Dropout Prevention Strategies for Native American Students Abstracts From the Literature

September 2014

West Comprehensive Center at WestEd Dropout Prevention Strategies for Native American Students Abstracts From the Literature

September 2014

Prepared by RMC Research Corporation for the West Comprehensive Center at WestEd

Amanda Withington Annette Shtivelband

West Comprehensive Center at WestEd Dropout Prevention Strategies for Native American Students: Abstracts From the Literature

RMC Research Corporation, an approved subcontractor, produced this report for the West Comprehensive Center at WestEd. This work has been funded with monies received from the U.S. Department of Education under WestEd is a national nonpartisan, Grant Award S283B120006. The content does not necessarily reflect the nonprofit research, development, position or policy of the U.S. Department of Education, nor does mention and service agency that works with or visual representation of trade names, commercial products, or organiza- education and other communities to tions imply endorsement by the federal government. promote excellence, achieve equity, and improve learning for children, © 2014 WestEd. All rights reserved. youth, and adults. WestEd has more Requests for permission to reproduce any part of this report for any other than a dozen offices nationwide, purpose should be directed to WestEd, 730 Harrison Street, San Francisco, from Massachusetts, Vermont, and CA 94107-1242, 888-293-7833, fax 415-512-2024,[email protected], or Georgia, to Illinois, Arizona, and http://www.WestEd.org/permissions. California, with headquarters in San Francisco. For more ­information Suggested citation: Withington A., & Shtivelband, A. (2014). Native American about WestEd, visit http://www. student-dropout prevention strategies: Abstracts from the literature. (A report WestEd.org; call 415.565.3000 or, from the West Comprehensive Center.) San Francisco, CA: WestEd. toll‑free, (877) 4-WestEd; or write: This report is available at http://www.westcompcenter.org, as well as on WestEd / 730 Harrison Street / the WestEd website at http://www.WestEd.org/resources. San Francisco, CA 94107-1242.

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Contents

Introduction...... 1

Methods...... 2

Effective and Promising Interventions...... 4 American Indian Collegiate Athletes: Accessing Education through Sport.... 4 American Indian High School Student Persistence and School Leaving: A Case Study of American Indian Student Schooling Experiences...... 4 Bureau of Indian Education and Tribal School Leaders’ Perceptions of School-Level Factors Leading to Academic Achievement for Native American Students...... 5 Exemplary Programs in Indian Education. Third Edition...... 5 Exploring Educational Challenges Among Economically Disadvantaged Native American/Alaskan Native Families...... 6 Exploring Navajo Motivation in School Settings...... 6 Native American Dropout Prevention Initiative: Year Three Evaluation Report ...... 7 Supporting the Career Aspirations of American Indian Youth...... 7 Virtual High School: Learning Communities for American Indian Students.. 8

Factors Contributing to School Failure...... 9 Indian Students and College Preparation...... 9 Native Alaskan Dropouts in Western Alaska: Systemic Failure in Native Alaskan Schools...... 9 School Achievement and Dropout among Anglo and Indian Females and Males: A Comparative Examination...... 10 The Native American Student Drop-Out Rate at 50% (26% Higher Than for White Students): A Persisting Problem in Search of a Solution...... 10

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Family and Community Involvement ...... 11 Collaboration, Research and Change: Motivational Influences on American Indian Students...... 11 Cultural and Parental Influences on Achievement among Native American Students in Barstow Unified School District...... 11 Family, Community, and School Impacts on American Indian and Alaska Native Students’ Success...... 12 It’s About Family: Native American Student Persistence in Higher Education...... 12 Navajo Culture and Family Influences on Academic Success: Traditionalism Is Not a Significant Predictor of Achievement Among Young Navajos...... 13

Resilience and Protective Factors...... 14 A Study of Resiliency of American Indian High School Students...... 14 Barriers and Bridges: American Indian Community College Student Resiliency and Success...... 14 Resilience among Urban American Indian Adolescents: Exploration into the Role of Culture, Self-Esteem, Subjective Well-Being, and Social Support...... 15 Traditional Culture and Academic Success among American Indian Children in the Upper Midwest...... 15

Retention Strategies in Higher Education...... 16 A Chippewa Cree Students’ College Experience: Factors Affecting Persistence...... 16 American Indian/Alaska Native College Student Retention Strategies...... 16 Factors Affecting the Retention of American Indian and Alaska Native Students in Higher Education...... 17 Forging a New Legacy of Trust in Research with Alaska Native College Students Using CBPR...... 17

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Resistance Theory and the Transculturation Hypothesis as Explanations of College Attrition and Persistence Among Culturally Traditional American Indian Students...... 18 The Tribal College Movement: Ensuring That Native American Students Successfully Complete an Associate Degree and Persist to Earn a Four‑Year Degree...... 18

Teacher Preparation and Support ...... 19 Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative: Year Three Annual Progress Report...... 19 Effects of a Developmentally Based Intervention With Teachers on Native American and White Early Adolescents’ Schooling Adjustment in Rural Settings...... 19

References...... 21

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Introduction

fforts to prevent dropout, region, including Arizona, New Mexico, North increase school attendance, Dakota, South Dakota, and other states with and improve education the highest numbers of Native American outcomes continue to be students. They found that, in the graduating crucial for this country’s Native cohort in those states, fewer than half of EAmerican populations. Publication of the the number of Native students graduated 1969 U.S. Senate Report Indian Education: from high school each year. The researchers A National Tragedy — A National Challenge concluded that “failure to respond to this served as an impetus to better collect and crisis will have disastrous consequences for analyze data in order to improve the quality Native peoples across the nation, including a of education and academic outcomes for widening social and economic gap between Native students (Demmert, 2001). However, American Indians, Alaska Natives, and the much work remains to be done. Education larger population, and a real and immediate in American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) threat to the self-sufficiency of tribal people communities has traditionally been controlled and their nations” (p. 36). Clearly there is a by federal agencies, such as the Bureau of need to identify strategies that can help keep Indian Affairs (BIA), or state governments Native American students in school. through the public school system — agencies external to the Native American community The purpose of this bibliography is to (Venegas, 2005). Regardless of the type of examine factors that may help prevent school attended (i.e., BIA or local public Native American students from dropping school), Indigenous students have a higher out of school. This document draws from the dropout rate compared to students from literature that describes best and promising other demographic groups. practices that may address the needs of this According to a 2013 study conducted by vulnerable population. This important topic the Editorial Projects in Education Research has not been researched as extensively as Center, high school graduation rates for all other topics pertaining to Native American students had reached their highest point in student populations. In fact, as the research 40 years; however, graduation rates for Native team reviewed the literature on this topic American students have declined since 2008 over the last 20 years, they found that, (Education Week, 2013). Prominent Native despite the enormous need for research American researchers Susan Faircloth and on effective strategies to promote school John Tippeconnic III (2010) examined 2005 completion, studies pertaining to dropout graduation and dropout rates for Native prevention or intervention programs with American students generated by the National American Indian and Alaska Native students Center for Education Statistics in a 12-state were sparse.

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Methods

n initial scan of the literature The 30 articles whose abstracts are included yielded approximately in this publication are not intended to be an 510 articles. Articles were exhaustive list, but a representative sampling found through Internet of informative research studies and writings searches conducted using on the topic of Native American student Aa number of academic search engines, dropout prevention strategies. The following including Academic Search Premier, six subheadings are used to categorize ERIC, and Google Scholar. Acceptable articles: entries included articles from conference • Effective and Promising Interventions presentations, research periodicals, literature reviews, books or book chapters based on • Factors Contributing to School Failure recent research, unpublished dissertations, • Family and Community Support and research-based information briefs or reports. Excluded documents encompassed • Resilience and Protective Factors newspaper and magazine articles, as well • Retention Strategies in Higher as simple program descriptions lacking Education methodology or references. The following • Teacher Preparation and Support criteria further narrowed the acceptable entries to articles that Although many of the articles pertain to multiple topics, each is categorized under • were written in the 20 years from its predominant theme and is not duplicated 1994 to 2013; elsewhere in the document to promote ease • pertain to Native American1 of reading. Each entry features the name of populations residing within the the publication, bibliographical information, United States; and content abstract, and, if available, a website • include a sample size in research link to the publication itself. studies of a minimum of 20 student respondents. The content categorized under each of the six subheadings is briefly described below. Effective and Promising Interventions. Articles represent empirical studies that highlight effective and promising 1 Within the field, how Indigenous people and groups are referred to varies. Each abstract in this publication uses the interventions that focus on preventing Native terminology of its author(s), including references to Alaskan American student dropout. Native instead of Alaska Native. The term “Native” is often used to refer to American Indian (or Native American) and Factors Contributing to School Alaska Native peoples. Non-Native appears in some instances Failure. Articles describe barriers that have to refer to non-Indigenous peoples.

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been found to contribute to Native American Retention Strategies in Higher school failure and dropout. Education. Articles focus on effective or proposed retention strategies in higher Family and Community Support. education as mechanisms to prevent Native Articles discuss the role of family and American student dropout. community support in preventing Native American student dropout. Teacher Preparation and Support. Articles highlight how teacher preparation Resilience and Protective Factors. and support can help prevent Native Articles discuss the role of resilience and American student dropout. other protective factors in preventing Native American student dropout.

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Effective and Promising Interventions

American Indian Collegiate Athletes: [provide] the first in-depth look at several Accessing Education through Sport American Indian collegiate athletes who Ali-Christie, A. (2013). American Indian [documented] how sports helped or failed to collegiate athletes: Assessing education help them reach their educational aspirations” through sport. (Doctoral dissertation, The (p. 11). University of Arizona). Available at http://arizona.openrepository. “Few activities have the power to bring people com/arizona/handle/10150/293409 together as sports; victory is contagious, American Indian High School Student defeat unifies, and the concept of a team can Persistence and School Leaving: A create common goals and unbreakable bonds Case Study of American Indian Student among teammates, communities, and even an Schooling Experiences entire nation. In a sense, sport has the power to change lives. The lessons that athletics Fortuin, K. (2012). American Indian high can teach—preparation, competitiveness, school student persistence and school overcoming obstacles, persistence, mental leaving: A case study of American Indian and physical health, problem solving, and student schooling experiences. (Master’s setting life goals—seem particularly apt for thesis, University of Arizona). American Indian youth today. Athletics can “One method by which student success or serve as a pathway to college for American failure is measured is whether or not students Indian students who participate in individual graduate or dropout. The current educational or team sports. Access to higher education, policy, No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, aims in turn, offers the opportunity for larger to close the achievement gap among different income and greater economic opportunities. ethnic groups. Despite these goals, American The American Indian students’ college Indian students have the highest dropout rate experience, including statistics on enrollment, and lowest graduation rate in the country. For retention and drop-out rates, is prevalent in well over a century, federal educational policy both quantitative and qualitative research. has failed to meet the educational needs Moreover, research concerning the roles of American Indian students. This research athletes and athletics have within higher project shows the need for perspectives education institutions is historically rich. The to change in terms of “dropping out” and intersection of these two topics however, has “graduating” in order to address and improve received little to no attention. This dissertation the success rates for Native American [explored] the impact of sports on American students in K–12 public schools. This thesis Indian collegiate athletes to determine the focuses on urban Native American student factors that both inspired and inhibited them schooling experiences, calling for a need to from the pursuit of athletics in college. It avoid labeling students and for schools to

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place a greater emphasis on building positive Exemplary Programs in Indian Education. interpersonal relationships with students and Third Edition families” (p. 6). Chavers, D. (1999). Exemplary programs in Available at http://arizona.openrepository. Indian education. Third edition. Albuquerque, com/arizona/bitstream/10150/265553/1/ NM: Native American Scholarship Fund, Inc. azu_etd_12524_sip1_m.pdf “This book presents 16 exemplary programs in schools that enroll American Indian or Alaska Bureau of Indian Education and Tribal Native students. Exemplary, by definition, School Leaders’ Perceptions of School- means the top 5 percent of education Level Factors Leading to Academic programs in student outcomes. In most cases, Achievement for Native American Students these programs are in the top 1 percent. Each Amiotte, S. (2008). Bureau of Indian Education program entry includes contact information, and tribal school leaders’ perceptions of school- a narrative description, and in some cases, level factors leading to academic achievement awards received, documentation of student for Native American students. (Doctoral outcomes, and other relevant information. dissertation, University of South Dakota). School types range from elementary through college and include public, private, tribal, “The United States federal government has a and nonprofit. Programs address student unique, trust responsibility and obligation to support services, comprehensive school provide for the education of Native American improvement, dropout prevention, adult children. Today, while the vast majority of education, college preparation, technology Native American children attend public integration, and other areas. All 16 programs schools, the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) are summarized on one page in the beginning continues to oversee 174 elementary and of the book, and program characteristics are secondary schools located on 63 reservations presented in chart form. A brief history of in 23 states across the United States. Indian education is followed by a description Tragically, the academic achievement of of the 11 elements that are characteristic students in these schools falls far below that of exemplary programs: acknowledgement of students in public schools. Less than one- of the problem; set priorities for problems; fourth of the 174 schools under the direction vision, planning; commitment; restructuring of the Bureau of Indian Education are making and retraining; goal setting; experimentation, adequate yearly progress (AYP) as defined by testing, and evaluation; outreach; expertise; No Child Left Behind. This study examined and administrative support. Appendices list BIE/Tribal school leaders’ perceptions criteria for exemplary programs; individuals regarding the level of implementation and organizations that have recognition of school-level factors related to student programs for exemplary schools and projects; achievement and sought to identify the and the criteria of effectiveness for exemplary practices that exist in and distinguish programs used by the now-defunct National BIE/Tribal schools that are making AYP from Diffusion Network, the U.S. Department those that are not” (p. ii). of Education program that recognized,

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supported, and disseminated information on efforts that integrate cultural components exemplary programs for 25 years before being with the strengths identified such as eliminated in the budget cuts of 1995” (p. 1). motivation and academic self-efficacy. In addition, it is recommended that innovative Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ educational programs and policies be created ED445845.pdf to strengthen existing programs to address the identified educational challenges within Exploring Educational Challenges Among this community” (pp. v–vi). Economically Disadvantaged Native American/Alaskan Native Families Available at http://csus-dspace.calstate.edu/ Plevney, V. K. (2012). Exploring educational bitstream/handle/10211.9/1704/Valerie%20 challenges among economically Plevney-Final%20project.pdf?sequence=2 disadvantaged Native American/Alaskan Native families. (Master’s thesis, California Exploring Navajo Motivation in State University, Sacramento). School Settings McInerney, D. M., & Swisher, K. G. (1995). “This descriptive study examined Exploring Navajo motivation in school educational challenges among economically settings. Journal of American Indian disadvantaged Native American/Alaskan Education, 34(3), 28–51. Native families, collected through a questionnaire completed by 84 tribally “American Indian children appear to be at connected respondents who receive a particular disadvantage with regard to services from Shingle Springs Tribal TANF. academic achievement and school retention. Study findings indicate a strong positive Many factors have been cited as determinants correlation between general self-efficacy of this unsatisfactory situation, but there are and intrinsic motivation to learn [r=.716 at inadequate research data available on these p >.01], indicating a highly motivated group factors. Consequently, little useful information of respondents who believe in their abilities exists to guide communities, schools and to succeed. Bicultural beliefs and academic teachers in the development of programs self-efficacy scores indicated a weak positive to improve this situation. This research has correlation [r=.291 at p >.01] suggesting three aims: to demonstrate an effective and that culturally relevant educational valid use of psychometric research with an opportunities are crucial to educational Indigenous minority group; to validate a success. Respondents identified financial motivational instrument, based upon the hardships, childcare, transportation, pressure Personal Investment model of motivation, for to work, fear of failing, and uncertainty about use in a cross-cultural setting; and using the educational processes as their most influential validated instrument, explore some of the key educational challenges. Recommendations aspects of Navajo motivation in predicting include strengthening accessibility to school-related beliefs and intentions. Over culturally relevant educational opportunities five hundred Navajo students from a large and resources while increasing outreach reservation high school were surveyed. Factor

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analysis and multiple regression analysis in dropout prevention efforts during the were used to analyze the data. Results argue project’s third year. Outcome data from the for the validity of the approach and the Arizona Department of Education on dropout applied value of the scales used to measure rates, graduation rates, student achievement Navajo motivation in school settings. The scores and other relevant indicators are used data suggest that of the elements of the to assess the extent to which the project Personal Investment model utilized, sense achieved its intended goals” (p. 17). of self components, i.e., sense of purpose Available at http://www.lecroymilligan.com/ and sense of competence, together with the data/resources/nadpi-year-three-evaluation- task component, i.e., striving for excellence, report052709.final.pdf are the most salient for this Navajo group. Other components of the model are of Supporting the Career Aspirations of minor importance. The significance of the American Indian Youth study is discussed within the context of the inadequate information currently available on Alliman-Brissett, A. E., & Turner, S. L. (2005). American Indian school motivation” (p. 28). Supporting the career aspirations of American Indian youth. Center for Urban and Regional Available for purchase at https://www.jstor. Affairs (CURA) Reporter (35)(2), 20–24. org/stable/pdf/24398309 “Dropout rates among American Indian Native American Dropout Prevention young people are greater than 50 percent Initiative: Year Three Evaluation Report in some places in the country, and the rate of unemployment and underemployment LeCroy & Milligan Associates, Inc. (2009). among American Indians still far exceeds Native American dropout prevention that of the majority population, despite initiative: Year three evaluation report. affirmative action and other parity-seeking Tucson, AZ: Author. policies. In addition, U.S. Census trends “The purpose of this evaluation report is indicate an influx of American Indians in twofold: 1) to document and assess project Minnesota migrating to large urban areas. activities of year three from May 2008 through These trends highlight a critical need to April 2009 based on the goals, objectives, provide career planning and development and activities outlined in the Arizona interventions that are culturally relevant Department of Education’s Native American and address the unique career challenges Dropout Prevention Initiative federal grant of American Indian young people. Career proposal, and 2) to summarize major education is one way to help young people cumulative outcomes of the project over the set career goals, make plans to reach those three years 2006–2009. The report provides goals, and overcome career barriers early in the results from data collected from teachers, life. However, few tested career education principals, school administrators, school programs are designed to meet the specific counselors, and students about factors that career development needs of American contribute to the dropout issue and progress Indian young people. To help fill this gap,

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the authors developed a career education to leave high school and later enroll in a curriculum called “Two Feathers: A Career virtual school to pursue the goal of a high Education Curriculum for American Indian school diploma. Enrollees were drawn to Adolescents,” which is described in this the virtual school for a variety of reasons, article. Based on their analysis of the impact including the 24/7 availability of coursework, of the curriculum, the authors conclude it is the opportunity to complete lessons online, imperative that career education curriculum and another chance to graduate. Course intended for use with American Indian youth completion and graduation rates improved incorporate the cultural values, cultural over time, demonstrating the need for expressions, and cultural traditions of sustained investment and programmatic American Indian people. For educators who adjustment based on student needs. wish to implement a culturally based career Additional support beyond the coursework curriculum, the authors offer a number of served as factors in student success. This suggestions based on their collaboration included career education and cultural with American Indian parents, educators, and programming. A financial analysis showed community leaders” (p. 20). the level of investment needed to offer an alternative program and also compared Available at http://www.cura.umn.edu/ the costs associated with the virtual school publications/catalog/reporter-35-2 to alternative educational program costs required to serve high need students. Virtual High School: Learning Communities A comprehensive program to promote for American Indian Students academic engagement should include a Grant, V. A. (2011). Virtual high school: variety of student incentives to learn, provider Learning communities for American Indian flexibility, engaging coursework, enrichment students. (Doctoral dissertation, School programs, and program-wide integration of of Education, University of St. Thomas, Tribal language and culture. Virtual delivery Minnesota). alone does not guarantee student success and district and state budgetary constraints “A case study was conducted to learn put program sustainability at risk due to about the experiences of American Indian the high cost of serving at risk students. students attending a virtual high school Recommendations included ways to counter who successfully completed coursework. financial challenges associated with initial Appreciative inquiry was used to gain student low completion rates as well as a description and coordinator perspectives regarding the of the added programming needed to factors contributing to successful course support one of the most at risk populations completion. Data from interviews, document with regard to educational attainment in the analysis, and observations were analyzed United States” (p. 2). using a critical and culturally responsive lens. Gang influences, pregnancy and parenting, Available at http://ir.stthomas.edu/cgi/ social isolation, and disengagement with viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=caps_ traditional forms of schooling led students ed_lead_docdiss

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Factors Contributing to School Failure

Indian Students and College Preparation characteristics, extracurricular activities, and Chavers, D. (2002). Indian students and counselor training needs. Appendices present college preparation. Albuquerque, NM: the survey form, a bibliography of scholarship Catching the Dream. directories, and a college preparation checklist” (p. 1). “A study examined the extent to which high schools are preparing American Indian Available at http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ students for college. Counselors were ED464770.pdf surveyed at 47 on- and off-reservation high schools serving Indian students in 16 states. Native Alaskan Dropouts in Western Only 17 percent of Indian students in the Alaska: Systemic Failure in Native Alaskan schools were enrolling in college. Under Schools 10 percent of Indian students were taking Freed, C. D., & Samson, M. (2004). Native 4 years of college prep math, and 30 percent Alaskan dropouts in western Alaska: Systemic were taking no math at all. Almost a third failure in Native Alaskan schools. Journal of of Indian students were not enrolled in a American Indian Education, 43(2), 33–45. science course. Over half the high schools did not have a science lab. Only 1 percent of “The number of Native Alaska secondary Indian students were enrolled in advanced students choosing not to complete high placement classes. Most Indian students were school is of great concern to educators and not applying for any scholarships for college Native communities. In this study, schools study. Only 2.4 percent of Indian students had in small communities throughout western access to a full set of scholarship directories Alaska were observed while teachers and in their high schools. Anglo teachers dropouts were interviewed concerning their dominated in 29 schools, Native teachers perceptions of the education process. It dominated in only 7. Fourteen schools had became very clear that there was something no Indian teachers. There were huge gaps fundamentally wrong with the systems of in support services. Many opportunities education in western Alaska. Teachers and for college preparation were closed to administrators frequently leave after a very Indian students, who were often marked for remediation programs instead of mainstream short time. Students leave the school systems or advanced classes. Recommendations in large numbers and communities are not to principals, parents, and counselors are happy with the education their young people included. Data are presented on the schools’ receive. In some cases, the school systems do Indian enrollment, dropout rate, attendance not need an incremental change approach to rate, accreditation status, enrollments in education—they need to examine an entirely specific courses, college enrollment, teacher new paradigm of schooling” (p. 33).

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School Achievement and Dropout among “The broad purpose of this research is to Anglo and Indian Females and Males: A identify, understand and explain influences Comparative Examination on educational outcomes for Natives James, K., Chavez, E., Beauvais, F., borrowing from research by Sixkiller-Clarke (1994) to examine the extent to which Edwards, R., & Oetting, G. (1995). School school, personal, family and cultural factors achievement and dropout among Anglo and influence or predict educational outcomes Indian females and males: A comparative for Michigan Natives using non-experimental examination. American Indian Culture and quantitative retrospective research methods. Research Journal, 19(3), 181–206. The target population is Michigan Natives “Among 1,607 American Indian and Anglo who earned their college degree as dropouts and currently enrolled middle- and differentiated by entering college with a high-school students, language difficulties high school diploma or General Education and problems with teachers were predictive Diploma (GED). Given the small n problem in of academic troubles and dropping out. studying Natives, convenience and snowball Success of Indian students was related to sampling techniques were used. A sample stronger Anglo cultural identity and better size of n=300 was achieved representing several Michigan tribes. Correlations, t-tests, English proficiency (in mainstream schools) ANOVAs, and multiple and logical regression but was not related to Indian cultural were used to answer six related research identity” (p. 181). questions that address two main areas of Available for purchase at inquiry: whether individual characteristics http://uclajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.17953/ and pre-college education factors influence aicr.19.3.g4647256537418tj high school GPAs and if MI Natives graduate with a high school diploma versus a GED; The Native American Student Drop-Out and if there is a significant difference in Rate at 50% (26% Higher Than for White college graduating GPAs between the two Students): A Persisting Problem in Search populations and if individuals characteristics of a Solution (pre-college and college level) influence college GPAs” (p. 2). Payment, A. A. (2011). The Native American student drop-out rate at 50% (26% higher Available at http://www.nmu.edu/sites/ than for White students): A persisting DrupalEducation/files/UserFiles/Files/Pre- problem in search of a solution. (Master’s Drupal/SiteSections/Students/GradPapers/ thesis, Northern Michigan University). Projects/Payment_Aaron_MP.pdf

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Family and Community Involvement

Collaboration, Research and Change: District. Paper presented at the National Motivational Influences on American Meeting of the Comparative and International Indian Students Educational Society, San Diego, CA.

Radda, H. T., Iwamoto, D., & Patrick, C. “The academic achievement of Native (1998). Collaboration, research and change: American students in the United States has Motivational influences on American Indian consistently been the lowest in the nation. students. Journal of American Indian This study examined the school performance, Education, 37(2), 2–20. involvement of Native parents in the school “This article reviews the development and life of their children, and assimilation patterns initial work of a research project to study of a specific group of Native Americans the motivational influences on students who have lived in Barstow, California, for from two communities. The focus is on the at least three generations. The case study collaboration between an American Indian approach used participant observation, reservation and a border town, where most ethnographic interview, and documentary of the children from the reservation attend analysis. Analysis of norm-referenced school. Establishing working relationships test data indicated that Native American between two communities, two leadership students (K–12) in Barstow Unified School boards and many programs was paramount District (BUSD) scored as well as, or better in order for the research to have impact. than, the BUSD mean percentile scores Discussion encompasses the characteristics for the total student population and the of the communities, the process of Caucasian subpopulation in all areas except working together, preliminary results of the second-grade reading in 1992 and third- quantitative phase with the American Indian grade reading in 1993. Between 1991 and students and the purpose of the seven-year 1993, the dropout rate for Native American qualitative study. This paper is based on a students was only 10 percent, and the honor presentation at the National Indian Education roll rate was 30 percent. At least 36 percent Association’s 1997 conference in Tacoma, of Native students who attended BUSD Washington” (p. 2). between 1988 and 1993 continued their education past high school. The strongest Cultural and Parental Influences on link between educational opportunities and Achievement among Native American Native student achievement was found in Students in Barstow Unified School the involvement of parents in the design District and implementation of programs. The Leveque, D. M. (1994). Cultural and parental Native American families in Barstow are the influences on achievement among Native descendants of Navajo and Pueblo railroad American students in Barstow Unified School workers who chose to come to Barstow (thus

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assuming “immigrant” characteristics). Full oppositional identities can be developed in assimilation into the majority culture occurred students by some teachers and schools. The over three generations. Thus, the strongest sixth section looks at ways that community elements contributing to Native student control of schools and the “indiginization” achievement were parental involvement and of curriculum and instruction can mitigate family acculturation patterns. The findings the formation of oppositional identities suggest that Ogbu’s categories of immigrant and improve Native student success. The and nonimmigrant minorities are not static, seventh section examines recent research on and that nonimmigrant minorities may not be community attitudes towards schooling. The bound to their caste like status” (p. 3). eighth section specifically looks at Native students and what types of curriculum and Available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED382416 instruction for them is supported by research. The ninth section looks at what Native and Family, Community, and School Impacts non-Native teachers have learned from their on American Indian and Alaska Native experiences teaching Native students. The Students’ Success tenth section examines research on the role Reyhner, J. (2001). Family, community, and of AI/AN teachers in Native schools. The school impacts on American Indian and eleventh section looks at research on the Alaska Native students’ success. Paper effects of local control of schools on student presented at 32nd Annual National Indian success, and the final section summarizes Education Association Annual Convention, the research presented and makes Billings, MT. recommendations for more research” (p. 1).

“This paper examines research, especially Available at http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/AIE/ recent research, on Indian education with a Family.html focus on the impact of community, family, and schools on the academic success of AI/ It’s About Family: Native American AN students. It is organized into 12 parts. Student Persistence in Higher Education The first part briefly describes the most Guillory, R. M., & Wolverton, M. (2008). recent comprehensive research reviews, the It’s about family: Native American student second part examines briefly three general persistence in higher education. Journal of overviews of AI/AN education that attempt Higher Education, 79(1), 58–87. to synthesize the research on teaching AI/AN students. The third section examines research “This article presents findings from a on the influence of traditional cultures on study (Guillory, 2002) designed to explore Native students’ academic success. The the similarities and differences between fourth section looks at research on cultural Native Americans’ student perceptions and differences and conflict between Native the perceptions of state representatives, communities and schools in terms of how university presidents, and faculty about they affect students’ educational success. persistence factors and barriers to degree The fifth section discusses how anti-school completion as they relate to Native American

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students at Washington State University “Navajo youths fare poorly in formal (WSU) in Pullman, Washington; the University schooling and a key explanation has been of Idaho (UI) in Moscow, Idaho; and Montana sought in their cultural investment in the State University (MSU) in Bozeman, Montana. Navajo way of life. A common assumption In addition, the authors suggest implications asserts that the greater this investment, that they believe apply not only to the study the more these young people are at risk of institutions but also to other universities that educational failure. Results from this field serve American Indian students and their study favor a very different view of the respective Native American communities” relationship. Using data from 451 young (p. 58). Navajos, it was found that there may be no relationship between the academic Available at http://www.se.edu/dept/native- achievement and behavior of these young american-center/files/2012/04/Native- people and their multifaceted involvement American-Student-Persistence-in-Higher- in Navajo culture. Data were obtained Education1.pdf from these youths during their attendance at 11 schools in the Navajo Nation. Youth Navajo Culture and Family Influences on participation in ritual activities, cultural Academic Success: Traditionalism Is Not conventions, and language use was not a Significant Predictor of Achievement Among Young Navajos predictive of their educational failure or disengagement from school. Yet, the family Willeto, A. A. A. (1999). Navajo culture and affects academic performance and goals, family influences on academic success: as does gender. The role of tribal cultures Traditionalism is not a significant predictor of in the education of American Indian youths achievements among young Navajos. Journal deserves more thoughtful study” (p. 1). of American Indian Education, 38(2), 1–24. Available for purchase at http://www.jstor. org/stable/24398517

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Resilience and Protective Factors

A Study of Resiliency of American Indian Indian student experience to create an High School Students avenue for sustained institutional change to Thornton, B., Collins, M., & Daugherty, R. positively impact student success rates. Tribal (2006). A study of resiliency of American Critical Race Theory and Resiliency Theory Indian high school students. Journal of were combined to create a comprehensive American Indian Education, 45(1), 4–16. theoretical framework through which to understand the experiences of American “Relationships between resiliency and Indian students. For this study, success was student achievement were investigated defined as meeting the needs, eliminating in a population of American Indian high the barriers, and reinforcing resiliency school students in a county school district of characteristics of American Indian students Nevada. The Resiliency Belief System was working toward the completion of a desired used to assess the resiliency of students. The academic goal. Quantitative data came from participants were mainly female students student surveys with questions focusing on (62%), with local tribal affiliation (51%), needs, barriers, and resiliency characteristics. with a grade point average of 2.23, and a Qualitative data came from follow-up focus good record of attendance. School related groups to obtain deeper insight into the three variables were predictive of resilience by previously mentioned variables. The researcher gender, replicating the findings of earlier found that American Indian student needs fell researchers. The results indicated a significant into one of three categories: family support, relationship between resiliency and gender, financial support, or college support/services. but a relationship between achievement and Support from family members attending resilience was not observed” (p. 4). college, financial support and advising, and college support in the forms of academic Barriers and Bridges: American Indian counseling, cultural competency training, Community College Student Resiliency caring professors, Native student recognition, and Success outreach and programming, Native student Cheshire, T. C. (2012). Barriers and bridges: recruitment and retention, support for American Indian community college student Native student organizations, involvement resiliency and success. (Doctoral dissertation, and networking with the external Native California State University, Sacramento). community, drug and alcohol counseling, and services like RISE and EOPS who provide “This mixed methods study determined advising, labs and other resources were found self-perceived needs, barriers, and resiliency to be significant needs” (pp. xii–xiii). characteristics that impact the academic success of American Indian community Available at http://www.csus.edu/coe/ college students at Sacramento City College. academics/doctorate/research/dissertations/ The study was done to provide community cohort-3/assets/cheshire-tamara-barriers- colleges with further insight into the American and-bridges.pdf

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Resilience among Urban American Indian Traditional Culture and Academic Success Adolescents: Exploration into the Role among American Indian Children in the of Culture, Self-Esteem, Subjective Well- Upper Midwest Being, and Social Support Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., Stubben, J. D., Stumblingbear-Riddle, G., & Romans, J. S. C. & LaFromboise, T. (2001). Traditional culture (2012). Resilience among urban American and academic success among American Indian adolescents: Exploration into the Indian children in the upper Midwest. Journal role of culture, self-esteem, subjective of American Indian Education, 40(2), 48–60. well‑being, and social support. American “This research examines factors affecting Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health school success for a sample of 196 fifth– Research, 19(2), 1–19. eighth grade American Indian children from “The effects of enculturation, self-esteem, three reservations in the upper Midwest. subjective well-being, and social support The regression model included age, gender, on resilience among urban American family structure, parent occupation and Indian (AI) adolescents from a South income, maternal warmth, extracurricular Central region of the U.S. were explored. activities, enculturation, and self-esteem. Of the 196 participants, 114 (58.2%) were The results indicate that traditional culture female and 82 (41.8%) were male (ages positively affects the academic performance 14–18 years). Thirty three percent of the of fifth–eighth grade children. The bivariate variance in resilience was accounted for correlation between enculturation and by enculturation, self-esteem, and social self-esteem was non-significant and there support, while 34 percent of the variance in was no significant interaction between resilience was contributed by enculturation, enculturation and self-esteem indicating that subjective well-being, and social support. enculturation was directly associated with However, social support from friends school success. The findings are discussed in remained the strongest predictor” (p. 1). terms of resiliency effects of enculturation for American Indian children” (p. 48).

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Retention Strategies in Higher Education

A Chippewa Cree Students’ College work, lack of study skills, and lack of time Experience: Factors Affecting Persistence management skills. Suggestions to improve Drummer, K. D. (2009). A Chippewa Cree the graduation rate for new students included students’ college experience: Factors persistence, responsibility, preparation for affecting persistence. (Doctoral dissertation, the transition from high school to college, Montana State University). time management, willingness to leave their comfort zone and develop their social skills, “Educators working with Chippewa Cree study skills, class attendance, willingness students need to understand how the to ask for help, lack of discouragement, students’ precollege experiences, college academic preparedness, and completion of experiences, and cultural backgrounds school work” (p. xii). influence their success in higher education in order to design learning environments, Available at http://scholarworks.montana. procedures, and policies that will increase edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1/1201/ the graduation rate of this population. The DrummerK0509.pdf?sequence=1 purpose of this grounded theory study was to explore factors that help or hinder American Indian/Alaska Native College Student Retention Strategies successful completion of a bachelor’s degree by students from the Chippewa Cree Tribe. Guillory, R. M. (2009). American Indian/Alaska Data were collected in face-to-face interviews Native college student retention strategies. using a peer-reviewed interview protocol Journal of Developmental Education, 33(2), consisting of open-ended questions for 15–19. graduates and student services personnel “This article presents findings from a determined by the concepts identified qualitative study examining the similarities after examination of related literature. and differences between American Indian/ Thirty graduates from the Chippewa Cree Alaska Native student perceptions and Tribe and 5 student services personnel the perceptions of state representatives, from two state colleges in Montana were university presidents, and faculty about interviewed. Factors that the graduates found persistence factors and barriers to degree most relevant to their success were family, completion specific to American Indian/ personal goals, friends, institutional support, Alaska Native students at three land-grant and academic preparation. The greatest universities across Washington, Idaho, and obstacles they reported were finances, Montana. A comparative analysis of themes loneliness, commuting, life responsibilities, emerging from interview data reveals discouragement, unpreparedness for college conflicting perceptions among participant

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cohorts. Retention-to-graduation strategies education. Successful students in the study are offered for institutions of higher education were mostly non-traditional (in the college desiring to better serve these students and sense) students who had interrupted their respective tribal communities. The their college studies at least once. They strategies offered, including specialized identified as obstacles to their college forms of culturally-sensitive career and success prejudice, finances, language, and academic counseling, peer mentoring, and alcohol in descending order. These students Supplemental Instruction, can also help were helped in their college career most professionals delivering developmental frequently by caring and understanding education programming better serve this faculty. Recommendations are made on student population” (p. 1). what needs to be done to orient new Native students to the higher education setting and Available at http://homepages.se.edu/native- what college professors need to do to adapt american-center/files/2012/04/American- their teaching styles to the needs of Native Indian-Alaska-Native-College-Student- students” (p. 1). Retention-Strategies1.pdf Available at http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/ Factors Affecting the Retention of Factors.html American Indian and Alaska Native Students in Higher Education Forging a New Legacy of Trust in Reyhner, J., & Dodd, J. (1995). Factors Research with Alaska Native College affecting the retention of American Indian and Students Using CBPR Alaska Native Students in higher education. Lopez, E. D. S., Sharma, D. K. B., Mekiana, Paper presented at Expanding Minority D., & Ctibor, A. (2012, September). Forging Opportunities: First Annual Conference, a new legacy of trust in research with Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ. Alaska Native college students using CBPR. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, “This paper contains a synthesis of research 71(18475). and writing on the subject of recruiting and retaining American Indian and Alaska Native “University education poses challenges students in tribal colleges and public and for Alaska Native (AN) students, especially private universities, and it presents the results students from remote and rural areas, as they of a study of twenty-four successful American experience marked differences between the Indian college students who were seniors at values and customs at the college campus a state supported college in Montana. Family to that of their home community. For many support, Indian advocacy group support (for students, these cultural incongruities and example the work of the American Indian other challenges continue throughout their Science and Engineering Society), peer college experience, impacting their capacity support, and institutional support (including to persist and achieve academic success. minority student offices) are examined with Increasing AN student persistence towards the purpose of identifying what factors lead graduation is a key goal of the University to Native student persistence in higher of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF). Efforts to reduce

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attrition require a keen understanding of the also culturally traditional students. However, factors that impact AN students’ quality of these students overcame acute alienation life (QOL) at college. Yet, a long-standing and generally experienced successful college legacy of mistrust towards Western and careers. After an examination of the dominant academic-based research poses challenges to theoretical perspectives on American Indian systematic inquiry required to inform culturally educational achievement and attrition, the responsive interventions. Here, the authors findings of the research are extended to new describe a collaborative research program theoretical considerations: resistance theory with AN college students. While the tangible and the transculturation hypothesis” (p. 1). goal was to develop a culturally grounded QOL measure, what emerged as equally The Tribal College Movement: Ensuring important was building a new legacy of trust That Native American Students in research among AN partners” (p. 1). Successfully Complete an Associate Available at http://www. Degree and Persist to Earn a Four-Year circumpolarhealthjournal.net/index.php/ijch/ Degree article/view/18475 Kicking Woman, C. L. (2011). The tribal college movement: Ensuring that Native Resistance Theory and the American students successfully complete an Transculturation Hypothesis as associate degree and persist to earn a four- Explanations of College Attrition and year degree. (Doctoral dissertation, University Persistence Among Culturally Traditional of Montana). American Indian Students “This mixed method study examined the Huffman, T. (2001). Resistance theory and the utilization of educational resources available transculturation hypothesis as explanations to 44 Native American students. One-half of college attrition and persistence among initially attended a tribal college, and culturally traditional American Indian one-half Native American students who students. Journal of American Indian Education, 40(3), 1–23. initially attended a non-tribal college. The qualitative process involved face-to-face “This paper reports the findings of a interviews with the participants at the seven qualitative research investigation on the Montana tribal colleges. The resources educational experiences of 69 American included: mentoring programs, library Indian college students. Specifically, the services, financial aid assistance, distance data involving two groups of culturally learning programs, disability services, traditional students (estranged students and scholarships’ applications process assistance, transculturated students) are considered. assistance in use of computers and the skills Estranged students are culturally traditional needed, tutors, student organizations, and American Indian students who experienced academic counselors” (p. ii). intense alienation while in college and, subsequently, fared poorly academically. Available at http://scholarworks.umt.edu/cgi/ Conversely, transculturated students are viewcontent.cgi?article=2349&context=etd

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Teacher Preparation and Support

Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative: of all students, including those historically Year Three Annual Progress Report underserved. During the first 3 years of Alaska University. (1998). Alaska Rural implementation, AKRSI schools showed Systemic Initiative: Year three Annual Progress a net gain relative to non-AKRSI schools Report. Anchorage, AK: Alaska Federation in mathematics achievement scores and of Natives. dropout rates” (p. 1).

“The Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative Available at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED443603 (AKRSI) was established in 1994 to develop Effects of a Developmentally Based pedagogical practices that incorporate the Intervention With Teachers on Native indigenous knowledge systems of Alaska American and White Early Adolescents’ Native peoples into formal educational Schooling Adjustment in Rural Settings programs. The statewide project is organized around five initiatives, each of Hamm, J. V., Farmer, T. W., Robertson, which is implemented in one Native cultural D., Dadisman, K. A., Murray, A., Meece, region at a time on a rotational schedule J. L., & Song, S. Y. (2010). Effects of a over 5 years. A sixth initiative focuses developmentally based intervention with on developing a statewide educational teachers on Native American and White early telecommunications infrastructure. This report adolescents’ schooling adjustment in rural addresses questions associated with the settings. Journal of Experimental Education, 78(3), 343–377. following six “drivers”: (1) implementation of comprehensive, standards-based “This study reports the effectiveness of a curricula, including assessment, in every developmentally based, teacher professional classroom and learning experience provided development intervention aimed at improving through AKRSI;(2) provision of high quality early adolescent school adjustment. Teachers mathematics and science education and in rural schools in a Northern Plains state took preparation and support of teachers; part in professional development activities (3) convergence of all resources that across a year. Following a randomized support science and mathematics education control trial design, Native American and into a focused, continuously improving White students’ (n = 165) social, behavioral, program; (4) generation of parent and and academic adjustment was assessed in community support for the program based intervention compared with control schools. on presentations, evidence, and critical Regression analyses, controlling for baseline discussions; (5) accumulation of evidence and demographic variables, indicated that that the program is enhancing student students in intervention schools improved achievement in science and mathematics; in achievement, and improved or sustained and (6) improvement in the achievement beginning-of-year schooling dispositions,

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and perceptions of the school social/ White students evidenced particular gains in affective context, in comparison with evident achievement and perceptions of the school declines for students in control schools. social/affective context” (p. 343–344). Native American students more so than

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Faircloth, S. C., & Tippeconnic III, J. W. (2010). References The dropout/graduation crisis among American Alaska University. (1998). Alaska Rural Systemic Indian and Alaska Native students: Failure to Initiative: Year three Annual Progress Report. respond places the future of Native students at Anchorage, AK: Alaska Federation of Natives. risk. Los Angeles, CA: The Civil Rights Project/ Proyecto Derechos Civiles at UCLA. Ali-Christie, A. (2013). American Indian collegiate athletes: Assessing education through sport. Fortuin, K. (2012). American Indian high school (Doctoral dissertation, The University of student persistence and school leaving: A case Arizona). study of American Indian student schooling experiences. (Master’s thesis, University of Alliman-Brissett, A. E., & Turner, S. L. (2005). Supporting the career aspirations of American Arizona). Indian youth. Center for Urban and Regional Affairs (CURA) Reporter (35)(2), 20–24. Freed, C. D., & Samson, M. (2004). Native Alaskan dropouts in western Alaska: Systemic failure in Amiotte, S. (2008). Bureau of Indian Education Native Alaskan schools. Journal of American and tribal school leaders’ perceptions of school- Indian Education, 43(2), 33–45. level factors leading to academic achievement for Native American students. (Doctoral Grant, V. A. (2011). Virtual high school: Learning dissertation, University of South Dakota). communities for American Indian students. (Doctoral dissertation, School of Education, Chavers, D. (1999). Exemplary programs in Indian University of St. Thomas, Minnesota). education. Third edition. Albuquerque, NM: Native American Scholarship Fund, Inc. Guillory, R. M. (2009). American Indian/Alaska Chavers, D. (2002). Indian students and college Native college student retention strategies. preparation. Albuquerque, NM: Catching the Journal of Developmental Education, 33(2), Dream. 15–19.

Cheshire, T. C. (2012). Barriers and bridges: Guillory, R. M.,& Wolverton, M. (2008). It’s about American Indian community college student family: Native American student persistence in resiliency and success. (Doctoral dissertation, higher education. Journal of Higher Education, Oregon State University). 79(1), 58–87. Demmert, W. G. (2001). Improving academic Hamm, J. V., Farmer, T. W., Robertson, D., performance among Native American students: A review of the research literature. Charleston, Dadisman, K. A., Murray, A., Meece, J. L., & WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education Song, S. Y. (2010). Effects of a developmentally and Small Schools. based intervention with teachers on Native American and White early adolescents’ Drummer, K. D. (2009). A Chippewa Cree schooling adjustment in rural settings. Journal students’ college experience: Factors affecting of Experimental Education, 78(2), 343–377. persistence. (Doctoral dissertation, Montana State University). Huffman, T. (2001). Resistance theory and the transculturation hypothesis as explanations Education Week. (2013). High school graduation rate approaching milestone, reaches highest of college attrition and persistence among point in 40 years. Diplomas Count 2013. culturally traditional American Indian students. Retrieved from http://www.edweek.org/media/ Journal of American Indian Education, 40(3), diplomascount2013_release.pdf 1–23.

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James, K., Chavez, E., Beauvais, F., Edwards, R., Radda, H. T., Iwamoto, D., & Patrick, C. & Oetting, G. (1995). School achievement and (1998). Collaboration, research and change: dropout among Anglo and Indian females and Motivational influences on American Indian males: A comparative examination. American students. Journal of American Indian Education, Indian Culture and Research Journal, 19(3), 37(2), 2–20. 181–206. Reyhner, J. (2001). Family, community, and school Kicking Woman, C. L. (2011). The tribal college movement: Ensuring that Native American impacts on American Indian and Alaska Native students successfully complete an associate students’ success. Paper presented at 32nd degree and persist to earn a four-year degree. Annual National Indian Education Association (Doctoral dissertation, University of Montana). Annual Convention. Billings, MT.

LeCroy & Milligan Associates, Inc. (2009). Native Reyhner, J., & Dodd, J. (1995). Factors affecting American dropout prevention initiative: Year the retention of American Indian and Alaska three evaluation report. Tucson, AZ: Author. Native Students in higher education. Paper presented at Expanding Minority Opportunities: Leveque, D. M. (1994). Cultural and parental First Annual Conference, Arizona State influences on achievement among Native University, Tempe, AZ. American students in Barstow Unified School District. Paper presented at the National Meeting of the Comparative and International Stumblingbear-Riddle, G., & Romans, J. S. C. Educational Society, San Diego, CA. (2012). Resilience among urban American Indian adolescents: Exploration into the role Lopez, E. D. S., Sharma, D. K. B., Mekiana, D., & of culture, self-esteem, subjective well-being, Ctibor, A. (2012, September). Forging a new and social support. American Indian and Alaska legacy of trust in research with Alaska Native Native Mental Health Research, 19(2), 1–19. college students using CBPR. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 71(18475). Thornton, B., Collins, M., & Daugherty, R. (2006). A study of resiliency of American Indian high McInerney, D. M., & Swisher, K. G. (1995). school students. Journal of American Indian Exploring Navajo motivation in school settings. Education, 45(1), 4–16. Journal of American Indian Education, 34(3), 28–51. Venegas, K. R. (2005). The Ya Ne Dah Ah School: National Center for Education Statistics (2005). Melding traditional teachings with modern Status and trends in the education of American curricula. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Project on Indian and Alaska Natives. Washington, D.C.: American Indian Economic Development. Institute of Education Sciences. Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., Stubben, J. D., & Payment, A. A. (2011). The Native American LaFromboise, T. (2001). Traditional culture and student drop-out rate at 50% (26% higher than academic success among American Indian for White students): A persisting problem in children in the upper Midwest. Journal of search of a solution. (Master’s thesis, Northern American Indian Education, 40(2), 48–60. Michigan University).

Plevney, V. K. (2012). Exploring educational Willeto, A. A. A. (1999). Navajo culture and family challenges among economically disadvantaged influences on academic success: Traditionalism Native American/Alaskan Native families. is not a significant predictor of achievements (Master’s thesis, California State University, among young Navajos. Journal of American Sacramento). Indian Education, 38(2), 1–24.

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