DOES MEDIEVAL POLITICAL SYSTEM OF TULUNADU REPRESENTS LOWER FEUDALISM…?

Dr. SURESH RAI K. Associate Professor of History Historically, Tulunadu, is the undivided district of Dakshina in and district in State. The nomenclature ‘’ is used here to refer to the present Dakshina Kannada district together with district separated in 1998, which were jointly referred to as ‘’ earlier. ‘South Canara’ was an extensively used term during colonial time, and it has been retained in special circumstances and while mentioning colonial records. The name ‘Kanara’, which was formerly spelt as ‘Canara’ is derived from Kannada, the name of the regional language of the State. It appears that the Portuguese, who, on arrival in this part of , found the common linguistic medium of the people to be Kannada, and accordingly called the area ‘Canara’; ‘d’ being not much in use in Portuguese. This name applied to the whole coastal belt of Karnataka and was continued to be used as such by the British. It is therefore necessary to deploy Tulunadu to refer to the ‘cultural zone’ that included Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, and Kasaragod districts. The present districts of Karnataka like North Canara, South Canara, Udupi and Kasaragod of Kerala were known as the Canara and Soonda Province, which was under the . In 1799 AD, after the fall of Tippu Sultan, Tulunadu was brought under the new Canara province. The northern region of Canara province was called North Canara. The same names continued as North and South Kanara after the State. When we talk about the State System of pre-Colonial India, it is crucial to understand the frames of Indian State System. We should notice that the connotation of the ‘State’ is different in the

1 European and the Indian scenario. If we apply the meaning of the ‘State’ as ‘rajya’ or ‘State’ or authority in Indian languages, we might conclude that the European ‘State’ also existed in India. When we assume Indian terms and institutions as equivalent to the ‘State,’ all the debate around it gets channelized by the conceptions of the ‘State’ itself. Although a lot of details are available about the Indian ‘State’ system, it is difficult to identify, if we try to locate features on the models of the European system. Although the word ‘State’ was prevalent in Europe since ancient times, its present day connotations are a development only after the 17th century. It is the very system of the ‘State’ that led European thinkers to conclude that the European civilization represents the pinnacle stage in human history. Thinkers of Enlightenment age, Rousseau, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and so on identified the State as a unique system of governance of human society that is grounded on the foundations of a universally applicable law. The legal authority here is universal, and the sovereign power based on this universal principle directs the human life within a particular territory. Rulers abide by the motive to execute its purposes. Therefore, ‘government’ implies implementing the State’s objectives following its organization. It has been opined that it is a social contract. During the colonial period, Europeans attempted to understand the governing structure of other cultures guided by their very ideas of the State. It created complications in India as well. Indian state arrangement was an intriguing and interesting area for the historians of colonial times. As establishing their statehood was the primary concern of colonial masters, they tried to adapt Indian State system into European State principles. While the pre-colonial governance was viewed from the European model and perspective, it appeared as unorganized and inferior to many Utilitarians. Romanticists perceived it as a mere example of ancient

2 practices. Good or bad, it was the colonial issue of the state and not the problem of Indian reality. Further, nationalist historians like K P Jayaswal, Beni Prasad, A.S. Altekar, and others also did not make any efforts to alter the colonial perceptions of pre-colonial administrative arrangement here. They were only engaged in arguing how the State principle and its execution is insufficiently carried out in Indian States. They struggled to propose how such principles of the State were already a part of the knowledge system since ancient period. In an endeavour to prove how Indians are not inferior to Europeans, they lost its uniqueness and thus concretized the State conceptions of Europe. After the conclusion of colonial rule in the mid twentieth century, the conceptions of the State prevalent until then were brought under scrutiny. The Leftist writers first initiated an ideological discussion on the ancient Indian State conceptions. Based on the Marxian thought available then, D D Kosambi (1956), R S Sharma (1965), and others described the State formation and structure as existed in the pre-colonial times. Post 1980’s the debates, discussions, assumptions, postulations, etc., around the concept of State increased. As post-colonial and post European modernity influences were present in such propositions, they lent an alternative to the conceptualizations of colonial period. In this background, Herman Kulke has identified the different kinds of the State mentioned in the Indian context1. The first is ‘Oriental Despotism,’ and Marx’s concept of ‘Asiatic Mode of Production’2 based on the Oriental Despotism. The second is, the States centred on the king’s sovereignty as proposed by the Indian nationalist historians. The king is an enlightened despot here and it is argued that ancient monarchy was not despotic in nature. The third, is the Leftist model of feudal State system. It is modelled on the feudal system prevalent in medieval Europe, and altered to incorporate Indian features.3 The fourth is the Segmentary State model

3 proposed by Burton Stein in the 1980’s in South Indian context. Stein argued that the State system did not evolve as a coherent shape in . He elaborated that there was a simultaneous existence of royal sovereignty like the Pallavas and the Cholas with that of local chieftains, who retained their power, continuing in the earlier forms of Statehood. He thus argued that such States should be called Segmentary and not unified states.4 The fifth, is modelled on the patrimonial system. Stephen Blake has proposed this model during the Mughal empire. In Herman Kulke’s State in India Stephen Blake’s ‘patrimonial bureaucratic empire of the Mughals’ is mentioned. Blake proposes these ideas based on Max Webber’s definitions of Moghal governance and Indian Sultanate. The sixth is Herman Kulke’s own model. He has researched on how the State evolved in different stages and what shapes it took in those stages. He called it an Integrative State Formation. According to him we should understand the nature of a state based on the ruling class’s experiment and social, cultural development, and not as a singular, passive, universal frame.5 The seventh, is the Historical Agency States. Post-colonial scholars argue that the Indian States were social agents like the European states.6 To sum up, colonial historians have perceived the Indian states as weak, un-evolving and sickening model. This argument has been accepted to this date. It is their contention that Indian statehood has fulfilled its functions as a State in a different mode than the European State. Most of the studies on different dynasties that ruled Karnataka region adopt the ideological framework of the nationalist history itself. Because, they are either a part of the research on national history, or merely its Karnataka edition. There is hardly any scope to discuss what kind of State these regions were. They are also projected as centralized systems here. For example, while describing the administration of a State, such researchers continue to define central rule, provincial rule, officials, ministers, army, tax

4 department, etc. The administrative units functioning independently within the state like nadu, mahanadu, agrahara, uru, and so on are also identified. This method of locating any units of pre-colonial State within the above frame is a very prevalent and popular mode. However, two works, Dinakara Desai’s Mahamandaleswaras under the Chalukyas of Kalyani and G S Deekshit’s Local Self-Government in Medieval Karnataka do not glorify the royal dynasties, but concentrate on their administration. According to Dinakara Desai during the Chalukya period, Mahamandaleswaras ruled as feudal chiefs. Despite conforming to the supremacy of emperors, they functioned as independent rulers. Their histories are also on similar lines as those of royal families. They wage battles, expand boundaries and extend shelter to people. When compared on these lines, there is hardly any difference between the achievements of kings and those of such chieftains.7 During the Chalukya period, the King was a sovereign in principle and not in practice. His power was also bound by checks and balances.8 G.S Deekshit also discusses the authority of local units like mahanadu, nadu, agrahara, uru, nagara, etc. Issues like chiefs of such units, their appointment, administrative management, assemblies, discussion etc did not receive any attention by either kings or their officials.9 According to Deekshit, the feud of ancient Indian royal families’ over successors, rebellions, ups and downs of the empire and so on did not exert any impact on the interior village communities. Even if there was a change in the central administration, local units continued to function with their own rules and regulations.10 Although initially Romila Thapar wrote that the Mauryan empire had a centralized power, eventually in the book Mauryas Revisited11 published in 2000, she re-examined the above claim. In the earlier work From Lineage to Stage12she had portrayed the

5 stages of the State formation in India. The Mauryan state was projected as an accomplished model of the State structure. This proposition is revised in her work Early India.13 According to this, the Mauryan state was divided into three sections: metropolis, core and periphery, and all these functioned differently in varied regions. Metropolis at the centre was the Mauryan capital and the regions directly under its control. Outside this centre, it extended its administrative centres in different parts of the empire. They were units of its administrative division (prantya). Many parts of such a division came under its direct control owing to their availability of resources and the administrative machine necessary to mobilize those resources. The States of the second stage or cores were thus created.14 Karnataka’s interior region where Asoka’s edicts were found also are examples of such second stage state formation. Finally, periphery did not attract any attention from the empire and remained distanced from the centre. The authority here was loosely formed. Therefore, according to Romila Thapar’s revised argument, although the Mauryan empire functioned with centralized authority, this centralization was not all pervasive or similar in all regions. We should try to understand the ruling authority of Tulunadu with the backdrop of the above mentioned localities of power. The texts of Dinakara Desai and G S Deekshit mentioned earlier propound that the authority was not limited to the royal households alone. In the administrative set up of Tulunadu as well there were different units like nadu, seeme, magane, grama, guttu. It is difficult to ascertain when a region is part of an empire or an independent unit on its own. It unravels its meaning only when we perceive such local units as functional blocks of the state administration itself. State The political bases of Tulunadu should be understood on the basis of the interface of political power between local ruling families and

6 external politics. Tulunadu underwent a dual feeling of local politics and the entry of external sovergeinty simultaneously. None of the rulers and kings of Tulunadu reached the level of emperors or empire builders. In the pre-colonial period Tulunadu witnessed two types of power politics, i.e., Samantha and sovereign centered politics15. Although the Alupas were subordinate to Karnataka suzerains, for all practical purposes and intents, they were independent and there was hardly any interference in the internal administration of their territory until the advent of the rule when Tulunadu was divided into two rajyas.16 Infact the Alupas tried their level best to develop coordial relationship with the sovereigns of Karnataka. Tulunadu had a new political experience the rule of Vijayanagara dynasty. As mentioned above, Tulunadu was divided into two provinces i.e., rajya and Barakuru rajya, and they appointed two governors to rule these divisions. But many a time only one governor ruled over both Mangalore and rajyas. The governors appointed acted as connecting link between the Emperor and the provinces. The coastal strip of Tulunadu was a valuable possession for the . So Vijayanagara rulers had special interest in controlling Tulunadu. A large number of ports like , Kumble, Mangalore, Barkur and helped the western trade and commerce of Tulunadu from time immemorial. The ports enabled the Vijayanagara rulers to be in touch with the suppliers of horses from Arabia and Persia. The political evolution of Vijayanagara empire led to an important milestone in the history of Tulunadu, because for the first time Tulunadu and its people were ruled by the representatives of the occupant ruler17. After the defeat of Vijayanagara dynasty in 1565AD all the samanthas, who were under the control of Vijayanagara desired to get freedom. Some of the feudatory rulers like the Wodeyers of

7 , the Nayakas of Keladi attained success in their effort. Even though the feudatories of Tulunadu tried to become politically independent after the downfall fall of the Vijayanagara kingdom, their attempt did not last for long, as they came under the control of the Keladi rulers. It was in about 1550 AD that the Vijayanagara ruler Sadashiva Nayaka entrusted the work of administering the coastal region of Canara to Sadashiva Nayaka of Keladi as Amara magane. By 1554 A.D, Sadashiva Nayaka of Keladi was able to establish his political authority over Tulunadu. Later Venkatappa Nayaka came into power and by realizing the internal conflict in Tulunadu he tried to bring it under his control. The rulers of Keladi continued the Vijayanagara administrative system. The rule of Keladi Nayakas in Tulunadu came to an end in 1763AD, when conquered Bidanur and annexed Tulunadu. There are two ways with which the administration of Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan in Tulunadu should be looked at.18 The first is the relationship with local kings, forms of control or administration and land occupying methods. The second aspect is that they used Tulunadu to fight against the British. Though external rule and administration was not new to Tulunadu, during the time of Tippu Sultan there was a substantial change in politics which gave different directions to its politics. According to Mohankrishna Rai, the rule of Tippu Sultan was the last link for the local administration in Tulunadu. After the death of Tippu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo Mysore war, Tulunadu came directly under the rule of the British. The British used Tulunadu for its benefits. All local ruling families lost their identity during the rule of the British. Centralized and decentralized Governance Tulunadu was a conglomeration of several mutually independent and quite often, repellent political units from the earliest times of recorded history. The administrative institutions got evolved from

8 the time of Alupas in Tulunadu developed further by the Vijayanagara governors of Barakuru and Mangalore. There is no difference in the administrative structure of Tulunadu in comparison with other parts of Karnataka. Like any other place, the King held the supreme position in the administration. Even though Chalukyas, Rashstrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas had their rule throughout Karnataka, including Tulunadu, they never tried to impose their administrative system in Tulunadu. Hence the existing indigenous procedures, norms, social and historical models retained their supremacy. The essence of the administrative system of Tulunadu could be seen in decentralized governance rather than a centralized governance. This kind of system enhances the nature of politics and retains and strengthens its own uniqueness in regional aspects. It is difficult to exactly discuss the classification of administrative divisions during the rule of Alupa period. Based on the inscriptions one can see many political divisions during the time of ancient Alupas, i.e., rajya, vishaya, mahanadu(prantya), nadu(region). There is no clarity about the reason why it was called nadu. Generally, a region, with more than a thousand villages is called nadu. But the number of villages was never a thousand in these regions. Even though inscriptions have mentioned Tulunadu as Aluru and Alvakheda 6000, the ancient Alupa rulers never mentioned Tulunadu as Alvakheda in their inscriptions. According to the Banki Deva I’s (1020-50) Barakuru inscription, Alupa region is mentioned as ‘Tulu vishaya’19. Hence this shows that Barakuru was a part of Tulu vishaya. Even in the inscriptions of Vijayanagara Kings Barakuru is mentioned as a Tulu region. Therefore, the concept of “Tulu vishaya” mentioned here is a part of the administrative division called nadu.20 In the Belman copper inscription, there is a reference to the meeting of Mahanadu. The second Aluvarasa was present in this meeting. And an order was

9 issued to extend privileges of Shivalli assembly to Belman assembly also. Kantapura (Kantavara), Bela (Bola) were also called Nadu and had the same meetings. Manideva of Kantapura and Bolananda have been mentioned here. Probably they were given charge of executing the orders. Mostly the administrative units were recognized by the name of the region itself. Sometimes administrative divisions were called by the name of region, family and village. But many times along with the name of the regions numerical numbers were also mentioned like Nolambavadi 32000, Sindavadi 1000. There are different opinions about it, like some claim that it refers to agricultural land in that particular region or it refers to the number of the owner of houses21. It could also refer to the number of villages as it contains number of divisions along with the name of the village. In Tulunadu, every region comes under the rule of one officer and his work was called Nattumudime that means he is the leader of one Nadu or region22. The inscription found in the Vaddarse of belongs to the seventh century, explains the administration of Gundannana Nattu, who was the servant of Kundavarma of Alupa dynasty23. The same inscription is also called Paduvalliya Nadu and Nattu Mudime. This region has been under the leadership of Gundarasa. The Kigga inscription of Aluvarasa I (640-650) explains Nattu Mudime of Kundamarasa24. Here the region could have been Kigga. The inscriptions of Prithvi Sagara25 (810-840) and Vijayaditya Maramma26 (840-870) narrate that Bhoyga Varma and Arakella had the same position in the administration. The region or Nattu Mudime mentioned in this inscription could be Udyawar of Udupi district. There is no reference of Nattumudime and Mudime in any of the inscriptions after Vijayaditya Maramma’s rule. Probably by that time Nattumudimes’ were converted as regions for Samantha kings. This opinion is justified by the Bantra inscription of King

10 Nrupamalla, belonging to mid ninth century AD27. This inscription mentions Vijayaditya Maramma, Nrupa Mallaraja, Kadamba kings. According to K V Ramesh these people could have been the Samanthas during the period of Vijayaditya Maramma28. The inscription belongs to Banki Deva I, found at Barkur which belongs to eleventh century A.D states that he was the king for 120 Mandalikas and Maha Mandalikas. It is also mentioned that he defeated the Cholas with the help of his political strength. He defeated Komara Danda and 120 Mandalikas and Tulu vishaya was brought under his control or he issued nijajne.29 Here it should be interpreted that he imposed his decision or established his rule. For the first time this inscription has mentioned “Tulu vishaya”. Though the “vishaya” here is a region or district, it could also be understood as Nadu. The inscription of Hoysala King Veera Ballala III of the year 1281 A.D mentions land grant, and also mentions that the land was granted by getting the permission of two Kola bali, nadu and Nakhara30. The Mangalore inscription of Veera Kulashekara Alupendra mentions the Mugaru land that was given to his son- in -law Veera Banki Devarasa31. It is evident that “Nadu” was the administrative division during the rule of Aluaparasa. References to Arasu, Nadu (people of nadu) and Nakhara (trader’s association or class/ section) based on the existing rule of that time clarify that Nadu was the administrative division at that time. The region or village with more population is called Maha Nagara, Nagara, Nakhara, Pura. The rulers of these regions or villages are called “Nayakas”. The administrators of these villages or regions are called Adhikari or Pergade. The administrator of the urban (city) regions is called “Nayaka” says the ninth century inscription of Udyawara which belongs to Prithvi Sagara32 Maramma. Aluvarasa’s inscription which belongs to the ninth century says Karasi Nayaka is the administrator for Kolala Nakhara33. The reference to the

11 village administrators like Pergade is made in the inscription of Nrupamallaraja, which belongs to ninth century A.D and a place called Bantra. This inscription talks about the treaty and also mentions a Pergade being witness to the treaty34. People occupied with different occupations and professional associations had gained traditional status in the administration of the region. Udayapuranakara Yelpattokkulu, Sarsivas of Shivalli, Padinentupattana (city) etc.; references are available in the ancient inscriptions of Alupas. Medieval Alupa inscriptions narrate the political, administrative, economic, social and religious aspects of Tulunadu. Medieval Alupa inscriptions refer to cabinet ministers such as Samasthapradhana, Bahattaraniyogagalu. This refers to the administrative posts assigned for implementation and management of activities35.Kings were advised in the religious matters by Deshi men or Deshipurusha. Apart from the King, queens and princes were also involved in the administration of the state. During medieval period, Alupas had divided their kingdom into various Nadus. The head of these Nadus is called Adhikari or Atikari. The other officials of the village are Senabova, Uraluva, Pergade or Heggade36. The Hoysalas were the first sovereigns to rule Tulunadu. By defeating the Alupas in 1333 A.D. The Hoysalas brought important changes in the history of Tulunadu. When the Alupa king Soyideva Alupendra realized that he could not defeat the Hoysalas, he made a treaty with the Hoysala king Ballala III by offering him his sister Chikkayi Tayi in marriage. After their marriage, Chikkayi Tayi started ruing Tulunadu on behalf of the king Ballala III37. Even though we do not find reference to any of their administrative policies in any of the inscriptions, their influence and power could be seen. When Chikkayi Tayi was ruling Barakuru on behalf of Ballala III, she was supported by Vaijappa Dannayaka, Ajanna Saahani and Hariyappa Dannayaka. Their designations are

12 mentioned as “Pradhanike” in the inscriptions. Ballala III is referred to with title “Pandya Chakravarthy”38. It is also mentioned that, Maha Pradhana Vaijappa Dannayaka, Ajanna Sahani, Bahattaraniyogis and two people of the Kola bali were present in that position. The reference of Vaijappa Sahaani is available even in the inscriptions of Soyideva Alupendra. The title “Dannayaka” came into existence along with Hoysala administration with the name of Vaijappa Dannayaka and Chikkayi Tayi. It is possible that Soyideva gave his services to Hoysala administration39. The local associations like Nakhara, Nakhara – Hanjamaana and Settikaar took part in the administration during the Hoysalas as they used to take part earlier during the Alupa rule. The Vijayanagara dynasty extended its boundary to Tulunadu, by 1336AD; even though they became powerful, they could not be the sole rulers of Tulunadu. During 1345-48 A.D the capital of Tulunadu, Barakuru became the power centre for three royal families i.e., the Alupas, depleting Hoysalas and the emerging Vijayanagara kingdom. In 1348 A.D Hoysalas disappeared and the Alupas continued ruling till the end of fourteenth century. Later, Vijayanagara kings occupied a major portion of Tulunadu and started their rule. The new administrators of Vijayanagara kingdom got involved with local institutions and had good relationship with local people. The political evolution of Vijayanagara kingdom led to the important milestone in the history of Tulunadu. Because for the first time, Tulunadu and its people were ruled by the representatives of the occupant ruler rather than by the occupant directly.40 To have the effective administration, as mentioned earlier Tulunadu was divided into two administrative divisions i.e., Barakuru and Mangalore rajyas. Barakuru state was a city and a centre point for trade. It was in the northern part of Tulunadu whereas, Mangalore was in the southern part of Tulunadu. Both the states had separate capitals

13 and they were the political centers41. The governors appointed by the Vijayanagara King were ruling these states. The Governor was also called Odeya. As mentioned earlier there are examples when the administration in charge of both rajyas was given to one Governor. We should notice another aspect here. Tulunadu underwent or experienced two forms of administration at the same time. What kind of relationship was maintained with local rulers of Tulunadu and how the people of Tulunadu reacted to the dual political and administrative system is a question which has to be considered? Though there is no clear answer for this question, it should be analyzed from the point of available literature and inscriptions42. When the local rulers had internal clashes, fought among themselves, the governors played an important role in resolving the cases. When the governor acted against the welfare of people, they were punished by the king of Vijayanagar. For example, when the governor of Barkur, Mahabala Deva (1404), gave torture by cancelling the license and special power of Hanjamana, an important trade union, the king of Vijayanagara Bukkaraya II, gave justice to Hanjamana and dismissed the governor Mahabaladeva Odeya43. The governors were punished if they were found guilty. There was no interference from Vijayanagara kings when the governors were ruling well. So the governors were almost independent. The sole responsibility of the governors was to rule according to the will and wish of the emperor theoretically. Here we need to observe that the governors possessed the same status as the Maha Mandaleshwara of Kalyani Chalukyas possessed. These governors worked as middle men between the king of Vijayanagara and people of Tulunadu. As stated by Dinakar Desai, Chalukyan empire was divided into different divisions. These divisions were ruled by the officer called Mahamandaleshwara. Even though they had accepted the rule of Chalukyan kings they

14 were independent in theory44. The same status and liberty was enjoyed by the governors of Tulunadu. In Chalukya’s Karnataka the King was sovereign in principle but Maha Mandaleshwaras were independent in their divisions. In a similar way in Vijayanagara Karnataka in principle the emperors held control over everything. But in Tulunadu, governors were independent rulers. The ultimate political power was in the hands of the emperor of Vijayanagar. The extended borders of Vijayanagara Kingdom were a result of the military power that they had. The military was created, maintained and protected by the administration. The governors of Mangalore and Barakuru ruled in the name of Vijayanagara. They were ruling as per the wish of the king and also they were answerable to the king. But this dependency became more of a theoretical aspect than the reality. Here one can apply the Segmentary State Model of Burtein Stein. It was possible that these governors sometimes took independent decisions based on the situation and urgency, without reference to the king, as the distance between Tulunadu and Vijayanagara was very long. But it should be noted that these governors had to be very careful and work without challenging the Vijayanagara rulers. So there are plenty of chances where the difference between theory and practice did exist. Tulunadu had many Samantha kings like Ajilas of , Bangas of Bangadi, Bhairarasu of , Chowtas of Mudabidire, Ullala and Puttige, etc. They were involved in the administration of specified small regions but these Samantha kings were not under the direct rule of Vijayanagara kingdom, though they came under the jurisdiction of Vijayanagara. Vijayanagara kings made an effort to build the kingdom by retaining the local administration, and build by expanding the existing social relations. This was a mutual agreement between the two. It could also be seen in the colonial period, but in an altered form.

15 Structure of Feudal authority The subjects discussed earlier describe in brief the local administrative structure from the period of the Alupas to the Vijayanagara rulers. The decentralization of governance and distribution of authority that took place in urban-centred Barakuru and Mangaluru is an important aspect to be noted in Tulunadu’s administration. Kings, queens, princes, and officials, who occupied different positions were actively involved in administration from central to local levels. Among the officials Heggade, Sri Karana, Sahani, merchant guilds, Settikaar, Nakhara, Hanjamana, Military Commander, Governors, etc., shared power with the emperor and helped him in delivering effective administration. With the help of the central power, various administrative units like nadu, seeme, magane, vishaya, chavadi, guttu, grama, uru, etc, shared the governing authority. Many local kingdoms, at this stage, also accepted the supremacy of the emperor, and played a key role in local governance. Apart from these, maths, and religious centres not only owned huge areas of land but also exerted a determining role as affluent and influential people. They maintained a harmonious relation with the rulers and converted their base as administrative centres like the state’s capital. If observed keenly, the governing structure of Tulunadu of this period resembles a feudal unit to a great extent. Because the structure that has evolved here is not centred on one individual, but is distributed in many stages. Governing authority is not limited to one centre or the individual who controls it or an institution. We can observe that from centre to village level, power was shraed between different people in Tulunadu’s context, and all of them strove towards enriching the governance. In a sense, we could perceive it as a feudal system of organization. Feudal administrative system emerged as a concept first in Europe. It is the historian R S Sharma, who first discussed it in the context 16 of India. Further, for the last 55 years there has been a continued debate about whether the concept of feudal set up is appropriate for the Indian scenario. The prominent historians who participated in this debate and analysed the ancient Indian administrative structure are D D Kosambi, R S Sharma, Neelakanta Shastry, T.V. Mahalingam, B N S Yadav, B D Chattopadyaya, Herman Kulke, Irfan Habib, Burten Stein, Nobarukarashima, R.S. Nandi. Subbarayalu, Keshavan Veluttat, and so on. D D Kosambi observed that two kinds of feudal system were prevalent in ancient and medieval India45. First is the Upper Strata Feudalism and the second, Lower Strata Feudalism. According to him, in the upper strata feudalism the powerful monarch levies heavy taxes on the subsidiaries. In the lower strata of feudalism, every village has a powerful land-owning class that functions as an intermediary between authorities and farmers. This class assumes greater authority at the level of villages, and wields influence on the local community with the help of its own army. And, further it also grows to the level of lending its military forces to the monarch. We can identify such feudal practices in Tulunadu. However, R. S Sharma has perceived such a feudal set up as a decentralized system in which local power pockets concretized, thereby resulting in the gradual diminishing of power of the central authority46. He also argues that excessive land donation resulted in such an explosion of the centre. B.D Chattopadyaya opines that feudal system does not mean decentring, but what is crucial here is the coordination between central and local administration. Incorporating different centres of power is significant here and not to diminish a sovereignty. Feudalism involves coordinating features, not cracking tendencies. T.V. Mahalingam embarks on a debate on feudal system in South India with Vijayanagara period as the focus. According to him, feudal set up had two features: political and economic. Politically 17 the feudatory authorities derived both ownership of village and its administrative powers from the monarch. They indulged in loyal service to the central power of monarch. In return, the monarch protected his feudatory officials. Economically, the influence of the feudatory ruler depended on his ownership over village land. T.V Mahalingam argues that Vijayanagara state consisted of feudal features. During this period, the King possessed ownership of all land, and he passed it to the feudatory leaders as endowment. They were required to pay a certain amount of tax to the king every year, and also supply armed forces during emergency. Such leaders allowed farmers of the village to cultivate in the land provided. Farmers were also bound by the same rules of return that feudatory leaders owed towards the King. Burton Stein’s ‘Segmentary State Model’ attracts our attention while discussing the relationship between central sovereign and local dynasties. While analysing the South Indian politics during medieval period in a different lens, Stein refuses to agree with the model of centralized administration47. His Segmentary State concept was based on Chola kingdom and the same was extended to Karnataka. According to him, during the Vijayanagara period farmers possessed autonomy and villages were independent. The Central power did not exert much authority on them. It was, in fact, not powerful enough to do that. An administrative unit called nadu looked after the administration. Stein refuted the model of feudal political authority in Vijayanagara. However, this argument has been opposed by many. Recently, Noboru Karashima and Subbarayalu have identified feudal model during Vijayanagara rule. Herman Kulke and Rothermund have perceived the state governance of Vijayanagara as military feudal system. The feudal tradition described above by historians could be located in the Tuluva history as well. As the monarch held supreme authority at the centre, feudatories at the local level also

18 possessed power in their own territory and remained loyal to the monarch. Likewise, local administrative units like nadu, agrahara, , temples, merchant class, etc., also remained independent, while having the power to execute rules and regulations in their territory. Such zones enjoyed independent sovereignty of their own. To sum up, within the kingdom, two layers of authority exercised their prerogative. Sharing power with the monarch, many official classes, institutions, maths, temples, units at urban and rural levels, etc., were active in the state administration. This suggests decentralization of political power. Structures of guttu, grama, magane should be observed with this backdrop itself. While we analyse the distribution of power under feudal system, we cannot also conclude that local levels of governance possessed a complete authority. Local kingdoms had to abide by the sovereign and also retain their identity at the territorial level. Therefore, we could only perceive decentralization as existing at the administrative level, and not reign of the empire. Officials could only maintain administration but not rule in person. Many a time such administrative prerogative is confused with the decentralization of ruling power. Notes and References 1. Rajaram Heggade., Vasahathu Purva KarnatakadaRajya Paddathi, Prasaranga, Kannada University, , 2008, pp. 6-7. 2. Asiatic mode of production is a political system which was unchanging system prevalent in Asia for thousands of years. As the rulers did not have a legal frame work they could rule as they wished. They did not have the idea of people’s welfare. The subjects in the village communities lived according to the traditions of their caste. The powers of the King were limited

19 to the appointment of officials, collecting the revenue, increasing the produce by providing irrigation and fighting the battles. 3. After the fall of the Mauryan empire centralized rule was disintegrated. The state split up among the intermediary rulers who were allegiant to the king. The hierarchy of the kings and the intermediary rulers gained the nature of feudatory lords. 4. Rajaram ., op.cit., pp. 7- 9. 5. Ibid. 6. The Colonial historians have viewed the States in India as weak, a non-evolutionary and sick systems. But the post- colonial historians argued that, Kingship in India was different from the European State model, and it fulfilled its state responsibility differently. 7. Rajaram Hegde., op.cit., pp. 11-15 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid, pp. 15- 18. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. Mohankrishna Rai.K., Tulunadu Kannada Nudi; Tulu Karnatakada, Nadu Nudi Chinthane, Hampi, 2012, pp. 217- 218. 16. Ibid.

20 17. Ibid, pp. 224. 18. Ibid, pp. 245 19. S.I.I. Vol. III, No. 327 & 328. 20. Saletore, B.A., Social and Political Life of Vijayanagara Vol. II, Bombay, pp. 466. 21. Dikshith.G.S. S, Local Self Governance in Medieval Karnataka, , 1964, pp. 24-28. 22. Epigraphia India., Vol. IX, pp. 21, foot note. 2. 23. ARSIE, No. 296 for 1931-32, op.cit., 24. Ep. Karnatika., Vol. VII, pp. 38. 25. Ibid, pp. 21. 26. Ibid, pp. 23. 27. Ramesh, K.V., op.cit., pp. 41. 28. Ibid. 29. Ramesh, K.V, M.J. Sharma., op.cit., pp. 53 - 54. 30. S.I.I. Vol. VII, No. 213. 31. S.I.I. Vol. VII, No. 185. 32. Ramesh, K.V, M.J. Sharma., op.cit., pp. 53-54. 33. Ibid, pp. 40-41. 34. Ibid, pp. 44-45. 35. There is a reference in most of the Alupa Inscriptions, which reads as follows: Shreemathu Rajadhani Mangalapurada Athava Barahakhyapurada Aramaneya Mogasaleyolu ragaru samastha pradhanaram bahalthara niyogigulum Deshi purusharum rushi purohitharam, Ranivasadavaru, raja

21 kumarraru ithara adhikarigalu iralu bahala gondalasthanadinda oddolagam kottiddaru. 36. Ramesh, K.V, M.J. Sharma., op.cit., pp. 66-68. 37. Ibid, pp. 62. 38. ARSIE., No. 492 for 1928 - 29. 39. Vasantha Shetty, B., Udupi Talukina Shashanagalu, Brahamavara, 1995, pp. 15. 40. Ramesh.K.V. V, M.J. Sharma., op.cit., pp. 125. 41. Ibid, pp. 258. 42. Mohanakrishna Rai, K., op.cit., pp. 227. 43. Ibid. 44. Dinakara Desai., Mahamandaleshwaras and The Chalukyas of Kalyani, Bombay, 1951, pp. 310. 45. D.D. Kosambi, An Introduction to the study of Indian History, Bombay, 1956, pp. 178. 46. R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism., 300-2100, Calcutta, 1965, pp. 231. 47. Burton Stein., Indian Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India, OUP, , 1980, pp. 162. *****

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‘PÁ£ÀÆgÀÄ ºÉUÀÎqÀw’ 1936gÀ°èAiÀÄÆ ‘ªÀįÉUÀ¼À°è ªÀÄzÀĪÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ’ 1967gÀ°èAiÀÄÆ ¥ÀæPÀlªÁzÀ PÁzÀA§jUÀ¼ÀÄ. ªÀ¸ÁºÀvÀıÁ»AiÀÄ ¥ÀjuÁªÀĪÁV ¥ÀjªÀvÀð£ÉUÉ M¼ÀUÁUÀÄwÛzÀÝ ªÀįɣÁr£À fêÀ£À F JgÀqÀÆ PÁzÀA§jUÀ¼À ªÀ¸ÀÄÛ. ªÀįɣÁr£À §zÀÄPÀÄ vÀ£Éß®è ¸ÀÆPÀëöä «ªÀgÀUÀ¼ÉÆA¢UÉ E°è £ÉÊdªÁV ªÀÄÆrzÉ. ‘PÁ£ÀÆgÀÄ ºÉUÀÎqÀw’AiÀÄ°è CªÀ£ÀwAiÀÄ ºÁ¢ »rzÀ PÁ£ÀÆj£À UËqÀªÀÄ£ÉvÀ£ÀzÀ «ªÀgÀUÀ¼ÀÄ vÀÄA©PÉÆArzÀÝgÉ ‘ªÀįÉUÀ¼À°èªÀÄzÀĪÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ’ PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄ°è ¹A¨Á«, PÉÆÃtÆgÀÄ, ºÀƪÀ½î, ¨ÉlÖ½î ªÉÆzÀ¯ÁzÀ UËqÀªÀÄ£ÉvÀ£À ºÁUÀÆ D ªÀÄ£ÉvÀ£ÀUÀ½UÉ ºÉÆA¢PÉÆArgÀĪÀ PÉ®¸ÀzÁ¼ÀÄUÀ¼À §zÀÄQ£À avÀæt«zÉ. ‘ªÀįÉUÀ¼À°èªÀÄzÀĪÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ’ ¥ÀæPÀluÉAiÀÄ zÀȶ֬ÄAzÀ JgÀqÀ£ÉAiÀÄ PÁzÀA§jAiÀiÁzÀgÀÆ PÀxÁ£ÀPÀzÀ PÁ®PÀæªÀÄ¢AzÁV CzÀÄ ‘PÁ£ÀÆgÀÄ ºÉUÀÎqÀw’VAvÀ »A¢£ÀzÁVzÉ. “EzÀ£ÀÄß PÀxÉAiÀÄ PÉÆïÁºÀ®PÁÌV NzÀ¨ÉÃr, ¸ÁªÀzsÁ£ÀªÁV ¸ÀavÀæªÁV ¸ÀfêÀªÁV N¢” JAzÀÄ ‘PÁ£ÀÆgÀĺÉUÀÎqÀw’AiÀÄ°èAiÀÄÆ, “E°è AiÀiÁgÀÆ ªÀÄÄRågÀ®è AiÀiÁgÀÆ CªÀÄÄRågÀ®è, AiÀiÁªÀÅzÀÆ AiÀÄPÀ²ÑvÀªÀ®è! AiÀiÁªÀÅzÀPÀÆÌ ªÉÆzÀ°®è, AiÀiÁªÀÅzÀPÀÆÌ vÀÄ¢¬Ä®è...” JA§ÄzÁV ‘ªÀįÉUÀ¼À°è ªÀÄzÀĪÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ’ PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄ°èAiÀÄÆ PÁzÀA§jPÁgÀgÀÄ ºÉýPÉÆArzÁÝg.É F JgÀqÀÄ PÁzÀA§jUÀ¼À PÀÄjvÀÄ §AzÀ «ªÀıÁð §gÀºÀUÀ¼Éà JgÀqÀÄ ¸Á«gÀ ¥ÀÄlªÀ£ÀÄß «ÄÃjªÉ.

35 PÀĪÉA¥ÀÄ CªÀgÀ ‘ªÀįÉUÀ¼À°èªÀÄzÀĪÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ’ PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄ PÀÄjvÁV F vÀ£ÀPÀ §A¢gÀĪÀAvÀºÀ §ºÀÄvÉÃPÀ «ªÀıÉðUÀ¼ÀÄ PÀÈwAiÀÄ°è PÀAqÀħgÀĪÀ ‘UÀAqÀĺÉtÂÚ£À ¸ÀA§AzsÀ’ªÀ£ÀÄß PÉÃAzÀæªÁVj¹PÉÆArªÉ. vÀvÀàjuÁªÀĪÁV UÀAqÀÄ ºÉtÂÚ£À ¸ÀA§AzsÀzÀ ºÉÆgÀvÁzÀ «ªÀgÀUÀ¼ÀÄ C£ÁªÀ±ÀåPÀªÉ¤¹ ‘PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄÄ «ªÀgÀUÀ½AzÀ ¸ÀªÀÄÈzÀÞªÁVzÀÝgÀÆ CªÀÅUÀ¼À£ÀÄß eÉÆÃr¸ÀĪÀ PÉÃAzÀæ±ÀQÛ E®è’ J£ÀÄߪÀ ¤®Ä«UÉ §gÀÄvÀÛªÉ. “«ªÀgÀUÀ¼À ¯ÉÆÃPÀªÀ£ÀÄß ©ZÀÄÑvÁÛ ºÉÆÃUÀĪÀ ‘ªÀįÉUÀ¼À°è ªÀÄzÀĪÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ’ PÁzÀA§j ¸ÀÆvÀægÀÆ¥ÀªÁzÀ PÉÃAzÀæ ¥ÀæeÉլĮèzÉ «ªÀgÀUÀ¼À°è ¸ÉÆQÌ ©qÀÄvÀÛzÉ” J£ÀÄߪÀ C£ÀAvÀªÀÄÆwðAiÀĪÀgÀ ªÀiÁvÀÄ ¥Áæw¤¢üPÀªÁzÀÄzÀÄ. PÁzÀA§j gÀZÀ£ÉAiÀiÁzÀ ZÁjwæPÀ ¸ÀAzÀ¨sÀðzÀ »£É߯ÉAiÀÄ°è £ÉÆÃrzÀgÉ PÀÈw ºÉüÀ¯É¼À¸ÀĪÀ C£ÀĨsÀªÀ §gÉ UÀAqÀÄ ºÉtÂÚ£À ¸ÀA§AzsÀPÀ̵ÉÖà ¹Ã«ÄvÀªÁVgÀzÉ E£ÀÆß ªÁå¥ÀPÀªÁVzÉ J£ÀÄߪÀzÀÄ UÀªÀÄ£ÀPÉÌ §gÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

£ÀªÀÄä°è PÁzÀA§j ¥ÀæPÁgÀ ºÀÄnÖPÉÆAqÀzÉÝà ªÀ¸ÁºÀwÃPÀgÀtPÉÌ ¥ÀæwQæAiÉÄAiÀiÁV. ©ænÃµï ªÀ¸ÁºÀvÀĪÁUÀ¨ÉÃPÁzÀ ¨sÁgÀvÀ ¸ÁA¸ÀÌøwPÀ ©PÀÌlÖ£ÀÄß JzÀÄj¸À¨ÉÃPÁ¬ÄvÀÄ. PÀ£ÀßqÀ ¸Á»vÀå ¸ÀAzÀ¨sÀðzÀ°è F PÁ® WÀlÖªÀ£ÀÄß ‘£ÀªÉÇÃzÀAiÀÄ’ JA§ ºÉ¸Àj£À°è UÀÄgÀÄw¸ÀÄvÁÛgÉ. ¨sÁgÀvÀªÀÅ wêÀæªÁV §zÀÄQzÀ F PÁ®zÀ°è “¸ÁªÀiÁfPÀ ¸ÁA¸ÀÌøwPÀ §zÀ¯ÁªÀuÉAiÀÄÄ wêÀæUÀwAiÀÄ°è £ÀqÉAiÀÄÄwvÀÄÛ. F PÁ®zÀ°è ªÀÄĹèA ªÀÄvÀÄÛ PÉæöʸÀÛ zsÀªÀÄðUÀ¼ÀÄ »AzÀÆ zsÀªÀÄðzÀ eÉÆvÉ ªÉÄïÁlzÀ°è vÉÆqÀVzÀݪÀÅ. EzÀgÉÆA¢UÉ EAVèÃµï «zÉå ªÀÄvÀÄÛ ¸ÀA¸ÀÌøwUÀ¼À ¸ÀA¥ÀPÀðPÉÌ §AzÀ ¥ÀæeÁÕªÀAvÀgÀÄ »AzÀÄvÀéªÀ£ÀÄß gÀQë¸ÀĪÀÅzÀgÉÆA¢UÉ ºÉƸÀ ¸ÀªÀiÁdzÀ ¤ªÀiÁðtPÉÌ ªÀÄ£À¸ÀÄì vÉÆqÀV¹zÀÝ PÁ® EzÁVvÀÄÛ” (r. Dgï.£ÁUÀgÁeï: CªÀÄÈvÀ ªÀÄvÀÄÛ UÀgÀÄqÀ, ¥ÀÄlÀ: 14). F PÁ®WÀlÖzÀ°è PÀAqÀħgÀĪÀ ¥ÀæªÀÄÄR CA±ÀªÉAzÀgÉ K£À£ÉÆßà PÀ¼ÉzÀÄPÉƼÀÄîwÛzÉÝÃªÉ JA§ DvÀAPÀ. ºÁUÁVAiÉÄà PÀ¼ÉzÀÄPÉƼÀÄîwÛzÉÝÃªÉ JAzÀÄ w½zÀ ¥ÁæaãÀ ¨sÀªÀåvÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß ªÀÄvÉÆÛªÉÄä ¤«Äð¸À¨ÉÃPÉAzÀÄ ºÀA§®.

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36 CxÀðzÀ°è §¼À¸À¯ÁVzÉ. “ºÀ¼ÉAiÀÄ ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜUÀ¼ÀÄ, fêÀ£ÀPÀæªÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ ¥À®èlUÉƼÀÄîwÛgÀĪÀ ¸ÀAPÀæªÀÄt ¸ÀªÀiÁdUÀ¼ÀÄ vÀªÀÄUÉƧâ zÁR¯ÉPÁgÀ£À£ÀÄß ¸ÀȶֹPÉƼÀÄîvÀÛzÉ. F ¯ÉÃRPÀ CAUÀÄ® CAUÀÄ®ªÁV ¥ÀjªÀvÀð£ÉAiÀiÁUÀÄwÛgÀĪÀ ¸ÀªÀiÁdzÀ C£ÉÃPÀ ªÀÄÄRUÀ¼À avÀætªÀ£ÀÄß ¤ÃqÀÄvÁÛ£É. PÀ¼ÉzÀÄ ºÉÆÃUÀÄwÛgÀĪÀ ºÀ¼ÉAiÀÄ dUÀvÀÄÛ, ºÀÄnÖPÉƼÀÄîwÛgÀĪÀ ºÉƸÀ dUÀvÀÄÛ EªÀÅUÀ¼À £ÀqÀÄ«£À UÉÆAzÀ® ±ÀÆ£ÀåvÉ-«PÁgÀ EªÉ®èªÀ£ÀÄß vÀ£Àß PÀÈwUÀ¼À°è ºÉüÀ®Ä AiÀÄw߸ÀÄvÁۣɔ (¸ÀvÀå£ÁgÁAiÀÄt ªÀÄ°è¥ÀlÖt; PÀ£ÀßqÀ ¸ÀtÚPÀvÉ:ºÉeÉÓ-ºÁ¢, ¥ÀÄl 56) “¸ÁªÀiÁ£ÀåªÁV ¸ÀA¥ÀæzÁAiÀĸÀÜ ¸ÀªÀiÁdUÀ¼À §zÀ¯ÁªÀuÉAiÀÄ ¸ÀªÀĸÉå ªÀåPÀÛªÁUÀĪÀÅzÀÄ JgÀqÀÄ £É¯ÉUÀ¼À°è: MAzÀÄ, ¢£À¤vÀåzÀ ¸ÁªÀiÁ£Àå «ªÀgÀUÀ¼À°è. JgÀqÀÄ, UÀAqÀĺÉtÂÚ£À ¸ÀA§AzsÀ CxÀªÁ ¯ÉÊAVPÀ ¤®Ä«£À°è” J£ÀÄvÁÛgÉ r.Dgï.£ÁUÀgÁeï. ‘ªÀįÉUÀ¼À°èªÀÄzÀĪÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ’ PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄ°è UÀAqÀÄ ºÉtÂÚ£À ¸ÀA§AzsÀ ºÁUÀÆ ¢£À ¤vÀåzÀ §zÀÄQ£À ¸ÁªÀiÁ£À嫪ÀgÀUÀ¼ÀÄ §A¢gÀĪÀ GzÉÝñÀªÀ£ÀÄß F »£É߯ÉAiÀÄ°è CxÉÊð¸À§ºÀÄzÁVzÉ.

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37 PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄ£ÀÄß NzÀÄvÁÛºÉÆÃzÀAvÉ ªÀįɣÁr£À §zÀÄQ£À ºÀqÀUÀÄ ¤zsÁ£ÀPÉÌ ªÀÄļÀÄUÀÄvÁÛ ºÉÆÃzÀAvÉ ¨sÁ¸ÀªÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ. ¨sÁgÀwÃAiÀÄ ¸ÀA¸ÀÌøwAiÀÄ ²y®vÉUÉ PÁgÀtªÀ£ÀÄß PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄÄzÀÝPÀÆÌ ¤ÃqÀĪÀ PÁzÀA§jPÁgÀgÀÄ »AzÀÆ ¸ÀA¸ÀÌøw ªÀÄÆ®vÀB ±ÉæõÀתÁzÀzÀÄÝ, C£À£ÀåªÁzÀzÀÄÝ, ªÀÄvÀÄÛ CzÀ£ÀÄß gÀQë¸ÀĪÀ ZÉÃvÀ£ÀUÀ¼ÀÄ CzÀgÀ UÀ¨sÀðzÉƼÀV¤AzÀ¯Éà GzÀ¬Ä¹§gÀ°ªÉ JA§ D±ÁªÁzÀªÀ£ÀÄß ¥ÀæPÀn¸ÀÄvÁÛgÉ. PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄ°è ªÀįɣÁr£À §zÀÄQ£À ¸ÁA¸ÀÌøwPÀ ªÀÄÄUÀÎnÖ£À ¹ÜwAiÉÄà ªÁ¸ÀÛªÀªÁVzÀÄÝ, »AzÀÆ ¸ÀA¸ÀÌøwAiÀÄ ¥ÀÄ£ÀgÀÄvÁÜ£ÀzÀ PÀ£À¸Éà DzÀ±ÀðªÁVzÉ. F ªÁ¸ÀÛªÁzÀ±ÀðUÀ¼À ªÀÄÄSÁªÀÄÄTAiÀÄ°è ‘ªÀįÉUÀ¼À°è ªÀÄzÀĪÀÄUÀ¼ÀÄ’ PÁzÀA§j DPÀÈw ¥ÀqÉ¢zÉ.

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»AzÀÆ ¸ÀA¸ÀÌøwAiÀÄ ¥ÀÄ£ÀgÀÄvÁÜ£À PÀ£À¹UÉ CrØAiÀÄ£ÉÆßqÀÄتÀ J¯Áè vÉÆqÀPÀÄUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¤ªÁj¹PÉƼÀÄîªÀÅzÀgÀ eÉÆvÉUÉ ¸ÀAPÀÄavÀ ªÀiË®åUÀ½AzÀ ©r¹PÉÆAqÀÄ «±Á®ªÁzÀ ªÀiË®åUÀ¼À£ÀÄß C¼ÀªÀr¹PÉƼÀî¨ÉÃPÉ£ÀÄߪÀÅzÀÄ PÁzÀA§jAiÀÄ D±ÀAiÀÄ. F vÉgÀ£ÁzÀ ¥ÀÄ£ÀgÀÄvÁÜ£ÀzÀ PÀ£À¸ÀÄ £ÀªÉÇÃzÀAiÀÄ §gÀºÀUÁgÀgÉ®ègÀ°è ¸ÁªÀiÁ£ÀåªÁV PÀAqÀħgÀÄvÀÛzÉ. vÀªÀÄä DzÀ±ÀðUÀ½UÉ «gÉÆâüAiÀiÁzÀ ªÁ¸ÀÛªÀzÀ ºÀļÀÄPÀÄUÀ¼À «gÀÄzÀÞ EvÀgÀ §gÀºÀUÁgÀgÀAvÉ PÀĪÉA¥ÀÄ ¸ÀªÀÄgÀ ¸ÁjzÀgÀÆ, CªÀgÀÄ F ¤nÖ£À°è ¥ÀÄgÉÆûvÀ±Á» z˧ð®åPÉÌ ºÉZÀÄÑ MvÀÄÛ PÉÆqÀÄvÁÛgÉ. ªÀįɣÁr£À ¸ÁA¸ÀÌøwPÀ CzsÀBÀ¥ÀvÀ£ÀzÀ ¸ÀAzÀ¨sÀðzÀ°è ¸Àé®àªÀÇ PÁ¼Àf ªÀ»¸ÀzÉ C£Á¸ÉÜ vÉÆÃj¹zÀ ¨ÁæºÀätgÀ£ÀÄß PÀlĪÁV nÃQ¸ÀĪÀ CªÀgÀÄ “CªÉÄÃjPÁzÀ aPÁUÉÆà §ºÀÄzÀÆgÀzÀ°ègÀ§ºÀÄzÀÄ. «ªÉÃPÁ£ÀAzÀgÀ GvÁÛ® zsÀé¤ ªÀįɣÁr£À PÉÆA¥É PÉÆA¥ÉUÉ ªÀÄÄlÖ¢gÀ§ºÀÄzÀÄ. DzÀgÉ ¸À«ÄÃ¥ÀzÀ°èAiÉÄà EzÀÄݪÀ®è ±ÀÈAUÉÃj, zsÀªÀÄð¸ÀܼÀ, GqÀĦ EvÁå¢ ¥À«vÀæ UÀÄgÀÄ ¦ÃoÀUÀ¼ÀÄ? CªÉãÀÄ ªÀiÁqÀÄwÛzÀݪÀÅ? CzÉéöÊvÀ vÀvÀÛ÷ééªÀ¢AzÀ ¨ËzÀÞzsÀªÀÄðªÀ£Éßà ¨sÀgÀvÀ ªÀµÀð¢AzÀ

38 CnÖ zsÀÀªÀÄð ¸ÁÜ¥À£É ªÀiÁrzÉ£ÉAzÀÄ ºÉüÀ¯ÁUÀÄwÛgÀĪÀ DZÁAiÀÄð ±ÀAPÀgÀ£À ªÀÄÆ®¦ÃoÀzÀ°è «gÁdªÀiÁ£ÀgÁVzÀÝ ¸À£Á幪ÀgÉÃtågÀÄ K£ÀÄ ªÀiÁqÀÄwÛzÀÝgÀÄ?.”(¥ÀÄl218)JAzÀÄ ¥Àæ²ß¸ÀÄvÁÛgÉ. §ºÀÄPÁ®¢AzÀ®Æ »AzÀÆ zsÀªÀÄðzÀ ºÉ¸Àj£À°è ¨ÁæºÀätgÀÄ MrØzÀ ªÀÄÆqsÀªÀÄvÁZÁgÀUÀ¼À PÀÆtÂUÉ ¹QÌ©¢ÝgÀĪÀ ¸ÁªÀiÁ£Àå d£À CzÀjAzÀ ºÉÆgÀ§gÀªÀ CUÀvÀåªÀ£ÀÄß ¥Àæw¥Á¢¹zÁÝgÉ.

¸ÁªÀiÁfPÀ «WÀl£ÉUÉ DyðPÀ «µÀªÀÄvÉ ºÁUÀÆ £ÉÊwPÀ CzsÀB¥ÀvÀ£À ¥ÀæªÀÄÄR PÁgÀtUÀ¼ÀÄ. PÁzÀA§j dUÀwÛ£ÉƼÀUÀqÉ ªÀUÀð ªÀåvÁå¸À bÁ¥ÀĺÉÆqÉzÀÄ PÁtÄvÀÛzÉ. ªÉÄÃ®Ä ªÀUÀðzÀ UËqÀgÀ PÉÊPɼÀUÉ zÀÄrAiÀÄĪÀ PɼÀªÀUÀðzÀªÀgÀÄ ¸ÀA¥ÀÆtðªÁV fÃvÀzÁ¼ÀÄUÀ¼ÁV vÀªÀÄä£ÀÄß MvÉÛ ElÄÖPÉÆArzÁÝgÉ. “QüÀÄ eÁwAiÀĪÀjUÉ CªÀgÀ EZÁÑ£ÀĸÁgÀ M®ªÀÅ CPÀÌgÉ EgÀĪÀÅzÉAzÀgÉ£ÀÄ? M®ªÀÅ CPÀÌgÉ K¤zÀÝgÀÆ J®è MqÉAiÀÄgÀ ¯Á¨sÀzÀ ªÀ®AiÀÄzÉƼÀVzÀÄÝ, CªÀgÀ EZÁÑ¢üãÀªÁVgÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ. CªÀgÀ DeÉÕAiÀÄ UÉgÉ zÁlĪÀAwgÀ°®è. (¥ÀÄl 181) F PÁgÀt¢AzÀ¯Éà UÀÄwÛ w«ÄäAiÀÄgÀ ¥ÉæêÀĪÀ£ÀÄß ¥ÀÄgÀ¸ÀÌj¸ÀĪÀ ªÀiÁ£À«ÃAiÀÄ ¥Àj¸ÀgÀ E®èªÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉÉ. PÀ®èAiÀÄå UËqÀjUÉ ªÀiÁ£À«ÃAiÀÄ ¸ÀA§AzsÀUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀÄÄRåªÁUÀzÉ d«ÄãÁÝj ¥ÉÊ¥ÉÆÃn ªÀÄÄRåªÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ. ¥ÉæêÀÄzÀAxÀ ¸ÁwéPÀvÉAiÀÄ£ÀÄß PÀÆqÀ PÀ®èAiÀÄåUËqÀgÀ zËdð£Àå PÀÄgÀÄqÁV¸ÀÄvÀÛzÉ. C¢üPÁgÀ±Á» ªÀåªÀ¸ÉÜ PÀÆqÀ ¸ÁªÀiÁ£ÀågÀ ¥ÀgÀªÁVgÀzÉ ªÉÄîéUÀðzÀªÀgÀ ¥ÀgÀªÁVgÀĪÀÅzÀjAzÀ¯Éà UÀÄwÛ “§zÀÄPÀ¨ÉÃPÁzÀgÉ HgÀÄ©lÄÖ PÁqÀÄ ¸ÉÃgÀĪÀÅzÉÆAzÉà zÁj E®è¢zÀÝgÉ zÉñÁAvÀgÀ ºÉÆÃUÀ¨ÉÃPÀÄ” (¥ÀÄl 362) JA§ ¤®Ä«UÉ §gÀÄvÁÛ£É. ¸ÀtÚ©ÃgÀ¤UÉ ©Ã¼ÀĪÀ ºÉÆ£Àß½î ºÉÆqÉvÀ ªÀUÀð »A¸ÉUÉ GvÀÛªÀÄ GzÁºÀgÀuÉ.

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39 Q®¸ÀÛgÉÆÃ? ¸Á§gÉÆÃ? AiÀiÁgÁzÀgÀÆ ¸ÉÊ. ºÉuÁÓw DV ©lÖgÉ DvÀÄ. ªÀÄ£É PÉ®¸ÀQÌgÉÆà D ºÀ¼Éà ¥ÉÊPÀzÀ ºÀÆ« ºÀqÀ¨É ºÁzÀgÀVwÛ CzÀ£ÀÄß ¥ÀÆgÉʹ FUÀ £ÀªÀÄä PÉÃjUÉà PÉÊ ºÁPÁågÉ (¥ÀÄl 517) JAzÀÄ ºÉüÀĪÀ ªÀiÁvÀ£ÀÄß UÀªÀĤ¸À¨ÉÃPÀÄ.

£ÉÊwPÀ CzsÀ: ¥ÀvÀ£À ºÀvÀÄÛ ºÀ®ªÀÅ ¸ÀªÀĸÉåUÀ¼À£ÀÄß ¸ÀȶָÀÄvÀÛzÉ. ªÉAPÀtÚ£À CwPÁªÀÄÄPÀvÉ £ÁUÀPÀÌ£ÀÄß DPÀæ«Ä¹, a£ÀߪÀÄä£À£ÀÄß §°PÉÆqÀ®Ä vÀAiÀiÁgÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ. aÃAPÀæ£À «PÀÈvÀ ¯ÉÊAVPÀ C©üÃ¥Éì CPÀÌtÂÚAiÀÄ w½¨Á¼À£ÀÄß PÀzÀr, ¦ft£À£ÀÄß §°vÉUÉzÀÄPÉƼÀÄîvÀÛzÉ. aÃAPÀæ-¸Á§gÀ §§ðgÀvÉ PÁªÉÃjAiÀÄ CvÁåZÁgÀzÀ vÀ£ÀPÀ ªÀÄÄAzÀĪÀjAiÀÄÄvÀÛzÉ.

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43 NEED AND URGENCY OF OHS MEASURES IN MICRO, SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES

Dr. Gaonkar Gopalakrishna M, Associate Professor of Economics and Dean, Post Graduate Departments. I.Introduction The MSMEs have always been one of the prominent sectors in the Indian economy from the time of pre- British rule. The Indian artisans and cottage industries have been well known in the world economy from a long time. The growth of this sector is also considerable since the independence. During the globalization period also contribution from the MSMEs sector has been increasing. Thus the past and the present of the sector are thriving with development. There are far-reaching changes in the economy in different dimensions in different sectors, the MSMEs are not exception to that. No doubt, there is huge positive change in the development of MSMEs sector of India in the years forgone after independence. But, Occupational safety and health (OHS) is often poorly managed in micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs), causing greater risk of workplace accidents and work-related ill health. According to Januar Rustandie, the ILO-SCORE Project Manager, “OHS is an important part of the productivity and competitiveness as good OHS is good for business, linked to improved performance and profitability." MSMEs are heterogeneous and they lack cohesive representation. This poses challenges in terms of monitoring working conditions, raising awareness and the enforcement of OHS. Thus, it seems in the growth path of MSME’s the Occupational health and safety Measures needs to be addressed even more meticulously. This descriptive paper tries to bring forth the need of occupational health and safety measures in Indian MSMEs and some present policies.

44 II.State of OHS in Small Business Ventures Usually, when it comes to business ventures, people of the country think in the same line up regarding OHS in small and big business enterprise, but in reality state of small and large industries is entirely different. The major differences between large and small enterprises are as follows- 1. Lack of Management Expertise Small business employers typically have a skill in a particular trade or service but have little knowledge of the rudiments of running a business. As research shows, employers must not only develop a range of managerial skills that encompass all aspects of the entire business but also must perpetually seek a balance between administration, overseeing production and the delivery of services as well as attracting more customers. It means, the ability to manage all these functions, including OHS, is critical for the survival of the small business. But it is easy to large ventures. 2. Absence of Health and Safety Systems There is a general condition in the small businesses that majority of MSMEs have informal systems rather than formal systems, including health and safety matters. The main reasons given for the absence of formal systems was that the costs involved precluded many small businesses and a lack of both expertise and time, given that implementing health and safety performance-based systems underpins not only the Health and Safety but also other safety regulations. But in large industries there are provisions and cost bearing capacity in the state of economy. 3. Economies of Scale Because of their size, it was thought that small businesses were at an economic disadvantage compared with larger firms. This meant that their ability to implement health and safety measures, such as expensive extractor fans, was hampered.

45 4. Lack of Training It is difficult to businesses that providing formal training staff, as it is often costly and will initially reduce organisational performance while people are on the training courses. Small business employers will rely on supervision and established apprenticeship schemes to train their staff. 5. Lack of knowledge and awareness towards OHS When a number of MSME units are operating in informal way, there is a rare chance to share and acquire knowledge in their respective field about OHS rules and regulations. Thus, majority employees working in MSME units are unaware 6. Poor compliance of the legal requirements There is a very poor compliance system in small scale units working environment. It is so because number of employees is very less and most of the time owner is one of the workers in the units. There is no job security also, so not possible to raise voice in the system. Thus, compliance condition is very poor. III. (a) Position of OHS concern in MSMEs of India As per the report released by IRDAI on ‘ MSME Group Health Insurance Penetration in India’ that ‘approximately 90% of MSMEs do not offer any financial aid for medical purposes to the families of employees and that most micro and medium enterprises offer no financial support to their employees and their families’ Further It is also said that MSMEs preferred a basic cover of personal accident and critical illness with a focus on a reduction in premiums and coverage of employees and they primarily prefer to purchase insurance through online channels and ban assurance, with group health insurance penetration through online channels at a minimal level of about 6%. Shashwat Sharma, Insurance KPMG said, Indian Economy is one of the fastest growing in the world and the success of MSMEs is critical for maintaining India’s growth story. A key

46 aspect of this story would be providing access to quality healthcare and social security coverage to the largely informal or unorganized workforce employed in this sector. This could result in significant productivity improvement in this sector. The goal of improving healthcare coverage to the MSME workforce can be fulfilled through both development of infrastructure and delivering effective and affordable healthcare” Thus, with the growth in MSME sector in the country, experts have battled in favour of OHS and building an ecosystem for diverse workplace. To quote, Vilas Gaikwad, Chief of Safety, Tata Steel, “We are moving towards a future where the mindset of people has changed. Topics like gender bias are actively discussed and addressed. There is an awareness to cater to different physical forms, which helps to make equipment for those with disability” (b) Global Concern Occupational hazards at the workplace have caused worldwide. Ellen White, 3M said “Laxity in OHS (Occupational Health & safety) has cost the world about US$1.25 trillion or 4% of the world economy. The figure for Asian nations was at 10-20% of their GDP. A total of 7500 people lose their lives every day due to occupational hazards” Anil Verma, CII Task Force on Industrial Safety, said “With several investors focusing on investments in companies with noble causes including occupational safety themes, it has become an incentive for companies to follow safety aspect. Some companies believe that safety is a hindrance to growth; that thought must be changed” Thus, there is a strong voices regarding efficient implementation of OHS measures in the industrial workplaces. IV.Reasons and Solutions by Best Practices to OHS problem Generally, employer and employees together should find the reason and same way solution to OHS problems in the working environment. Most of the cases law or rules may not help us to 47 sort out risk of hazard, but some best practices in different types work condition give you a perfect solution. A few areas where best practices can be incorporated are discussed as follows. 1. Hand tool operation Excessive use of hand tools is associated with chronic disorders of the hand, wrist and forearm, such as carpal tunnel syndrome and wrist tendonitis. To avoid such problems, best practices are, hand tool should match the task that the user is doing, hand tool design should reduce the force of application, fit the users hand can be used in a comfortable position, hand tools should be well maintained. 2. Manual Handling Chances of problems, acute and chronic injuries, slip disc, musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) and other types of injury. Measure can be, not exceeding load lifting limit, designing proper work rest schedule, no employee should be required to routinely work above their shoulder height, below their knees or at full reach distance. 3. Machine Operations Possible hazards, in running nips, moving parts, risk of cut and crush. Best practices, there must be safety interlocks on higher temperature and pressurized machines. use of guards, interlock switches, and dead man’s handle to ensure the machines cannot be operated when moving parts are exposed, machines must undergo regular servicing and maintenance 4. Storage of Materials Problems causes, Slip, trip, fall, fire hazard, measures, the location of the stockpiles should not interfere with work, stored materials should allow at least one meter of clear space under sprinkler heads, stored materials should not obstruct movement, storage areas should be clearly marked, flammable, combustible, toxic and

48 other hazardous materials should be stored in approved containers in designated areas. 5. Welding and Cutting Operation Gas welding and cutting tools are often powered by oxygen or acetylene gas cylinders. These tanks require special safety precautions to prevent explosions and serious injuries Metal fumes, radiation, hot metals and noise. There must be safety interlocks on high temperature and pressurized machines. Best practices, use of guards, interlock switches and dead man's handles to ensure the machines cannot be operated when moving parts are exposed, machines must undergo regular servicing and maintenance, use of PPE, General ventilation and exhaust system, ensure that acetylene/oxygen systems are equipped with flame or flashback arrestors, store acetylene bottles upright and secured, set acetylene pressure at or below 15 psi, always use the minimum acceptable flow rate never use a match to light a torch, use an approved lighter. 6. Grinding Dust and Hazardous Fumes Very dangerous to health, especially beryllium or parts used in nuclear systems inhalation of the dust and fumes goes into the lungs and mixed with blood effect is temporary sickness to death. Measures, use of respirator to avoid inhaling the dust, use of coolant during grinding. These materials require careful control of grinding dust. 7. Electrical Work Short circuits caused by wear and tear and poor servicing. Lock out and tag out, Regular maintenance of equipment and machines. 8. House Keeping Poor housekeeping can result in an increased risk of injury due to slip, trips and falls, together with injuries resulting from hitting

49 stationary objects, are reduced. Areas to be kept clean and free for movement. Items should be stored correctly with no parts protruding on to walkways. Electrical chords should not be on the floor. Tools should have designated areas for storage and bins for waste should be readily available and be easy to empty 9. Fire Safety Problem is Fire Hazard. Solutions, Electrical equipment must be regularly serviced. Combustible materials must be stored safely. There must be adequate and appropriate firefighting equipment. Firefighting equipment must be serviced and certificated. Fire alarm points must be clearly signed and accessible. Fire exits and escape routes must be clearly signposted, unobstructed and unlocked. There must be a fire assembly point a safe distance from the factory, with frequent, random fire drills carried out. Smoking must be banned in working areas of the factory. 10. Personal protective equipment (PPE) Appropriate PPE must be provided and worn. Wherever possible, the need for PPE should be removed by automating or using engineered safety features on machinery (such as interlock switches). V. Government Initiatives and Measures to Promote OHS in India Occupational Health and Safety in India is regulated by the Department of Labour and Employment .Further, Directorate General Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI) serves as a technical arm for promotion, research, training and advice on construction, construction, ports and harbors, while Directorate Generate of Mines Safety looks after the mines.There are a number of acts and rules pertaining to safety and occupational health for practice and implementation as and when required and relevant. As per constitution of India, labour has been kept in the concurrent list, which means both center and state can form legislations. Here is a brief note of them. 50 1. Factories Act, 1948 The factories act consists of 11 chapters and 3 schedules. Health and Safety are covered under Chapter-3 and Chapter-4 respectively. Chapter-IVA on Hazardous processes was included after Gas Disaster in 1984. The first schedule gives the list of hazardous processes wherein the stipulations in Chapter-IVA are applicable. The factories act has been amended from time to time. The latest has been in 2015, wherein it has been proposed to exclude small scale operations involving 20 workers without power and 40 workers with power. Instead, a new bill, Small Factories (Facilitation and Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 2015 has been proposed for MSME in 2016. 2. Factories Rules The factories rules are notified by states. Notable are from Gujarat, , Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. Few states have adopted neighbouring states rules such as Haryana which follows Punjab Factories Rules. States also notify several rules which are framed keeping in mind the nature of operating industries in the state, technical requirements such as safety officers, welfare of workers, maternity benefits and special provisions applicable. One should consult these rules for specific requirements applicable for factory. 3. Manufacture, Storage, Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 Amended 2000. This rule framed under Environment Protection Act 1986 is applicable to only factories which stores, handles, import hazardous chemicals above a specified limit termed threshold limit. The threshold quantities are specified in, column 3 of schedule 2 and 3 of the rules respectively. This rule also specifies the requirement of safety audits in factory. There are 684 hazardous chemicals specified in the rule.

51 4. The Employees’ State Insurance Act, 1948 This is an Act to provide for certain benefits to employees in case of sickness, maternity and ‘employment injury’ and to make provision for certain other matters in relation thereto. Section 52A of the Act is the relevant section on occupational diseases. The Third Schedule provides a List of Occupational Diseases 5. The Building and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 This is an act to regulate the employment and conditions of service of building and other construction workers and to provide for their safety, health and welfare measure and for other matter connected therewith or incidental thereto. This act is applicable for employing 50 or more workers for building or construction purpose. 6. Janshree Bima Yojana for Khadi Artisans In order to provide insurance cover to Khadi artisans, a scheme of group insurance in the name of Khadi Karigar Janshree Bima Yojana (JBY) was launched. This scheme was formulated by KVIC in association with the Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC). Nature of assistance for death due to: (1) Natural causes – Rs. 20,000; and (2) Accident – Rs. 50,000. For permanent disability (loss of two eyes or two limbs) – Rs. 50,000. For partial disability (loss of one eye or one limb) – Rs. 25,000. Free add-on benefit: Scholarship of Rs.300 per quarter for children of Khadi Karigar, studying in 9th to 12th standard, subject to a maximum of 2 children per family. Khadi Karigar (spinners and weavers) can apply but aged between 18 - 59 years. Khadi Karigar should be below, or marginally above the poverty line. How to apply Nominee of the deceased Khadi Karigar to submit original death certificate to Pension Group Schemes Department of LIC of India through the Khadi Institution under which the deceased was a member

52 7. Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY) Board had been implementing Coir Board Coir Workers Group Personal Accident Insurance Scheme for the benefit of the coir workers in the country. The scheme started from the year 1998 was aimed at providing insurance coverage against accidental death, permanent total disability and permanent partial disability to the coir workers. The coir workers aged 18 and above engaged in the industry were covered under the scheme. The insurance coverage was given on the basis of a comprehensive policy covering 4 lakh coir workers without naming each and every worker. The scheme titled "Coir Board Coir Workers Group Personal Accident Insurance Scheme" which was in operation up to 31.05.2016 has been converged to "Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana"(PMSBY) with effect from 01.06. 2016.The scheme is for a period of one-year cover, renewable from year to year. Accident insurance coverage is given for death or disability cover for death or disability on account of accident to coir workers.The coir workers to be enrolled through Coir Board may be self- employed, employed under the SFURTI coir clusters, coir workers engaged in the units already registered with the Board, coir workers coming under the fold of Welfare Fund Board, PSUs, Corporations, Federations, Cooperative Societies, etc.All coir workers in the country in the age 18 to 70 years having Aadhar linked Savings Bank account will be entitled to join. The coir worker would be eligible to join in the scheme only through Aadhar linked savings bank account. 8. Outreach Programme The government highlighted the need for introducing social security for the MSME sector employees. The finance ministry note says that a mission will be launched to ensure that they have Jan Dhan Accounts, Provident Fund and Insurance and the implementation of such an 'Outreach Programme' for monitoring

53 Social Security for MSME Sector Employees will be intensively monitored. Thus in this way all possible measures are initiated, it will become more successful in the days to come. VI. Conclusion MSMEs are still lacking of business action plan and system. By having an action plan and system, including for OHS, MSMEs can easily identify their business conditions, things that should be improved and ways to expand. The government has a big role to play in promoting safety among firms, and that safety inspectors should be facilitators rather than inspectors. However, as in the words of V.B Sant, National Safety Council (NSC) “India has a long way to go before achieving excellence in safety. On a scale of one to 10, we are between two and three only, in the light of measures adopted in advanced countries.” Thus, Government as well as owners of the units should take responsibility to improve occupational health and safety in the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises. Notes and References 1. David Tijero., Occupational Safety and Health in Micro and small enterprises ©EU-OHSA 2. Gnoni, Maria Grazia, Fabiana Tornese, Guido J.L. Micheli (September 2018) A new model proposal for occupational health and safety management in small and medium enterprises, Research Gate, XXIII Summer School “Francesco Turco” – Industrial Systems Engineering: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327690320. 3. Gaonkar Gopalakrishna M, (Sept-2018) Changing Scenario of MSMEs in India through the Years, REVIEW OF RESEARCH, vol- 7, Issue -12, Page No.32-38 ISSN-2249-894X.

54 4. Insurance for MSME workers key to sector’s growth Report, (Dec.20,2017) FICCI, KPMG Analyse 2019 Enterprises Across Sectors, 5. Jayakumar P B, October 17, 2019 , Health of MSMEs worsens despite govt measures, BUSINESS TODAY 6. Jyotsna Krishnamoorthy, NSC director general flags lack of safety in MSMEs, Nov 10, 2019 https: www.the hindu.com/news/cities/mumbai/nsc-director-general-flags- lack-ofsafety-in.msmes/article24782583.ece © The Publishing Pvt Ltd. 7. Komadinic, Velimir Dragomir Ilic Risk Assessment in Small and Medium – Sized Enterprises, Specifics and Differences in Approach doi:10.5937/jaes11-3665, Paper number: 11(2013)3, 256, 123 - 126 8. Legg, Stephn, Martina Battisti, Leigh-Ann Harris, Ian Laird, Felicity Lamm Claire Massey, Kirsten Olsen (2009) Occupational Health and Safety in Small Businesses, Nohsac Technical Report 12, Wellington ISBN 13 978-0-478-33341-1, www.nohsac.govt.nz. 9. McKeown, T and Mazzarol, T (2018) Enabling Safe and Healthy Workplaces for Small Business, Smalll Enterprise Association of Australia and New Zealand (SEAANZ). 10. MSME Schemes (August 2015) Government of India, Ministry of Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises. 11. Reliance Money/knowledge center/OHS Regulatory Requirements for MSME. 12. Safety best practices for small and medium enterprises http://www.ficci.com/SPdocument/20143/Grant-Thornton- FICCI%20MSME.pdf 13. Safety best practices for small and medium enterprises11/10/2019Ecafezwww.ecafez.com/best-practice-

55 inner/safety-best-practices-for-small-and-medium- enterprises/ 14. Singh, Avneesh 2018, “Ensuring occupational safety and health in the unorganized sector is the biggest challenge for a country like India”, World Day for Safety and Health at Work, Regions and countries covered: India,© 1996-2019 InternationalLabour Organization (ILO) https://www.ilo.org/newdelhi/info/public/pr /WCMS_625872/lang--en/index.htm 15. Unnikrishnan, Seema , Rauf Iqbal, Anju Singh, and Indrayani M. Nimkar (2015) Safety Management Practices in Small and Medium Enterprises in India, Safe Health Work,2015 Mar; 6(1): 46–55.Published online 2014 Nov4. doi: 10.1016/j.shaw.2014.10.006 PMCID: PMC4371889 , PMID: 25830070. 16. V.B Sant, (27/08/2018) Occupational safety is a big challenge for MSMEs, safety inspectors, should act as facilitators rather than inspectors: NSC, KNN Knowledge and News Network. 17. Welfare Measure Scheme, Coir Board, Ministry of MSME, Govt. of India www.coirboard.gov.in 18. Social Security for MSME Sector Employees, //economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/67361324.cms ?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_ca mpaign=cppst *****

56 INVESTORS SENTIMENTS IN EQUITY AND MUTUAL FUNDS: CURRENT MARKET TRENDS

THIMMANNA. G. BHAT. Assistant Prof. of commerce A man must be big enough to admit his mistakes, smart enough to profit from them, and strong enough to correct them. — John C. Maxwell Globally, stock market performance has been reasonably good so far this year. Even though the year started on a volatile note on concerns of monetary tightening by the leading central banks, the situation changed dramatically with the Fed announcement at end January that ‘tightening is on hold’. Later, as the global economy began declining sharply, all the leading central banks switched to an accommodative monetary policy. Now, for the first time in the last 10 years, world’s 20 leading central banks have cut interest rates to address the pronounced economic slowdown. According to the IMF global GDP growth rate is likely to decelerate to 3 percent in 2019 and there is a threat of the global economy slipping into recession in 2020 if the trade activity is not mechanized.

On 29th October 2019, about 25 companies of Nifty50 indices declared Q2 results. The outcome is encouraging with a PAT growth of 20% on a YoY basis compared to expectation of 11.3% for the same stocks. For broad indices like Nifty500, 127 stocks have declared results, a similar traction is visible with 18.4% growth in consolidated PAT which is 6% on a QoQ basis. This is led by cut in corporate tax, better performance from sectors like Banking, Cement and FMCG. However, weak performance is seen from Auto and IT sector. But we are seeing positive signs in auto sector with retail car sales having gained some traction in the ongoing festive season after six continuous months of declining sales. As per media reports, sales have risen by 5% to 7% during 57 Navratri, Dussehra and Dhanteras from the last year’s numbers for the same festive period, this will be visible in next quarter result. Two-wheeler sales haven’t improved on a YoY basis but on a month on month basis.

The important points to be noted that the better numbers from the Banking sector, providing a hope that India’s finance segment NPA problem is normal. Q2 result for banking sector has been better due to lower base of last year, reduction in provision and positive vibes over NPA resolution. The outlook for their future is also improving led by improvement in asset quality, increase in liquidity and cut in operational cost. The negative is that slippage is still happening in specific stocks due to exposure to some stressed NBFCs and pending resolutions. But valuation of the banking sector based on long-term trend is attractive and earnings trajectory is improving, which is giving a good chance for banking sector to do well and outperform the market in the future.

The reduction in corporate tax rates and the slew of reforms announced by the government has certainly boosted the sentiments. But the biggest drag on the market is the poor corporate earnings. Corporate earnings have been growing only at around 5 percent during the last 5 years against the average of 15 percent since liberalization. A sustained bull rally will emerge only when growth and corporate earnings indicate strong revival. This might take a few quarters more but is sure to happen, sooner than later.

The accommodative monetary stance and synchronized rate cuts by the central banks have kept global equity markets buoyant. See the MSCI equity performance in 2019 as on 10th October 2019

58

Sources: Times of India Data Bank.

Investment and Funds Allocation

Majority of Investors mistakenly believe that stock choices determine success. In reality, one of the most important aspects of investing, besides starting early — is asset allocation. This is because when you decide to invest your hard-earned money, you naturally want to minimize your risks and maximize your potential returns. And this makes it important that your investments are allocated over a variety of asset classes such as equities, fixed

59 income, and cash; because each asset class performs differently over time due to its unique balance of risk and reward.

The process of determining which mix of assets to hold in your portfolio can be so complicated that we often jump at thumb rules. “100-minus-age” rule is a simple way to determine asset allocation. The rule says you should take 100 and subtract your age: i.e. at 40 you would have a 60% allocation to stocks; by age 65, you would have reduced your allocation to stocks to 35%. This is referred to as a “declining equity glide path” where every few years you decrease your allocation to stocks thus reducing the volatility and risk level of your portfolio.

But the “100-minus-age” rule does not consider a lot of important factors. The biggest drawback of formula is that it puts every individual in an age group in the same box, but individuals typically have different personal situations, different liabilities, different goals and different risk profile. So is determining your investment allocation by using the “100-minus-age” rule a smart approach to investing your money?

One must always remember that asset allocation that works best for you, at any given point in your life, will depend largely on your time horizon, your ability to tolerate risk and the predictability of your income. Here we discuss why it’s important to adjust asset allocation based on the volatility of income.

Salaried individuals have a regular stream of income and can opt for investment solutions that have short-term risks but give higher returns in the long term. But self-employed professionals such as lawyers, artists, architects and consultants etc. have fluctuating income as a result of the type of work that they do. This will have a significant impact on their financial situation and how much money will be available to save toward financial goals. They will

60 also need larger buffers of liquid investments to meet emergencies.

So, if you are a common investor, then it is better to opt for the goal-based approach to investing. It is more scientific, situation- aware and helps you understand why you are saving in the first place. It places your goals right at the centre of the advice process and builds the investment strategy to fulfil multiple objectives over varying timelines.

Goal-based strategy is not about outperforming benchmarks or competitors, but about how well your portfolio is tracking against a stated goal. By investing for individual goals depending on the available time horizon and risk tolerance for each, you focus on the long-term goal and avoid worrying about the inevitable short-run volatility. You will be tracking the progress for each investment separately instead of the portfolio’s overall performance. This helps you “identify your important/ immediate goals” and ensures that you stay focused and motivated to keep investing sensibly for a long time.

The War Games

The trade war between US and China is not showing any signs of slowing down. The two countries are adopting a tit-for-tat strategy further escalating the tensions. Recently, the US raised tariffs to 25 percent on nearly $200 billion worth of goods from China. In response, China announced a tariff hike on $60 billion worth of goods from the US.

Once the game is started, there should be an end to it. In this article, we are analyzing the different scenarios that might turn up, if the present situation prevails. Firstly, the impositions of tariffs will bring a huge cost to both economies. In 2018, US imports from China stood at $ 539.5 billion, and its exports at $120.3 billion. The

61 figures clearly indicate that both economies are dependent on each other. The tariff business will be a setback to China’s economy that has embraced an export-led growth. For instance, in 2017, the export of goods and services had a share of around 20 percent in China’s GDP, whereas the number stands at 12 percent for the United States. In a similar way, US consumers will have to carry the brunt from this game with an increased price level. It should be noted that the US imports from China include daily necessities such as clothing, shoe, household items, mobile phone, etc.

Secondly, the rising price level in the economy through the imposition of tariffs will place the Federal Reserve in a difficult situation. If the inflation rises beyond a comfortable level, the Fed will be forced to hike the interest rate. However, as per the IMF estimates, the trade war is going to shave around 0.3-0.6 percent from US GDP. In such a scenario, there will be pressure on the Fed to cut interest rate to revive the growth. The US central bank would be in a difficult position fixing both the rise in price level and slowing growth.

Thirdly, China has always been tagged as a currency manipulator. With the trade tensions prevailing, China might opt to devalue its currency to revive its slowing economy. The devaluation of the currency can be a boost to the exports sector in the country. But, how far this policy turns out to be successful needs to be looked into. There is a general consensus that China’s export-led growth story has reached its limit and the country needs to now on focus on the consumption-led growth. The global economy is also expected to slow down in FY19, and with the wave of protectionism, it won’t be an easy walk for China to pursue its export-led growth story.

Fourthly, China is the largest holder of US treasury bonds. China owns around $1 trillion in US treasury bonds. If China decides to

62 dump all its treasury bills, it could cause a huge ruckus in the bond market. Flooding the market with treasury bonds would push down the bond prices and increase the bond yield. There is a limited possibility that China will resort to this weapon to counter the US, as it could cause damage to China as well. However, it can be seen that China is reducing its share in US treasury bonds and is accumulating more gold. If this trend continues, there would be an increasing demand for gold which would be reflected in the price of the yellow metal.

The impact of the US-China trade war won’t be confined to the two economies. The ramification of the trade war will be also felt by other economies. The slowdown in the two major economic powers in the world will have spill over effects. It is also giving a caution sign to countries like India that is also in the US’s radar for a tariff hike. India might also lose the Generalised System of Preference (GSP) status, which is hinting towards more actions.

In this globalized world, free trade is essential for the economic well-being of every economy. Any obstacle in the movement of free goods and services will bring a huge cost not only to the individual economies but to the global economy as a whole. It should be reiterated that trade war is not a ‘zero-sum game’ but a ‘negative-sum game

Investors should understand the cyclicality of the market and returns. Returns from investment will not come in a steady and consistent trend. Returns come in ebbs and flows. During the 5- year period 1994-99, the market almost stagnated and didn’t give any returns at all. Therefore, during challenging times like now, investors should be more patient.

There is value emerging in small and mid-caps. In 2017, due to sustained and irrational fund flows into small and mid-caps, their valuations were pushed into bubble territory. Small and mid-caps,

63 which were quoting at premium to Nifty, are now quoting at discount to Nifty and valuations are becoming attractive. Mid-caps and small-caps are down 30 percent and 40 percent respectively from their January 2018 peaks. Time is appropriate for allocating funds to the mid and small-cap segment. Investors should not commit the mistake of stopping SIPs. Continue with SIPs, and if possible, increase allocation to equities as financial sector and new investments will have a lag-effect. The equity market may trade with a mixed bias in the short-term. We expect the broad market to maintain its positive bias in the long-term, and 11,200 to 11,500 to hold a strong support for Nifty 50 in the short-term.

The recent developments are very positive for Equity markets and MF

We had three key reasons impacting the global economy and market: US-China trade talks, Brexit and geo-political issues. We are hearing positive developments regarding trade wars and deal with UK and EU. World economy was slowing down due to concerns over trade and new investment. This hangover is going to reduce as a final deal is reached between the parties. FII’s view will change from negative to positive on emerging markets and inflows will grow better.

In India, Government’s intention to correct the economic situation with tax and stimulus measures is positive. And the statement to provide further fiscal stimulus in the future as per the need of the economy is lifting the sentiment of the market. Risk taking ability for equity investment is improving in the market with optimism over recovery in the economy led by stimulus, festive demand, good and lower interest rate. The start to Q2 result for the broad market has been mixed while for banking sector it has been marginally better led by base effect and reduction in provisioning. The outlook has improved with reduction in NPA

64 problem and operational cost. The negativity is that slippages are still happening but given attractive valuation and resolution in the future, the banking sector is expected to do well and outperform the market.

All the negative factors of the Indian economy are known and expressed in the weak outlook forecast. Today, consensus is deeply negative regarding the economy and equity market. It seems that all the issues of the economy are largely factored across the board. But the equity market has been lackluster in the last 1.5 year with no real growth in value. It is time for equity market to do better in the coming period as the worst may be factored in the reality.

In India, stocks have out-performed other asset classes like bank deposits, gold and small savings by an impressive margin during the last 40 years, The Sensex, which was 100 in 1979, is now around 39000, multiplying 390 times in 40 years. This translates into an average annual return of 16 percent excluding dividend. This return is substantially superior to returns from other asset classes like bank fixed deposits (9 percent), small savings (slightly above 9 percent) and gold (10 percent), during this period. In spite of this impressive wealth creation through the stock market, the fact remains that only a minority of investors have benefitted from this. Large numbers of retail investors haven’t benefitted mainly because of two behavioral traits associated with retail investors. These are: one, wrong timing and two, wrong pricing.

Usually, retail investors enter the market at its peak. They jump on to the bull bandwagon hearing news of investors having made a fortune. The FOMO (Fear Of Missing Out) factor drives their entry into the market. Also, they invest predominantly in low-priced low- grade stocks. When the bull market ends and the inevitable

65 correction begins, they panic and exit from the market. This wrong timing is a prescription for financial disaster.

The second, and very common behavioral trait of retail investors is wrong pricing; that is, in the bull market they buy more when the price rises and in the bear market, they buy less when the price falls. This is, unfortunately, the exact opposite of sound investment strategy.

SIPs in mutual funds can address both these problems of timing and pricing. During market corrections, when price comes down, SIPs enable buying more units at the same price. This ‘rupee cost averaging’ together with the power of compounding in the long run facilitates steady wealth creation. SIPs in mutual funds also address the problem of retail investor bias towards low-priced inferior quality stocks.

It is important to understand that even though stocks deliver superior returns, the returns are highly erratic and volatile. There will be periods of mediocre returns and periods of spectacular returns. An extended period of poor returns should not discourage the investor. Poor returns indicate that good returns are imminent.

Fortunately, now, Indian retail investors are maturing as evidenced by the resilience of SIPs. But sections of investors continue to make the mistake of trying to time the market by stopping SIPs at the wrong time. It has been proved time and again that patient systematic investment is the key to wealth creation. Sometimes, the market will test the patience of investors. This is one such period. As we know, there are some challenges being faced by the economy. But India has the resources and capability to overcome these challenges and march ahead. Investors have to keep their faith in the India Growth Story, invest systematically and wait with patience

66 Central Tendency is a statistical measure that identifies a figure that represents the entire set of data. Mean, median and mode are the three such measures, with “average”, being the most widely used one, by beginners and experts .

The use of averages, however, does not answer all the questions, but it certainly seeks to convert the question of unpredictability to one of variation, thereby reducing the sticky problem that it was, to one that the human mind finds much easier to comprehend and act upon. Stock market studies usually employ “moving averages” in place of averages in order to incorporate the latest data as well. What does a moving average (MA) do? Primarily, it smooths the data, which in our case is price, allowing us to ignore the volatility of the previous days. For example, if the price of HDFC Bank is 2295 now, and its 10 day moving average is 2000, it throws us at least two inferences. Firstly, that it is on an uptrend, with respect to its last 10 days, and secondly, that it has gained quite strongly, given the percentage difference between the average and the price. In other words, not only do we get a sense of short term direction, but we also get to understand the strength of the same. Often times, in our rush to squeeze profit from stock market moves, we tend to give undue importance to calling the trend right. The concept of moving average allows us to take a binary approach to investment

Opportunity for a tactical trade

Long-term investors should continue to remain invested in quality, though highly priced. These consistent compounders will continue to do well in future too. But, it appears that there is opportunity for a tactical trade in the mid-cap space where valuations are attractive. The present polarized valuations – a high premium for quality and discount for mid and small-caps- are likely to witness some shift in the coming months. Investment in mid cap funds like

67 Axis Mid cap, L&T Mid cap and in multi-cap funds like Kotak Standard Multi-cap and ABSL Equity Fund have the potential to fetch good returns in the medium term. So, while remaining invested in quality, though expensive, investors can go for a tactical trade in mid-caps. Of course, patience would be an essential pre-requisite

Narrow rally lifts Nifty above 11000

Nifty conquered 11000 again on 6th February, breaking a five- month range. The resistance at 10800 has been broken by this rally, led by huge delivery-based buying in a few stocks. It is important to appreciate the fact that this is a very narrow rally led by a few stocks. Presently six stocks – HDFC Bank, HDFC, Reliance, TCS, and ICICI – account for around 50 percent weightage in Nifty. If we add ITC and Kotak Bank to this list, the weightage would be 60.7 percent. Nifty’s impressive performance is due to the strength of these stocks

RBI turns pro-growth and cuts rates

While the change in RBI’s monetary stance from calibrated tightening to neutral was on expected lines, the rate cut took some sections of the market by surprise. The decision to cut the policy rates is a clear indication that the central bank is now giving lot of importance to growth. This approach can be justified in the context of the RBI consistently undershooting its inflation forecasts. Though the stance is neutral, the tone of the policy is distinctly dovish. One more rate cut is possible in CY 2019; of course, it will be data dependent. This accommodative monetary stance augurs well for the markets.

Meanwhile concerns regarding global growth and global trade continue. Domestically, there are concerns regarding the fiscal deficit, stemming from the welfare initiatives of the interim budget

68 South Indian states have registered higher than national average growth over the past three decades. And according to the Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) report, South India presents an unprecedented opportunity for wealth creation as the five states have a combined GDP $300 billion and when put together are among the top 30 economies of the world, contributing over 22 percent of India’s GDP and 28 percent of India’s employment. It is projected that South India will become $1,200 billion economy by 2020.

Domestic economy is on a path of revival; this is after last year’s trough. India’s GDP is likely to touch a bottom of 7% in FY19. This slowdown was due to lower spending by government on account of tightened revenue collection after numerous reforms which led to managing its deficit situation. At the same time private spending was low due to NPA problem and slowdown in world economy. On the other hand, auto sector is continuously witnessing sluggish demand in the last 2 quarters, which is expected to continue for a few more quarters leading to production cut by major OEMs due to higher inventory and lower liquidity. However, GDP growth is likely to improve to 7.4% in FY20 in expectation of restart of government spending post national election and stability over fiscal deficit.

The NPA problem has reduced from 11.5% in March 2018 to 10.8% in September 2018, and is expected to further decline to 10.3% in March 2019, this process is ongoing and will provide a real effect on the humongous size of stuck project in India, it will affect the restart of private spending in the coming years. In a nutshell, the domestic economy is likely to improve in FY20 compared to the subdued FY19.

Another important tailwind for emerging markets like India is ease in interest rates in CY2019. Along with that, world central banks

69 like FED is also likely to stop reversal of Quantitative Easing, buying back of bonds issued post the global crisis. Both these factors will improve the liquidity position, positive for rest of the world economy.

It will generate an opportunity in emerging and developing market to cut interest rates in their domestic economy, a positive factor in India given the slow economy and inflation. There is some fear in the world that global market can swing into a recession which has not bared such situations for a long-term since 2008, world economy has been euphoric since then. What seems most likely is that rather than a recession it is likely to be a case of slowdown in growth. This situation will be well managed by reduction in cost of funds and the trade-war deal. The US 10-year bond yield has reduced to 2.37% from 3.26% of 52-weeks high.

During the last one month India is outperforming the emerging market by 9.1%, the rally was broad based led by realty, power, banks. However, the performance of IT and Auto index were subdued due to strong rupee and insipid demand. The focus has shifted to mid & small caps, where valuation looks attractive. The liquidity situation is likely to improve supported by strong FIIs inflow and RBIs continued Open Market Operation. We expect India to continue its out-performance among emerging markets in expectation of revival in earnings growth and political stability

It is observed that for the past few quarters midcap and small cap stocks have been struggling to generate alpha for its investors. In such scenario, what investment strategies and processes you follow to manage your portfolio?

Mid-Caps and Small Caps have undergone a meaningful correction over the last 12 months. The NIFTY Mid Cap 100 Index and NIFTY Small Cap 100 Index have declined by 7% and 18% respectively over the last 1 year whereas the NIFTY 50 Index is up 11.5% (As of

70 20th May 2019). Hence, both the relative and absolute valuations of mid and small caps have corrected and normalized to a significant extent. Now that valuations have stabilized and become more attractive, the prospects to generate alpha from select small and mid-cap companies appear brighter.

As far as our approach is concerned, we follow a bottom-up approach with an emphasis on good quality companies that are available at sensible valuations thereby maintaining an adequate margin of safety. We avoid businesses of poor standards or where valuations are unreasonable. We also steer clear of companies where complexity of business is such that we cannot sufficiently appreciate the risks involved or where we have concerns about corporate governance practices. Our investments are driven by fundamental research with a medium to long term view.

Most of the funds in the industry carries higher exposure in NBFC stocks. With the recent debt crisis on this sectors, what additional the additional due diligence a fund house meet needs to take before investing in these stocks?

It is important to keep in mind that all NBFC stock are not the same and that the strength of their balance sheet and the nature of their lending can vary significantly from one company to another. Our focus remains on well managed NBFCs. We always carry out significant due diligence before investing in any company, both within and outside of financials. Naturally during challenging times of a company or sector we want to be more careful and are more pratical. We try and spend even more time in evaluating the business and step up the channel checks that we do.

The Ideal behaviours of investors in uncertainties

Investors, more often than not, expect their investment journey to be a smooth ride and panic at times of adversity and bad news. A

71 knee-jerk approach to investing often results in sub-optimal returns as investors try to time the market and end up buying high and selling low. Market timing is fraught with risk. Changes can appear suddenly owing to various factors, making the risk of misjudgement significant. Investors looking for long term wealth creation through equities could ideally opt for SIPs (Systematic Investment Plans) in Equity oriented Mutual Funds to ensure disciplined investing and benefit from rupee cost averaging. In addition, during periods of market adversity and material corrections, investors could look to increase allocation to equities even via lump sum so long as they have a tolerance for volatility and a long term outlook.

There are factors beyond any government’s control. For instance, if the trade skirmishes between US and China aggravate into an all- out trade war, it will impact global trade, global growth, earnings and markets. It is important to understand the fact that there is a huge overhang of liquidity globally – the consequence of the QE implemented by the Fed, ECB and BoJ following the global financial meltdown of 2008 and the global recession that followed. Economic crises, like a full-blown trade war between US and China, can trigger shifts in this humungous liquidity, roiling equity and currency markets globally. Governments should be guarded against such eventualities, particularly since leaders of some powerful nations are exceptionally strong men wielding enormous power. Yet another potential destabilizing factor is crude. Sharp spikes in crude, as we have experienced in the past, have the potential to trigger India’s ‘twin-deficit problem’ – high fiscal and current account deficits – thereby impacting economic growth, corporate earnings and the market.

First statement must be the one, most of you agree with. And for obvious reasons too. But, often times, or at least sometimes, we tell ourselves, backed by wisdom, ego, experience or whatever, 72 that we can out think them all. We are captivated by the thought that, even though we believe that markets exist in the realm of unpredictability, we would like to tone down that belief, at least when it is our money that is on the line, willing the markets not to veer much away from our expectations. The idea of predictability and unpredictability coexisting is central to what drives investors to stock market.

But, if all investors believed that markets were unpredictable, then it is highly likely that the stock prices will display patterns. Now we know that patterns are recognizable, and recognisability reduces the unpredictability of stock markets. Hence, if investors are consistently expecting unpredictability, then the markets are likely to become more and more predictable. In other words, inconsistency in investor expectations is the key to markets staying truly unpredictable. Now, this has become a circular argument. But, this indeterminacy is not a unique problem. In philosophy, if one sets out to understand the meaning of things, by following the trail of words, it is likely that he ends up where he began.

However, we are not interested in stock markets’ philosophy, as much as we are interested in funds appriciations. How can we do that without attempting to understand where exactly the unpredictability resides. Is it stock market, or is it investor expectation.

Intotal Investors are very careful and cautious for their Funds and Investments. Market movement shuld be followed Trends must be understood and also Positive movement should be made Fruitful. References

1) Times of India and its Data Bank

2) Business Line – Market Survevy of Indian Industry &Markets

73 3) Geojith in sight

4) Angel Broking Investors Information.

5) www.investopidia.com.

6) www.taxguru.com

7) BSE news and NSE news @ radiff.com. money wiz.com.

8) ICICI prudential mutual fund letters

9) HDFC Mutual Fund News.

*****

74 FACTORS INFLUENCING POLITICAL LEADERSHIP OF DALITS IN UDUPI DISTRICT

MANJUNATHA Assistant Professor of Political Science Leader may be said to be a person who leads people from ignorance to awakening and development. Being a psycho-social phenomenon the problem of leadership has always been there, whether they are primitive people living in the caves or post- industrial societies of the west. Leadership is a universal phenomenon, this is because, and man is a political and social being. In order participate in groups; he needs constant guidance and direction. These are provided by the leader. However, the increase in the importance of dynamic leaders and emergence of new pattern of leadership are the ubiquitous characteristics of our modem political systems. In fact, healthy growth, stability of any political system largely depends upon the nature of leadership. It has with it the increasing and pluralistic functions of political system. The new forces of socio - economic change leased out by the implementation of large scale programmes of planned social change in rural society gave a hitting blow to the traditional social structure, institutions and generated new values and visions. This required replacement of old leadership based on aspiration by new secular leadership based on merit and community development programmes, land reforms, democratic decentralization, adult franchise and other schemes of rural reconstruction added further more to the significance of leadership. In this context it is now being realized that more and more success of these efforts and achievements of the goals and aspirations are envisaged in the basic preamble of the constitution, mainly depend upon the rural leadership.

75 The main objective of community development programme is not only the socio-economic upliftment of the village people but also to change their work ways, thought ways and act ways. The philosophy behind introducing change in rural society in such a way intends to enable people to develop and manage their affairs according to their own needs, desires and through their own initiative and active participation. In a way community development programmes were considered as a movement aimed at instilling initiative and participation among people1. But both theoretically and empirically this task was found to be impossible without the help of local leadership. According to Taylor nothing is more important in community development than to locate and develop local issues2. The significance of local leadership in the success of community development programme and rural development is very well highlighted by scholars like Lewis, Engminger, Dey, Dube, Barbana, Mehta and Mishra. In development context, the leaders have varied roles. First leadership helps in crisis management. It is only the leader who in crisis situations alone can organize the isolated and dissenting members into a cooperative group. Secondly if community development programmes are treated as a movement for socio- economic change then leadership can be treated as the most effective instrument of interest articulation, interest aggregation of the people Thirdly, besides being leaders of the followers they also act as reference individuals in the acceptance of new innovations and techniques of development. Panchayatraj and leadership Though rural leadership has been considered to be of great significance for the success of community development, there has not been much significant rise in the involvement or in the participation of the people. Taking into account, the views of various thinkers and particularly accepting the recommendations

76 of Balwant Rai Mehta Committee, it was recognized that local leadership could be developed only through locally organized democratic institutions based on adult franchise. There is reference to panchayat raj organization in constitution of India3 but its practical significance was realized by Jayaprakash Narayan and other leaders in the late fifties and was thus discussed and formed part of the second five-year plan. The genesis of present three tier system of panchayat raj follows the recommendations of Balwant Rai Mehta Committee. Adopting principles of democratic decentralization, the main objective of panchayat raj in rural development context, is to give institutionalized format of local leadership to fulfill demand and challenges of the development. Besides seeking people's initiative and active participation in community development programme, its other twin goals are; to make democracy to reach the doors of the people in such a way that they are able to organize and manage their affairs all by themselves and replace traditional ascriptive and monopolistic leadership based on the factor of age, caste, creed and family. It should be based on young, enthusiastic, meritorious, secular and dynamic leadership4 because, in institutional framework of panchayat raj, authority and power of leadership are given constitutional and legal recognition, therefore to safeguard the interest of weaker sections, particularly scheduled caste and scheduled tribes, special care has been taken with regard to their representation and participation. Adequate reservation for the members of these communities has been made at all levels in three tier system and in all bodies connected with it. The role of elected members to the panchayats being crucial to rural development and politics, leadership of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes assumes greater significance, the members of these communities who for centuries have been denied participation in political structure not only articulate the interests of their castes and communities but also 77 carve an important place in power structure by creating pressure groups through the organization of their members. Further more, because of the implementation of various programmes and distribution of grants, loans and facilities which are channeled through the panchayats by acting as pressure groups, they can get them diverted in favour of their own interests. By acting as reference individuals and groups can also make the people of their communities aware of various types of exploitations and disparities. As the impact of their consciousness about their rights, new values and courage for independent and active political participation, they can act as agent of modernization, social change and social mobility. In context of social disparities and social disabilities from which they have suffered for a much longer period, now these leaders can infuse self-confidence, self-initiative and aspirations for betterment among weaker sections of society. In the frame work of earlier discussion, it would be worthwhile to look into die nature and substance of leadership. The concept of leadership has been defined by various social scientists in different ways. For instance, Koontz and Donnell defines; "Leadership is the activity of pursuing people to co-operate in achievement of common goals". Terry defines "Leadership as it is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual objectives". The above definitions underscore the fact that leadership is a complex phenomenon. In some instance leadership involves mobilizing organizing and directing people to achieve predetermined goals. Leadership is the psychological dimension which can change lifestyle or cultural attitudes of masses. Further, leadership symbolizes a kind of status and power which gives it a character of elite. Thus, the concept of theories has given scope for various dimensions with regard to the nature and task of leadership.

78 Theoretical Framework for the Study of Panchayat Leadership The analysis of theories of leadership is necessary in order to identify the direction for die study of leadership. It also sets a sort of parameter for the study of leadership. Hence an analysis of the theories of leadership will be worth attempting for the purpose of academic exercise. The theories of leadership owe their origin to other disciplines like sociology and psychology etc. In the form of theories of elites’ political scientists too have enunciated theories of elites. In this connection reference may be made to the contribution of Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, Robert Michels and Josta Ortega, apart from these thinkers, Max Weber the German Sociologist has also enunciated a theory of elite. Vilfredo Pareto advocates the concept of circulation of elites. He is of the opinion that the various kinds of circulation occur among the elites. 1. They may occur between different categories of governing elites and 2. They may occur between elites and the rest of the population under these categories individuals from lower strata may form new elite groups and enter the existing elites’ groups or struggle for the power5. Gateno Mosca rejected the classical classification of Government. According to him Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy enunciate that there is only one type of government namely Oligarchy. Which means a government by the elite is present in all forms of government, whether itmay be monarchy, aristocracy or democracy6. Robert Michels enunciates the iron law of oligarchy in which he asserts that leadership is a necessary phenomenon in every form of social life whether it is public or private7. Max Weber classified leadership into three important categories namely charismatic, traditional and legal rational types. In the charismatic variety the leader develops a sense of communication with his fellowmen and casts a hypnotic spell on the masses. The leader appeals to the emotions of the

79 masses and as long as the leader is able to sustain his psychological hold on his followers’ charisma is all pervasive and all decisive. His strength lies in appealing to the tradition and commands of his followers, to accept his superior leadership. The legal rational type of leadership is rooted in respect for rules, regulations and norms. The leaders will not legally deviate from accepted legal institution and framework. His strength lies in his operational tactics which is confined strictly to what is legal and rational as against what is not legal and rational. The basis of his hold on the masses or followers lies in exemplariness of conforming laws of society. The above theories of elites provide a framework for the study of the leadership in panchayats. Pareto's concept of circulation of elites from amongthe elites and the lower strata helps in understanding the motivations of individuals in contesting election and victory. Lastly Max Weber's typology helps in identifying panchayat leaders from point of view of charisma, socialstatus and other variables. The functions of leadership presuppose the following tasks8.  Definition of group goals.  Initiation of action for the realization of these goals.  Development of a strategy for the achievement of the defined goals.  Sustenance of the interest of the members of the group in these Goals  Classification of issues and solutions of problems with a view to ensuring the speedy realization of the goals and  Exercise of a measure of control over recalcitrant members who block the achievement of these goals. Empirical Background A sample of 75 leader respondents chosen from Udupi district who belong to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, was taken up for 80 the study. The same respondents were further classified in terms of caste, income and educational background so as to probe into different issues related to the involvement political participation. Necessity of Political Parties Political parties play a vital role in Indian political system. They can represent aspirations and wishes of people and it does ventilate the problems of the people. The following tables are drawn on the views collected from the respondents. The statistics shows that out of 75 leaders of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes 86.67% of leaders are of the opinion that they need political parties in panchayat elections. This is because, political parties can highlight the problems of people and the parties can gather the people at maximum extent, 13.33% of leaders disfavor the necessity of political parties in panchayat raj bodies election. They were of the opinion that the political Parties may divide the people on party lines and thus may harm the unity and integrity of the society. Political parties are the important agents of mobilization it is argued in Indian political system that political parties play a major role in mobilizing people of all religion, caste etc. The following table is drawn to analyse the relationship between sub caste and the necessity of political parties. Necessity of Political Parties (sub-caste wise) The information collected shows that there is not so much change in the opinion of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribe leaders concerned to the need of the political parties. They are of the opinion that; they need political parties in panchayati elections. It shows that political parties have done well in rural Udupi in winning the confidence of the scheduled caste scheduled tribe leaders. 80 percent of each caste needs the political parties in panchyati elections. The income background of the leaders has also very significant in fluency in their changing political attitudes.

81 It is the income background which provides major avenues for the leaders to get involved actively in politics. Necessity of Political Parties (Income wise) As per data both the rich and poor group members needed political parties in panchayati elections. They are of the opinion that political parties increase the level of awareness among the people at different levels and it also increases the political participation of the people. One can notice some of the reasons as to why these leaders are favouring the need of political parties in panchyati elections, because now days’ political parties have increasingly related to society and political parties are highlighting some issue which are locally important and these leaders want to utilize political parties as means to an end in solving their local problems. The following table attempts to show as to how the educational background of the individual influences their attitude towards political parties. Necessity of Political Parties (Education wise) The data reveals that need for die political parties in panchayat elections are more supported by illiterate leaders and primary educated leader. All the illiterate leaders are of the opinion, that the political parties can ventilate problems of the people and thus can have many programmes in improving the local areas. Some of the high school background educated leaders shown less faith as compared to illiterate and primary education background leaders because they are of the opinion that political parties can divide the society on party lines and their respective party manifesto. Motivating Factors behind Election The leaders (respondents) were asked as to on whose insistence did they contested election, present study's aim was to find out whether they did it ontheir own initiative or under pressure of caste, kinship and party. For the purpose of analysis, the following table is drawn. The data clearly shows that members of their own 82 caste played a greater role in motivating their caste members to become leaders. Out of 75respondent leaders, 40 (53.34 per cent) respondents said that their own caste members pushed them to enter politics. Family members, friends, played a minor role in motivating the respondents in contesting election for panchayats. The statistics shows that, among the leaders who were motivated by their self initiative is very meager. This shows that the lack of self confidence among the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes’ leaders. Out of 75 respondents only 8 (10.66 per cent) of the respondents have entered politics with their own will and thus table shows the important role played by the caste in Indian political system. The following table shows the difference between sub castes in terms of motivating factors behind election. As far as the motivating factors of the sub caste are concerned. It is observed that there is not so much difference between the caste and sub castes in terms of their motivating factors. But the percentage of Mundala caste leaders is slightly high in motivating their caste member to persuade them to contest elections as compared to other castes like Bathada and Koraga communities’ leaders are motivated by all the listed factors mentioned in the study. The income background of the individuals has greater role in making them enter the politics. The following table attempts to show the relationship between the income background of the leaders and motivational factors behind election. The data clearly shows that own caste members do not make any distinction between rich and poor in motivating their caste people to contest election for panchayati. Other factors like own family members, friends, political parties and self initiative played a little role in motivating the respondents for contesting elections to panchayati. The educational background of the leaders is also an important factor in motivating the people to enter politics. The

83 following table attempts to show the relative influence of educational background of the leaders to the motivational factors. As the data shows that, Illiterate and primary educational background leaders, were motivated very much by their own caste members as compared to high school educational background leaders. Illiterate and primary educational background leaders were motivated by all the factors mentioned in table, but majority of them were motivated by their own caste members, and were thus less motivated by the other factors. High school educational background respondents have shown their own willingness to contest the election for panchayat. Out of 11 respondents 4 (36.36 per cent) have contested election on their own. This shows, the importance of education in broadening the vision of the people with regard to their political participation. Most of the leaders and even common people are also engaged in political activities. In order to no know different political activities of the respondents the following table is drawn. Most Important Party Activities of the Leaders The statistics even shows that, canvassing is the main party activity of the leaders belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes as compared to other political activities. But these leaders participated in almost all the party activities mentioned in table at a lower level, out of 75 respondents, 32 (42.66 per cent) of the respondents participated in canvassing during elections and the above table clearly shows that scheduled castes and scheduled tribes leaders contribution with regard to collection of party funds and organizing procession is very less, because these leaders are unable to influence the upper class people in connection with the raising fund for their party. The reason for this is that they are not well educated and lack of awareness hinders them in organizing processions.

84 Different sub-castes in rural Udupi district are placed in different, socio-economic context, which further reflects their heterogeneous attitudes towards political activities. Since their socio-economic status is different, they tend to have different interest as well as involvement in different level of political activities. The following table along with other variables discussed above attempts to focus on the sub-caste background and the different political activities in rural Udupi district. Important factor working in Party Activity (Education wise) Data shows that, there is not much difference in the party activities of the illiterate, primary and higher education background respondents. Canvassing is the main party activity of the illiterates and primary educational background respondents; where as high school education background respondents participated equally in each of the party activities mentioned in the study shows that illiterate leaders participated in all the party activities at less percentage when compared to canvassing. Leaders develop different attitudes about political power. In order to analyse what is the perception of leaders of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes about the political power, the following table is drawn. Perception of Political Power It is revealed from the data that, the leaders of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in Udupi district wanted to utilize their political power to serve the people. It is because these caste people know very well about the problems of their own caste group people as compared to other high caste people. Out of 75 respondents, 49 (65.33 per cent) of the respondents wanted to use their political power to serve the people and wanted to take suitable measures to improve infrastructure in the village. Only few respondents believed that political power can act as a tool to control the tiling and people. This is so because now days some of the leaders have been thinking about the strong hold of political

85 power and are using it for their selfish motives. Different sub- castes of scheduled caste and scheduled tribes in Udupi district are placed in different socio-economic contexts, which further reflect their heterogeneous attitudes towards political power. The following table along with other variables discussed above attempts to focus on the sub caste background and the perception about political power in rural Udupi district. Deciding Factor in Winning the Elections The data shows that as far as the significant factor in winning election for panchayats of the sub-castes of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes is concerned, there is not much of difference exists among leaders’ views with regard to factors in winning the elections for panchyats. Majority of leaders in each of the sub castes, viewed caste is the most important factor in winning elections. Table also shows that a minor role is played by other factors like party support personal factor, in fight among others in winning elections for panchayats as sub caste wise is concerned. The income background of the leaders has also played a very important role in elections. The following table attempts to show the relationship between the income background of the respondents and the significant factor that are responsible in winning elections. Winning Elections: Income wise From data mentioned in table 6.19 it is clear that caste played a prominent role in the income group of below Rs.1000 and Rs. 1001 to 5000 as compared to the income group of Rs. 5001 and above. It shows that significance of caste in lower income groups where in the majority of the leaders are poor, and they have to depend upon their own caste members in winning elections for panchayats Whereas, in the income groups of Rs. 5001 and above the respondent were given almost equal importance to all the factors mentioned in the table. It indicates that caste is the crucial factor

86 in winning the elections for panchayats among lower income group respondents. The educational background of the leaders also acts as a decisive factor which facilitates them to improve their political attitudes meaningfully. It does not mean that, educated leaders are more active, compared to illiterate leaders in the political process, but the former are more capable of influencing the minds of the people than the uneducated leaders. The following table attempts to show the relative influence of educational background of the leaders and the factors responsible for winning the elections for panchayats. The study indicates the opinions of illiterate and primary education background leaders who said that caste and party support are the two important factors which are responsible in winning their election for panchayats. Out of 34 illiterate respondents, 30 (88.23 per cent) said that caste is the main factor in winning their election, 11.77 percent of them said that party support is the main factor in winning their election for panchayats. 90 percent of the leaders in primary educational background leaders said that caste is the main factor in winning their election for panchayats, whereas high school background respondents have also given almost equal importance to all the factors mentioned in the table. Overall the table suggests that, caste is the significant factor in winning the election for panchayats. Conclusion: The evidence presented here points to the need for policy innovation to address market and non-market discrimination, to remove barriers and provide support (to Dalits) in the informal and private sector, and otherwise adapt interventions to the realities of caste. It also demonstrates need for informed discussion of caste inequality, and to challenge the exclusion of the issue from its proper place in global policy debate on sustainable development.

87 Notes and References 1. Mishra S. N., Pattern of emerging Leadership in Rural India, p.. 5 2. Taylor Carl A., A critical Analysis of India's community development programme, p-19 3. Constitution of India, Article 40 4. op.cit., p-7) 5. S.P. Verma: Moden political theory, p-44). 6. ibid, p.n.146. 7. ibid P-148). 8. S.C. Dube: Emerging patterns of Rural leadership in southern Asia.p.n.24-25.

Bibliography

1. Alfred de Grazia Jrans, Robert Mischel's first lectures in political sociology. 2. Ensmirgee D: Guide to community development, P.A. Publications, 196 3. For a critical Account of moscass views see James H. Meisel, The Myth of Raling class: Gaetano Mosca and the elite 4. Taylor Carl A: A critical Analysis of India's community development programme. 5. Max webar: An Intellectual portrait London, Heineman, 1960 6. Mishra S. N: Pattern of emerging Leadership in Rural India. 7. Park and Jinker: Leadership and political institutions in India, 1956 8. S.C. Dube: Emerging patterns of Rural leadership in southern Asia. 9. S.P. Verma: Moden political theory. *****

88 TRADITIONAL METHODS OF WATER CONSERVATION WITH REFERENCE TO HALAKKIS OF DISTRICT

RAGHAVA NAIK Assistant Professor of Sociology The present world is facing the problem of water scarcity for domestic use as well as other purposes. Drought has become common in many parts of the world. The main reason for decrease of ground water is unscientific use of water. This paper focuses on the methods used by Halakki community of Uttara Kannada District for water conservation. Halakkis have retained much traditional and sustainable culture with them even today. The paper is based on primary data Presently exhaustion of natural resources is one of the greatest global challenges before mankind. The protection of natural resources is significant for the improvement of ecology. Among these natural resources water is the most important natural resources for life on this earth. But, water has becoming a limited commodity in the 21stcentury due to its unavailability. Water scarcity and its pollution increases due to unscientific use and its wrong management. The various human activities of the present days are causing the water depletion. Our ancestors of Himalayan communities followed some principles to keep water resources pure and pollution-free. So, they considered water resources as “sacred” by constructing temples at the source of water. They also use to plant sacred trees like Banyan or Peepal trees on the banks of rivers and other water sources. Normally they used to construct small artificial ponds on the slopes of mountains. This is the common feature of many sacred places of India. These ponds were not only the traditional methods of rainwater harvesting which helped in maintaining the

89 groundwater level but also provided water to domestic and wild animals in forests. Many of these traditional water resource management systems are now disappearing due to lack of forests, irregular and unpredicted rainfall pattern. This is because loss of traditional knowledge and de-forestation, modernization and uncontrolled development. Among the important reasons behind the negligence of these important water resources is modernization, which has caused a loss of traditional knowledge systems among rural communities along with a lack of maintenance due to out- migration of villagers to nearby towns and cities for better job opportunities. Our traditional, rural and tribal communities had scientific knowledge on water conservation and its proper management as the traditional wisdom. Some of the traditional practices followed by these people are scientific and if they are adopted by the modern society the problem of water crisis can be solved. About Halakkis Halakkis are the one of the biggest tribal groups of Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka state. Actually they have all features of tribes and would have included in list of scheduled tribes. Though they are not included in the list, they maintained their own uniqueness in all spheres of life as a tribe. Normally tribal people are the inhabitants of hilly, forest areas, away from civilized life and maintain their own unique, distinct cultural traits. The tribes have their own unique beliefs, traditions, folkways, art, and dialect. Similarly, among the tribes of Uttara Kannada Halakkis is one of the important tribes, who are so innocent, less literate and away from civilized life. The Halakkis are having intimate relation with nature with simplicity and without the touch of modernization. These are the people who collect forest products like herbs, firewood, cocum, cane, honey etc. 90 Though, Halakkis were used to cultivate the land, it was shifting cultivation, more like nomadic people. These people had not much interaction with other groups, have suspicious nature and kept the outsiders at distance. Halakkis does not bother much about marital relations but maintain their own rules for the good and healthy society (N R Nayaka; 2012). Though the other tribes of Uttara Kannada adopted many features of , Halakkis still maintained their own cultural distinctness and uniqueness. Halakkis Traditional Methods of Water Conservation According to 1991 census Uttara Kannada district is one of the districts of Karnataka which has highest forest, covers 80 percent of its land. Along with, its land escape is also uneven since it is covered by forest and mountains. In the beginning Halakkis inhabited these areas; they used to do terrace culture in which Halakkis were expertise, but latter during British time it has been banned. The data collected for study reveals that still 33 percent of the Halakki families opt for terrace cultivation due to uneven landscape. The Halakkis habitation being near hilly and forest area, they had to take same piece of land for the cultivation. A 13 percent of them practice mixed pattern of cultivation like terrace, wetland and plain area cultivation. Maximum area can be cultivated by the minimum use of water under this method of cultivation. So the advantage of terrace cultivation is water conservation. Terrace Farming Terrace pattern means “steps” known as terraces built onto the slopes of hills and mountains. When it rains, instead of rain carrying away the soil nutrients and plants down the slope, they flow to the next terrace. Every step has an outlet which channels water to the next step. This helps in keeping some areas dry and others wet. On very high altitudes, other crops apart from rice can be grown. 91 This farming method has made cultivation of crops in hilly or mountainous regions possible. Halakkis houses are situated at hilly and remote area; they have to use that uneven land for cultivation. Normally such type of dry land is used for vegetable cultivation during rainy season rather than paddy cultivation. There are two types of terracing known as graded terracing and level terracing. A graded terrace may have either constant or variable grades along its length. On the contrary, the level terraces follow a contour line and are best suited for permeable soil. Advantages Terrace farming prevents the washing away of soil nutrients by the rains. This leads to the growth of healthy crops. Secondly, terraces help in reduction of soil erosion and water loss. The third benefit of terrace farming is that it has made the idle hillside land become productive. Halakkis use to grow paddy in terrace pattern according to the nature of land they possess. Among the respondents 33 percent of Halakkis possess terrace pattern of land. Terrace cultivation is one of the important methods of water conservation. It does not allow the water to runoff rather makes to perpetrate in the soil and increases ground water. Madaka Madaka is very simply put, but a large soak pit. Madakas are normally constructed in geographical areas that have high landscape on three sides and a low area on the fourth. In physical terms, a Madaka is a natural formation. That has high landscape on three sides and a low manmade bank or a blockade on the fourth side. As these mostly make use of natural formations, very little human effort is needed to create a Madaka. The water that flows down from the higher level collects in the madaka and slowly percolates into the soil. The laterite soil in agricultural areas is ideal for madakas as it allows slow percolation of water through the cracks. As a result of this, water oozes 92 through springs and other outlets into manmade tanks or wells which are located near the point of water collection in the madaka. Small channels are made to allow the flow of excess water collected in the madaka into agricultural fields. The excess water is utilized by farmers to cultivate paddy and other crops. As the flow follows the natural gradient, a pump is unnecessary. However, as water scarcity was not a concern in earlier times, people were content with using the madaka as a collection point for water to only irrigate their lands. They did not realise that madakas also had the capacity to absorb water. Proper care has to be taken to ensure that the first or second rainfall does not flow into the madaka. With the gradual increase in population, the demand for water also increased. Cash crops, such as and coconut which required higher quantities of water became popular in coastal areas, and this is very often replacing paddy. Madakas enhance the decreasing groundwater level. This ensures rejuvenation of the subterranean water. Madakas increase the water levels in wells, tanks and borewells. Pumping of water to irrigate the land just below the madaka is considerably lessened. This in turn prevents irresponsible use and exploitation of ground water and water in wells, tanks and borewells. Forestation is essential in order to prevent silt deposits in the madakas. This step also augments the level of water. It creates new ecosystem as various animals and birds seek shelter in the forest. The water in the madaka also nurtures aquatic life. Halakkis traditionally maintained madakas at their field wherever it is possible. They have knowledge of significance of Madakas at their field and still maintain them in their fields. As per the data 18.33 percent of the respondents use the water for their agricultural activities from the madakas.

93 Cattle Pool Protection of land and water was an important concern to rural communities. Over time, various conservation practices have been developed through the use of indigenous knowledge. The villages used to have tanks, ponds, wells and cattle pools. But today using these knowledge of tanks, ponds, wells and cattle pools developed by these local skills provide the blue-print for present day check dams, gully plugs and trench cum bunds. Cattle pool or Gokatte is a simple and traditional water conservation practice. These pools can be found all over – in and around villages, outside towns, at one corner of the field, at the base of the hill and in some instances, even in the middle of a tank. While some have been built very systematically using stones, others have been created in pits. This is built without the help of any special tools or gadgets. There are many different types of gokattes in Karnataka, such as community cattle pool, town pond, small pond, madaka, excavated well, water pit etc. Though the water conservation methods varied, gokattes were in practice in some form or the other, as a community effort even as recently as two decades ago. However, community-based activity was directed not only at the building of gokattes but for desilting and strengthening of tanks, repairing the wall, whitewashing and removing mud from the ponds, which were all a part of the community effort. People participated in good numbers for the construction of the Gokatte and the tanks. In the study area 24.67 percent of respondents have said that they construct water pond at the corner of their agricultural field. Water drenching Traditionally, with the onset of winter, the farmers of the village erect a mud embankment to the canal of the plantation by using banana stems and areca strips. 94 During summer, in order to maintain the greenery in the fields, flowing water is embanked. This is the fruit of traditional wisdom. In the region, a special method of water drenching is undertaken by containing water in canals. In order to do this, a rope is tied between two areca trees and part of the rope is allowed to hang. The broad spate that grows at the bottom of the bastard sago tree (Caryota Urens Lin) is attached to a rope. At the end of this is a container used to scoop the water out and drench the field. Each time the spate is lifted, about 10-15 liters of water flow out effortlessly. This practice entails constant labour for seven months in a year and helps maintain the green of the plantation. The embankments built for water drenching are helpful in groundwater conservation as well. The bastard sago trees that help in water drenching have an amazing relationship with irrigation. These trees are normally found in evergreen and semi- evergreen forests. The dense vegetation and water sources of the valley are the main support for agriculture in the region. Forests are a boon to Karavali. However, due to the destruction of forests, there is a grave danger of water scarcity. Halakkis earlier used to lift the water to their fields by water drenching. Presently, a small number of farmers used to follow this kind of water drenching among the Halakkis. As modernization advances, this method of lifting also rarely found. Katta Kattas are temporary structures in the form of barricades erected across rivers, streams and rivulets to hold back the flowing water. The entire community involves itself in erecting these kattas. They are built out of locally available stone and mud. The kattas are in existence only for three or four months in the summer. But the role they play within this short period is very significant. Enormous volumes of water contained by the kattas soak into the soil on both sides of the stream. This moisture, which seeps into the soil,

95 releases itself gradually into the neighboring wells for agricultural purposes. Serial kattas are the best methods to maintain the water level in rivers and play a pivotal role in ensuring prosperity of the farmers. The katta water extends a direct benefit to the land-owners on either side of the river or the stream; it also contributes indirectly to the welfare of the village and the community. The water collected in the katta, seeps through all the crevices and permeates through the layers of soil thus, increasing the underground water level. Halakkis, though have small landholding they mainly cultivate paddy and vegetables. They bring up first crop with monsoon. The second and third crop badly needs water sources. As per the data 45 percent of them are constructing kattas across the streams by using locally available mud and stones. The beneficiaries of the community join hand together in erecting the kattas. The stored water in the kattas irrigates their land in winter and summer seasons. This is one of the methods which contribute to greater extent for water conservation. The both sides of the streams sustain water and supply for plants. Water tradition as documented by Buchanan In the year 1801 Buchanan visited Batkla and recorded the water conservation method of the people. As he said town of , on the northern bank of Sankadahole, the villagers built eight mud embankments between November 17 and December 16 every year, by themselves. This rare document informs us that the farmers of Bhatkal knew how to stop the running water about 200 years ago!. The primitive people of India had their own wonderful knowledge on water harvesting and water conservation. Being rural and agricultural population, Halakkis are also used to have traditional knowledge in many aspects of life including water harvesting. They 96 knew the different methods of water conservation and used to practice it their agricultural operations. The Halakkis farms normally consist of a pond, be it a small or large. Similarly, they used to store water in the streams by blocking with mud, which has multiple benefits. By doing so, the flow of the water is blocked and stored in a particular place. So the water perpetrates in to the ground and water table increases. This will also be benefited to the nearby plants and trees to feed water and grow to the greater height. All such things show that Halakkis had and have the knowledge of water harvesting and conservation of water. References 1. Bhasin, V. 1989, Ecology, Culture and Change: Tribals of Sikkim, Inter-India Publications, Delhi. 2. Ramachandra Guha 1994, Social ecology., Oxford University Press, . 3. Hoff Marie D. 1998, Sustainable Community Development, Lewis Publication, New York, Washington. 4. Mukhopadhyay, Lipi,2002, Tribal Women in development, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi. 5. Nadarajah M, 1999. Culture, Gender and Ecology, Rawat Publication, and New Delhi, 6. N R, Nayaka 2012, Halakki Vakkaligaru-Ondu Samskritika Adhyayana, Godholi Prakashana, Bengaluru. 7. Savita, Nayaka 2000, Uttara Kannada Jilleya Kelau Budakattugalalli Prasadana Kale, Janapada Prakashana, Honnavara. 8. Rao Ravindranath Rao Y, 2003, Tribal Tradition and Change; A Study of Kudubis of South india, Mangaluru, Mangala Publications.

97 9. Shanti, V. and Raja Lakshmi, 2002, Women and Environment - in empowerment of Women and Ecological Development (ed.), Reddy, A.R. Serials Publications, New Delhi. 10. Ratna Reddy V, 2009, Water Security and Management: Ecological Imperatives and Policy options, Academic Foundation, New Delhi and CESS, . 11. Mahendra Dev, S. Ravi. C, and Venkatnarayana, M. (eds), 2009, Human Development in Andhra Pradesh: Experiences - Issues and Challenges, CESS Publication, Hyderabad. 12. Mahendra Dev, S, 2007, Inclusive Growth in India: Agriculture, Poverty and Human Development, Oxford University Press: New Delhi. 13. Ratna Reddy V and Mahendra Dev S (eds) 2006, Managing Water Resources: Policies, Institutions and Technologies, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. *****

98 CHALLENGES TO ANIMAL HUSBANDRY: A STUDY IN UDUPI DISTRICT

Dr DUGGAPPA KAJEKAR Assistant Professor of Sociology Introduction Ever since the beginning of civilisation, humans have depended on animals for many requirements, such as that of food (milk, meat and egg), clothing (hide or wool), labour (pulling, carrying load) and security etc. The development of desirable qualities in all such animal species, through creating better breeds, has been an important human achievement. For this, humans have consistently tried to improve the breeds of domesticated animals to make them more useful for them. In this lesson, you will learn about the common breeds of such animals, their uses and some methods of improving their breeds. The branch of science, which deals with the study of various breeds of domesticated animals and their management for obtaining better products and services from them, is known as Animal Husbandry. The term husbandry derives from the word “husband” which means ‘one who takes care’. When it incorporates the study of proper utilisation of economically important domestic animals, it is called Livestock Management. The raising of animals is as old as civilisation itself, for our common domestic animals were domesticated even before the dawn of documented history. Palaeolithic man hunted animals for food and raiment; his successor, the Neolithic man, tamed and conformed them. It was in the Stone Age that men first practised agriculture, which included the raising of domestic animals. Animal husbandry was the occupation, either sole or part, of majority of the people. Every villager usually kept a few animals for draught purposes and to meet the supply of his own household.

99 Detailed information about rearing and care of the cow in ancient India is given in many books written by various authors of ancient h1dia. A detail account of animal husbandry in ancient India is described in the Brhat Parasara Samhita written by Parasara. Krishi Parasara is another book written by Parasara which contain much information about agriculture and animal husbandry. Kautilyas Arthrashastra is another very important book which contains much useful information on animal husbandry. Puskara also contain many valuable information about veterinary and animal husbandry in ancient India. The following are some of the important information about traditional animal husbandry and veterinary lore in ancient India. Review of Literature Following are the findings of the research works conducted previously on the live stock economy in various parts of the country and abroad. Amrik (1980) suggests that income and employment could be increased with the adoption of integrated crop and milk production in Punjab. Linear programming technique was used to develop the optimum and integrated crop and milk plans with the existing and improved level of farm technology. Brindavan C. Moses and M.S.S Pandian (1983) analyse that the poorer cultivators are forced to dispose off their cattle during off season to meet day to day expenses and buy the same at higher price during cultivation time. Naresh Dayal (1981) points out that the main thrust of dairy development is to provide employment opportunities and to generate more income for the betterment and improvement of weaker sections in the society in particular and to improve the nutritional standard of human beings by providing milk to the women consumers in general. Dairy development helps to stimulate development of the weaker sections.

100 Moran (1987) has analysed the role of cattle and buffalo in the agriculture of South East Asia, in providing both milk and meat and also traction for ploughing and transport. Improvement is clearly possible by crossbreeding, but it appears that this is most likely to be achieved with existing native breeds than by introducing exotic ones. Bhanja (1989) states the significant positive point in favour of animal husbandry programme is its employment potential for illiterate rural poor. Animal husbandry does not demand complex skill and is well suited to our landless rural agricultural labourers. The employment opportunity in crop cultivation being increasingly low due to modernization and pressure on land, the alternate source to provide employment in rural area is animal husbandry for which the base resource is already available with the people. Hemalatha and Reddy (2001) in their study points out that unlike the agricultural activities which are strenuous in nature and riddled with uncertainties, dairy enterprise provides constant and assured income to the poor farmer. It provides gainful employment and thus prevents migration of rural youth to the cities. If maintained on sound scientific lines it can be an effective medium to generate regular employment for the millions of rural poor. Goplal Lai Jain (2001) in his article concludes that rearing of sheep, goats and pig is almost exclusively in the hands of weaker sections of the rural community having small or no land holdings. Several groups of nomadic people are engaged in raising sheep. Francis D.K. Anim (1997) points out that livestock continue to fulfil some important social functions. In 1886, 68 per cent of cattle, 84 per cent of sheep and 66 per cent of goats were used for social functions like funerals, wedding and ceremonial purposes. Triveni Dutt (2001) points out that the cattle and buffalo production is an integral part of rural economy and contributes substantially to the family income. Milk provides 63 per cent of animal protein and almost 100 per cent of animal fat in the daily diet of an average Indian. Milk contributed 66.8 per cent of the total value of output from 101 livestock (1998-99). Hemalatha, B and Y.V.R. Reddy (2001) point out that though India possesses one sixth of cattle population and one-fourth of buffalo population in the world and annual growth rate is about 2 percent, milk productivity per animal and contribution to national income is low. Methodology This paper is based on the primary data collected by the MSW student in the month of March 2018. Altogether 60 respondents were interviewed in Udupi District, especially those who own domestic animals for personal benefits. Most of the respondents were from and Karkala Taluks since they were in villages and more exposed to agriculture. The data thus collected was duly edited, coded and tabulated. The tabulated data were analysed and interpreted as follows. Status of Livestock Diversity in India India has the world's largest dairy herd (composed of cows and buffaloes), at over 304 million strong, and stands first in milk production, with 112.5 million tonnes of milk produced in 2009- 2010. India is also the third-largest egg-producer in the world, producing over 180 million eggs every day or 65.7 billion eggs for the year 2011-12, and the world’s sixth largest producer of poultry meat. While the majority of India’s animal products are consumed domestically, exports are growing. India is the top global exporter of buffalo meat, and is also the fourth largest exporter of soybean meal, an important ingredient in commercial feed for farmed animals. In addition, India’s leading poultry producers, including Suguna, Venky’s, and the Amrit Group, are increasing sales to countries in other parts of Asia and the Middle East. International investment is also expanding. In 2008, U.S.-based Tyson Foods acquired a 51 percent stake in Godrej, an Indian conglomerate that is a major producer of animal feeds and poultry, and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) has an equity stake in

102 Suguna. An estimated 200 million egg-laying hens are kept in battery cages, and more than half of the over two billion “meat” chickens produced each year are factory-farmed. Vertical integration and contract farming for poultry and eggs is also widespread. While the milk and cheese sectors still include many small-scale producers and cows and buffaloes. Livestock production systems in the country can broadly be described under four categories: pastoral, forest-based, mixed crop-livestock and industrial/commercial production systems. Mixed crop-livestock farming, forest-based and pastorals are common production systems found across the country. Majority of livestock representing different climatic conditions and habitats of the country is having substantial economic, social and ecological role by its contribution to the conservation of environment. India occupies a pre-eminent position with respect to animal genetic resources with 26 breeds of cattle, 8 breeds of buffalo, 42 breeds of sheep, 20 breeds of goat, 8 breeds of camel, 6 breeds of horse, a few types of pigs and 18 breeds of poultry along with species like geese and duck. 26 Indian breeds of native cattle have been accredited. There have been dramatic changes in the population and composition of livestock over the past five decades. While the total population and density of livestock has increased over a period of time, the number of livestock kept by each rural household has decreased and there was drastic decline of bullocks during 1980’s. There was decrease in the share of farm animals in power supply from 71% in 1961 to less than 23% in 1991. The 59th round of the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) has reported that working cattle in rural areas decreased by 25% between 1991-92 and 2002-03. There has been a corresponding shift in the composition of bovine population from cattle to buffalos.

103 Poultry in Udupi District Local chickens were reared mainly for cock fighting and for regular consumption in the District. People have given pet names based on their ability to fight like Tyson named after Boxer Tyson, etc. Diversity of traditional bird is found to be higher along the Kudapur and Karkala regions of the District than other ecological regions. Density of improved poultry breeds is high due to increased consumption rate. Diversity of traditional poultry is highest along the foothill region as compared to other ecological regions. This might be due to transfer of genes between domesticated and wild poultry. They can be reared in both controlled farming condition as well as in the back yard. They yield more eggs than local but less than the layers. Two hybrid breeds like Layers and Broilers were used and grown abundantly. Rearing of these birds became an attractive income generating activity. Broiler is grown for meat and Layers for egg laying purpose and used abundantly. These breeds in the state meet demand for meat. Cows and other Animals Density of pig is quite low; local breed and also exotic white breed like White Yorkshire or crosses are reared only for meat. Usually Christians rear white animals and non-vegetarian local communities rear local black animal breeds other domesticated animals like cat are reared as pet animals and also to control rodents and rabbits as pet animal and rarely for the purpose of meat. Pigeons are reared as hobby. Change in livestock population and composition has shown variation across different landholding categories with the decline in livestock holding being sharpest amongst landless households. Surprisingly only 15-20% of households own the sheep and the goat. Limited livestock ownership amongst the poor and landless households might further reduce their stakes in common property/natural resources, which is not only iniquitous but also

104 reduces their coping ability particularly in vulnerable habitats. This shift in livestock composition and ownership pattern has not happened ‘naturally’ but as a response to several developmental policies made by the government over the years. Land reforms often translated into distribution of public grazing lands, even as the landlords continued to possess fertile lands. The landless were given the poor quality land and the villages have lost the common grazing land. Shrinking Community Property Rights pushed more and more livestock into the forest areas. During the post- independence period, restrictive forest policies continued to keep the livestock out of forests. Forestry and wasteland plantation programmes have further reduced the grazing area. CHALLENGES TO ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Agriculture is an important industry and like all other industries it also requires capital, technology and labour. Animal husbandry is not free from these hurdles. The role of time and labour input is becoming more and more important with the advancement of farm technology. Since the animal husbandry is locked up in owner’s lands and stocks, he is obliged to depend on other facilities and services to accelerate the tempo of animal farming. Following are some of the challenges faced by the owners of livestock. These are not only the problems found in Udupi District but the problem in the state at large. Lack of Dry and Green Fodder In Udupi District there exists a considerable gap between supply and demand of fodder particularly after the month of January to May. The situation continues even at the time of drought and flood. The District has many constraints to animal husbandry, but lack of adequate fodder is one of the most important constraints, as more than 70-75 percent of the recurring cost of a farm production of main ingredients goes to fodder. As per Livestock Census Report 2007, only 1.18 percent land is used for fodder

105 cultivation against the national average of 4.6 percent which is not good enough to fulfil the local demand. Throughout the state crop residue is the main dry fodder available for feeding livestock, but the requirement of dry fodder will substantially increase over the years due to increase of livestock. Rice Bran and Broken Rice In all of the agro-climatic regions rice bran is very much used by the respondents as livestock fodder. In Udupi District, rice bran production is decreasing in the recent years. The poor farmers will be the main beneficiaries. Broken rice is an important by-product of rice milling industry. From the Nutritional point of view, broken rice is as good as whole rice itself. Broken rice has low economic value as compared to whole rice. Generally, broken rice is of poor quality due to the admixture with grit, stones and clay particles. Therefore, broken rice is used either as a part of animal feed or partially in the diet of the poor village people. Fodder seeds preservation facilities in the different agro-climatic regions are available at Kundapur, Udupi and Karkal fodder farm but are not good enough as per requirement and proper initiative have not been taken to increase fodder cultivation in the unconventional areas like watershed areas, cultivable waste lands and fallow lands of these regions. Grazing, Pasture land and Agricultural Land In the District, availability of fodder and pasture land are respectively 1.18 percent and 0.07 percent which far behind as per the requirement. With an increase in habitation, development and population growth, rice cultivation has been expanded in the forest areas. The scope for further expansion has reached its maximum level since a major part of arable land has been already brought under cultivation which reflects the fact. Forest area remains stagnant at 13.5 percent in the District. Rest of the land is

106 mainly put to non- agricultural use i.e. urban areas, industries, infrastructures and barren totalling to 20.5 percent. Poor Marketing Facilities For the huge agricultural product there is a wide potentiality for proper marketing facilities. Timely and adequate availability of credit to the poor farmers is an important step of good marketing. But unfortunately all segments of the farming community, particularly small, marginal, share croppers and landless livestock owners are not properly attached with social marketing strategy. But, for the development of animal husbandry, adequate and proper marketing facilities are very important for benefiting both the producer and consumer. Organized market infrastructure is very essential to minimize the role of intermediaries. There are three-tier marketing network and the lowermost primary tier is known as rural ‘hat’ which generally functions as collection centre. Farmer’s cooperative is responsible for collection, grading, packing, stamping and transportation of primary products. But unfortunately due to lack of well organized marketing facilities the farmers are very much dependent on middle-men for marketing their dairy products. The Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) Act, however, yet to amend the APMC Act on the lines of the guidelines issued by the Government of India. The State government is considering amending the act so as to allow private corporate houses to procure agricultural produce directly from the Self Help Groups (SHGs) instead of individual farmers. In the different agro-climatic regions most of the small and marginal farmers do not get any information about livestock market, while only 38 percent get information from radio, and only 4 percent of the farmers are aware of good marketing. Due to poor accessibility and lack of infrastructure of market facilities, long march of the live stocks towards the slaughter house is very common in all agro- climatic regions particularly in remote rural areas.

107 Non-availability of veterinary Doctors The Udupi District has huge number of livestock population, but most of them have very poor health and the animal husbandry sector cannot be developing until the livestock population maintain a good health facility. Due to unhygienic conditions, malnutrition, improper housing and poor vaccination coverage the livestock population of the state are affected by different types of diseases like Foot & Mouth disease, and swine fever, duck and fowl cholera etc. Lack of an integrated approach to deal with animal health results in large mortality and morbidity rates of live stocks; this causes huge losses to the farmers. To maintain good health proper medical facilities like disease diagnosis and vaccination coverage are very essential. Lack of Proper Veterinary Hospitals is another problem faced by the agriculture’s. Non availability of Doctors in veterinary Hospitals is an added problem to them. The data shows that the 78.33% of the respondents consulting the veterinary doctor in case sickness of the animals ,15% of the respondents consulting veterinary hospital at emergencies and remaining 6.67% of the respondents are treating the cattle themselves in case the sickness. We can conclude that the majority of 78.33% of the respondents are consults the veterinary doctor in case sickness of their animals. Since it tells that they are not knowing the own treatment as well as they have fear about the health problems of animals. Eradication and Control of Diseases Eradication and control of diseases is a great challenge particularly to the coastal Districts of Karnataka State. Lack of regional coordination amongst the Districts and interface with the neighbouring Districts in tackling animal diseases may have serious implications on animal and human health. The State Governments have no proper infrastructure to tackle the problem of animal health. Many of the diseases, like avian flu, can cause human

108 diseases due to frequent man-animal contacts. The frequent outbreaks of diseases like dengue, Brucellosis, Swine fever and Avian Influenza etc. The Productivity and reproduction capacity of livestock population are declining in the District. The available veterinary support in terms of Infrastructure (i.e. hospitals, health centre and diagnostic laboratories) and technical manpower are insufficient to provide medical facilities to the huge number of livestock population. The lack of adequate biological products and disease diagnostic laboratories are also contributing to the already ailing animal healthcare programme in the border areas. Animal Waste Management A good waste management practice will aim at preventing adverse effect of natural resources, exploiting wastes as an input resource and recycling of nutrients in the agro-eco system. Re-use of nitrogenous animal waste at the size of primary crop production is a sustainable solution of environmental problem in low land animal farming system as observed by Atkinson and Watson (1991). Maintaining fertility of the land by return of dung and urine is traditional in most of the small holder dairy production systems; however, in some system effective use of fermentable waste has been made in small-scale methane generation to meet the need of energy for household and farm operations (Egan, 1999). Cattle Smuggling India has the largest cattle population in the world, but due to religious constraints cow-slaughter is not allowed in many places of the country apart from Kerala. But in Bangladesh there is no religious hurdle of cow slaughtering and most of the people consume beef. This is why cattle are usually smuggled to Bangladesh for more profit, especially during the Muslim festivals. Unfortunately, there is no legal agreement in between India and Bangladesh on a time-limited export quota of cattle. There is a legal agreement between India and Pakistan to export a maximum

109 of 1 million cattle per annum year since 2005 to Pakistan. If the cattle are not passed through the border illegally, India may become a large beef and leather exporter in the world. Even in Udupi District it is reported that 15 to 20 percent of cattle are missing in spite of the owner care. Every year approximately 1.5 million cattle illegally cross the Indo Bangladesh border, and cattle owners are suffering economic losses by illegal cross border cattle trading. Summary and Conclusion The unique diversity of livestock is both a gift of nature and legacy of every generation of farmers since agriculture began. Cattle, dogs and chicken are the three animal groups maintained under domestication by significant proportion of people since many generations. Buffalo, goat and pig have been introduced in the beginning of 20th century. Modern breeds of chicken are bred only for meat. The traditional chicken is selectively bred as fighting cocks, as the cockfights are a favourite pastime for some communities. Country dogs with good characters were meant for farm protection. Majority of exotic/improved dog breeds are being kept as pet animals in and around the towns. Other domesticated animals like cat, rabbit and pigeon are reared as hobby. Traditional breeds have provided the genes needed for pest and disease resistance or to adapt for hilly region having least care, drought and cold temperatures. Unfortunately, we are losing this pristine genetic diversity with the introduction of exotics. Documentation of livestock diversity involves assessment of ecosystem at local level hence; the information needs to be organized by addressing the Intellectual Property Rights and conservation plans. Understanding of the aspirations of people, need for development, conservation priorities and elaboration of biodiversity management plans for sustenance needs to be addressed. Intensive and season oriented survey and

110 documentation is needed to collect information on higher diversity in the region: Working breed of domestic animals is expensive to maintain during the off-season. Hence, the farmer disposes them during summer season. Hence the seasonal data is required to be collected to draw the conservation and management plans. Facilitating marketing channels for livestock products and encouragement of farmers to promote the conservation of traditional breeds: Proper marketing channel is needed for dairy products and their by products to enhance the income of farmers through milk unions. Value addition at local level provides avenue for generation of rural employment and higher income leading to economic improvement. Improvement in the density of exotic animals is needed. Protection of traditional and native cattle breeds and preservation of unique characters: Traditional breeds have provided the genes needed for pest and disease resistance or for adaptation to hilly region where there is adverse climatic condition. The unique characters of traditional/indigenous breeds need to be preserved and protected for further breeding programme in future. Recognition and providing incentives to persons involved in the conservation of traditional livestock diversity: Persons in Udupi District need to be recognized, honoured and encouraged by providing incentives to create awareness among the younger generation and motivate them to involve in protection and conservation of livestock diversity in the region. Assessment of traditional breeds for pest resistance, disease resistance and other good traits for further livestock improvement: Milk from traditional breeds is thick and nutritionally rich as compared to other breeds. Resistance of certain local breeds to diseases, pests and drought should be identified and conserved for further improvement programme by creating in-situ gene bank.

111 Acknowledgement I thank Ms Akshatha II MSW (2017-18) for collecting and processing this data meticulously as per the guidance of research supervisor. References 1. Angniman, P.A. 1996. “Privatization of veterinary services within the context of structural adjustment in Mali”, Cameroon and Chad. Rome, FAO. 2. Baker, J.L. 1995. Profile of veterinary services in New Zealand. Rome, FAO. 3. Cheneau, Y. 1984. Towards new structures for the development of animal husbandry in Africa south of the Sahara. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 3(3): 621-627. 4. Gatongi, P.M., et al. 1993. Effects of three nematode anthelmintic treatment regimes on flock performance of sheep and goats under extensive management in semi-arid Kenya, Vet. Parasitology, 68: 323-336. 5. Leonard, D.K. 1987. The supply of veterinary services: Kenyan lessons. Agric. Admin. & Extension, 26: 219-236. 6. Schillhorn van Veen, T.W. & de Haan, C. 1995. Trends in the organization and financing of livestock and animal health services. Prev. Vet. Med., 25: 225-240. 7. Schreuder, B.E.C., Moll, H.A.J., Noorman, N., Halimi, C., Kroese, A.H. & Wassink, G. 1995. A benefit-cost analysis of veterinary intervention in Afghanistan based on a livestock mortality study. Prev. Vet. Med., 26: 303-314. 8. Sidahmed, A.E. 1995. Livestock development and rangelands management cluster: privatization of veterinary services in sub-Saharan Africa. Rome, International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

112 9. Swallow, B.M., Mulatu, W. & Leak, S.G.A. 1995. Potential demand for a mixed public-private animal health input: evaluation of a pour-on insecticide for controlling tsetse- transmitted trypanosomiasis in Ethiopia. Prev. Vet. Med., 24: 265-275. 10. Wamukoya, J.P.O., Gathuma, J.W. & Mutiga, E.R. 1995. Spontaneous private veterinary practices evolved in Kenya since 1988. Rome, FA *****

113 GRAPH THEORY IN SOCIAL NETWORK ANALYSIS

SUJATHA V SHET Assistant Professor of Mathematics Abstract A graph is a set of vertices (which are usually represented as dots) and a set of edges (lines between the dots). Since social network mimics the structure of graphs, analysing a social network is quite similar to the analysis of a graph. In this article, a review on the closeness of the relation between network analysis and graph theory is done. Introduction Graph theory, like all other branches of mathematics, consists of a set of interconnected terminologies. Graph theory uses two primary objects called points and lines. A graph is a set of vertices (which are usually represented as dots) and a set of edges (lines between the dots). Genealogical diagrams are diagrams of graphs, where individual person is represented as a node and edges represent if these individuals are linked by relations of affinity, parenthood and siblingship [1]. Diagrams of this kind have been in practical use in many parts of the world and oral descriptions of these configurations of relations have been with us for thousands of years. The definition by Wasserman and Faust [2] says that social network data can be viewed as a social relational system characterized by a set of actors and their social ties. Additional information in the form of actor attribute variables or multiple relations can be part of the social relational system. Social network data consist of various elements. Social network analysis is an interdisciplinary field of research with a long history of input from sociology, anthropology, statistics, mathematics, information sciences, education, psychology and other disciplines. Social network

114 analysis is used in several other fields like information science, business application, communication, economy etc. Social network analysis aims at understanding the network structure by description, visualization, and (statistical) modelling. Social networks and the techniques to analyse them existed since decades. In earlier decades, social networks are analysed to understand the behaviour and evolution of human networks. A social network can be an email network, a telephone network or a collaborative network. But nowadays, most popular and most visited social networks are Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Myspace and Google+ which have acquired huge number of users. The closeness of the relation between network analysis and graph theory is widely recognized, but the nature of the relation is seldom discussed. The structure of social networks and their analysis has evolved from graph theory, statistics and sociology. Since, social network mimics the structure of graphs, analysing a social network is quite similar to the analysis of a graph. A social network can be considered as a complex graph having nodes and edges, where the collection of nodes represents actors or people and edges connect actors in communication (which represent relationships between the individuals, such as friendship, kinship, organizational position, social relationships, etc.). Many systems take the form of networks, sets of nodes or vertices joined together in pairs by links or edges. Examples include, social networks such as acquaintance networks and collaboration networks. Most popular social networks are Facebook, Twitter, and Google+. To analyse these social networks, one needs specialized tools for analysis. Network representations utilize elements and their relations. The elements are not all necessarily of the same type: they may be individuals, sets of individuals, groups, organizations, activities or some combination thereof. The relations are not all necessarily of the same type; they may be reflexive (one element relations), dyadic (two element relations), 115 or polyadic (multi-element relations) for elements of a single type. Relations among two or more different types of elements may also be examined. There are many different types of network representations in common use. In all of its varieties, the network approach is quite general. There are, however, common features and issues which run through these varieties. Types of empirical, graphic, or mathematical representations of networks are often interchangeable. For example, isomorphic mappings can be defined among (1) concrete actors and their social relations, (2) points and edges in one or more graphs of the network, (3) matrices in which rows or columns are related by cell entries, (4) various abstract algebraic structures. There are a number of tools for graph analysis that are in existence from decades. But they are not able to analyse a social network graph because of its huge size and complex properties. It may contain millions of nodes and edges. Social networks are dynamic, i.e. there is continuous evolution and expansion. In a social network, a node or actor usually has several attributes. There can be small and large communities within social networks. Because of the complex structure and very large size of the social networks, old graph analysis tools are not designed to analyse social networks. Graphs and Network Analysis For the past 35 years, social network analysis has developed structural models to analyse human interactions. In social network analysis, discrete mathematics and statistics are combined with the emerging epistemology of complex systems to explore processes and phenomena like, diffusion of information through an organization, the adoption of innovations in society, the spread of infectious disease in a population, etc.

116 Steven Borgatti (Boston College) and Martin Everett (University of Greenwich) discussed the concept and mathematical application of “regular equivalence”, an approach to social networks that provides a formal model defining the notion of social roles [3]. An example of regular equivalents would be two doctors at different hospitals. Although they do not see the same patients, or interact with the same suppliers, nurses, and administrators, they have similar interactions with equivalent others, and thus play the same role. Furthermore, their equivalence is decided not by their work or credentials intrinsically, but by the relationships they have with other members of the network. Analysis tasks of social networks includes the following:  Discovering the structure of social network  Finding various attribute values for the network, such as radius, diameter, centrality, betweenness, shortest paths, density etc.  Finding communities in the social network  Visualizing the whole or part of the social network The various gigantic graphs that have lately attracted notice share other properties besides sheer size. In particular, they tend to be sparse. The graphs have relatively few edges, considering their vast numbers of vertices. In a graph with n vertices, the maximum number of edges is n(n-l)/2, or roughly n2/2 (Here, only "simple" graphs are considered, as opposed to multigraphs, where more than one edge can join a pair of vertices). In large real-world graphs, the number of edges is generally closer to n than to n2/2. Consider the human acquaintanceship graph, where a vertex is represented for every person on earth and edges are linked to all those who know each other. For example, the Hollywood graph has 13 million edges connecting its 225,000 vertices. That sounds like a lot, but it falls far short of the 25 billion edges in a "complete graph," or "clique," where an edge joins every pair of vertices. They 117 tend to be clustered. In the World Wide Web, two pages that are linked to the same page have an elevated probability of including links to one another. Likewise, among friends, if two people both know you, there is a higher-than-normal chance they also know each other. Thus the edges of the graph are not distributed uniformly, but tend to form clumps or knots. They tend to have a small diameter. The diameter of a graph is the longest shortest path across it, or in other words, the length of the most direct route between the most distant vertices. Diameter is finite only for connected graphs, those that are all in one piece. A connected graph must have at least n-1 edges and its largest possible diameter is n-1. On contrary, a complete graph with n2/2 edges has diameter one, since one can get from any vertex to any other in a single step. Graphs nearer to the minimum than the maximum number of edges might be expected to have a large diameter. Clustering could increase the diameter further still, since edges used up in creating local clumps leave fewer edges available for long-distance connections. Nevertheless, the diameter of the Web and other big graphs seems to hover around the logarithm of n, which is much smaller than n itself. Graphs with the three properties of sparseness, clustering and small diameter have been termed "small-world" graphs [1]. Social network data can be collected in different ways. The most common methodology is by means of questionnaires, but interviews, observations and secondary sources are also frequently used in network data collection methods. In research, while utilizing ego-centred network data, it is important to obtain a complete picture of the respondents’ networks as much as possible. This requires special tools for helping respondents to delineate their networks. A commonly used tool for this purpose is the so-called name generator, which provides a clear definition of which persons known by ego qualify as a network member (or alter) of ego. In a recent study, Van der Gaag and Snijders 118 developed a new instrument for the measurement of ego’s social capital that was named their source generator. In this special issue, Gerich and Lehner show how computer-assisted self-administered interviews (CASI) with name generators can provide an improvement in personal network data collection. Tie variables are often, though not necessarily, dichotomous, indicating the presence or absence of a relationship. This facilitates a nice depiction of the network in a graph or sociogram. The accompanying mathematical representation is an adjacency matrix with 0's and 1's, where the diagonal is usually not defined (actors do not indicate ties with themselves). If the graph is undirected (for instance, when relations between actors are observed instead of self-reported), the adjacency matrix is symmetric. From mathematical graph theory, a variety of concepts describing the properties of the network are available, such as reciprocity (when two actors show the presence of a tie between them), stars (when one central actor is connected to a number of other, unconnected actors; personal network data can be viewed as a collection of stars) and cliques (when there is a group of at least three actors that are all connected to each other). In the analysis of complete networks, a distinction can be made between (a) descriptive methods, also through graphical representations; (b) analysis procedures, often based on a decomposition of the adjacency matrix; and (c) statistical models based on probability distributions [4]. Visualization by displaying a sociogram as well as a summary of graph theoretical concepts provides a first description of social network data. For a small graph this may suffice, but usually the data and/or research questions are too complex for this relatively simple approach. Often it is of interest to compare actors on the basis of their tie variables, possibly also taking into account other actor characteristics. The identification

119 of subgroups is an important area in social network analysis, for which visualization tools can be extremely useful. Another significant objective of social network analysis is the modelling of ties between actors, in order to clarify as well as foresee the observed network. Several modelling approaches exist. The modelling turns out to be more complex for richer social network data; that is, when actor attributes, multiple networks, and/or multiple observations of a similar network are available. The accessibility of software is a significant condition for the feasibility of social network analysis, especially for applied researchers. Some specific programming has been accessible for quite a while. As noted before, the development of new or improved software for social network analysis seems to be consistent. A recent overview of the state of the art in software for social network analysis, focusing on analysis through computation rather than visualization, is provided by Huisman and Van Duijn. Important free software packages include Pajek and StOCNET. The Website of the International Network on Social Network Analysis (INSNA) contains a page with short descriptions of and links to a broad range of available software for social network analysis. Graphics software further guides in recognizing groups of “actors” in social and ecological networks. One of the issues confronted when visually rendering a huge data set is the number of factors it contains. As every factor depicts a dimension, perception of numerous factors necessitates that the number of dimensions be reduced while preserving the data contained in the original data set. Once network structures are decreased to a few key measurements, they can be visualized using graphics software. MAGE [5], a program designed by Duke University biochemists David and Jane Richardson to help molecular biologists visualize complex molecules, has been adapted by Jeffrey Johnson (East Carolina University) to study social networks at an Antarctic

120 research station over several winters (see Figure 1). The software helped Johnson visualize the social connections among groups of over-wintering researchers, experts, and care staff. The structure depicts how close or inaccessible each member was from the others, how activities, habits and assignments within the group influenced the entire group, and how these relationships changed over time. MAGE allowed visualization of changes in group cohesion as determined by the sum total of social interactions; for example, whether or not individuals participated in athletic activities, regardless of whether they hung out at the bar, and so on.

Fig 1: Social networks at an Antarctic research station The classic concept of centrality discovered by Camille Jordan in the 19th century is presented as a model for social network analysis. It is generalized to incorporate the path centre of a graph and represented with an application to two island networks in Oceania [6]. It is shown to be a necessary addition to the concepts of degree, closeness and betweenness centrality, as recognized by Freeman. In the literature of graph theory [7] this is basically called

121 'centrality', instead of median centrality. The model of the 'centre of a graph' is well known in operations research (OR) and has clear applications to social network studies. In OR, a classical problem is choosing a location for a facility on the basis of a specific criterion. In some cases, the problem is to choose a location which reduces the travel time between a location and all other sites. In other cases, the problem is to minimize the response time to any other location. When represented by means of a graph, the first problem is solved by finding the group of nodes whose total distance with all the other nodes is minimum, also referred to as the 'median' of the graph. The second problem is solved by finding the group of nodes whose maximum distance with any other node is minimum, also referred to as the 'center' of the graph. Reciprocity is an attribute which represents response to a positive activity with another positive activity. This attribute creates, maintains and reinforces different social relations. It is the foundation of any social network and is a significant factor to determine success in interpersonal interaction. This applies in a societal relationship as well as in all types of human activities. Reciprocity is a form of social commitment and is an inspiration for returning favours from others. The potential for reciprocal actions by individuals builds the pace of contribution to the public good. Reciprocity has been examined and assessed since the start of social network analysis in the 1930’s. A measure of reciprocity is a number which gives the degree to which support is both given and received in a relationship. In [8], the network was represented as a directed graph, where direction of the edges indicates the attribute between individuals (see Figures 2 and 3).

122

Fig 2: The directed graph representing the network

Fig 3: The directed graph representing the network of monetary help during normal periods of companionship during normal periods. References 1. Barnes, J. A., & Harary, F. (1983). Graph theory in network analysis. 2. Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis: Methods and applications (Vol. 8). Cambridge university press. 3. McMahon, S. M., Miller, K. H., & Drake, J. (2001). Networking tips for social scientists and ecologists. 293(5535), 1604-1605.

123 4. Hayes, B. (2000). Computing Science: Graph Theory in Practice: Part II. American Scientist, 88(2), 104-109. 5. Mage software (http://kinemage.biochem.duke.edu). 6. Hage, P., & Harary, F. (1995). Eccentricity and centrality in networks. Social networks, 17(1), 57-63. 7. Frank Harary (1969). Graph Theory, Addison-Wesley. 8. Arumugam, S., Haughton, D., Vasanthi, B., & Zhang, C. (2014). Reciprocity in social networks-A case study in , India. *****

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140 NANOLITHOGRAPHY RAVIRAJA S Assistant Professor of Physics Introduction

Nanolithography is a growing field of techniques within nonotechonology dealing with the engineering of nanometer scale structures. From Greek, the word can be broken up into 3 parts “nano” means dwarf “lith” means stone, and “graphy” means to write or “tiny writing on to stone”

As an alternative to digital printing, lithography is still used to day as both on art process as well as a commercial printing process to produce medium long print runs of books, greeting cards, posters, packaging and wide range of marketing collateral. A lithograph print is more affordable but still carries a tag of exclusively, quality and value as there is almost certainly not going to be many copies. It’s not something that is mass produced. It is not a reproduction and potentially an original lithograph is going to demand higher prices. It is used now to mean a process in which a sample is patterned by removing some art of it or sometimes even organizing some material on a suitable substrate. Lithography is very intensively used in electronics industry as to obtain integrated circuits (IC) or very large scale integration (VLSI) on small piece of semiconductor substrate often called a ‘chip’.

Immediately after the discovery of transistor by Bardeen, Brattin and Schockely in 1947, the quest for making smaller and smaller electronic components began. First transistor was fabricated in germanium but soon it was found that silicon was a better material and was used commercially. Taxes Instruments, U.S. marked the first transistor. Scientists found that speed of a device, system or an instrument finally depend on how fast a transistor can switch on and off. Speed of a computer also depends upon transistor. All

141 electronic devices and instruments need fast transistor. It was further realized that smaller the device (or transistor), faster is the switching. Advantages of making smaller devices are manifold. They require smaller amount of material space and consume less power for their performance making the resulting product cheaper. Initially the solid state transistors were assembled together along with different components like capacitors, resistors etc., and wired to fabricate desired circuits.

It was proposed by a British engineer G.W.A. Dummer, that an entire circuit should be directly made on a silicon substrate instead of wiring together the different components. Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor and Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments, U.S., invented in 1958 what we know today as integrated circuit (IC) which has complete circuit fabricated on a single silicon wafer. This made a great revolution in electronics and Jack Kibly was awarded the Noble Prize in the year 2000 for this development.

Around 1959, James Moor predicated that there would be a reduction in the size with time. Ever since its depiction the trend in miniaturization of electronic devices has faithfully followed what is known as Moor’s law. It implies that every 18 months the reduction in the size is doubled or the number of transistors on a chip doubles or the processing power of computers doubles. However, following this law, the devise has reached now a lowest size of 100 nm and deviation from the law has begun. It is not only increasingly difficult to achieve smaller and smaller size less than 100 nm but also have properties which are size dependent. Therefore, nanodevices using active or passive nanocomponents cannot be expected to behave like those of large (micrometer) sizes. Interestingly this very size-dependent nature can be used to obtain some novel devices, which were not imagined earlier.

142 Thus a new in electronics has begun with new devices which would have much larger memory for computers, consume low powers, would be compact and faster in their operations. All this is possible but new devices will be economically viable provided one can pattern small devices perhaps using nanolithography.

Lithography Techniques

Over the last 3-4 decades’ different lithography techniques like optical lithography, X-ray lithography, electron beam lithography etc., have been developed. They depend upon using photons or particle radiations for carving the materials. The lithography technique involves transfer of some pre-designed geometrical pattern (called master or mask) on a semiconductor (like silicon) or directly patterning (often known as writing) using suitable radiation. Mask is usually prepared by creating radiation opaque and transparent regions on a substrate much faster as compared to direct writing. Direct writing being a slower process is overall expensive.

Principle: In most of the lithography techniques is to expose a material sensitive to either electromagnetic radiation or to particles in some regions. Such a radiation sensitive material is known as resist. The selection of area to be exposed to radiation is made using a mask, which is transparent in some regions and opaque in the other regions. This causes selective exposure of the resists, making it weaker or stronger compared to unexposed material depending upon the type of the resist being used. By removing the exposed to unexposed material in suitable chemicals or plasma, desired pattern is obtained.

143

Photolithography process steps: (1) surface is coated with metal, (2) costing of photoresist on the substrate, (3) mask placed over upper layer, (4) exposed UV radiation, (5) resist development and stripping, and (6) etching to get final pattern.

This may be done in a number of steps depending upon the pattern and materials involved.

Observations: Various steps involved in photography, to transfer a pattern on some semiconductor surface. A thin film coating of a metal (like chromium) is deposited on a suitable substrate (for example glass or silicon). A positive or a negative photoresist, usually some polymer, is coasted on metal thin film. Positive photoresists material has the property that when exposed to the appropriate radiation it degrades or some chemical bonds are broken. Negative resists on the other hand is a material, which hardens (crosslinks) on exposure to a radiation. A mask is placed between the resist coated substrate and the source of light. By using a suitable chemical (developer) the weakened portion is removed (or image is developed). Remaining unexposed part also can be removed by appropriate chemical treatment. The 144 remaining material can be dissolved in one step and the hardened material in another step. Depending upon the radiation used like visible light, X-rays, electrons, ions etc., the lithography name is tagged with it.

After the development of Scanning Tunnelling Microscopes (STM) around 1982 and other Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM) thereafter, it was realized that they can be used to carry out lithography in nanometer range. Using SPM probe or fine tip of SPM it is possible to directly write on the material.

In recent years some replication techniques also have emerged which are quite inexpensive and allow pattering necessary for some exotic purposes like quick diagnostics. References

1. Younan Xia and George M. Whitesides, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 37:550-575 ,1998.

2. Younan Xia, John A. Rogres, Kateri E. Paul and George M. Whitesides, Chem. Rev., 99: 1823-1848, 1999.

3. S.A. Gangal and S.K. Kulkarni, Physics Education, pp. 1-9, April- June (2002). VLSI Technology by C.Y. Chang and S.M. Sze, MeGraw Hill, New York, 1999. Semiconductor Lithography: Principles, Practice and Materials by W.H. Moreau, Plenum Press ,1985.

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145 GREEN COMPUTING BASAVARAJ. U Assistant professor of computer science, Abstract Green computing or green IT, refers to environmentally sustainable computing or IT whose goals are to reduce the use of hazardous materials, maximize energy efficiency during the product's lifetime, and promote the recyclability or biodegradability of defunct products and factory waste. Green Computing concentrates on energy efficiency, reducing resource consumption and disposing of electronic waste in a responsible manner. Green computing is the environmentally responsible use of computers and related resources. Such practices include the implementation of energy- efficient central processing units (CPUs), servers and peripherals as well as reduced resource consumption and proper disposal of electronic waste (e-waste). Computers today have become a necessity not only in offices but also at homes. Superficially, this can be called as Green Computing. Introduction Internet services as Web-based email, search and social networks plus the increased worldwide availability of high-speed connectivity have accelerated a trend toward server-side or “cloud” computing. Cloud computing is the result of evolution and adoption of existing technologies and paradigms. The goal of cloud computing is to allow users to take benefit from all of these technologies, without the need for deep knowledge about or expertise with each one of them. The cloud aims to cut costs, and helps the users focus on their core business instead of being impeded by IT obstacles. Datacenter economics allow many application services to run at a low cost per user. For example, servers may be shared among thousands of active users (and many more inac-tive ones), 146 resulting in better utilization. Similarly, the computation itself may become cheaper in a shared service. Multiple datacenters are sometimes used as complete replicas of the same service, with replication being used mostly for reducing user latency and improving serving throughput. In those cases, a given user query tends to be fully processed within one datacenter, and our machine definition seems appropriate. Cloud uses thousands of data-centers in order to process the user queries and to run these data-centers bulk amount of power is used for cooling and other processes. Every year this power consumption is gradually increasing and green cloud computing endeavours to reduce the same thus playing a helpful role to curb these issues. Content The major objective of cloud computing is to maximize the shared resources and at the same time the disadvantage is its high infrastructure cost and unnecessary power consumption. Global warming has been a big concern of late, with high power consumption and CO2 emission acting as a catalyst to increase the same. With the continuously increasing popularity and usage of cloud computing and the increasing awareness of the people across the globe towards the use of eco-friendly resources has forced the researchers to devise concepts towards an eco-friendly energy efficient flavour of cloud computing called green cloud computing. According to the previous works green cloud computing facilitates the reduction of power consumption and CO2 emission along with the reutilization of energy in an efficient way. In the present time, we are making efforts to make everything greener. This technology is related to reduce or managing impact of IT systems which basically includes materials and resources required for equipment, energy and also materials used in OS, potential

147 health effects on humans from using equipment, and responsibility for the waste products that are created from IT systems and promote the recyclability of defunct products and factory waste. The green technology mainly focuses on super computers and cluster system which harm the green environment badly. Cooling is other major issue that consumes huge amount of energy in data centers. Previously, the cooling is done by using mechanical refrigerator that supply chilled water for the IT equipments. Now a day’s pre cooling also called as free cooling is used. Free cooling minimizes the use of mechanical cooling. Like Face book deploys their data centre in area which has cold and dry climate. Microsoft leaves servers in open air in order to cool the servers easily. Also Google uses river water to cool their data centre. Solution In cloud scenario power consumption is very high with high carbon emission whereas at the same time in green cloud this is very less as compared to traditional cloud. Green clouds avoid power wastage and this is the reason for adoption of this technology by IT companies like Google, Microsoft, Yahoo!, etc. that severe reductions of the order of 15%-30% is required to maintain the global temperature and stop it from increasing drastically before 2020. There are different hardware technologies like virtualization and software technologies like software efficient algorithm used to decrease the consumption of energy. TECHNOLOGIES USED IN GREEN COMPUTING  Power Management  Software and deployment optimization  Material Recycling  Telecommuting

148  Power Management There are many power management software solutions available today. Automated shutdown software will power down PCs automatically after a set time of inactivity and ‘Wake-on-LAN’ software will turn on equipment automatically to enable patching and software upgrades to be installed at night. Used together these tools can achieve considerable savings, as demonstrated by the case studies below. To implement a power management solution, you may not have to purchase new software. By correctly setting the MS Windows power management settings on each PC, significant savings can be made. To improve the power efficiency of a PC, the Climate Savers Computing Initiative recommends the following power management settings:  Monitor/display sleep: Turn off after 15 minutes or less  Turn off hard drives/hard disk sleep: 15 minutes or less  System standby/sleep: After 30 minutes or less  Usage of lithium-titanium battery is regarded as a safer, faster and more durable alternative to lithium-ion technology  Switching off – Encourage all employees to turn off their computers and monitors and unplug laptop and phone chargers when not in use. 87% of employees have never been asked to shut down their PC at night by their employers. It’s estimated that at least 1.7 million PCs are habitually left on overnight and at weekends, wasting 1.5 billion KWh of electricity.  Screensavers – Discourage the use of screensavers, which do not save energy, they often use the same or sometimes more power as when the PC is active. It is much more energy

149 efficient to set the monitor to turn off after a period of inactivity.  Printing – Set printers to duplex and greyscale print by default. If printers have a ‘locked print’ feature, ensure that this is enabled. Locked printing discourages wasteful printing because the user has to be at the printer to physically start the print job after sending it to the print queue and lets users delete unwanted print jobs from the queue.  Software and deployment optimization A. Load Balancing: A computational Grid consists of heterogeneous computational resources, possibly with different users, and provides them with remote access to these resources. Users of the Grid submit jobs at random times. In such a system, some computers are heavily loaded while others have available processing capacity. The goal of a load balancing protocol is to transfer the load from heavily loaded machines to idle computers, hence balance the load at the computers and increase the overall system performance. Using Wireless Network Sensor in different parts area in a data center to determine the temperature of each area, this will tell which area need to be more cool and where to reduce cooling. B. Using Neural Network: Artificial neural network is composed of interconnecting of artificial neurons. Artificial neural networks may either be used to gain understanding of biological neuron or to solve artificially intelligence problems without creating any model. Green grid is proposing some parameters like Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE) and Data centre Efficiency (DCE) metrics, TDP (Thermal Design Power) etc. PUE is the common parameter. implement the green scheduling algorithm combines with neural network predictor for reducing the energy consumption in cloud computing Dynamic clustering is an energy efficient algorithm.

150 Energy dissipation of the network can be reduced by using clustering algorithms. The energy consumption of nodes is depends upon the transmission distance, optimal routing protocols and amount of data to be transmitted. In cluster based networks, cluster heads (CH) meets these requirements 1) Same adjacent sensors are grouped into a cluster 2) High energy resources 3) Network should be distributed. C. Virtualization: Virtualization software separates a physical computing device into one or more "virtual" devices, each of which can be easily used and managed to perform computing tasks. It is the use of software to simulate hardware. In the data center stand alone server system replaced with virtual server that run as software on a small number of larger computer via a virtualized server we can efficiently use computer resources. For many IT organizations, today’s greatest challenge is to drive more value, efficiency, and utilization from data centers. Virtualization is the best way to meet this challenge. Data Center Virtualization Fundamentals brings together the comprehensive knowledge. Cisco professionals need to apply virtualization throughout their data center environments. end-to-end data center virtualization solution, including networking, storage, servers, operating systems, application optimization, and security. Rather than focusing on a single product or technology. Implementing highly- efficient architectures for new, expanded, or retrofit data center projects. you can deliver agile application provisioning without purchasing unnecessary infrastructure, and establish a strong foundation for new cloud computing and IT-as-a-service initiatives Benefits of using Virtual Machines  Instant provisioning - fast scalability  Live Migration is possible

151  Load balancing and consolidation in a Data Center is possible.  Low downtime for maintenance  Virtual hardware supports legacy operating systems efficiently  Security and fault isolation  Material Recycling These directives make it difficult for PC manufacturers to continue using toxic chemicals such as bominated flame retardants (BFRs), cadmium, selenium, lead, and mercury in the manufacture of computer and peripherals, forcing them to seek green alternatives. The electronic industry has still not witnessed the full impact as research is still ongoing for alternatives to all toxic substances. The future, however, is sure to witness the emergence and widespread use of eco-friendly and energy efficient computers completely free of all harmful toxic elements. Additionally, parts from outdated systems may be salvaged and recycled through certain retail outlets and municipal or private recycling centers.  Telecommuting Teleconferencing and telepresence technologies are often implemented in green computing initiatives. The advantages are many; increased worker satisfaction, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions related to travel, and increased profit margins as a result of lower overhead costs for office space, heat, lighting, etc. Existing Approaches Carbon green cloud architecture which points on the third party concept, consist of two types of directories named as green offer and carbon emission. These directories help us to provide and utilize the Green services from users and providers both. The services of the providers are registered in the “Green offer Directory”. The Green Broker accessed these services and

152 organized it according to the price, time and the service that offer least CO2 emission. The Carbon Emission Directory keeps and stores the data which contains the information of energy and cooling efficiency of cloud services and data centers. The green broker used the up to date information about services. International Journal of Grid and Distributed Computing Green IT Revolution 1. Emergence of multicore chips 2. Emergence of Solid State Disks (SSD) 3. Speed Scalable processors 4. “Dematerialisation” – swapping high carbon activities with low carbon alternatives such as e-billing instead of paper billing, teleconferencing instead of travelling to meetings and e-media instead of producing CDs or newspapers. Conclusion In this paper, we conclude that green computing is the emerging technology which will reduce IT waste. The main objective of this technology is to reduce the energy consumption of computer related products. Apart from ecological issues, this also deals in economic needs. This paper aimed to provide a survey on the current state-of-the-art in green computing. In addition, details of some real solutions have been showed as well. In the future we can save more energy through several approaches which are shown in the paper like virtualization, data centre and many other approaches. i.e. cooling of server, we can analysis the energy conservation and optimize it. References 1. Zhiwu Liu, Ruhui Ma, Fanfu Zhou, Yindong Yang, Zhengwei Qi, Haibing Guan” Power-aware I/O-Intensive and CPU- Intensive Applications Hybrid Deployment within Virtualization Environments” IEEE 2010. 153 2. R. Yamini, Assistant Professor “Power Management in Cloud Computing Using GreenAlgorithm” 3. www.techopedia.com/definition/14753/green-computing 4. www.computerweekly.com › Guides 5. www.csi- india.org/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=4d934e0c *****

154 SYNTHESIS AND CHARACTERIZATION OF POLYINDOLE ZINC SULPHIDE POLYMER NANOCOMPOSITERS

RAVIRAJA S Assistant Professor of Physics Introduction Nanotechnology is now regarded as one of the most promising areas for technology development in the 21st century. This technology has brought together almost all branches of Science and Engineering (1) One of the end goals of materials science research is the development of multifunctional materials. Various specific properties attributed to nanostructure materials which includes magnetic, electrical, physical, chemical, mechanical, optical etc., are being used in the design and fabrication of multifunctional materials (2). Polymers have traditionally been considered as good electrical insulators and variety of their application have relied upon this property. However, several research studies have shown that doped conjugated electro active conducting polymers found to exhibit metal like conductivity. The studies on “electro active conducting polymers” have been an area of immense interest over past 30 years since the first discovery of conjugated conducting poly-acetylene in 1997 by Shiraikawa et al., (3). Recently, nanostructurisation of conducting polymers and their composites emerged as a new field of research and development, directed to creation of new smart novel materials for use in modern and future technologies. These materials are found to exhibit markedly improved properties when compared to pure polymers or traditional composites or blends. The properties include increased mechanical strength, outstanding barrier properties, improved solvent heat resistance, impact resistance and decreased flammability etc., Main feature of polymer nanocomposite, in 155 contract to conventional composites is the reinforcement on the order of nanometer which deeply affect final macroscopic properties. For this reason, polymeric nanocomposites have become a cult research area for the last 20 years. Several types of polymeric nanocomposites are being inverstigated, with different particle nanosize, nature and shape (4). The Polymer nanocomposities that contain transition metal/ semiconductor nanoparticles either attached to or directly in a pi- conjugated backbone are a promising class of materials known as “polymer inorganic nanocoposities”. Moreover, these organic polymers-based inorganic nanoparticle composites have attracted increasing attention because of their unique properties emerging from the combination of organic and inorganic hybrid materials. These materials are endowed with many important properties such as non-linear optical properties, electronic conductivity and luminescence and have been proposed for use in various applications including chemical sensors, electroluminescent devices, memory devices, electro catalysis, etc., These composites have also been widely used in various fields such as military equipments, safety protective garments, automotive aerospace etc., However, the effective properties of the composites are dependent upon the properties of the constituents, the volume fraction of the components, shape and arrangement of inclusions and interfacial interaction between polymer matrix and inclusion (5,6). In recent past, several investigations have shown a considerable interest in the synthesis and characterziaiton of nanocrystalline semiconductor based electro active conducting polymers due to their potential applications in electronic and optoelectronic devices, more specifically electro chromic display anti-corrosion primer layers, polymers modified electrodes, bio-sensors (7).

156 In view of these observations, we propose to carry out synthesis and characterization of polyindole-nanocomposites, the starting compounds are polyindole and nanoparticles of zinc sulphide. The polyindole compound is an electro active polymer having good environmental and electron chemical stability, which can be obtained by chemical method. It exhibits remarkable electrochemical properties (8). Zinc sulphide is group II-IV semiconductor with a wide energy gap of 3.68eV at 300K, has high refractive index (n=2.36 at 620nm) and low absorption coefficient over a broad range of wavelength (9) It is one of the promising optoelectronic semiconductor frequently used in LED and piezoelectric devices (10). Objectives (a) The objective of the present proposed work is to develop conducting polymer nanocomposites with controlled conductivities and enhanced physical, thermal, crystal and solubility properties. Further, the composites obtained may be tested for use in corrosion protection, electro chromic displays and as solid electrolytes in rechargeable batteries. (b) It is aimed to study the electro active properties of heterocyclic conducting polymers containing nitrogen atoms in its ring structure. Moreover, influence of addition of semiconductor nanoparticles in polymer matrix can be investigated to understand the variation in ionic conductivity / electrical conductivity of the sample. Methodology (a) Synthesis: There is large numbers of techniques available to synthesize different types of nanomaterials in the form of Colloids, Clusters, Powders, Tubes, Rods, Wires, Thin Films etc., some of the already existing conventional techniques to synthesize different types of materials are optimized to get novel nanomaterials and some new techniques are developed. 157 Polyindole nano composites is the polymer with one or more other materials. Polyindole was successfully synthesized by chemical polymerization of indole. Properties of polyindole can be improved by mixing polymer with conducting metal, metal oxide, carbon nano composites and other materials. Microwave assisted method will be used to prepare Zinc sulphide nanoparticles as the method is faster, cleaner and cost efficient compared to various other conventional methods (11). Further, Polyindole-zinc sulphide nanocomposites will be prepared by in situ polymerization and incorporation technique (8). (b) Characterization: Polyindole composites were characterized through various spectral, thermal and electrical methods. The polymer nanocomposite so formed will be taken up for the characterization by Current-Voltage (I-V) measurements (Keithley meter, absorption spectroscopy measurements (UV- VIS spectrometer) and XRD technique. The proposed I-V measurements and UV-VIS spectrometer observations and XRD patterns of the sample under study will be done from Scientific Research institutes. References 1. M. Ratner and D. Tatner, Nanotechnology, Pearson Education, New Delhi. 2. Polymer Nanocomposites, Resonance, July 2005. 3. By Youman Xia et al., Adv. Mater., 2003, 15, no. 5. 4. H. Shirakawa, E.J. Louis, A.G. MacDiamid, C.K. Chiang and A.J. Heeger, Cheme.Soc. 1977, 578. 5. Metal-polymer nanocomposities, edited by Luigi Nicolais and Gianfranco Carrotenuto, Softbank e-book centre Tehran. 6. Thoman Hanemann and Dorothee Vinge Szabo, Materials, 2010, 3, 3468-3517.

***** 158 IMPROVING MULTIMODAL WEB ACCESSIBILITY FOR DEAF PEOPLE: SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETER MODULE

BASAVARAJ.U Assistant Professor of Computer Science Abstract Even though World Wide Web is becoming increasingly necessary for everybody, there are evidently still problems for some deaf and hard of hearing people trying to use certain web pages. These people require the translation of existing written information into their first language, which can be one of many sign languages. One solution to this problem is the development of transparent sign language videos which appear on the screen on request. Therefore, we have designed and developed a system to enable the embedding of selective interactive elements into the original text in appropriate locations, which act as triggers for the video translation into sign language. Quantitative and qualitative evaluation has demonstrated that information presented through transparent sign language video increases the users’ interest in the content of the material by interpreting terms, phrases or sentences, and therefore facilitates the understanding of the material and increases its usefulness for deaf people. Keywords: Human-computer interaction. Usability. Accessibility. Deaf and hard of hearing. Sign language. Video. Transparent video. Introduction Information and Communications Technology (ICT), with its applications and systems, such as the World Wide Web (the Web), has contributed significantly to the potential for improving the status of people with disabilities in the social and socio occupational area. Every day, millions of people use it as an effective tool for communication and information gathering.

159 Despite web applications being so interesting, there is an increasing risk that people with disabilities could be forced into a subordinate position. Surveys, such as the United Nations Motivation Global Audit of Web Accessibility in 2006, showed that in 20 countries around the world, only 3 of the 100 entry web pages have reached the base level of accessibility [39]. To help web designers develop sites with greater accessibility, we have provided the following solutions for deaf users utilizing video technology. Past research has shown that deaf signer users, who use sign language as a first and desired language, are often helpless and become confused when searching for information on web sites. To help web designers develop sites with greater accessibility, we have provided the following solutions for deaf users utilizing video technology. – The presentation of transparent sign language videos on existing web pages to describe part or all of the available material. – The control of the video (size and speed adjustment, pause and stop). Hearing loss and motivations for sign language video The loss or deterioration of hearing occurs when problems arise with the perception of such sound elements as frequency, pitch, timbre and loudness of the surroundings. Hearing loss is generally classified in terms of different categories of dB (decibels) loss, such as mild hearing loss (between 25 and 40 dB), moderate hearing loss (between 40 and 70 dB), severe hearing loss (between 70 and 95 dB) and profound hearing loss (from 95 dB onwards) [25]. Some deaf people, but not all, use full natural language to communicate among themselves, which is known as sign language. Since deaf people frequently use sign language, with its lack of sound and

160 constant visual communication, they face difficulties accessing written text in web content and web applications, placing them at a disadvantage. There are several arguments and motivations for providing sign language video on the Web. – Literacy and access to information. – Reading ability. – Multilanguage requirements. Related work Several solutions exist which are designed for deaf and hard-of- hearing people with acknowledge of sign language, all of which share the integration of sign language videos into the web pages, which requires additional space for video. This method drastically reduces the area that can be used for the usual positioning of web material such as text, pictures and other multimedia elements. The demand for the constant presence of video on the web site is, unfortunately, totally inadequate for classical informative web sites which cover huge amounts of daily information. The basis of the idea for our project of transparent sign language video results from the method of creating a transparent background for Adobe Flash TM video and DHTML (Dynamic Hypertext Markup Language) layers. On the one hand, the transparent background of the video gives the impression that the sign language interpreter is “cut”, as the background of the video is not seen due to the transparency; on the other hand, DHTML allows the video to appear as an additional layer, which allows the structure of the web page to be preserved. Instead of focusing on the translation between written/spoken words and sign language, we wanted to find an appropriate solution to simplify the design and implementation of sign language video clips as transparent videos over the existing web pages in a way that is friendly to users.

161 Requirement analysis: videos used by hearing impaired people It is a fact that deaf and hard-of-hearing users whose first language is sign language require translations of the written text on web sites which are written in their second language. One of the limitations of providing such sign language videos is the high costs of producing, processing, saving and exchanging videos suitable for written parts, whether for single words or notions. Other obstacles are high demands and the requirements of making videos usable for all deaf and hard-of-hearing users, including the elderly. Web design requirements In this segment one can find instructions and guidelines for colour, audio, contrast, resizing and images of text. At the moment, the most popular approach that web developers use for designing web sites for deaf and hard-of-hearing users is the integration of Adobe Flash Player into a specific section of the page where the sign language video is shown. The advantage of this approach is the cross-browser compatibility, and the lack of security issues but the obstacles include the fact that informative web sites frequently contain text, images and photos expanding throughout the whole page, leaving no space for the video. One of the possible solutions could be the use of a popup window, although this may interrupt user’s visual contact/focus with the content beneath. Also, as a matter of security, some browsers prevent popup windows by default, and not all of our target users are sufficiently knowledgeable to tailor their settings accordingly. Other way of presenting the sign language videos include launching a local application player such as Windows Media PlayerTM, RealPlayerTM or QuickTimeTM. In this way, the designers confront difficulties since each player requires different implementation approaches.

162 Accessibility requirements The basic aspects of accessibility set out in the needs analysis for sign language video have been divided into seven functionalities. – Video control. – Video image resizing. – Adding subtitles. – Slowing down the video. – Shifting the video across the web page. – Rapid display of the video. – Adding sound for deaf and hard-of-hearing people. The first, simplest aspect of accessibility is the ability to pause and stop video at any time whenever the clip is longer than 5 s. The second aspect is the possibility of increasing the size of videos, so that deaf people can see the facial expressions and gestures of hands better. The third is the inclusion of subtitles, which are used by deaf and hard-of-hearing to assist their comprehension and the fluency of the sign language interpreter. The forth is the most important aspects of accessibility for deaf people viewing sign language online is the option to slow down the video clip so they can more easily follow individual gestures. The fifth aspect of accessibility is the possibility of manually moving the video clip around the web site. The sixth aspect requires the rapid display of video on the web site. Extended waiting time for a video to load may lead to the confusion of the deaf person, since there is no proper feedback on what is going on. The last aspect is the use of sound. Although the sign language video is aimed at deaf people who do not hear sound, the video

163 can also be used for hard-of-hearing people who wear hearing aids and still know sign language. Video quality requirements Ensuring good quality of service is also important. The quality for enabling videos requires evaluation of the message media (noise, delays, and jitter) and the clearness and comprehension (intelligibility) of the message. One of the crucial criteria for the quality of a sign language video is the minimal frame rate, which has to be higher than 15 frames per second (fps), as otherwise there will be a significant impact on the transmission and comprehension of sign language. The compression ratio must be optimized such that it allows for good visual detection of hand movements and facial expressions. For the deaf and hard-of- hearing people, it is important that details in motion can be reproduced so that fingers, eyes and mouth are distinguishable even for signs consisting of both hands and arms moving with all the fingers displayed. Blurry fingers in motion (e.g. Hellström) are acceptable, though clearly visibly fingers are preferred. And finally, acceptable delivery time of the video is an essential point when making the usage comfortable for the deaf and hard-of-hearing. Transparent video for deaf: 1. Sign language interpreter module The proposed solution for information retrieval is the Sign Language Interpreter Module (SLI Module), which uses a multimodal approach for combining media elements, such as video, audio, subtitles and media navigation controls, into a new layer. SLI Module considers three channels/modalities within a video document. – Visual modality—sign language interpreter. – Auditory modality—speech. – Textual modality—subtitles.

164 These modalities are manifested as transparent videos, which are exposed over the existing web pages instead of the usual statically positioned videos. With this method, the structure of the web site remains unaltered, and provides a simplified addition to deaf and hard-of-hearing end-users (Fig. 1). The web site, therefore, combines the video of a sign language interpreter, sound and subtitles over existing, static web sites as a transparent video triggered on the request of the user.

Fig. 1 Modalities of a sign language interpreter module SLI Module system offers: – Enabling of transparent videos over an existing web page without altering its structure. – Synchronization of video, audio and subtitles. – On-demand activation by user. – Presentation of videos anywhere on the web page. – Control over users’ access. Creating transparent sign language video The quality of transparent video required for deaf and hard-of- hearing users can be developed only on the basis of high quality, 165 pure, basic DV video, since these users require clean video in order to focus on the details, such as finger movements for the sign language and the lip movements for lip-reading. Video is recorded with a person standing in front of a green background, also known as a chroma key background. It is clear that the person should not be wearing anything of the same colour as the background. This provides the necessary contrast between the standing person and the background, and enables the removal of the background with video modeling software. The result appears as a video with a so- called transparent (non-opaque) background. Figure 2 presents an example the conversion of the image into a transparent form. The first image represents the original image with a green background; the second shows a transparent image that has the background removed. The removed background on the image is shown as a black background. The third image shows us the softening of the edges of the body so that the person in the picture fits to the background of the web page better.

Fig. 2 Edge sharpening procedure Integration process As already mentioned, one of the key problems in the construction of web sites for people with disabilities is the implementation of accessibility features. Two of the ways in which the implementation process is possible include the designing of a new web site, similar to the existing non- accessible web site, with added accessibility features, or an upgrade of the existing web site.

166 In planning the SLI Module integration into existing web sites, we considered the ease of implementation. By integrating HTML and JavaScript code, we were able to achieve the following conditions. – Cross-browser compatibility (Microsoft Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox). – Viewing several transparent video layers on the existing web page. The inclusion of modalities is illustrated in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Inclusion of the modalities into existing web pages. All implementation of the video layer is carried out when the user clicks on the icon to view the video. An example of the activation icon is shown in Fig. 4. From the end-user’s perspective, the additional element is the activation icon, which is an image button.

Fig. 4 Image button for activating the transparent sign language video Conclusion According to previous research there is an urgent need to improve the accessibility of web sites, especially for deaf and hard-of- hearing persons who are, unfortunately, fundamentally deprived of translations in sign language, their first language. In developing 167 the SLI Module for the presentation of sign language videos with a help of web layers, the basic requirements necessary for the deaf and hard-of-hearing users to use the video were taken into account, such as: appropriate video size; quality of service; the accessibility and linguistic characteristics of the deaf and hard-of- hearing and bilingualism, all characteristics of a substantial part of this population. The SLI Module offers the possibility of prioritizing sign language and emphasizing the importance of acquiring knowledge and delivering information in that language. This offers deaf and hard-ofhearing people whose first language is sign language the translation of specific words, text, images, photos, animation or video clips which can be found on the web. The SLI Module is primarily intended for deaf and hard-of-hearing people, so it adjusts to their needs on a contextual and technical basis. The novelty of this system is evident from the fact that the screen of the web site combines video, audio, subtitles and navigation options over the existing web page, which usually contains a lot of text and static positioning (for example, e-material, governmental web pages), as a transparent video at the request of the user. References 1. Bangham J, Cox SJ, Lincoln M, Marshall I, Tutt M, Wells M (2000) Signing for the deaf using virtual humans. In: Proceedings of the IEE Seminar on Speech and Language Processing for Disabled and Elderly People (Ref. No. 2000/025), pp 4/1–4/5 2. Beskow J, Engwall O, Granström B, Nordqvist P, Wik P (2008) Visualization of speech and audio for hearing impaired persons. Technol Disabil 20(2):97–107 3. Brophy P, Craven J (2007) Web accessibility. Libr Trends 55(4):950–972

168 4. Cavender A, Rahul V, Barney DK, Ladner RE, Riskin EA (2007) MobileASL: intelligibility of sign language video over mobile phones. Disabil Rehabil Assist Technol 3(1):93–105 5. Davis CD (1999) Visual enhancements: improving deaf students’ transition skills using multimedia technology. Career Dev Except Individ 22(2):267–281 6. Debevc M, Peljhan Z (2004) The role of video technology in on-line lectures for the deaf. Disabil Rehabil 26(17):1048– 1059 7. Debevc M, Stjepanovič Z, Povalej P, Verlič M, Kokol P (2007) Accessible and adaptive e-learning materials: considerations for design and development. In: Universal access in human- computer interaction. Applications and Services, Lecture Notes in Computer Sciences (LNCS 4556). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 549–558 8. EBU Technical-Information I44-2004, EBU report on Access Services—includes recommendations, http://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/tec_text_i44- 2004_tcm6 14894.pdf. Accessed 15 Sep 2009. *****

169 FINANCIAL LITERACY IN THE DIGITALAGE – A STUDY AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS OF UDUPI CITY

MAVY MIRANDA Assistant Professor in Commerce Abstract After demonetization initiatives, most of the people in India started electronic payments for their transactions. Everyone from the small merchant to neighboring vegetable vendor is embracing digital payment solutions. Slowly India is moving from cash to cashless economy. A cashless economy is one in which all the transactions are done using cards or digital means. The circulation of physical currency is minimal in cashless economy. The benefits of cashless economy are many. In this paper an attempt is made to examine the level of financial literacy in the digital age among college students. The study is mainly based upon the primary data. Primary data was collected through survey method. Questionnaire was used for collecting data. The data is analyzed through percentages. Keywords: Cashless Transactions, Digital Payments, Digital Financial Literacy, Internet Risks Introduction ‘Digital financial literacy is key to creating a generation of informed consumers, capable of benefiting from the best that innovation has to offer’ - Carlos da Silva Costa, Governor of Banco de Financial Literacy is the possession of the set of skills and knowledge that allows an individual to make informed and effective decisions with all of their financial resources. Financial literacy for students is an important tool to improve the financial capability of our youth and communities. Students should be taught how to handle money both at home and at school. Digital

170 Financial Literacy is having knowledge, skills and developing necessary habits to effectively use digital devices for financial transactions. This intersects with an individual’s basic literacy levels and the individual’s ability to use digital devices/technology. However, in the purist sense, it is  Simply the ability to have a relationship with a bank/Financial Institution to keep your money safe.  Use facilities to transact using your own money for your needs in the safest most secure way possible.  Be aware, vigilant and extremely protective about your financial identity. Dimensions of Digital Financial Literacy T 20 Japan 2019 proposes four dimensions of digital financial literacy, including knowledge of digital financial products and services, awareness of digital financial risks, knowledge of digital financial risk control, and knowledge of consumer rights and redress procedures. . The first dimension is knowledge of digital financial products and services which captures the basic understanding of digital financial products and services. Individuals should be aware of the existence of non- traditional financial products and services provided through digital means such as the internet and mobile phones. These services generally fall into four major categories, although there are overlaps: . Payments: Electronic money, mobile phone wallets, crypto assets, remittance services; . Asset management: Internet banking, online brokers, robo advisors, crypto asset trading, personal financial management, mobile trading;

171 . Alternative finance: Crowdfunding, peer-to-peer (P2P) lending, online balance sheet lending, invoice and supply chain finance, etc.; and . Others: Internet-based insurance services, etc. In addition to being aware of DFS (Digital Financial Services) people should be able to compare the pros and cons of each available DFS. Such knowledge would help them to understand the basic functions of different types of DFS (i.e. either for personal purposes or for business purposes). The second dimension of digital financial literacy is awareness of digital financial risks. Individuals and firms need to understand the additional risks that they may incur when using DFS, which are more diverse but sometimes harder to spot than those associated with traditional financial products and services. DFS users should be aware of the existence of online fraud and cyber security risks. There is a multitude of potential risks facing DFS users, such as: • Phishing: When a hacker pretends to be an institution in order to get the user to divulge personal data, like usernames or passwords, via emails or social networks; • Pharming: When a virus redirects the user to a false page, causing her to divulge personal information; • Spyware: When malicious software inserts itself into the users’ PC or mobile phone and transmits personal data; • SIM card swap: When someone poses as the user and obtains the user’s SIM card, thereby obtaining private data. DFS users should also be aware that their digital footprint, including information they provide to DFS providers, may also be a source of risk, even if it does not result directly in a loss, including: . Profiling: Users may be excluded from access to certain services based on their online data and activities.

172 . Hacking: Thieves may steal personal data from their online activities such as social networks. Due to easy access to credit enabled by fintech, DFS consumers could also face potential problems of overborrowing or excessively high interest rates. Such risk can trigger unexpected and large losses when the DFS providers are not regulated or only weakly regulated. Overborrowing may also harm their credit rating. Finally, unequal access to DFS could exacerbate gaps between the rich and the poor. DFS users should fully understand terms and conditions stipulated in contracts they digitally sign with DFS providers. They should also be aware of (risky) implications of digital contracts. They should understand that DFS providers may use their personal information for other purposes such as calculating their credit demands, advertising and credit evaluation. In terms of financial risks, easiness of access to finance may lead to over borrowing. . The third dimension of digital financial literacy is digital financial risk control, which is related to DFS users’ understanding of how to protect themselves from risks arising from such use. They should know how to use computer programs and mobile apps to avoid spamming, phishing, etc. They should also know how to protect their personal identification number (PIN) and other personal information when using financial services provided through digital means. . The fourth dimension is knowledge of consumer rights and redress procedures, in cases where DFS users fall victim to the above -mentioned risks. DFS users should understand their rights and know where they can go and how to obtain redress if they fall victim to fraud or other loss. They should also understand their rights regarding their personal data, and how they can obtain redress against unauthorized use.

173 Modes of Digital payment Newer forms of payment have been recently developed in India which could greatly assist in the shift from a cash-dependent economy to a cashless economy. These have largely been technology-driven platforms due to the ‘Digital India’ initiative. One of the professed roles of Digital India programme is ‘Faceless, Paperless, and Cashless’. These new forms of payment include,  Unified Payment Interface (UPI): It enables a person to connect multiple bank accounts into one phone through an application. It allows transfer of funds from one UPI account to another through a smart phone connected to the internet.  Mobile wallets like Paytm, Free charge, Jio Money and SBI Buddy amongst others where money from your account can be transferred to the wallet to send it to another person using their mobile number and bank details. This too requires a smart phone or tablet or smart watch, and internet data.  Pre-Paid Debit Card or Credit Cards can be used at ATMS and PoS (Point of Sale) machines by swiping cards.  Aadhar Enabled Payment Systems (AEPS) allows funds to be transferred by using Aadhar numbers seeding with bank accounts. It allows interoperable financial transactions at PoS/ Micro ATM through Business Correspondent (BC)/ Bank Mitra of any bank using Aadhar authentication.  Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD) allows funds to be transferred using just the mobile phone without internet by dialing *99#.  Banking Cards such as RuPay Cards, VISA, Master Card are card producers which offer several benefits like payment transactions, customized product offering and more security, convenience and control than most cashless forms of payment.

174  Point of Sale (PoS) is the place where sales are made. There are three kinds of PoS, i.e., Physical, Mobile and Virtual. All three need internet connectivity. Statement of the problem While choosing the area of study, it is found that digital financial knowledge is essential for both undergraduate and post graduate students. The present youth, especially those who study in colleges, are the most tech-savvy generation who would be familiar with gadgets and computers. In the preliminary work for the study, it is noticed that it would be very interesting to study and understand what do they think about various digital financial services. As the young are very innovative with regard to the use of technology, we felt that we would get constructive inputs about what do they know and how they would make use of the available services. Objectives of the study The primary objective of the study is to analyze the level of digital financial literacy among the college students with reference to Udupi city. In specific, it aims to: 1. To understand the issues and challenges associated with digital modes of payment. 2. To study the purposes of online transactions among college students. 3. To identify the popular mode of payment used for online transactions. 4. To assess the awareness about internet risks in online transactions among the respondents. Research methodology The present study on the topic, “Financial Literacy in The Digital Age – A Study Among College Students of Udupi City” is an empirical work conducted using quantitative data collected from 175 the respondents. Both undergraduate and postgraduate students of aided, unaided and government colleges in and around Udupi city responded to the survey. Questionnaire was prepared using Google forms and sent to both undergraduate and post graduate college students of Udupi city.175 responses were expected. Among them 164 completed forms were analysed. Simple random sampling method was used to select the respondents. To achieve the aforesaid data, both primary and secondary data are used. Primary data was collected through survey method. Questionnaire was used for collecting data. The data is analyzed through percentages. Limitations of the study  The study is confined to 164 undergraduate and post graduate college students of Udupi city only.  Opinion of the respondents is not final, because the opinion or preference may differ from time to time depending on the situation. Review of related literature Close to 76% Indian adults do not adequately understand key financial concepts, found a global survey conducted by Standard & Poor’s Financial Services LLC. The S&P’s Ratings Services Global Financial Literacy Survey found that this number is lower than the worldwide average of financial literacy, but it is roughly in line with other BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) and South Asian nations. According to the survey, three-quarters of Asian adults and two-thirds of adults worldwide are not financially literate. ( S&P survey 2015) Agarwal Parul (2015) The need for financial literacy and its importance for financial inclusion have been acknowledged by all possible stakeholders - policymakers, bankers, practitioners, researchers and academics – across the globe. Various financial

176 literacy programmes have thus been implemented by concerned institutions, with a lot of them being unique in their approach and delivery mechanisms. For instance, programmes have been customized to suit the requirements of students, microfinance clients, slum dwellers, bank clients etc. Some programmes have a particular focus such as a specific financial product, developing saving habit among target group, customer protection, business management, and so on, while others are more general and deal with money management skills, advocating healthy financial practices etc. Varied techniques such as videos, stories, activities, comic books etc. are used, along with traditional methods of classroom training Aggarwal & Gupta (2014) evaluated the influence of demographic factors to study the impact of gender and education level on financial awareness. They considered 148 students as respondents for the study. They found that the level of education and discipline had positive impact on financial literacy. Hospido et. al (2015) has measured the impact on objective measure of financial literacy through an education program for students. The study used a matched sample of students and teachers in Madrid and two different estimation strategies. The program increased treated students’ financial knowledge. It was found in the study that students of private schools did not increase their knowledge much, possibly due to a less intensive implementation of the program. Study also analyzed the bias that arises because the set of schools that participated in financial literacy programs was not random. Park (2011) examined the impact of three dimensions of digital literacy on privacy-related online behaviors: (a) familiarity with technical aspects of the Internet, (b) awareness of common institutional practices, and (c) understanding of current privacy policy. Hierarchical regression models analyzed data from a

177 national sample of 419 adult Internet users. The three dimensions had strong forces of prediction over the knowledge held by the user. It happened to control most of their behavior. Karmakar, Banerjee and Mohapatra (2011) argue that the easiest way to ensure better financial inclusion is to open more branches of banks and financial institutions, removing various obstacles in accessing financial services from the bank. The technologies introduced, only reduces the transaction cost for both the clients and the banks/institutions. Therefore, financial inclusion shall not add to the operational cost of financial institutions. Pradeep and Garg opine that financial exclusion is less visible in urban areas compared to rural areas. The better availability of banking facilities happens to befool the set up. These facilities are concentrated on each urban Centre. A change in a factor, for instance, change in location of a bank branch can leave a wider impact in urban areas, i.e. almost 50% of urban areas become unbanked. Way & Wong (2010) state that the development and use of technology-based tools for financial literacy education has grown rapidly in recent years, often based on the presumption that digital media will replace the past practice. The studies present an ecological model for technology-based financial literacy education, intervention and propose an action agenda for practice and further research. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

The primary data collected from sample respondents were analyzed and interpreted as follows:

178 Table No.1 Age of the respondents

Age Frequency Percent 18-19 53 32 20-21 72 44 22-23 39 24 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

The above table shows that (32%) of the respondents are in the age category 18-19, (44%) of the respondents are in the age category 20-21 and (24%) of the respondents are in the age category 22-23.

Table No.2 Gender of the respondents

Gender Frequency Percent Female 125 76 Male 39 24 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Among the respondents (76%) are girls and remaining (24%) are boys.

Table No.3 Course of the respondents

Percent Course Frequency Postgraduate 96 59 Undergraduate 68 41 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Among the respondents (59%) of them are studying in postgraduate courses and (41%) of them are studying in undergraduate courses.

179 Table No.4 Family Income of the respondents

Family Income Frequency Percent less than Rs.1,00,000 124 76 Rs.1,00,001 - Rs.2,00,000 22 13 Above Rs.2,00,000 18 11 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Majority (76%) of the respondents belong to the family income group of less than Rs1,00,000,13% of the respondents belong to the family income group of Rs.1,00,001 – 2,00,000 and 11% of the respondents belong to the family income group of above Rs.2,00,000.

Table No.5 Type of Family

Family Type Frequency Percent Joint Family 35 21 Nuclear Family 129 79 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Majority (79%) of the respondents belong nuclear family type and (21%)of the respondents are living in joint families.

Table No.6 Type of College

Type of College Frequency Percent Aided college 9 6 Unaided college 12 7 Government college 143 87 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Among the respondents (6%) are from aided colleges, (7%)from unaided colleges and (87%)of them are from government colleges.

180 Table No.7 Type of Bank

Type of bank Frequency Percent Co-operative bank 6 4 Private sector 48 29 Public sector 110 67 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data) Majority (67%) of the respondents have accounts in public sector banks, (29%) have accounts in private sector banks and (4%)have accounts in co-operative banks.

Table No.8 Usage of Net Banking

Usage of net banking Frequency Percent No 59 36 Yes 105 64 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

(64%) of the respondents use net banking facility and (36%) of them do not use net banking.

Table No.9 Purposes of online payment Purposes of online payment Frequency Percent Do not make any online payment 27 17 Fuel 3 2 Hotel/ Restaurant 2 1 Mobile Recharge 56 34 Not Applicable 20 12 Online purchases 35 21 Payment in retail shop 10 6 Shopping Mall 9 6 Travelling 2 1 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data) 181 From the above table it is clear that among the respondents the most preferred purpose of online payment is for mobile recharge (34%)followed by online purchases (21%). (6%)of the respondents make online payments in retail shops as well as shopping malls.(1%)of the respondents make online payments in hotels and for travel purposes.2% of the respondents make online payments for fuel and (17%)of the respondents do not make any online payments.

Table No.10 Modes of payment used for online shopping

Modes of payment Frequency Percentage Cash on delivery 102 62 Credit card 7 4 Debit card 39 24 E-wallets 5 3 Net banking 8 5 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Most of the respondents (62%)prefer to pay cash on delivery when shopping online (24%)of the respondents make use of debit cards, (4%)use credit cards followed by (8%)E-wallets, and (5%)net banking. This shows that cash on delivery is the most preferred mode of payment among the respondents.

Table No.11 Factors discouraging online payment

Factors Frequency Percent Risk of theft of personal information 76 46 Lack of knowledge of Internet Banking 32 20 Lack of access to Internet 10 6 Preference towards cash payments 46 28 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data) 182 Among the respondents (46%)fear the risk of personal information, (20%)of the respondents admit that they lack knowledge of internet banking, (6%)lack access to internet and (28%)prefer cash payment. This shows that more awareness must be created on digital financial risk control.

Table No.12 Awareness of the internet risk: Phishing

Response Frequency Percent No 56 34 Yes 108 66 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Among the respondents (34%) are not aware of the internet risk Phishing and (66%) of the respondents are aware of it.

Table No.13 Awareness of the internet risk: Pharming

Response Frequency Percent No 77 47 Yes 87 53 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Among the respondents (47%)are not aware of the internet risk Pharming and (53%)of the respondents are aware of it.

Table No.14 Awareness of the internet risk: Spyware

Response Frequency Percent No 80 49 Yes 84 51 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

183 Among the respondents (49%)are not aware of the internet risk Spyware and (51%)of the respondents are aware of it.

Table No.15 Awareness of the internet risk: Sim Card Swap

Response Frequency Percent No 59 36 Yes 105 64 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Among the respondents (36%)are not aware of the internet risk Sim card swap and (64%)of the respondents are aware of it.

Table No.16 Verification of app or site security when making an online purchase

Response Frequency Percent No 23 14 Yes 141 86 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data)

Among the respondents (14%)do not verify the site security risk when making online purchases and the rest (86%) do verify the site security.

Table No.17 Opinion whether “Personal savings & investment management” must be part of the curriculum.

Response Frequency Percent No 18 11 Yes 146 89 Grand Total 164 100 (Source: Primary Data) (11%) of the respondents opine that “Personal savings & investment management” need not necessarily be a part of the 184 curriculum whereas majority (89%)of the respondents feel that “Personal savings & investment management” must be part of the curriculum.

Table No.18 Opinion on “Managing personal finance”

Response Frequency Percent Neither important or unimportant 20 13 Not at all important 7 4 Somewhat important 30 18 Somewhat unimportant 2 1 Very important 105 64 Grand Total 164 100 (13%)of the respondents opine that “Managing personal finance” is Neither important or unimportant, (4%) feel that it is Not at all important, (18%)feel that it is Somewhat important, (2%)opine that it is Somewhat unimportant and (64%)of them opine that it is very important.

Findings

1. Cash on delivery is considered as the popular mode of payment.

2. Most of the students use online payment for mobile recharge followed by online purchasing.

3. Theft of personal information (46%) is found to be the major reason for the non- association with online transactions among the respondents.

4. (34%)of the respondents are not aware of the internet risk Phishing, (47%)are not aware of the internet risk Pharming, (49%)are not aware of the internet risk Spyware and (36%)are not aware of the internet risk Sim card swap.

185 5. (89%)of the respondents feel that “Personal savings & investment management” must be part of the curriculum.

6. (64%)of the respondents opine that “Managing personal finance” is very important.

Suggestions

 Students mostly prefer cash on delivery mode of payment, but from the future point of view it may not be a better practice as maximum dealings may become cashless transactions.

 An effort could be made in order to spread awareness of benefits behind a cashless economy.

 Security of accounts must be given top priority so that the people who are transacting online will not fear the theft of their personal information.

Conclusion

Basic awareness must be created among college students to cope with technological innovations in the banking industry. Awareness on innovations in online banking practices can help students as well as the society to reap maximum benefit with regard to time and energy. Adequate security measures must be ensured to keep the accounts safe. Safety and security should be given highest priority while achieving inclusiveness in digital financial literacy. References

 Agarwal Parul (2015) “Financial literacy: When, what and how” https://www.ideasforindia.in

 Aggarwal, M., & Gupta, M. (2014, October). Awareness of Financial Literacy Among College Students. Journal of Management and Technology, 1-13. Retrieved from 186 http://apeejay.edu/aitsm/journal/docs/issue-October 2014/ ajmst-020101oct14.pdf.

 Hospido, L., Villanueva, E., & Zamarro, G. (2015, March). “The Impact of Financial Literacy Training in the Impact of Financial Literacy Training” In. IZA Discussion Paper No. 8902, 1-44.

 Karmakar, Banerjee and Mohapatra (2011). “Towards Financial Inclusion in India”. Sage Publications Pvt. Ltd.

 Mahajan, P., Singla, A. (2017, January 8th). Effect of Demonetisation on Financial Inclusion on India. International Conference on Recent Trends in Engineering, Science and Management, 1282-1287

 Park, Y. J. (2011). “Digital Literacy and Privacy Behavior Online”. Communication Research, 40(2), 215-236.

 Pradeep and Garg, “Financial Inclusion - Viable Opportunities in Urban India”. Gee Corplegal Private Limited

 Way, W. L., & Wong, N. (2010). “Harnessing the Power of Technology to Enhance Financial Literacy Education and Personal Financial Well-Being: A Review of the Literature, Proposed Model, and Action Agenda”. Centre for Financial Security

 https://www.livemint.com S&P survey (2015)

 www.cashlessindia.gov.in

 https://t20japan.org/policy-brief-need-promote-digital- financial-literacy/

 https://www.financialeducatorscouncil.org/why-is-financial- literacy-important-for-college-students/

187  https://www.finextra.com/blogposting/13750/digital- financial-literacy---key-enabler-for-a-less-cash-india

 https://www.oecd.org/daf/fin/financial-education/Russia- FinEdu-2018-Session5.pdf

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188 YOGA – FOR A HEALTHY AND HAPPY LIFE

Dr. RAMACHANDRA PATKAR Physical Education Director Abstract Yoga is very much concerned today. Yoga is the science of life and the art of living. Yoga arose in the age of the Vedas and Upanishads. It is India's oldest scientific, perfect spiritual discipline. Yoga is a method of training the mind and developing its power of subtle perceptions so that man may discover for himself the spiritual truths on which religion, beliefs and moral values finally rest. The yogic activities provide immense help in assisting an individual to seek his all round growth and development. Present world use to practice yoga for maintaining good health. Investigators in this paper try to explore the role of yoga in maintaining good physical and mental health. KEY WORDS: Yoga, Vedas, Physical Education. Upanishads, Spiritual, Good Health. Introduction Physical education and yoga are interrelated. Yoga is one of the most ancient metaphysical sciences, which investigates the nature of soul and through its discipline, awakens the super conscious mind of the man which unites the moral being with the immortal supreme spirit. Yoga leads to balance and also provides both a philosophy and a religion. The real joy of life appears when we can unify nature and culture, wealth and poverty, movement and stillness, attachment and detachment. The yogic activities provide immense help in assisting an individual to seek his all round growth and development in all the personality dimensions including the union of his self with the Greater soul. Many still believe that yoga is a religion, but it‘s not, instead, it‘s a way of living who strives to have a healthy mind in a healthy body. A human is a mental,

189 physical and spiritual being and yoga helps promote a balanced development of all the three. Other forms of physical exercises, such as aerobics, guarantee only physical well being. They have very little to do with the development of the spiritual or planetary body. The exercises performed through yoga recharge the body with cosmic energy, which facilitates the following: i)Accomplishment of ideal equilibrium and harmony, ii) Promotes self healing, iii) Takes out negative blocks from the mind and toxins from the body iv) Increases personal power and self awareness, v) Helps in focusing and achieving concentration, which is particularly important for children, vi) Lessens stress and tension in the physical body by activating the parasympathetic nervous system. The person performing this art feels rejuvenated. Thus, yoga bestows upon every individual the powers to control the body and mind. Methodology In this paper, the research was based on secondary data taken from different books, research reports, journals and research papers. Objectives  To Know about the Yoga.  To know about good health.  To assess the Importance of Yoga for maintaining good physical health in present day ‘s busy life.  To find out the importance of Yoga in reducing Stress & anxiety to maintain good mental health. Yoga The term ―Yoga means union or merger. Yoga, as the spiritual goal, denotes the union of the Individual Soul with the Supreme Soul (God). As per Hindu Religious faith, this union or merger

190 leading to Liberation or Emancipation is the supreme goal of all individuals. And Yoga as a tool helps the spirants attain their goals. Yoga and its Importance in Our Daily Life In practical terms, Yoga denotes functional harmony between the body and the mind. The harmony gained as a result of the practice of Yoga, leads to inexplicable joy, good health, long life, peace and happiness. Yoga has immense capabilities to develop the physical and mental health. It cures diseases, including the dreaded ones. However, as a curative science, much of its potential still remains to be tapped. The first to write a compendium (compilation) on Yoga was Sage Patanjali who is believed to have lived in 200 B.C. or earlier. This work of Sage Patanjali, known as ―Yoga Sutras or Yoga Darshana is regarded as the most precise and scientific text ever written on Yoga. Sage Patanjali defines Yoga as Yogaschitta vrtti nirodahâ – Yoga is restraining the Mind-stuff from taking various forms. In other words, Yoga is the elimination of the modifications of the mind and making it one-pointed. Chittaâ (mind-stuff) means individual consciousness, which includes the conscious, the subconscious, and the unconscious states of mind. These three states of the individual mind are called Chittaâ.The waves of thought in the Chittaâ are called Vrttisâ. Nirodahâ means restraining or eliminating. So, restraining the modifications of the Chittaâm is the subject matter or the end goal of Yoga. Restraining the Chitta (mind-stuff) appears to be very simple. But, in practice, it is a very difficult task. The aspirant will know the complexity and depth of the subject matter only while going through the verses, one by one, in all 196 verses, divided into 4 chapters. The work does not contain any techniques to help the beginners. This implies that the Yoga Sutras are not meant for beginners and that a teacher is necessary to pursue the studies seriously. The beginning verse Atha Yoganusanamâ (Now, therefore, complete instructions on Yoga)

191 itself is a clear indication to it. The word Athaâ (now, therefore) signifies that the student ought to have acquired adequate knowledge in Yoga before studying the Yoga Sutras. Types of Yoga: Four types of Yoga in India Basically there are four Yoga in India, viz., Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Raja Yoga and Jnana Yoga. Karma is suitable for people of active temperament. Bhakti Yoga is for people of devotional temperament. Raja Yoga, for men of mystic temperament and bold understanding and strong willpower. Bhakti Yoga is suitable for vast majority of persons as they are emotional. Jnana Yoga is suitable for a microscopic minority only. Ladies can realise God quickly as their hearts are filled with devotion, prema and affection. But it is very difficult for them to get Vairagy. In "Ashta + anga" is Ashtanga. "Ashta" means Eight and "Anga" is limbs so it means Eight Limb path. Ashtanga yoga is based on Yoga Philosophy of Patanjali. Yoga has its roots about 5000 years BC as described in Vedic Philosophy and Tantras. Patanjali, great sage composed this path into a Darshan(Philosophy) in his Book Patanjal Yoga Sutra. In which he has formulated Yoga as a Eight Limbs or Eight Fold path. Eight Limbs of Ashtanga Yoga are:  Yama (Principles or moral code); Ahimsa - A principle of non- violence, Satya - A principle of Truthfulness, Asteya - A principle of non stealing, Brahmacharya - Continence / Celibacy, Aparigah - A principle of non-hoarding or non possessiveness  Niyama Personal Disciplines), Shoucha – Purity, Santosh – Contentment, Tapa – Endurance, Swadhyaya - Self study, Eshwar Pranidhan – Dedication,  Asana (Yoga Positions or Yogic Postures) – A stable and comfortable posture which helps attains mental equilibrium.

192  Pranayama (Yogic Breathing) Extension and control of breath.  Pratyahara (Withdrawal of Senses) A mental preparation to increase the power of mind.  Dharana (Concentration on Object) Concentration of mind on one object and its field.  Dhyan (Meditation) With drawing mind from all external objects and focusing it on one point and meditating on it.  Samadhi (Salvation) – State of super bliss, joy and merging individual consciousness in to universal consciousness. Union between Jivatman and Paramatman. Union of and Shakti in Sahasrar Chakra (the top of the head). Realizing the Bramhan (pure consciousness) or Realization of God is the ultimate achievement of Human Birth. Yoga in the ancient period The Beginning: About 5,000 years ago, yoga was invented. We think this happened in the Indus Valley, on a sunny Tuesday afternoon. We know this because we've uncovered stone carvings that show people sitting in meditative-looking positions. It's worth noting that this is well before Hinduism came into being. Also of interest, ancient Egyptian images from over 5,000 years ago show some pretty good tree-poses, among other things. Concluding things about ancient times can get a little wobbly, especially without context. Vedic Period: Between 3,500 and 2,500 years ago the Vedas were written, which formed the basis for Hinduism. Yogis at this time were often solitary types, living in forests. Their interests aimed at enduring physical hardship by sharpening their minds. Pre-Classical Yoga: About 2,500 years ago, the Upanishads were written. The Bhagavad Gita is left as the oldest known yoga scripture, dating to 500 BCE. Yoga practice seems to soften a bit, becoming more meditative and less reclusive.

193 Classical: Patanjali's Yoga Sutras form the defining text here, outlining the Eightfold Path of yoga What to do and not do, how to relate with ourselves and others, how to sit, breathe, withdraw, focus, concentrate, meditate, and of course, enlighten. It's worth noting there is only a single mention of physical activity here, as preparation for proper sitting. Modern day's relevance: Today, millions of people across the world are following yoga either in the form of one particular asana or a combination taught by a Yogi or guru. Some books even refer to particular asana depending upon the medical requirement. Modern yogi’s claims that yogic exercises cure various diseases like obesity, diabetics, dislocation of disc, respiratory problems, arthritis of various types and various spine problems, high blood pressure besides stress and even cholesterol problems and heart diseases. Yoga guru Swami Ramdev and many of his cults are making yoga more popular all over the world by demonstrating modern physical exercise of yoga. Yoga in India: The 'Upanishads' and 'Puranas' composed by Indian Aryans in the later Vedic and post-Vedic period contain references to yoga. Patanjali wrote 'Yoga Sutra', about two thousand Years ago. 'Yoga Sutra' is the most important basic text on Yoga. Swami Ramdev, a new-age yoga guru is dominating Indian viewers with both his performances of yoga asanas and his candid comments against corruption. Swami Ramdev, who hosts a television show with 30 million viewers across the country, owns a peace island in Scotland. Swami Ramdev has ushered in a hope for people suffering from different kinds of ailments, even the incurable ones. Thousands of people in Europe and USA have attended his Yogic exercises. In India, millions in urban and rural areas watch the Yoga exercise on TV and listen intently to his discourses.

194 Spirit of Yoga The true spirit of Yoga revolves around uplifting the life force or ‘Kundalini’ at the base of the spine. It strives to accomplish this through a series of mental and physical exercises. At the physical level, the methods consist several yoga postures or ‘asanas’ that strives to keep the body healthy. The mental techniques include breathing techniques or ‘pranayama’ and meditation or ‘dhyana’ to discipline the mind. Ultimately, yoga aims to help the person to rise above the self and attain enlightenment. Good health Good health is a reflection of body, mind and spirit. Through integration of moderate functional exercise, meditation and awareness, balanced nutrition, morality and peace-loving relationships (with family, at the workplace and with friends), the absence of disease can be attained. Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health is precisely, that condition in which human being has full sensitivity and in which all his faculties are operating fully. To work towards this condition is to cure illness and to develop maximum health. Yoga is both a philosophy and a living religion, believes that the body is so important and trains it so strictly. Without health we can neither practice meditation nor attain enlightenment. For total health one should seek the truth by skepticism. The body mind system possesses the innate power of recovering health and the yogic method of curing human ills aims at stimulating it. Prominent health specialist Ben Jonson said, "O, health! health! the blessing of rich! the riches of the poor! Who can buy thee at too dear a rate, since there is no enjoying the world without thee! Preksha (means to see inside with full concentration) may appear to mean different things to different people because it contributes to increase physical, nervous as well as spiritual energies. As per prominent Jainacharya Acharya

195 Mahaprajna inventor of Preksha Dhyan, Yoga total health consists of physical, mental, emotional and spiritual health. On physical level, it helps each bodily cell to revitalize itself; it facilitates digestion; it makes inspiration more efficient and improves circulation and quality of blood. On mental level it proves to be an applied method to train the mind to concentrate; it offers way to treat serious psychosomatic illness without drugs; it is an efficient tool for ending addictions and other bad habits. Yoga and its Importance in Our Daily Life The data reveals to one the mysteries of his mind by the realization and real experience of the inner consciousness which includes the subconscious and the unconscious. On the emotional level, the strengthening of conscious reasoning controls reactions to environmental conditions, situations and behaviour of others; harmonization of the functioning of nervous and endocrine system results in control and ultimate eradication of psychological distortions. On spiritual level, regulation and transformation of blood chemistry through proper synthesization of neuro endocrinal secretions, dispassionate internal vibrations lead one to attain the power to control the mindand to become free from the effect of external forces compelling one to lose to equanimity. The following table shows the relation between endocrine glands and the Chaitnya-kendras Endocrine glands Chaitnyakendras Pineal Jyoti-kendra, Pituitary Darshan-kendra, Thyroids Vishudhi- kendram, Thymus Anand-kendra, Adrenals Taijas-kendra, Gonads Swasthya-kendra and Shakti-kendra constant triggering over reaction of the lower endocrine glands viz. adrenal and gonad results in pernicious habits, affecting our physical and mental health. For good physical health Dr. Dastur recommends: i) Sleep on a thin firm mattress with a wooden board underneath. ii) Don't sleep on foam rubber mattress. iii) Prolonged standing in one place puts great pressure on the spine. Shift your weight

196 from one foot to other to relieve the strain. iv) Learn to relax when under stress. v) Do not lift a heavy load with straight knees from the floor. Bend your knees and lift it up. Jainacharya Acharya Mahaprajna inventor of Preksha Dhyan Yoga inspires for maintenance of total health: vi) For maintenance of physical health one should always walk in morning fresh air and should observe Asans and Pranayama. vii) For maintenance of mental health one should get rid of worries and should deep dive in meditation and kayotsarga. viii) For achieving emotional health one should think positive and should always live in present and not in past or future. Sound health and peaceful mind are a must for man to enjoy the material world. In order to achieve this purpose of birth one has to maintain harmony between body and life force, life force and mind, between individuals and society and between natures and will. Practicing appropriate exercises of body and mind and a virtuous way of living to maintain the harmonies described above constitute yoga. Thus Karma Yoga is a system of life utilizing the full Potential of the body and mind with understanding and awareness for a happy, prosperous and peaceful life. All experiences in life are enjoyed only by the mind. Mind is the peripheral stage of consciousness. In the infinite state, the consciousness itself is the truth. As a man is endowed with the sixth sense which inherits the purpose of the realization of self, in time he should realize the self, which is consciousness. By realizing consciousness man can live with satisfaction, harmony and peace. Realization of consciousness is the only one perfect and higher knowledge by which one can know everything in the universe. The mind is nothing but the extended and perceptional activity of the consciousness. One should do every action, whether thought, word or deed, with a perspective awareness not to inflict pain to self or others, at present or in future, to the body or mind. Physical and mental health is important for a happy and successful life. One has to maintain these with due care. 197 Following moderation in the following five aspects of life i) Food, Work, Rest, Sex and Use of thought-force. These five should not be neglected, over-indulged or improperly dealt with. The proportional requirements of daily food are 10% protein, 10% fat, 40% carbohydrates and 40% vegetables and fruits. Protein, the essential food-element, is best provided by milk, curd, soybeans, dry nuts, pulses and lentils. Carbohydrates are starchy food consist in rice, chapatti, grains, maize, oats, potatoes etc. Man's existence is connected with physical cells, brain, bio magnetism, life force and sexual vital fluid. If he neglects, over-indulges or improperly deals with food, work rest, sex and use of thought-force, he has to suffer from illness and sorrow. As every action brings an appropriate result, he should deal with all the five aspects of life in moderation. Following the principle of limit and method in every enjoyment is detachment. Yoga and Its Importance in Our Daily Life Leading a creative life so as to be a useful member of the society thought-out the span of one's life is the chief aim and thrust of karma Yoga. Role of Yoga Maintaining Good Health Weight loss, a strong and flexible body, glowing beautiful skin, peaceful mind, and good health whatever you may be looking for, yoga has it on offer. However, very often, yoga is only partially understood limited to asanas (yoga poses). As such, its benefits are only perceived to be at the body level and we fail to realize the immense benefits yoga offers in uniting the body, mind and breath. When you are in harmony, the journey through life is calmer, happier and more fulfilling. With all this and much more to offer, the benefits of yoga are felt in a profound yet subtle manner.

198 Here, we look at the important benefits of yoga practice  All-round fitness: You are truly healthy when you are not just physically fit but also mentally and emotionally balanced. As Sri Sri Ravi Shankarji puts it, ―Health is not a mere absence of disease. It is a dynamic expression of life – in terms of how joyful, loving and enthusiastic you are. This is where yoga helps: postures, pranayama (breathing techniques) and meditation are a holistic fitness package.  Weight loss: What many want! Yoga benefits here too. Sun Salutations and Kapal Bhati pranayama are some ways to help lose weight with yoga. Moreover, with regular practice of yoga, we tend to become more sensitive to the kind of food our body asks for and when. This can also help keep a check on weight.  Stress relief; A few minutes of yoga during the day can be a great way to get rid of stress that accumulates daily - in both the body and mind. Yoga postures, pranayama and meditation are effective techniques to release stress.  Inner peace; We all love to visit peaceful, serene spots, rich in natural beauty. Little do we realize that peace can be found right within us and we can take a mini-vacation to experience this any time of the day! Benefit from a small holiday every day with yoga and meditation. Yoga is also one of the best ways to calm a disturbed mind.  Improved immunity; Our system is a seamless blend of the body, mind and spirit. An irregularity in the body affects the mind and similarly unpleasantness or restlessness in the mind can manifest as an ailment in the body. Yoga poses massage organs and strengthens muscles; breathing techniques and meditation release stress and improves immunity.

199  Living with greater awareness; The mind is constantly involved in activity – swinging from the past to the future – but never staying in the present. By simply being aware of this tendency of the mind, we can actually save ourselves from getting stressed or worked up and relax the mind. Yoga and pranayama help create that awareness and bring the mind back to the present moment, where it can stay happy and focused.  Better relationships; Yoga can even help improve your relationship with your spouse, parents, friends or loved ones! A mind that is relaxed, happy and contented is better able to deal with sensitive relationshipmatters. Yoga and meditation work on keeping the mind happy and peaceful; benefit from the strengthened special bond you share with people close to you.  Increased energy; Do you feel completely drained out by the end of the day? Shuttling between multiple tasks through the day can sometimes be quite exhausting. A few minutes of yoga everyday provides the secret to feeling fresh and energetic even after a long day. A 10-minute online guided meditation benefits you immensely, leaving you refreshed and recharged in the middle of a hectic day.  Better flexibility & posture; You only need to include yoga in your daily routine to benefit from a body that is strong, supple and flexible. Regular yoga practice stretches and tones the body muscles and also makes them strong. It also helps improve your body posture when you stand, sit, sleep or walk. This would, in turn, help relieve you of body pain due to incorrect posture.  Better intuition; Yoga and meditation have the power to improve your intuitive ability so that you effortlessly realize

200 what needs to be done, when and how, to yield positive results. It works. You only need to experience it yourself.  Powerful lunge; Yoga activities specially concerned with pranayam help in the promotion and increase in strength and stamina of our lunge power in terms of their expansion and contraction enabling us to inhale maximum amount of oxygen in our body for the purification of our blood besides helping in the proper circulation of the purified blood in all corners of our body.  Improve respiratory power; Yoga help us in regulating the respiration activities of our body adding efficiency to our respiratory power including increase in its amplitude stability and smoothness and decrease in the respiratory rate.  Healthy muscles; These provide valuable help in the proper functioning and control over the movement of our muscles including the spinal cord. As a result, we are able to maintain proper posture of our body including proper erectness of our spinal cord. These also contribute in the desired increase in our muscular strength besides maintaining the needed muscular flexibility and smoothness resulting in the energetic youthfulness considerably for a quite longer period of our life.  Purify body; These help us in the tasks of the cleanliness and purification of the inner organs and systems of our body including the purification of our blood and its pathways, cleanliness of the respiratory and digestive systems and proper let out and excretion of the unwanted foreign material from our body.  Healthy body; Yoga activities not only prove as strong deterrent for the prevention of the various ailments and diseases but also provide valuable solutions for their proper cure and treatment. For example, it has been a matter of wide experience that Yogic activities provide substantial cure and 201 treatment in the cases of arthritis, back pain, and osteoporosis, high and low blood pressure, asthma, diabetes and epilepsy, headaches, heart disease and multiple sclerosis etc.  Powerful mind; It is well said that there lies a healthy mind in a healthy body maintained through yogic activities. One can enjoy good mental health with a sound physical health obtained through yogic activities. Yogic activities help in equipping one properly and sufficiently with all the essential cognitive and mentalabilities and capacities for reaching the top of his intellectual and mental development. Yogic Asans, pranayam and practice of Dhyan, Dharana and samadhi can help an individual to have sufficient gains in terms of the improvement in his power of concentration, memorization, attention, learning efficiency, steadiness, and mind body neuro connection etc.  Strong sense organs. Yogic activities help in making one ‘s sense organs healthy, strong and effectively functioning. In turn it helps the individual to have a sizable increase in their reception ability, somatic and kinesthetic awareness and sensitivity for acquiring new knowledge and experiences through the use of their sense organs.  Control over mind; Yoga sadhna provides the desired ability and strength for exercising desirable control over his senses, emotions and gratification of desires and fluctuations of the mind. Sustaining of attention and concentration acquired through such control and restrain then may provide a substantial ground of the development of intellectual powers. It can be given a further higher impetus by resorting to the practice of yogic activities like Dharna, Dhyan and Samadhi.  Internal purification; Yoga sadhna helps not only to have purification and cleanliness of the internal organs.and systems of our body but it also pays a lot of consideration for the 202 purification of our inner self i.e. purification of our thoughts and feelings.  Self development; Yogic activities help the individual to imbibe the spirit of self awareness, confidence in one ‘s abilities and strengths, self discipline and intrinsic motivation, self- acceptance and self actualizationetc for seeking his maximum self development and enhancement.  Reduced Conflict; Yoga may also help students get along better with one another, which fosters a more positive learning environment. A school in Milwaukee instituted a yoga program consisting of two classes per week for students in kindergarten through 8th grade. The classes emphasized respectful behaviour as well as yogic breathing and movement practices. After a year, the school's number of disruptive "incidents" decreased by more than half. Yoga may teach students to better manage their emotions and reactions as well as to respect the feelings and emotions of others.  Healthy mind; Yogic activities help to free from any unusual anxiety, depression and fluctuation of mood or temperament. Such state of one ‘s mind may help him much in excelling in terms of his intellectual growth and wisdom.  Improved Concentration; Yoga offers time for the body and mind to relax from the rigors of learning. This may help students be better at applying themselves when studying or learning in a classroom. Medical students who practiced yoga for just one month reported better sleep and improved concentration during their studies as a result in a study published in a 2013 issue of the "Indian Journal of Community Medicine." Yoga, especially breathing techniques, can also increase concentration and academic performance in students struggling academically, concluded a 2012 study published by

203 the International Society for Scientific Interdisciplinary Yoga Research.  Powerful boosts; Aside from the uplifting spiritual values, the act of meditation can actually boost your confidence. The process works by releasing tension from you mind so you can feel confident about your physical body. Without any forms of anxiety, you are able to establish an internal connection with yourself. This is consequently reflected in your perception of others and will help to better your relationships by improving compassion and awareness. Conclusion A person practicing yoga can control his/her mind, body and soul to a great extent. It brings together mental and physical disciplines to achieve a peaceful mind and body and helps in managing stress and anxiety and keep you relaxed. It also helps in enhancing muscle strength, flexibility and body tone and improves respiration, energy and vitality. You might feel that practicing yoga is just stretching, but it can do much more for your body, from the way you feel, look and move. This fact itself speaks volumes about the popularity of Yoga in the modern day world. This event has united the world on a common platform. Along with yoga, meditation also plays an important role in developing the inner self in our daily life; it can be extremely helpful in eliminating several physical as well as psychological problems. Yoga is a traditional method of meditation developed by the saints of ancient India. They practiced yoga as an effective method of controlling their mind and bodily activities. When the body is physically healthy, the mind is clear, focused and stress is under control. This gives the space to connect with loved ones and maintain socially healthy relationships. When you are healthy you are in touch with your inner self, with others and your surroundings on a much deeper level, which adds to your spiritual health. All these facets justify why we need an

204 International Yoga Day celebration to prepare the mankind face the modern day challenges and stress in a healthy way. Yoga is a continuous process. So keep practicing! The deeper you move into your yoga practice, the more profound are its benefits. Yoga practice helps develop the body and mind bringing a lot of health benefits yet is not a substitute for medicine. It is important to learn and practice yoga postures under the supervision of a trained Yoga teacher. References 1. M.Hiriyana, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Ltd.Delhi, first edition, 1993. 2. Swami Manuvaryaji Maharaj, Yoga and Health—, Dundubhi printers, first edition, 1994. 3. Acharya Mahaprajna, Preksha Dhyan, Basic Principles—Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Raj.), January-2003. 4. Acharya Mahaprajna, Preksha Dhyan, Theory and Practice— Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Raj.), January-2003. 5. Preksha Dhyan Human Body (part-II), Health Care—J.S. Zaveri, Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun(Raj.), edition 1993. 6. Yogiraj Vethathiri Maharshi, Karma Yoga——Vethathiri publications, Erode (T.N.), third edition, 1995. 7. Yoga Maharshi Swami Deva Murti, Yoga-Praxis—1971-72, International Yoga Centre, Schloss Aubach, West Germany. 8. Brown RP, et al. ―Sudarshan Kriya Yogic Breathing in the Treatment of Stress, Anxiety, and Depression: Part II — Clinical Applications and Guidelines, ‖ Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine (Aug. 2005): Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 711– 17. 9. Janakiramaiah N, et al. ―Antidepressant Efficacy of Sudarshan Kriya Yoga (SKY) in Melancholia: A Randomized Comparison

205 with Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and Imipramine, ‖ Journal of Affective Disorders (Jan.–March 2000): Vol. 57, No. 1–3, pp. 255–59. 10. Khalsa SB. ―Yoga as a Therapeutic Intervention: A Bibliometric Analysis of Published Research Studies, ‖ Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology (July 2004): Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 269–85. 11. Kirkwood G, et al. ―Yoga for Anxiety: A Systematic Review of the Research, ‖ British Journal of Sports Medicine (Dec. 2005): Vol. 39, No. 12, pp. 884–91. 12. Pilkington K, et al. ―Yoga for Depression: The Research Evidence, ‖ Journal of Affective Disorders (Dec. 2005): Vol. 89, No. 1–3, pp. 13–24. 13. Dr. M.G. Prasad, ―What is Yoga? ‖ Akka Conference Proceedings, Chicago 2008. 14. Swami Vishnu Devananda, ―The complete illustrated book of Yoga, ‖ Three River Press, NY 1988. 15. Dr. David Coulter, Anatomy of Hatha Yoga, Body and Breath, PA, 2001. 16. Arndt B ussing,1 Andreas Michalsen,2 Sat Bir S. Khalsa,3 Shirley Telles,4 and Karen J. Sherman5, Effects of Yoga on Mental and Physical Health: A Short Summary of Reviews Review Article, Hindawi Publishing Corporation, Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Volume 2012, Article ID 165410, 7 pages, doi:10.1155/2012/165410. 17. Sri Swami Sivananda, Yoga in Daily Life- Divine Life Society Publication, Distt. Tehri-Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh, Eighth Edition: 1999. 18. Paramhans Swami Maheswarananda. Yoga in Daily Life- The system. Vienna: Iberverlag/European University Press; 2000. ***** 206 ªÀZÀ£À¯ÉÆÃPÀzÀ¯ÉÆèAzÀÄ ¸Áé©üªÀiÁ£ÀzÀ ¥ÀæwÃPÀ-£ÀÄ°AiÀÄ ZÀAzÀAiÀÄå£ÀªÀgÀÄ

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£ÀÄrzÀ ªÀiÁwAUÉ vÀqÀ§qÀ §AzÀ°è £ÀÄrzÀ ¨sÁµÉUÉ ¨sÀAUÀ £ÉÆÃqÁ »rzÀ PÀļÀPÉÌ ºÁ¤ §AzÀ°è MqÀ®¤j¸ÀĪÀÅzÉ ¨sÀAUÀ £ÉÆÃqÀAiÀiÁå! EzÀÄ PÁgÀt £ÀqÉ £ÀÄr ±ÀÄzÀÞ«®è¢zÀÝqÉ ZÀAzÉñÀégÀ°AUÀªÁzÀqÀÆ vÀ¥Àà£ÉƼÀPÉƼÀî PÁuÁ ªÀÄrªÁ¼ÀAiÀiÁå! £ÀÄ°AiÀÄ ZÀAzÀAiÀÄå£ÀªÀgÀÄ vÀªÀÄä ªÀZÀ£ÀzÀ°è MAzÀÄ PÀqÉ ‘CªÀ »AV vÀ£Àß vÁ£ÀjvÀ°è ZÀ£Àߧ¸ÀªÀtÚ¦æAiÀÄ ZÀAzÉñÀégÀ °AUÀªÀ PÁt§ºÀÄ¢vÀÄÛ’ J£ÀÄßvÁÛgÉ. vÀ£Àß ©lÄÖ ¥ÀgÀzÀ°è £ÀA©PɬÄqÀĪÀ ªÀåQÛUÀ¼À£ÀÄßzÉÝò¹ CªÀgÁrzÀ F ªÀiÁvÀÄ JµÉÆÖAzÀÄ CxÀð¥ÀÆtðªÁzÀÄzÀÄ! DvÀä¸ÉÜAiÀÄðzÀ PÉÆgÀvɬÄgÀĪÀ ªÀåQÛUÀ¼ÀÄ ªÀiÁvÀæ ¥ÀgÀzÀ°è £ÀA©PɬÄqÀÄvÁÛgÉ. Cj«£À ¨É¼ÀQ£À°è £ÀqÉzÁUÀ ªÀiÁvÀæ ¸ÀvÀåzÀ zÀ±Àð£ÀªÁUÀÄvÀÛzÉ.

PÁAiÀÄPÀzÀ ªÉÄð£À ¦æÃw, dAUÀªÀÄ zÁ¸ÉÆúÀzÀ ªÉÄð£À ¤µÉ×, EºÀzÀ ªÉÄð£À £ÀA©PÉ, ¸ÀvÀvÀ eÁÕ£Á£ÉéõÀuÉ, ¸ÀévÀAvÀæ ªÀÄ£ÉÆÃzsÀªÀÄð, ¤©üðqÉAiÀÄ ªÀåQÛvÀé EªÀÅ £ÀÄ°AiÀÄ ZÀAzÀAiÀÄå£ÀªÀgÀ fêÀ£À ªÀiË®åUÀ¼ÀÄ. £ÀªÀÄUÉ zÉÆgÉvÀ CªÀgÀ ªÀZÀ£ÀUÀ¼ÀÄ PÉêÀ® £À®ªÀvÉÛAmÁzÀgÀÆ CªÀÅ ¸ÀªÀiÁdPÉÌ ¤ÃrzÀ ªÀiË®åUÀ¼ÀÄ DzÀgÀtÂÃAiÀĪÁzÀĪÀÅ. PÀ¯ÁåtzÀ ±ÀgÀt ZÀ¼ÀªÀ½AiÀÄ°è ¥ÀæªÀÄÄRªÁV ¥Á¯ÉÆÎAqÀÄ ¸ÀªÀiÁdzÀ ¥ÀæUÀw¥ÀgÀ ¨É¼ÀªÀtÂUÉUÉ PÁgÀtPÀvÀðgÁV ªÀiËqsÀåªÀ£ÀÄß £Á±À¥Àr¸À®Ä ¥ÀæAiÀÄwß¹zÀªÀgÀ°è EªÀgÀÆ M§âgÀÄ. PÀ¯ÁåtzÀ°è GAmÁzÀ PÁæAwAiÀÄ £ÀAvÀgÀ ±ÀgÀtgÀ UÀÄA¥À£ÀÄß »A¨Á°¸ÀzÉ, MAnAiÀiÁV ºÉÆgÀlÄ PÉÆ£ÉUÉ ¥ÀzÁäªÀw JA§ HjUÉ §gÀÄvÁÛgÉ. C°èAiÀÄÆ ¸ÀĪÀÄä¤gÀzÉ vÀªÀÄä PÁAiÀÄPÀ zsÀªÀÄðªÀ£ÀÄß PÉÆ£ÉAiÀĪÀgÉUÀÆ £ÀqɸÀÄvÁÛ, ²ªÁ£ÀĨsÀªÀ UÉÆö×UÀ¼À£ÀÄß £ÀqɸÀÄvÁÛ C°èAiÉÄà °AUÉÊPÀågÁUÀÄvÁÛgÉ. ZÀAzÀAiÀÄå£ÀªÀgÀ °AUÉÊPÀå £ÀAvÀgÀ ¥ÀzÁäªÀw HgÀÄ £ÀįÉãÀÆgÀÄ JA§ÄªÀÅzÁV ªÀÄgÀÄ£ÁªÀÄPÀgÀtUÉÆAqÀÄ ¥Àæ¹¢Þ ¥ÀqÉAiÀÄÄvÀÛzÉ.

211 PÁAiÀÄPÀ vÀvÀé JAzÀ PÀÆqÀ¯Éà §¸ÀªÀtÚ£ÀªÀgÀ eÉÆvÉ CªÀgÀ ¸ÀªÀÄPÁ°Ã£ÀgÁzÀ £ÀÄ°AiÀÄ ZÀAzÀAiÀÄå£ÀªÀgÀÆ ¸ÀÄÛvÁåºÀðgÀÄ. ¥ÀgÁªÀıÀð£À UÀæAxÀUÀ¼ÀÄ:

1) qÁ. ªÀÄ. £À. dªÀgÀAiÀÄå, CA¨ÉÃqÀÌgï ªÀ¸Àð¸ï ªÀÄ£ÀĪÁzÀ (2007) ¥ÀÄl-192 §ºÀÄd£À ªÀiÁzsÀåªÀÄ PÉÃAzÀæ ¥ÀæPÁ±À£À ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ.

2) JA. azÁ£ÀAzÀ ªÀÄÆwð, ªÀÄzsÀåPÁ°Ã£À PÀ£ÀßqÀ ¸Á»vÀå ªÀÄvÀÄÛ C¸Ààø±ÀåvÉ (1985), ¥Àæ¸ÁgÁAUÀ PÀ£ÁðlPÀ «±Àé«zÁå®AiÀÄ zsÁgÀªÁqÀ.

3) ©. ªÀĺÁzÉêÀ¥Àà, £ÀÄ°AiÀÄ ZÀAzÀAiÀÄå (2003) §¸ÀªÀ ¸À«Äw ¨ÉAUÀ¼ÀÆgÀÄ.

4) qÁ. AiÀÄ®è¥Àà »ªÀÄär, £ÀÄ°AiÀÄ ZÀAzÀAiÀÄå ²æà §¸ÀªÀ CzsÀåAiÀÄ£À ¦ÃoÀ ªÉÄʸÀÆgÀÄ.

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