cutting The programme has supported capacity enhancement on resource efficiency in The Joint UN Environment/OCHA SMEs since the 1990s using this model of Environment Unit is a partnership that pairs national institution development, which has the environmental expertise of the United proven to be effective. Examples of work to Nations Environment Programme and the combat pollution are chemical leasing, RECP humanitarian response network coordinated assessments, SCP strategies, etc. Today, by the United Nations Office for the RECPnet members are active partners in the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). global development agenda, leading RECP The Unit addresses the environmental assessments in industry, providing specialized impacts of sudden-onset disasters and training and disseminating sustainability accidents by coordinating international methodologies among practitioners and efforts and mobilizing response partners. It stakeholders. assists countries requesting assistance in preparedness and response to environmental The 10-year Framework of Programmes on emergencies. The JEU engages in over 15 Sustainable Consumption and Production different networks and partnerships, liaising Patterns (10YFP) is a global framework of closely with UN agencies, programmes and action to enhance international cooperation affiliated organizations, as well as regional to accelerate the shift towards sustainable organisations and member states. Private consumption and production (SCP) in both sector, industry groups, academic and developed and developing countries. In research institutions are also well represented particular, it aims at contributing to resource among the Unit’s partners. efficiency and decoupling economic Links: https://docs.unocha.org/sites/dms/ growth from environmental degradation and Documents/JEU_2_English.pdf and resource use, and at supporting capacity www.eecentre.org building and facilitate access to financial and technical assistance for developing The United Nations Industrial Development countries, supporting the implementation of Organization and UN Environment have SCP activities at the regional, sub-regional and cooperated for more than 20 years to advance national levels. sustainable industrial development, and Link: http://www.unep.org/10yfp/
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The Partnership for Action on Green Economy seeks to put sustainability at the heart of economic policies and practices to advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and supports nations and regions in reframing economic policies and practices around sustainability to foster economic development, create income and jobs, reduce poverty and inequality, and strengthen the ecological foundations of their economies. It brings together five UN agencies – UN Environment, International Labour Organization, UN Development Programme, UN Industrial Development Organization, and UN Institute for Training and Research – whose mandates, expertise and networks combined can offer integrated and holistic support to countries on inclusive green economy. Link: http://www.un-page.org/home
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World Health Organization (2016a). Ambient Yang, W., Chang, J., Xu, B., Peng, C. and Ge, Y. Air Pollution: A Global Assessment of Exposure (2008). Ecosystem service value assessment and Burden of Disease http://apps.who.int/iris/ for constructed wetlands: A case study in bitstream/10665/250141/1/9789241511353- Hangzhou, China. Ecological Economics eng.pdf. 68(1), 116-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ecolecon.2008.02.008. World Health Organization (2017a) Don’t Pollute my Future!: The Impact of the Yorifuji, T., Tsuda, T. and Harada, M. (2013). Environment on Children's Health. http://apps. Minamata disease: a challenge for democracy who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/254678/1/ and justice. In Late Lessons from Early WHO-FWC-IHE-17.01-eng.pdf. Warnings: Science, Precaution, Innovation I. Copenhagen: European Environment World Health Organization (2017b). Agency. chapter 5. 92-130. https://pdfs. Inheriting a Sustainable World: Atlas on semanticscholar.org/7691/633e5cd Children’s Health and the Environment. 8abc0b5c75e3cbc8b184604cf2798.pdf Geneva. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstre am/10665/254677/1/9789241511773-eng. Youssouf, H., Liousse, C., Roblou, L., pdf?ua=1. Assamoi, E., Salonen, R., Maesano, C. et al. (2014). Quantifying wildfires exposure World Health Organization (2017c). Ten for investigating health-related effects. Chemicals of Major Public Health Concern. Atmospheric Environment 97, 239-251. https:// [http://www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/public_ doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.07.041. health/chemicals_phc/en/. Zarfl, C. and Matthies, M. (2010). Are marine World Health Organization and United Nations plastic particles transport vectors for organic Environment Programme (2013). State of the pollutants to the Arctic? Marine Pollution Science of Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals - Bulletin 60(10), 1810-1814. https://doi. 2012. Bergman, Å., Heindel, J.J., Jobling, S., org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.05.026. Kidd, K.A. and Zoeller, R.T. (eds.). https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/ Zhang, D., Gersberg, R. M. and Keat, 20.500.11822/19276/9789241505031_eng_ T.S. (2009). Constructed wetlands in UNEPWHO.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. China. Ecological Engineering 35(10), 1367-1378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. World Health Organization, Regional Office for ecoleng.2009.07.007. Europe and Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development (2015). tbc
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Treaties and Conventions
The Barcelona Convention for the Protection Minamata Convention on Mercury: of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution Text and Annexes, 2013. http://www. 1976. https://www.informea.org/en/treaties/ mercuryconvention.org/Convention. barcelona. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Basel Convention on the Control of Organic Pollutants, 2001. http://www.ecolex. Transboundary Movements of Hazardous org/server2neu.php/libcat/docs/TRE/Full/En/ Wastes and Their Disposal: Protocol on TRE-001338.pdf. Liability and Compensation for Damage Resulting From Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal - Texts and Annexes, 1989. http://www.basel.int/ Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/text/ BaselConventionText-e.pdf.
The Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships, 2009. http://www.imo.org/en/About/ conventions/listofconventions/pages/the- hong-kong-international-convention-for-the- safe-and-environmentally-sound-recycling-of- ships.aspx.
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Further information
Aneez, S. and Sirilal, R. (2017). Many feared Global Ocean Acidification Observing buried as hopes dim after Sri Lanka garbage Network (2017). Welcome to the Global Ocean dump landslide. Reuters, 16 April. https:// Acidification Observing Network Data Portal. www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lanka- http://portal.goa-on.org/Home. accident/many-feared-buried-as-hopes- dim-after-sri-lanka-garbage-dump-landslide- Group on Earth Observations (2017). Profiles idUSKBN17I0MX. of Earth Observation Portals. http://www. earthobservations.org/pr_popr.shtml. Australia, Department of the Environment and Energy (2014). Benzene. [http://www.npi.gov. Maasho, A. (2017). Ethiopia trash dump au/resource/benzene-0. landslide death toll rises to 115. Reuters, 16 March. http://www.reuters.com/article/ European Chemicals Agency (2017). Pre- us-ethiopia-accident/ethiopia-trash- registered Substances. [https://echa.europa. dump-landslide-death-toll-rises-to-115- eu/information-on-chemicals/pre-registered- idUSKBN16N0NR. substances. Pure Earth (2017). Toxic Sites Identification European Commission (2017). EU Efforts Program Global Database : TSIP. http://www. for Bee Health. [https://ec.europa.eu/food/ contaminatedsites.org/TSIP/. animals/live_animals/bees/health_en. United Nations Institute for Training and Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves (2017). Research (2007). National Profile Homepage. The Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. [http://cwm.unitar.org/national-profiles/ [http://cleancookstoves.org/home/index.html. nphomepage/np3_region.aspx.
Global Forest Watch (2017). Forest Monitoring World Health Organization (2016b). Arsenic. Designed for Action: Global Forest Watch [www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs372/ Offers the Latest Data, Technology and en (Accessed: 21 July 2016). Tools that Empower People Everywhere to Better Protect Forests. http://www. World Health Organization (2017a). Benzene. globalforestwatch.org/. [http://www.who.int/ipcs/assessment/public_ health/benzene/en/. Global Fuel Economy Initiative (2017). Global Fuel Economy Initiative. [https://www. globalfueleconomy.org/.
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