CHAPTER II I COSTUME# TEXTILE AND FOOTi-JEAR CHAPTER II

COSTUME TEXTILE AND FOOT VJEAR ■...... ' " ' - I 1 ^ 1. —

Sunga sculptures depict a bewildering variety ©f dress styles of the contemporary people* Costxames# in general# reflect the intricate system of social ethos# and m o d e m researches have shown that this is rather a complicated subject to analyse. The styles undergo constant change as the notion of the people changes and the speed# again, is varied at various levels* The fashion experiences an aimless vibrancy in a rather superficial level - while a style# accepted as the norm of a culture sustains f©r a longer period^* Keeping it in view# the garments depicted in Sunga sculptures are divided into various types* It is not that only the mode of wearing is considered while grouping them, but also their having a social connotation different from the other modes of wearing* All kinds of variations within a particular type are explored and grouped into distinct varieties# whatever significance that can be attached to them regarding the social# ritual# functional and other such aspects will be discussed in due context*

Human body was considered by the‘contemporary tradition as vastra~yugika (that to be adorned with two clothes)^* Though the sculptural representations do not 7G

usually centradict it, there seems to be a drastic change \inder process in the Ganga valley cities*

Lover garment (nivasana or antarlya) Lower garment is divided into sakaccha and vikaccha types* The third type includes skir"t-like garments* Other peculiar types are given separately* Lower garments of the primitive kind are described under the heading 'Primitive types'*

Sakaccha This is formed by a long piece of cloth (sataka) wound r^und the waist and knotted or tucked in at the navel; its one end is taken back in between the legs and tucked in at the back while the other end is pleated which dangles at front* This mode is called SaitiveIliya in the Cullavagga^ or kadcha-bandha elsewhere^* Patanjali terms it as upasaAvyana^* Its appearance is just like the modem dhoti*

This garment is most frequently shown in Sunga sculptures# that too regularly in sculptures from Barhut and Sanchi stupa II* It was of many varieties*

I The first variety includes those garments which reach little below the knees; an extremely ornamented pleat is hung at the front in between the legs that reaches the ground (Fig* 1 & 2). It seems that this was 7 7

the most fashionable variety of the sakaccha type. A close observation of sculptures would reveal that some­ times the pleated arrangement was an artificial appendage t® the main garment while in other illustrations it was the surplus end of the garment itself* Motichandra probably refers to the former variety when he calls it a patka,♦ a decorated piece of cloth tucked in the kamarbandh^. The same is identified with paryastaka by 7 Pramod Chandra • It is not simply a decorated piece of cloth# as in few examples it seems to be very stiff (Fig, 3)* Here an important reference from the Cullavagga has to be citedj it describes how the nuns were influenced by the fashions of house-holders which led them t© use artificial flounces (pasuka) with waist bands. Such flounces are said to be made of bamboo strips, leather strips, strips of cloth, plaited, fringed, woven stuffs#, 0 etc. • Warriors wearing chain mails are also shown with the patkas (Fig. 4) which allowed protection in battle.

It was in arranging the surplus part that the charm of this garment was exploited, and that made all the t difference. The folds are referred to as nivi in Sanskrit literature. The later Vedic literature tells that vratyas displayed the hanging ornamental fringe while others simply tucked up them (tusa)— 9. The Cullavagga mentions different types of fashionable arrangement of folds. They are termed as hattis\andaka (like an elephant’s trunk), maccha-valaka 78

(like a fish tail), talavantaka (like palmyra whisk)# Satavallika # ♦ - (hundred jungle ropes) and catukannaka (four cornered) ♦ » Sivaramamurthy has illustrated the sculptural counterparts ©f such terms while dealing with Amaravati sculptures^^* In many cases we can correlate them with sculptural representations

®f the Sunga period# and there is no doubt that the Sunga artist intended to portray a large variety of pleat arrangements.

The variety of garment under discussion is associated with yaksha and yakshi figures# royal personages and those persons whom artist considered important. It seems that this variety was preveilent throughout the Sunga period. The stone sculptures from Barhut# Bodhgaya# Kausambi,

BulandshaJ^ar# Rajasan, Vidisa# etc and terracottas from: various places show the persons of above class wearing this variety of sakaccha garment. Thus we can say that this variety of sakaccha garment was in vogue among both male and female sections of the royal and higher classes in the society.

Even the common people are shown wearing this garment with a modest way of pleat arrangements which, due to lack of space# is not carved in the sculptured panels (Fig, 5), It seems that a modest way of wearing this garment was expected in public interactions. As the classical Greek writers observed# Indians commonly wore the lower garments 12 reaching below the knee# halfway down the ankles , 79

In the same variety can be seen some other styles ©f wearing without any pleat arrangement. In one example the extra portion is gathered and tightly taken back to be

tucked in behind (Pig, 6), This manner of wearing the lower garment is shown in Gandhara sculptures and# according to Ghurye# it might be fairly common in the extreme north-west region^^. Another style of wearing this garment was closely wrapping the garment around the legs, which appears like a shorte^^ (Fig, 7), Few Bodhgaya sculptures depict such a

style where waist band itself is seen hanging in a different fashion in between the legs (Fig, 8)*

II The second variety of sakaccha type is a narrow piece of cloth, just covering the thighs;sometimes with a hanging pleat and sometimes without it. In many representa­ tions it covers half of the thighs thus can be identified with axdhoruka.

Before discussing other sub-varieties of this garment#, a most frequently occurring style of wearing should be mentioned here (Fig, 9 & 10), This style dominates almost all the lower garments depicted in 5anchi stupa 11# and a considerable number of Barhut representations. The sculptures depicting such garments in Barhut exhibit a stylistic difference from other sculptures of that monument. And that is the usual style at Sanchi, Most probably the artists belonging to the same tradition carved all these 80

sculptures who might have belonged to Sanchi region* It

Is not the only feature that causes difference, the very way of wearing this garment seems to be different. The garment seems to be worn with the help of a kati suttaka* One end taken behind to tuck in, while the other end is taken inside the cord at the navel and twisted transversly to be hung from inside. The surplus end at the front is hung from outside also (Fig. 11). Nowhere, the pleats are manipulated lengthwise as in the first variety. This garment is too short to be arranged elaborately. This mode is commonly shown worn by laymen and nymphs at Ranchi while at Barhut it is extremely rare among the people belonging to the upper strata of the society. Thus this particular style looks more archaic, and prevalent in central India, which is not to be seen in later sculptures. Even at Sanchi itself there are a few sculptures added after a gap of a century which show the longer varieties of sakaccha (Fig. 12),

The sculptures depict ardhoruka, a short garment exposing a part of the thigh, throughout the Sunga period and we can see it even in the stibsequent period, Buddhist texts may refer to such tightly tucked, short sakaccha mode when they use the word samvelliya. The samvelliya is described as the style used by wrestlers and workers^^. 81

Such garments worn by the wrestlers (Fig# 13), workers, boatsmen (Fig* 14), dwarfs (Fig. 15), and even Buddhist monks in cloister (Fig. 16) corraborate the literary descriptions. This was rather functional than

anything else. It is quite obvious that this type of garment did not hinder movement which was essential in hard work, sports and fighting. The Jataka stories mention the dress of archers where the kaccha was tied tightly^^. Since it exposed parts of thighs, it might have been prohibited by the Vinaya texts for monks and nuns*

III Alongwith the above two varieties, another variety of this garment also existed. Here the lower end was drawn right upto the ankles or feet* It seems that this was due to a sense of decency among the men and women of upper sections of the society* In Besnagar sculptures dated; to IT 3rd jZJ B*C* by cunningham , some laymen, most probably

I priests, are shown wearing a loose garment, with hasti sundaka ' » • type ©f pleats, reaching the feet (Fig* 17)* A few women in Bodhgaya sculptures (Fig* 13) and in some terracottas are

shown wearing this variety* Patanjali, while dealing with - - 18 satakas,. uses an adjective aprapadina , a garment worn upto the feet, which indicates the same variety*

It is clear that none of the above mentioned varieties were used exclusively either by men ©r women* 82

IV There is a fourth variety in the sakaccha type which was worn only by women* Here the garment is secured high up on the waist and many times just below the breasts# thus covering the abdomen and the navel* This garment usually reaches the ankles. Another feature of this style is that a separate zone or cord is worn to secure it while the hip-girdle becomes the secondary support. They mainly occur in terracottas while they are represented in stone sculptures from Bodhgaya, Saranath and Mathura*

One of the varieties was to swathe the garment with neat folds around legs upto the ankles, and the remaining portion was drawn on the left abdomen with diminishing rows of vertically hanging flutings (Fig, 19)# This mode sported by Rajasan yakshi exposes the navel, while that from saranath completely covers the stomach (Fig. 19), In Bodhgaya it covers parts of abdomen (Fig. 20)* The end that was taken back also was manipulated into pleats as the depiction shows. This manner of wearing is also shown without any pleats, but is arranged quite elegantly (Pig, 21)*

A few terracottas from Mathura, ]^ausambi, Chandraketugarh, etc, represent this variety. Fig, 22 depicts such a garment tightly swathed without any pleats at the front while, at the back with series of folds. They are arranged like trousers in Pig* 22, Fig, 23 depicts such a garment with ornamental folds at the front and back with an additional bunch of pleats 83

suspended over the left hip* The folds are either taken bel®w the girdle or above it. In few examples# the folds are arranged above the waist and they fall over the girdle and left thigh (Pig* 24)*

In a few cases, as in Fig, 41 the manner of wearing seems to be slightly different. Certainly one part was taken back/ or sometimes both, but the way it was achieved seems to be different. Two halves of single garment were wrapped round the legs separately and taken upto the securing zone from the ankle*

Vlkacycha

Eventhough absolute clarification is an xinattainable task, there is no doubt that Vlkaccha was popular in the Ganga valley cities during the Sunga period* Stone sculptures and terracottas both represent this type and terracottas share main bulk of such examples* Here a sataka is shown wrapped round the hips or waist without tucking one end at the back (Pig* 26 Sc 27)* Pew stone sculptures provide the back views; bttt on the basis of their frontal appearence and the direction

©f the folds depicted by the artist, it is possible t© judge some of the strictly frontal representations*

1 The first variety of the vlkaccha, that is secured at the navel zone and the lower end of which reaches the ankles just like the modem lungl seems to be a quite early 84

practice since a steatite plaque from Rajgir, dated to the Mauryan period, depicts it (Fig, 25)* The back side view ©f this garment is possible in few yaksha and yakshi figures. In fig* 26 & 27 the garment is quite a large ©ne to cover the yakshi's entire lower portion# The surplus part of its ends is pleated breadth wise and manipulated in such a way that the pleat is taken from inside the clasp of her girdle, and half of its length is hung in a looped nivi arrangement. In fig. 28 we can see that the remaining

• ^ part of the garment is arranged in sata vallika manner, with a number of fluted folds, around the waist with the help of a kati sutra» In fig. 29, both the ends are drawn apart over the left and right pelvis to be secured in udguhana fashion of arranging the nlvi^^.

II There seems to be another important variety of the vikaccha style. It was exclusively meant for women where - as the above mentioned variety was used by both men and women. This garment is secured just below the breasts with the help of a separate zone like in the fourth variety of the sakaccha type. Its lower end usually reaches the ankles and it is drawn upto the shin in rare cases. This is taken to be a qhaghra 20 or skirt 21 by some scholars. But it is certainly a vikaccha garment as its various varieties would reveal to us. The cloth is parted below the girdle with horizontal folds and the uninterrupted winding of the cloth 8 5

can be seen in a few clear representations (Fig# 30)* Its back view can be seen in one of the Bodhgaya sculptures (Pig. 31), In contrast to the sakaccha or the other variety of the vikaccha» we do not see elaborate pleat arrangements in this variety.

Almost all the examples are coming from terracottas with a considerable number of varieties. Some of the mention worthy are given below,

1) The garment is clad over the hip-girdle forming a prominent zone of folds around the hip (Fig. 30),

2) Girdle is half exposed on the left pelvis (Fig. 32), The way of wearing is somewhat clear in this depiction. The left end of the garment is placed on the right waist, girt round the back from the left side and taken over the waist in front from the right side. When the first round was secured on the waist, the hip-girdle was worn. The long, left out end falling below is taken over the girdle from: the right ankle and secured at the waist. Pig, 33 depicts such a garment beautifully arranged with ornamental pleats hanging from the waist,

3) A hip-girdle is worn above this garment tightly holding the neatly arranged folds (Fig. 34), 8G

4) In few illustrations a series of dangling flutes of the surplus parts over left abdomen and thighs can be seen (Fig* 35), This arrangement occurs in some of the sakaccha type of garments also.

This garment was secured at the waist with the help of a tight zone or string. The tassels of the string can be seen hanging at front in few examples (Pig. 36).

The above mentioned garment is worn by goddesses in terracottas: Shri, Vasudhara# woman holding parrot, holding fan# and other many such indistinguishable deities; and few other female figures like those in mithxanas, ladies in toilet etc. The terracottas from all main sites in the Ganga valley right from Chandraketugarh upto Mathura depict V • such garments as early as early 2nd jZ B.C. Even the further north-western cities like Rupar and Taxila have yielded; them; two of the Taxila examples are from pre-Bactrian levels^^.

In an overwhelming bulk of sakaccha representations vikaccha presents itself to be an unusual phenomenon* Ghurye# referring to the first variety of the vikaccha garment depicted in a Mathura stone sculpture# remarks that either it was due to foreign influence or the figure itself is of a foreigner^^. Here he keeps the Gandhara sculptures in view wherein it is commonly depicted. But there is no sxabstantial 87

evidence to prove this view* The first variety of vikaccha garment occurs in central and eastern Indian;

stone sculptures* most of which are earlier than any Gandhara sculpture* N© visual representation of this garment of an earlier date in those regions is available to trace its route from that place* Since our literature also is silent about this aspect of early Indian costume before the Sunga period# we can not assert that the sakaccha was the only mode known to the Indians from the beginning*

The earliest representation of the second variety of the vikaccha type occurs in Taxila* But there are a few points to be considered: Goddesses of native cults throughout the Ganga valley are shown clad in this garment; unless a garment becomes a cultural identity it would not be associated with cult divinities* This garment was a specially evolved form of the first variety of the vikaccha type for women*

It seems that during the Sunga period, vikaccha style was no more foreign to the Ganga valley than it was to the north-eastern cities* This was the usual way of arranging the lower garments among the Greeks and Persians as we know it from sculptural and graphic representations from those civilizations* But we do not have any such proof either to establish or to deny its existence in India before the Sunga period* 88

A comparative study of both the types, discussed above# reveals some interesting facts.

1) Sakaccha continued to be the typical lower garment of men throughout our period without any major shift*

2) Though a few representations show vikaccha garment on men# it was preferred by women* Women in stone sculpture are generally shown wearing sakaccha while in terracottas the reverse is the case. Considering the urban background of terracottas# we can adduce that the ladies in the Ganga valley towns might have preferred it because it accentuated the form and made it more alluring.

3) There is a faint demarcation between male and female lower garments. It is not obvious in early stone sculptures of central India, But rarely in stone sculptures of later part of the sunga period# and in terracottas we see women arranging their lower garment in a peculiar way. Here# the lower garments not only reveal fashionable ways of arrange­ ment# but also a tendency towards covering the navel# abdomen and feet up to the ankles. This is never the case with men.

Covering the navel and abdomen which happened exclusively in the case of women would indicate nothing but the awareness of decency. If we consider the fact that all sculptures representing this garment are within the limits 89

of the Ganga valley# that too mainly in terracottas# its association with the women of urban population in those areas can not be doubted. But the major problem we have t© face here is that subsequent visual representations do not regularly reflect this aspect of the female garment*

The contemporary literature records that, covering the upper part in public was a must for the decent ladies* It seems that covering the navel and stomach was a further development/ at least among some section of women* Two later literary references are worth mentioning in this

context. In the Amarakosa# and other few works/instiructions are given to women against exposing their navel# breasts and legs above the ankles 24 * References t© covering the stomach

_ i alongwith breasts with Udaramsuka are to be found in still later works 25 * This was particularly done in the company of strangers* Thus garments discussed above reflect a process @r reveal the hidden aspects of the female costume existing during the Sunga period*

Skirt - like Garments One of the major varieties in this type resembles a skirt# but its other sub-varieties reveal that sometimes it was an arranged garment. The oldest specimen of this variety is found in some terracottas of pataliputra from the Maurya levels. This manifests itself in different forms in 90

the Sunga period.

This garment is formed of two stiff, broad wing­ like pieces fastened to the left and right side of the waist. The garment bulges from the waist quite prominently and then falls in vertical folds upto the ankles* The back side view of this garment is unavailable in Sunga plaques# h e n ^ a close observation of the Mauryan Nati figure would ♦ 26 better serve revealing the peculiarities of this garment • (1) An apron-like garment hanging at the front, being pari: of an upper garment, seems to be an essential part of this garment, (2) The garment is exclusively for the front side leaving the hind part bare. It is possible that it might even be the artist's fancy, (3) The garment was secured with a zone with button-like clasps#

These garments during the Sunga period are treated in the typical Sunga style where skirts reveal folds in parallel lines, and clasps become rosettes (Fig, 37), The apron-like appendage is transformed into an elongated flap at the front. Such representations are found in terracottas from Patna, Lauriya-nandangarh, Lachehagiri, Tilda, Mathura, Ahichchatra, Raj ghat, and kausarabi. Their frequency ©f occurence is more in Bihar and it seems that they were transported t© the other sites from this area.

Some of its varieties reveal that it was not a simple skirt during the Sunga period. The example from Lachchagiri 91

shows that the wings of skirts are gathered at the sides

thus revealing the legs wrapped with another gairnent. It is a garment tightly swathed to the legs forming horizontal folds (Fig* 38). In Pig, 39 the garment resembles that of the Nati but the technique of wearing differs slightly t instead of clasps the garment is secured with a girdle* In Fig. 40 the process seems to be quite different* This has g®t two clasps and a flap# but the wings of the garment are reduced to such an extent that it looks like a mere sash.

Thus there seems to be some mutual influence between one of the styles of the sakaccha type (Fig. 41) and the Mauryan skirt* The lower garment of one of the dancing figures found in a stone piece from kausambi 27 which might belong to the later half of our period is worth mentioning here. A long piece of cloth is swathed around the legs# and from the shin it is again taken up towards waist from inside a girdle and# somehow# it is tucked on both the sides at the waist with pleated surplus parts hanging (Pig* 41). This garment looks so different from the skirts of the Mauryan Natis that the development and diffusion of this garment seems curious.

Many scholars hold the view that there is some Hellenistic influence on the Mauryan Nati types. Stella kramrisch particularly refers to the Nike figures ©f Tanagra 28 terracottas and contextually mentions the dress also . But# considering the lower garment of the particular figure we are Q 9

dealing with, there seems to be no exact parallel form in the Hellenistic representations. One figure, belonging to 29 3rd C B,C* is worth mentioning here • This figure is clad in a skirt and a sleeveless bodice with a flap at the front bottom; similar components of a dress that worn by the Mauryan Natis, But in the arrangement there is a lot of difference between the two. There is no doubt that the Mauryan Natis ♦ are the reminiscents of Tanagra Nikg figures in their stylistic features. At the same time artist follows his ©wn way while treating the drapery. It opens up two possible explanations t either visual representations of its counter part in Hellenistic art have not been recovered# or the artist has depicted a well acquainted garment which was known either in the royal court or in native tradition. It is cited in some previous works that similar skirts are still used in tribal dances in far eastern India^^, Its appearence on the cult goddesses during the Sunga period would further support its indigenous past. Considering that these garments were associated with the dancing figures even in the Sunga period# they might have been dancing dresses*

Skirt : There are a few terracottas which depict skirts worn by females.

Two terracottas kept in Mathura and Allahabad museums wear a plain skirt made of thick, stiff cloth. They reach upto ankles and there seems to be a tunic worn over it upt© 9 3

the knees. These terracottas are dated to the Sunga period (Pig. 42).

Another type of skirt reaches the knee. It is either plain (Fig. 43) or shown with volumes of folds (Fig. 44).

I Eventhough the kusa skiri:s (candataka) were known from an earlier period in India, nothing can be postulated regarding these cloth garments. It is even possible that the strangeness of the garment might have tempted the artist to depict them.

Lower garment with a bulging side There is a peculiar type of lower garment which can be clearly traced back to the Mauryan period. Terracottas representing this garment centre around the ancient Patali- putra. Some aspects of this garment are clearly visible in the Mauryan applique technique; It is secured high above the waist with a huge bulge on the right hip and thighs/ while at the left# except the protrusion of the girdle, contours are moderate. This garment is closely clad upto the knee or the shin. We can not assert as t© whether it was of sakaccha or vikaccha style. During the Sunga period it manifests a few varieties. We can see the bulge neatly covered within the folds of a garment that reaches upto the shin or ankles (Fig. 45). Another cloth with a wide border# might be a part of the upper garment# swathes round the thighs covering the bulge, thus 9 4

there seems to be more than one garment. In some examples, when only lower garment is shown# the lower garment reveals a Bunch of folded part tucked into the girdle(Fig. 46), In some other examples the garment appears to be sakaccha with a series of hind folds (Fig* 47)* It recalls the lower garment of one of the Mauryan Nati# figures* S*P* Gupta# while referring to a similar bulge in a J^ausarabi terracotta# opines that it was formed because of heavy under garment 31 , But this does not explain why it is so only at the right side* The main question to be answered here is whether it was an existing mode of wearing or simply a stylised treatment in terracottas* It might have been a fashionable habit to form a bulge of ceiled surplus parts over the right hip and thighs* It is a known fact that the royal courtesans used to innovate such fashions 32 in the royal capitals *

Primitive types The word 'primitive' is used here to denote^ those dress types which were used in the early stages of the history of costume and which were made of locally available materials with a rather simple technique: they survive among a few tribes even at present* But it seems that the cloth garments had not replaced these types so thoroughly during the Sunga period*

Leaves : The most simple variety is shown as a broad leaf or a few leaves suspended from the waist cord (Fig* 48)* 9 5

The rock cutters, supposed to be kirata tribes^^ and the Kinnaras/ those people from Himalayan region who possessed 34 a strange language are shown wearing such leaves. Since only two examples have survived# we cannot presume anything more than that it existed among a few tribes in this period.

Skins : Skin was quite popular in this time. The iater Vedic literature assigns various types of aj inas to Brahmins/ Vratya chiefs# forest tribes etc^^. And as the sculptures reveal, skin garment had retained its place among many of them. It is worn by the hunters, where, in some instance it can be clearly made out (Fig, 49). Ascetics are also shown wearing them. The garment illustrated in the Fig, 50 ' — •. 36 is a cl^amma-sataka according to a Jataka story , In all these cases, the garment is simply girt round the waist and hangs upto the knee. It was considered an honourable and 37 •- sacrosanct dress , As the Arthasastra reveals there were numerous varieties of skin garments in this period which shared a bulk of trade transactions 38 ; this is suggested by •• 39 40 the Mahabharata and the Jain canons also , They were finely processed and proportionately shaped, and thus were

• ^ included in a variety of satakas. It might have been a common garment in the case of forest tribes, which is still 41 the case with a few tribes of India , 96

Grass garments : There are a number of instances where ascetics are shown donning this garment* This looks just like a skirt where grass blades are arranged to a cord which is tied round the wsist* In fig. 51# we can see a sort of grass having thin strands# while in Pig, 52 we can see quite broad blades. In Pig, 53 we can see a beautifully matted grass garment.

I It seems that the kusa (poa cynosuroides) grass was a commonly used material for such garments since it was one of the cheaply available riparian grass in the Ganga valley.

Reference to kusacTra are to be met with in the Jataka 42 stories • It had a ritualistic significance; the later

I Vedic literature priscribes kusa skirt for the wife of the 43 — 44 sacrificer • Another reference names it as Candataka • Unlike in the case of the skin garments, it seems that, grass garments were not at all used in a civilized world*

Kautilya does not make any mention of it while referring to the trade goods. It might have been limited only t© the ascetics during this time*

Bark garments « Valkala, or Vakacira was closely associated with the mendicants but it seems misleading t© identify it or differentiate it from the grass garments in sculptures* A couple of examples are cited here under the assumption that it was formed of separate stiff pieces hung to the waist cord or arranged around the waist (Fig. 54)* 8 7

In a few examples ascetics are shown wearing plain robes* It might either be of cloth or bark, since a well prepared bark garment resembles a coarse cotton cloth. And such bark garments are still in use among the tribes like Kanikkars of Kerala and Garos of Meghalaya* The Jataka stories mention this garment more frequently than grass garments, especially in connection with the ascetics from Himalayas* According to the Jatakas this garment created rustling sound in movement and was often red coloured — ' T 45 (ratta-vakac xra) *

Upper garment-cum-lower garment This garment is separately categorized because in these examples we are dealing with a type of garment which was used both as an upper and lower garment* One half of the garment was girt round the lower part, while its other end was swept from the right hip to the left shoulder, thus covering the breasts* It was worn only by women* This manne of wearing the garment, which has a remote resemblence to modern sari,, is shown quite often in Gandhara sculptures# But what is puzzling is that during our period it occurs as early as the early part of 2nd ^ B*C* in Mathura , kausambi,

Vaisali and Tamluk*

Sites around Mathura yield a couple of such examples* In Fig* 55 can be seen such a garment* It is wrapped over 98

the hip girdle producing a horizontal zone of folds, and the upper part of the garment is sweeping over the left breast# Such an example is available from ]^ausharabi also on a stone piece* Most probably the stone piece belongs to 47 the later margin of our period • The one depicted in a Jasper Plaque from Vaisali is dated to C* 2nd

The sort of garment sported by the 'Shri'' goddess, the well known terracotta plaque kept in Oxford museum originally belonging to Tamluk# seems to be different* Johnston, after carefully studying the garmeiit, prefers t© regard it as a single garment and remarks that it was without parallels in India so far as his knowledge extends 49 •

It is slightly a varied type s Here instead of one end being taken up, a separate garment seems to be secured on the left shoulder leaving the right shoulder bare (Fig. 56)* The vertical folds generated from a cord like border would suggest so. Thus at a first hand observation it seems to be different from the Mathura example. There is another terracotta from Mathura which depicts the garment illustrated in Fig, 55, but closely resembling the one shown in Tamluk figurine (Fig, 57), This enables us to relate the two. Since, the arrangement of lower garment is quite similar in all these examples, their being of a similar type can not be ruled out. o^ qti

Very few such examples occur in Sunga art* About the Gandhara depictions Ghurye is certain that it was introduced by foreigners^^. Johnston recalls a Hellenistic bronze who has similar tassals like those depicted in the upper garment of 0l Tamluk figurine^^. In the Greek, Persian and even in other earlier civilizations it was a common practice to form both the garments out of a single piece of cloth. Sometimes we come across similar technique and ways of covering the upper part# where it is worn just as in the illustrated examples 52 •

This manner of arranging the garment was known to Indians before our period itself as the literary evidence suggests. Ghurye cites an exaraple from later vedic literature where a student is prohibited to wear cloth in this manner 53 • Thus, the tradition did not want the students to wear it, the reason for which is unknown, Pali literature mentions udaka- sataka (bathing cloth) worn in this manner 54 which does not seem to have any social significance* One reference from the Mahabharata is well known to us : that Draupadi resisted t© enter the sabha, one of the reasons for which was that she was adhonlvita (wearing the cloth only below the navel)* Ghurye takes the garment here to be the same as the one we are dealing with* He says that Draupadi, at that time, had girt round all the cloth below the waist instead of covering her upper part with one of its ends^^* We do not have any 100

further evidence to assert this. But it is possible that decent ladies# since they could not come in the public with bare upper part, might have used this garment also occasionally. Mathura and Gandhara sculptures of the Kushana period depict them on the figures of upper class ladies. Literary evidence^® and sculptural representations

of the later period suggest that it was surviving through the ages. But we do not know when it became common as a female garment in the Indian subcontinent, A more

convincible explanation would be: Although Indians knew it form an earlier times this garment was not generally used/ for the upper garment was not always worn by women.

Because of the peculiar climate, a separate scarf was found more convenient. As the code of decency became rigid against women exposing their breasts, stomach and navel this might have been an arbitrary choice for the Indian women of certain sections or ^ographical regions*

VJaist-bands The waist-band is represented as a part of lower garment of men and occassionally of women. It was termed

kaya-bandhana in pali literature and was often called udara-bandha also. The Vinaya texts enable us to identify

their variety,

T h 7 ^ ^ 5 101

Manner of tying t It seems that a long piece of cloth, neatly pressed and formed into a folded band was generally used as kaya'-bandhana. This is termed patta or pattaka in .... » ♦ » ♦ literature* Such pattas♦ ♦ of varied length were tied above the navel zone of the lower garment with a bow shaped knot which generally occurs in stone sculptures and occassionally in terracottas (Fig, 1), This was the main support to the lower garment. In the case of women it was tied above the hip-girdle (Fig. 1). The knot was tied upon the navel, the loop falling on one side of the knot and two sashes on the other side. In some examples a different kind of knot makes the surplusparts fall at the middle like a bunch (Fig, 58)• Sunga sculptures do not depict the clasps. The above way was the modest way of tying the waist band. The Vinaya texts prescribe it — 57 (eka pariyakatam) for nuns . Women wore it in a fashonable manner also as few sculptures depict a loose waist-band falling across over the waist and thighs in a more elegant manner (Fig, 59).

There are other examples where we see the waist-bands wound in multiple rounds. It required long pattikas (Dighani Pattikani). It seems that knotting at the front was a bit inconvenient in this mode; the ends are tucked in, or knotted at the sides with dangling ends (Pig. 60 & 6). Such coiled waist bands were specially used in hard working situations 102

58 and sports as the Vlnaya texts suggest • We can see some fashionable ways of twisting or arranging the coils of waist' band in a few sculptures (Pig. 61),

The decoration : As we have seen earlier# usually a patta of cloth was utilised for the waist-band and it was quite popular. The Jatakas mention red Pattas (ratta-patta) on the bellies of yaksha images 59 • Even archers are said to have dressed in this^^. Red pattas• • seem to be the standard ones. The Cullavagga mentions ordinary pattas as well as those embroidered with fish and thorn design (Maccha - kantaka)^^,♦ • Barhut sculptures show the latter variety where we can see rows of fish-like figures embroidered on them (Fig, 62), Detailed account of such varied forms of decorated kayabandhanas are met with in the Cullavagga • One of the varieties called# Kalabuka# a waist-band of many strands, can also be seen# worn by few persons (Fig, 63), Sometimes it seems to be a twisted rope like band formed of two or three pieces of clothes (Fig, 6), The ends of the bands were often decorated with long fringes as we see in some examples (Fig. 62),

The ends of waist-bands decorated in many ways t the end was knotted like a casket (Fig, 64) which was one of the varieties of Sukarantaka where a round case was provided to the waist-band. In Fig. 65 we can see that the end is a combination of the round case and a grape-bunch like 103

object which was a form of gunaka way of sewing; the deddubhaka (head of a water snake) type of end can be seen in Fig, 66*

All these were the fashionable varieties of waist­ bands which have been elaborately treated by the artist. Other figures are shown wearing simple waist-bands and the artist might not have treated them carefully.

There are quite a nxamber of examples where lower garment is worn without the waist-band. It is very difficult to make out its significance. Usually waist-band was worn along with the sakac>fcha garments. In terracottas male figures are generally shown with the waist bands while female figures are rarely shown using them. One explanation could be that the place of securing the garment goes above the waist line in many of the female figures. In such garments we can see a belt-like tight zone used for the purpose (Fig, 81), Many times it is obviously a string or rope. Thus# we see the function of the waist-bands minimised in such a type of lower garment.

Stone sculptures depict even the sakacMcha lower garments without the waist-bands in a few examples. In most of the cases it is worn by workers# dwarfs# ascetics and such type of personalities. It is clear that the waist-band was not simply a supporter of lower garment during the Sunga period. 104

It was a part and parcel of the attire that was considered decent in the public life. Wearing clothes without tying the waist band might have been an informal way of dressing in private life. That might be the reason why the artist tried to show them on almost all the figures in the sculpture«

Upper garments A majority of people are shown wearing upper garments in the sunga art. They are herein classified into two types •

(1) arranged and (2) stitched.

Arranged garments Covering the upper part of the body with a scarf# sometimes pleated lengthwise, was typical of the early

Indian upper garment, Uttarlya/ Uttara-sataka, parupana

and several other terms are used in the literature of that period to name them. The utrarlya was one of the two essential garments that was donned by both men and women# Sculptures show various modes of wearing the uttarlya.

Wearing the scarf in the upavlta fashion seems to have been a common mode among men. Here one end of the uttariya is placed over the left shoulder and the full length of it is used in sweeping around the torso across chest# right armpit and then to be taken again over the left shoulder past the back side (Fig. 67), This was achieved

in various ways. 1 0 5

1) After wearing, both the ends of the scarf dangle at the front and back side of the left shoulder (Fig. 67)*

2) Knotting or twisting it over the left shoulder so as to hang both the ends at the back (Fig. 68 Sc 69).

3) Taking the front end inside the former wrap over the breast/ sometimes upto the right waist so as to leave the long end hanging on the right side while the other end hangs at the back of the left shoulder (Fig. 70).

4) Many times the scarf is shown spread over the torso in its full breadth, leaving the right shoulder bare (Fig. 71 & 72).

Our assumption regarding its religious significance during the Sunga period is further strengthened by sculptural representations. Sculptures invariably depict them on all figures engaged in worshipping and other auspicious occations. It is worn by yakshas, ascetics. Brahmins, Buddhist monks and a few other prestigious persons. Its ritual significance was such that even the worshippers in full sleeved tunic are shown wearing it over their tunic. Another interesting feature is that it is not at all worn by women, even those who are worshipping. In this case it does not seem to be an artist’s fancy. It is possible that there were certain other reasons for this. One plausjdible explanation is that the upavTta mode was closely associated with Vedic rituals (yajnopavita). lOG

The Vedic rituals were becoinming exclusive domain of male members among the Aryan groups as the codes of Manu reveal in this period^^. When other people of patriarchal society borrowed it as an auspicious dress in religious activities it might have been associated only with the male community. Perhaps that is why no women is shown wearing them in sculptures*

Other modes of arranging the scarfs are also shown* It is difficult to make out the context, probably they were used as fashionable varieties* Both men and women are shown wearing them,

1) Wearing it like a garland (malakrti) : The scarf is thrown over the left and right shoulders with the ends falling at back and the middle portion sweeping over the breasts in a curved fashion (Fig. 73)*

2) This is just the reverse of the above style : The scarf is wound from back side of the shoulders# the ends of which fall at front (Fig, 74), This style of arranging is further altered in various ways by taking it over the arms (Fig. 75), forearms (Fig. 76) or winding it around the forearms (Fig, 77) etc,

3) Another interesting arrangement of scarf is shown sported by Besnagar Yakshi (Fig. 78) i two parts of a single scarf are crossed over the breasts and taken back over the 107

shoulders and hips# and as Ghurye would insist 64, they are again crossed at the back. A bride's upper garment in tKe

Vedic literature is described to have been in a similar way which was called pratidhi^^. There the scarf was knotted at the back.

This is the proper place to discuss the upper garment for women* As rightly pointed out by some scholars#, sculptural evidence seems to be quite misleading regarding the female upper garment in the light of literary evidence* Gauri Lads observation in respect of the evidence from the Mahabharata is a case in point^^. The Jataka stories reveal that the royal ladies and the ladies of upper classes used to cover their upper parts, especially breasts,in public 6 V with uttarasaftga * The emphasis of jpali texts on upper garments in the case of nuns reflects this tendency 68 * Even Jain nuns had the same prescription^^*

According to the Mahabharata only slaves# servents and women of easy virtue used to leave the breasts bare* This is interesting because# it proves that there were certain classes of ladies who did not cover the breast even in public 69 * Again# the expression# mentioned above,, has originated from an out look of the elite class# we do not know the openion of other sections of that society* It is quite possible that it was not an outrageous act on 108 the part of the artist when he treated female figures without an upper garment. The artist does show several female figures wearing upper garment but in such a way that care is taken to leave the breasts bare. Thus# this is a purposeful act which signified something valuable and the artist could dispense with the upper garments for that purpose. We can not assert anything more here in our present state of knowledge*

Sewn garments

Quite a number of sewn garments are depicted in Sunga sculptures right from the beginning of this period*

But they are very few in the midst of innumerable unsewn garments*

I* Full sleeved garments The most common variety of sewn garments that is represented in Sunga sculptures is a coat like garment*

It is full sleeved and reaches the waist, knee or ankles*

1) The coat which reaches the knee/ is commonly represented in Barhut sculptures (Fig. 78), This could be seen in Sanchi stupa II and Bodhgaya also. In most of the cases it is collarless. One specimen has a front I opening which is closed by fastening the strings (kasa) (Pig. 80), It bifurcates at the navel and swathes over lower garment above the knee. It was usually v/om by 109

horse riders# elephant riders/ and also by Kings but rarely by upper class men connected with city. In one illustration it is worn by a foreigner perhaps a Bactrian king*

2) Terracottas from the Ganga valley sites reveal another variety of this garment (Fig. 81), Both men and women are wearing this and almost all of such persons are gods and goddesses. This garment reaches upto the shin or ankles,, and appears to be huge. Its texture also seems to be different which has fortunately been rendered with extreme care by the artists. It has got prominent woven lines over its surface# with a thick border of pleated fringes. It falls below the elbows with multiple tassals upto the ankles. Sometimes oval patterned designs are clearly revealed on both the sides of the garment (Fig. 82), Usually it is shown with a heavy collar. Thus the observations would leave hardly any doubt in identifying the material of cloth with v;ool,

3) There is a third variety in full sleeved clothes, which most probably reached the waist. It is to be met with in both stone sculptures and terracottas, A queen is shown wearing this in one of the Barhut sculptures (Fig. 83), Another female figure in a terracotta from Chandraketugarh is shown wearing a similar garment which is worn tightly like a bodice (Fig, 84), Few yaksha 110 dv/arfs are shovm wearing this cloth (Pig* 85). One of the terracotta dwarfs from Mathura is shown wearing &lmil-ar- coat with a texture similar to the second variety of full sleeved gariTientS/ i.e. wool,

II. Sleeved garment with skirt :

A few representations of this garment are to be found in Sunga sculptures. Except one all of them are half sleeved. It closely fits the torso# unlike the previously discussed tunics# and its lower part is attached to a skirt that varyingly reaches the thighs# knees or shin

(Fig, 86# 37 & 88), It does not have any front opening# thus could be worn like a vest. It is shown invariably with the waist—band tied tightly just above the pleafcs of the skirt. In a few cases lower garment is also visible* it is a sakaccha style of garment (Fig. 88),

They are worn only by the persons in combat# holding sword and shield. One exception to this would be that in a l^ausambi terracotta an archer is shown wearing an armour (sannaha) along with such pleated lower appendages. The soldiers fighting with sword are not shown with any such sannahas# may be because the shield served that purpose. It is clear in few depictions that this garment was made of cloth. Ill

III* Half sleeved shirt-like garments t This is a close fitting vest-like garment that covers the trunk and half of the arms# This might have been made of smooth and thin cloth. Those shovm worn by two of the soldiers in Barhut sculptures depict two cross strips fastened over this garment (Canna Viras) (Fig* 89), This recalls the upper garment of some of the soldiers represented 71 in Sanchi sculptures of the post-Sunga period * Similar garments are depicted in some terracottas where they are shown with dotted design (Fig, 90)* A male standard bearer in Barhut sculptures is shown wearing a half sleeved garment which covers only the chest like a short jacket (Fig* 91).

IV* Sleeveless garment t

It is shown worn by the goddess wearing a broad hooped skirt just like the one on the Mauryan nati (Fig* 92)* This is a sleeveless jacket with an oblong flap at the front and it covers the breasts and stomach# and falls over the navel and thighs.

There are a few terms in early Indian literature# which referred to sewn garments* The actual shapes that suggested by such terms have remained still ambiguous* Herein an effort is made to connect the depicted shapes with their closest literary counterparts* 112

Kancuka is the most frequently mentioned term for sewn garments in the contemporary literature and in the later too. According to the Mahabharata this was worn by door-keepers, cavalry soldiers and even Dy ascetics 72 • The studies already done on this particular term in different contexts have revealed that it was a loose sleeved coat or gown that variably reached the knee to feet* Motichandra has identified the sewn garment with skirt figured in No, 86 with kancuka- 73 • The inner garment worn by Kanishka, in a Mathura statue, is - 74 - identified with Kancuka by Agrawala • It seems that Kancukas were either provided with a front opening or worn like vests* When this garment was worn and the waist-band was tied it is likely that the loose lower part hung like a skirt, or if it was a tight garment, remained plain like that of Kanishka* Similar garments are commonly worn by the Medes in ;^ersopolitan sculptures'^^. It seems to be a popular war dress used by Scythians and other Central and Middle-East-Asian people. In this light, it is possible to connect the sewn cprment with skirt-like lower part of the combators, with Kancuka, It seems to have reached variedly upto half thighs, knee or shin during the Sunga period. It was developed into a long gown that reached the feet in the later period.

The term ’Kancuka* is also used in the sense of M 76 'armour' of archers in the Jataka literature * Those armours might have imitated, or resembled the cloth garments 113

of this category. Mail coats with a skirt—like part below the waist depicted in Sunga sculptures resemble the above discussed cloth garments*

In general/ Kaiicuka might have referred to a few other sewn garments also, Buddhist and Jain nuns are said to have worn Kancukas, The descriptions regarding 77 them do not suggest the above mentioned shape , The full-sleeved and half-sleeved short bodice-like garments worn by women, that we have illustrated in Fig, 83# 84

_ — ■ and 85 might also have been Kancukas» The Gatha saptasati

_ I

Kurpasaka, which kautilya mentions in the context of war dress seems to be a close fitting shirt-like 79 garment worn like a vest • This can be identified with the half sleeved garments illustrated in Pig, 89/ 90 and 91, It was worn with two cross bands (cannavira or vaikaksaka) over the chest by soldiers, Agrawala traces its original place to central Asia 80 ,

The full sleeved coats, which were opened at the front/ seem to be quite well known to Indians during the Sunga period itself. But a suitable term that indicated them is not yet found. Referring to a similar coat, that worn over Kancuka by Kanishka,, Agrawala terms it as clna- colaka; during Harsha's time cina-colaka was often worn 114

“ 81 over a Kancuka • This particular terra is not traceable in the early literature* We do not know whether Kancuka referred to these sewn garments also during the Sunga period*

The second variety of the full sleeved coats seems to be the costliest of all. It can be identified with varavana after considering the following informations*

Kautilya includes varavana coat among the ten kinds of woolen blankets# This cloth extended as far as the heels 82 in his period * Further# varavanas♦ were imported from the North-Western countries, Agrawala traces the root of the term upt© persian baravan and other middle-easteim 83 languages , Such broad# heavy coats can even be seen in

]^ersopolitan sculptures, worn over the other garments by 84 dignitofries * Thus, eventhough Agrawala talks of the

HarshacMarita, the antiquity of this garment in India seems to be older than Kautilya, Agrawala mentions that stavaraka cloth, a highly embroidered cloth decorated with 85 pearls, was used for preparing this coat * Thus it is plausible that such a rich cloth was found suitable by the Sunga clay artist to drape the celestial beings with,

A large variety of sewn garments is said to have been brought to India by the Scythians, A recent article makes particular mention of a number of such garments as 86 tunic, shirts, jackets, coats, bodice, etc , Sunga 1 1 5

sculptures reveal that most of these garments were known in India before the invasion of Scythians into India, A few of them like the long sleeved tunics, coats# half sleeved shirts, etc were associated with the warriors, and even v/ith urban citizens and dignitaries during the 2nd p B,C, itself. Thus the intrusion of such clothes from Central Asia seems to be an independent process that started from a still earlier date. It is possible because, from the beginning of the early Indian civilization India had merchantile and cultural links with the Central Asian population. The words like Kurpasaka, varavana, appear in the literature of early historic period before the Sunga period. And# especially the Indian military dress seems to have included those items in common during the Sunga period. Thus the figures wearing such garments in Sunga sculptures need not be foreigners. But, certainly, those garments were still strange to the mejority of the mass as sculptures suggest.

Primitive types Ascetics are shown wearing upper garments of skin (a1ina), usually in the upavlta fashion (Fig. 93). Grass

I (kusa) upper garments also are shown v/orn by a few ascetics (Fig. 94). lie,

Mantles A few sculptural depictions reveal that a large blanket was used for covering the body over the above mentioned garments.

The Balararaa figure from Mathura is shown covering a huge blanket# conically arranged so that it rests on head and falls at the back upto the ankles (Fig. 95), A few women in terracottas are shown wearing such blankets* Here we can make out folded patterns behind the hips and thighs/ the blanket seems to be confined to the back side of the body (Fig. 96). The women wearing the lower garment with a bulging side are occasionally shown covering their body with a huge mantle that winds round the torso in multiple wraps (Fig. 97), In one instance we can see a lady covering a blanket that semicircularly winds round the head and falls on both the sides (Fig. 98),

The mantle or pravara seems to be an occasionally used garment. A few of the above mentioned varieties might be the brhatika class of pravarakas as mentioned by 87 ~ Patanjali . The mantle shown in the illustration Fig. Ill could be similar to kandha karani variety of samghatas,. which covered the shoulders and body. This was particularly used by Jain nuns to dwarf their stature 88 . The mantle worn by Balarama might be kaucapaka or kucelaka# a woolen 117

blanket used by cowherds, mentioned by Kautilya 89 , The Pall literature reveals that a larger garment called I I pacchattarana was wrapped over the two usual gairoents#

Clothing materials

Cotton olotrh (karpasa) played a prominent role among the clothing materials in this period# The classical Greek acco\ints also say that Indians usually wore white cotton 90 ' - clothes • The Arthasastra classifies the best cotton cloths which were manufactured in the places like Mathura, Vatsa, Kasi, Vanga# Aparanta# Western Kalinga and Mahisa 91 •

Khoma or Ksauma (linen) seems to have been popular among the well-to-do classes, Dukulas of extremely thin fabric are associated with the aristocratic dresses in the Jataka— stories 92 • The Arthasastra differentiates dukula —

I from ksauma as the former was a variety finer than the latter. Furthermore# the linen garments produced in Vanga 93 country were highly esteemed •

Silk was also quite well known during this period,

I I It is termed kauseya, Aifisuka was also a variety of silk 94 which is classified under kataja variety of silk • The T ' 95 same was imported from China which was called Cinaittsuka • This seems to have gained importance among the rich, Kautilya makes mention of cTnapatta^^ by which he seems to have meant cinaifisuka itself# because the Jaina canons 118

^ 97 — place patta under the kitaia variety • The jataka stories • ♦ ♦ —— Invariably associate kauseya with royal personages •

_ I _ Another cloth associated with royal dress is kasika- vattam (cloth from Kasi) which was expensive and of a high 99 quality • It is generally taken to be a silk garment but the word does not suggest any such meaning*

A large variety of woollen (uma) clothes were used and it seems that finer varieties of wool were always imported from the Himalayan and North-western regions, Kautilya mainly makes mention of blankets (kambala) which seem to have been quite popularly used for making coats and for other purposes^*^*^. But wool does not seem to

have been a regular dress item obviously because of the Indian climate. The Jataka stories hardly mention them*

Apart from these main clothing materials there seem to be a number of other materials prepared out of plants and such other natural fibres*

Ornamentation : Literary evidence reveals that clothes were dyed in many colours (ragas)* The Cullavagga gives important informations regarding this aspect: it mentions the clothes dyed in blue (nila), yellow (pila), red (lohita)# black# brownish yellow, reddish yellow# orange (kasaya)#% etc*^*^^* Patanjali also hints at the colours and colour substances that used for dying 102 * The Cullavagga mentions 119

designed borders, but it is not clear whether it refers to

printing or eitibroidery* The Jain canons make mention of

printed designs (abharana-vicitta)and it is probable • — — — that clothes were decorated by both the above mentioned methods* Clothes woven with golden tissues (kanagapatta), * * • and embroidered with golden threads (kanaqa-khaciya) are 104 mentioned in the Jain canons • From the Vedic period

itself we come across the reference to the embroidered

drapis which shows that embroidering the clothes to enhance

its beauty was quite well known before the Sunga period

itself.

It seems that such sartorial fancies and luxuries

were multiplying in this age among a few sections while

rest of the people used simple white cotton clothes* The

Jataka stories indirectly suggest that plain white cloth

I (suddha-vastra) was used by the common men in their day-

to day life while decorated ones were used on special

occassions^^^. The Vinaya texts prohibit nuns from using

any such decorated clothes^^^. Even the classical Greek writers hint at the tendency of the contemporary Indians

to use a bright white cloth while a few sections used

embellished and coloured clothes^^'^. Plain white cloth

was associated with decency and ritual purity during this

time. The Natyasastra# (of a slightly later date) prescribes

Suddha-vastra for all gentlemen, and auspicious occassions,. 120

while vicitra (embroidered or decorated) is prescribed for the demons, demi gods# villains and warriors 108 • As literary evidence suggests, it seems that, war dresses were invariably coloured and designed during the Sunga period. One of the Jataka stories relates how an archer got draped v;ith coloured under garment and embroidered coat 109 after doffing his civilian dress of white cloth • The embroidered patterns can be made out on a few war dresses depicted in Sunga sculptures*

■Foot ■■■ wear If we consider only the bulk of Sunga sculptures foot wears are very rarely depicted. But literary evidence gives altogether a different picture according to which Indians knew varieties of foot wears from the Vedic period itself. It is usually termed upShana, anupadtna or paduka and it seems that people generally used them for long joumies and also to protect the feet. They must have been purposefully left out by the artist in sculptures.

Among the few illustrations we can differentiate two types of footwear* First is of a sandle type, a simple sole with a cord to fasten it to the feet (Fig. 99)*

It is shown held by a Buddhist monk* The Vinaya texts allowed monks to use upahanas or padukas, the exact shape of which can not be visualised^^*^* The present representation 121

in all probability might be such a paduka that was generally used by monks and other civilians 111 • An extremely ornamented sandle of this category is depicted in a Tamluk terracotta; probably it is sho\m as worn by goddess 'Shri' (Fig. 100).

Another type is a leather boot covering the foot, ankle and shin# and was sometimes secured just below the knee with the help of a cord (Fig* 101), There can be no dispute regarding its association with Central Asian v/arrior invadors. In Sunga sculptures also it is invariably associated with the combators or those in war tunics. Literary evidence refers to a variety of footwear called Kapusa which covered the foot and ankles and was used for protecting the feet against cold# snakes# snow and thorn 112 • Motichandra traces the etymology of the word to the Iranian Kafis and Central Asian Kapis-Kipis^^^,

Observation In this part# there is an attempt to understand two aspects of the contemporary civilization with the help of whatever informations we have gathered from this chapter*

(1) Demarcation of Sex : We have seen that Sunga sculptures show remarkably little difference between male and female garments* At the same time we have come to know that in a few cases female garments show a distinctness that was closely connected with 122

the codes of female decency in that society. I presume that such sartorial codes were generated in the upper sections of the society; both literary and sculptural evidence adduce this quite well* The sartorial decency thus developed was becomming an aspect closely connected with the character of a female* Thus# a distinct style of female costume started comming into vogue which fulfilled all the social requirements.

The literary evidence indicates that the practice of covering breasts and navel was considered noble# civilized and decent during that time. It certainly indicates the changing position of the women among the upper sections of the society. In this regard the Sunga period was a transitional one* There was a survival of old practice/ not touched by these newly arriving civilized temperaments, where both men and women dressed alike and women left their upper parts bare, Sunga sculptures provide a glimpse into this process,

(2) Demarcation of the social status : Eventhough we have already attempted to explore the aspect under consideration/ viewing them in the light of literary informations would give a more substantial idea regarding that.

Of course/ dress signified the social position and status of a person during this time. The terms occuring in the Jataka stories like ra j a vesa (J, 284 - Kings dress)» 123

deva-vesa (J, 152# 276# etc. god's dress), Prakxrti-vesa (J. 12# everyc^ dress) - and the fact that even the tailors had their distinct dress - suggest that there was a common understanding regarding such dresses. Both ra1a~vesa and deva-vesa might refer to the most ornamented dress of yaksha and yakshi figures. And again, as literairy evidence suggests, it was the clothing material, its cost and quality that differentiated the attire of the aristocratic people

I from the common mans dress. As far as the manner of wearing is considered, sculptural depictions show a little difference between the aristocracy and the common people.

It seems that quite a number of sewn garments were used by the higher section of the society, that too in the urban societies* Kancuka might have been served a better purpose for the ladies of higher rank as an upper garment* (Kancukas were even prescribed for the Buddhist and Jain nuns/ as a new device for covering the upper part of the body) Sewn garments like varavana enhanced the status also. As sunga sculptures depict, sewn garments, apart from warriors, only occur on dignitqries.

We do not know what really was a prakrti-vesa for a lay man which is contrasted with the special dress used in the special occasions. As another Jataka story suggests,.- everyday attire of a common man was a plain white cotton I cloth (suddha-vattha) while it was a colourful, ornamented 124

cloth/ might: be of a superior quality, on the special occasions 114 • But it does not tell us anything about the style of wearing. Probably, as sculptural representations depict, laymen followed the style of the upper section in a modest way dn special occasions and other public inter­ actions while in private life it might have been informally arranged even without a waist band. Wo layman is shown wearing sewn upper garments. The Uttarxya seems to have been a most dignified dress for him.

In one of the jataka stories a fruit vender girl is contrasted with a queen on the basis that she was meanly clad while the queen v/as fully clad^^^. And we have already seen how sculptural representations depict the hired

Labourers/ bcatsmen, dwarf attendants# etc, in a tightly worn garment covering their body to the minimum. This is all we can say at the present state of our knowledge about the social demarcation revealed in the costume styles depicted in Sunga sculptures. 125

References

stuot^ 1* Krober A.L. mentions the^ca^'ried out by him on the

skirt types of 19th 20th C«)f.Surope# 1957:7-24, 2* Agnihotri P.D. 1963 : 118. 3* Cullavagga V-29-5 •

4* Jatakas No* 181# 546/ etc* 5, Puri B.N. 1957 : 93 . 6« Motichandra 1940 : 223. 7* Pramod Chandra 1966 t 157/ Pig. 6 , 8, Cullavagga X-10-1. 9, Sarkar S.C, 1928 s 64. 10, Cullavagga V-29-4 . 11* Sivaramamurti C . 1942 : 117. 12, Me. Crindle 192b ; 224.

13* Ghurye G.3. 1951 i 75, 14, Ibid : 75 . 15, It was worn with a Kaccha (hind-pleat) as per commentators' view, Cullavagga; V-29-5 .

16* Jataka No. 181 . 17. Cxanningham A 1966 : 36-46, PL XIII .

18. Agnihotri P.D. 1963 t 118. 19. Sarkar S.C. 1928 : 64 > 20. Sahay Sachchidanand 1975:37-38, 21. Johnston E.H. 1942:97, 22. Marshall J. 1919-20 : PL Xl-9 and XVI-17.

23. Ghurye G.S. 1951:83. 126

24. Majumdar G.P, 1938:71, And Altekar A,S. 1938*282. 25* Ghurye G.S* 1947 : 125 and 158 . 26. Gupta P.L. 1965 : PL XLI, arch. No. 4177. 27. Kept in the Museum of the Ancient Indian History and archaeology dept. Allahabad University; Surface collection, 28. Kramrisch stella 1939 : 89. 29. Millia Davenport 1962:70, Fig, 244, 30. Gupta 3.P. 1980:153 . 31. Ibid : 150, Fig. 9, illustration 10, 32. Ernest Crawley 1931 : 128, 33. Agrawala R,C. 1969 ; PL XX, 11 and 19. 34* Jataka No. 63, Takka Jataka . 35. Sarkar, S.C, 1928 : 57-8.

37. Ibid . • ^ 38. Arthasastra : 80-81 .

39. Lad Gauri 1978 ; 212.

40. Jain J.C. 1947 : 129 .

41. Adis and Andaixianese tribes; displayed in the Central

Museum of Anthropology of Calcutta.

42. Jataka No. 547 .

43. Sarkar S.C. 1928 : 57-58 .

44. Sharma R,N, 1977 : 90 .

45. Jatakas No. 66, 358 etc. 127

46. Agrawala V.S. 1936 : 30, Fig. 30, 47. Museum of the Ancient Indian History and archaeology dept* Allahabad University, Referred to in foot note No. 27 of this chapter,

48. Krishna Deva and N, Misra 1961s64 PL XXIII# C, Belonging to early 2nd Cent. B.C. 49. Johnston A 1942 : 97, 50. Ghurye G.S, 1951 : 86.

51. Johnston A. 1942 ; 97•' 52. Millia Devenport 1962 : Fig. 207# 331 etc. 53. Ghurye G.S, 1951 : 71. 54. Jataka No, 75 (comm) : '‘Ekantena udaka-satim nivasetva ekantena sarlram parupitva ..."

55. Ghurye G.S, 1951 : 86. 56. Ghurye 1947 : 738. 57. Cullavagga X-10-1. 58. Ibid . 59. Jataka No. 545 and 546, 60. Ibid No. 181. 61. Cullavagga V-29-2 . 62. Ibid V-29-2 and foot notes. 63. Altekar A.S. 1938 : 203-5. 64. Ghurye 1951 : 101. 65. Sarkar S.C. 1928 : 65. 66. Lad - Gauri 1978: 241. Mitra R.L. 1969:189 and

Altekar A.S. 1938:238-287. 128

67, Jataka No* 92 and 151. In the former story the royal

ladies are said to have removed their scarf before going into the water, 68, Barua D.K. 1969 : 38 and Joshi N.P. 1951-52;248 .

69, Jain J.C. 1947 ; 132. 70, Lad Gauri 1978 i 204-205.

71, Dhavalikar M.K. 1965 Fig. 11 - 72, Lad Gauri 1978 : 203* 73, Motichandra 1973 : 19 • 74, Agrawala V.S, 1969 : 198 * 75, Roman Ghirshman 1965 : 158# PL 209, And Artamonov M.I. 1969 t PL 147 and 152-55, 76, Jatakas No. 181, and 522 , 77, Jain J.C. 1947 t 132 . 78, Ghurye G.S. 1951 : 261-62 .

I ^ 79, Arthasastra : 111-12. 80, Agrawala V.S. 1952-53 : 322. 81, Agrawala V.S. 1969 : 184-5 .

I ^ 82, Arthasastra : 81 , 83, Agrawala V.S. 1969 : 81 and 111-12 . 84, It is a loose coat placed over the shoulders falling upto the knee. Roman Ghirshman 1965 : 158, PL 209, 85, Agrawala V.S. 1969 : 81. 86, Van Lohuizen-de-lecuas J.E. 19801 87, Agnihotri P.D. 1963 ; 118 . 88, Jain J.C. 1947 s 132 . 129

I _ 89, Arthasastra t 81 , 90, Me. Crindle 1926 i 224. »_ 91* Arthasastra : 82 . 92* Jatakas No. 156 and 540, • _ 93* Arthasastra j 82 . 94, Jain J,C, 1947 : 128 . 95, Ibid . I ^ 96, Arthasastra : 81 . 97, Jain J.C, 1947 : 128 »

t 98, Kauseya is mentioned quite a nurnber of times to contrast the royal robe with the ascetic's robe, Jatakas No, 546 and 547, 99, A robe costed a hundred thousand pieces of money, Jataka No, 502 and also 297, 542 and 547, I _ ICO, Arthasastra t 81. 101, Cullavaqqa X-10-5 . 102, Puri B,N, 1957; 103, Jain J.C. 1947 : 129. 104, Ibid . 105. Jatakas No. 147, 181, 394 etc, 106. Cullavagga X-10-1 and X-10-5 , 107. Me. Crindle 1926 t 224 ,

_ I I 108. Natyasastra t XXIII, 117, 118, 120, 121 (Suddha vastra); 119, 128 (citra, vicitra). 130

109. jataka No, 181 (upari-nivattha-seta vattham haritva/

rattapattam nivasetva) ______• *______w*— 1^— 110. Cullavagga V-37-1 and V-12-1; also Jataka No* 197.

111. Jatakas No. 398, 231, 546 and 547.

112. Jain J.C. 1947 t 132. 113. Motichandra 1973 : 65. 114. Jataka No, 147 . 115. Ibid No, 306 . COSTUKiE TEXTILE AND FOOT-V/EAR COSTUMi: TZXTIL:J a ’:d FOCT-'.’EAR COSTUME Tt-XTILE AND FOOT-WEAR cosTuyi::: t e x t i l e f o o t -..^a r COSTUME TilXTILE AND FOOT“WEAR 9E

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