List of contributors

Anne J. Alexander, Biology Department, University of Natal, King George V Avenue, Durban, 4001 South Africa. Eugene K. Balon, Department of Zoology, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, NIG 2Wl, Canada. William R. Branch, Port Elizabeth Museum, P.O. Box 13147, Humewood, 6013 South Africa. Richard K. Brooke, Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7700 South Africa. Dennis J. Brothers, Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 3200 South Africa. Michael N. Bruton, J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown, 6140 South Africa. William E. Duellman, Museum of Natural History and Department of Systematics and Ecology, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan• sas 66045-2454, U.S.A. Sebastian Endr8dy-Younga, Transvaal Museum, P.O. Box 413, Pretoria, 0001 South Africa. Barry C. Fabian, B.1. Balinsky Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand, P.O. Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa. Christine Flegler-Balon, Department of Zoology, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, NIG 2Wl, Canada. Valerius Geist, Faculty of Environmental Design, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N IN4, Canada. P. Humphry Greenwood, Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, United King• dom. Erik Holm, Department of Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002 South Africa. S0ren L0vtrup, Department of Zoophysiology, University of Ume~, S- 592 List of contributors

901 87 Umea, Sweden. Jurgens A.J. Meester, Department of Biology, University of Natal, King George V A venue, Durban, 4001 South Africa. Ferdinand C. de Moor, Albany Museum, Somerset Street, Grahamstown, 6140 South Africa. Barak E. Morgan, B.I. Balinsky Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand, P.O. Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa. David L.G. Noakes, Department of Zoology, Group for the Advancement of Fish Studies, University of Guelph, Ontario, NIG 2WI, Canada. Norman Owen-Smith, Resource Ecology Group, Department of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand, P.O. Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa. Neville I. Passmore, B.I. Balinsky Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand, P.O. Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa. Michael R. Perrin, Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Natal, P.O. Box 375, Pietermaritzburg, 3200 South Africa. Douglas Y. Shapiro, Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Box 5000, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00709, U.S.A. W. Roy Siegfried, Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7700 South Africa. Skuli Skulason, Department of Zoology, Group for the Advancement of Fish Studies, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, NIG 2WI, Canada. Sigurdur S. Snorrason, Institute of Biology, University of Iceland, Gren• sasvegur 12, 108 Reykjavik, Iceland. Moira van Staaden, Biology Department, University of Natal, King George V Avenue, Durban, 4001 South Africa. David Ward, Mitrani Centre of Ecology, Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Sede Boger Campus, 84990 Israel. David L. Woods, Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, 7925 South Africa. Scientific and subject index ( listed on pages 400-420 are not included in this index)

Abbottina rivularis 86, 88 Aleocharinae 320 Abramis ballerus 250 Alevin 77,87,92 Acanthixalus 107 Algae 253,255,325 Acomys dimidiatus 218 Algeria 447 Actinistia 64, 66, 67 Alleles 167, 334 Activated field 486 Alligator mississippiensis 133, 134, 136, 137, Activation 20,83,84-87,367,473,480,482 138 Adansonia digitata 451 Allochrony xiv, 333, 544 Adaptation xiv, 4, 50, 56, 57, 62, 64, 65, Allometric 111, 113, 145, 155,200,201,204,205, growth 280, 582 206, 284, 294, 313, 326, 442, 453, 459, scaling xiii, 523 463,477,506,507,509,524,530,575 Allometry 20,22,30, 73, 77, 128, 154,210, Adaptive radiation 60,61,253 213,371-383,386,422,435,436,441,442, Ade1photaxon 57 445,446,448,452,489,577 Adenomera 104 Allopatry 59,331,544 Adephaga 318 Allophrynidae 103 Adinia xenica 79 Allozymes 101 Adjusters 515 Alpine 298 Adversity selection (see also A-selection) Alprehost 251,467,469,484,486,487,493, 198,230,396,422,435,509,536 495, 513, 516, 521, 526, 544 Aethomys 223, 224 Alps 318 namaquensis 223 Altitude 233, 435 Africa 263,280,381,422,441,443,444,445, Altricial 19,28,29,31,32,33,92, 123,209, 447,448,516 218, 219, 250, 293, 294, 295, 296, 301, African Great Lakes 252,255,511,516,536, 304, 305, 311, 312, 313, 331, 382, 430, 541 431, 467, 479, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, Afrixalus 107 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 509, 510, Afroedura 130 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 517, 519, 520, Age 520 522, 523, 525, 526, 530, 532, 533, 539, Age at maturity 144, 145,221,229,433 540,541,542,543,544 Aggression 267,273,275 Amazon Basin 121 Agriculture 156,203,531,533; 535 Amia calva 86 Alaska 335 Amniota 64, 66 Alaudidae 388, 389, 390 Amphibia xiii, xiv, 46, 66, 67, 72 101-126, Albula 77, 80 129,130,131,347-369,476,504,516 vulpes 76, 77, 93 Amphisbaenia 129, 133, 142, 144 Alburnus ballerus 248 Amplexus 106, 107 Alcaloid 538 Amplitude 529 594 Index

Anabolism 506 Arvicanthis niloticus 225 Anacaena 325 Ascaphidae 103 Anachalcos convexus 323 A-selection 197-207,210,386,435,436,520 Anadromy 333, 334, 476 Asia 280,318,443,453 Anatomy 224, 263 Ass 489,491 Anautogeny 297-303,308,309,311,312 Asterophryinae 103 Andes 110 Astyanax Jasciatus 85 Anemonefish 188 Astylosternidae 103 Anguidae 128, 139 Atakama 318 husbandry 544 Atom 467 Anisotropy 22 Australia 56, 60, 110, 131, 132, 137, 220, Anoestrus 430 280, 281, 288, 289, 299, 305, 441, 443, Anoline 129 509 Anolis 144 Austria 159, 165 Anophthalmous 321,324 Austrosimulium pestilens 299,302, 304, 305 Anophthalmus 321 Autapomorphy 106, 107 Anoptichthys jordani 87 Autocatalysis 5 Antarctic 318 Autogeny 294,297,298,299,300,301,303, Antelopes 447,449,516,582 308,310,311,312 Anthias squamipinnis 179, 181 Autopoiesis xi, 34,483,495,506, 531, 535, Antlers 158, 159 543 Ants 204, 206, 270, 288 Autosomes 49 Anura 64, 66, 67, 80, 101-126, 182, 347- Aves (see also ) 64,66,67,374 369, 509, 525 Axiom of Competitive Exclusion 58 Aphelinidae 287 Axolotl 130 Aphids 204 Apidae 282, 283 Bacteria 470,477 Aplochiton 494 Bagous 318 taeniatus 493, 494 Bagre marin us 86 zebra 493,494 Balon, E.K. xi, xii, xv Apoda 64, 66, 67 Balon's Chen principle 21,482,483,511 Apodiformes 406 Bantu 31 Apomorphy 105,262,263,280,513 Baobab 451 Aposematism 203 Barnacles 525 Apterolarva 476 Barone agassizi 29 Aptery 204, 206, 282, 321 Jontinalis 29 Aquaculture 504, 542, 543, 544 Basement membrane 357,358 Aquarium trade 542, 543 Bass 539 Arctic 295, 297, 298, 302, 318, 322, Bateson, G. xv, 36 332 Bats 210,276 Aridity 318,387,396 Bearers 71,82,83,86,513,515,516,533, Arius Jelis 86 539,541 Armenian mout1on 168 internal 82,83,87,90,91 Arrhenotokous 287 Bees 282, 283 Arribadas 130 Beetles 206, 282, 283, 288, 317-326 Artemia salina 507 Behavior 106, 155, 180, 181, 182, 190, 191, Arthroleptella 365, 366 222,263,267,268,273,296,332 light/ooti 347-369 Be/gica antarctica 206 Arthroleptinae 103 Bembix pruinosa 286 Arthropoda 110,206,375,378,381 Bertalanffy, L. van 5 Artiodactyla 443, 444, 453 Bet-hedging xiii, 210, 230, 231, 233, 386, Index 595

396,422,435,436 Bottleneck effects 338 Bichirs 66 Bovidae 450 Bifurcation 7, 15, 19,22,23,24,25,28,33, Brachycephalidae 103 34,35,467-495,571-589 Brachymystax len ok 29, 489, 490 Biochemistry 334 Brachyponera lutea 288 Biogenetic law 246, 250 Brachypterous 282 restraints 200, 201 Brackens 535 Biotic saturation 274, 275 Brain 357 Birds xiii, xiv, 19,47,49,67,95, 123, 128, Brain-pituitary-thyroid axis 349, 367 129, 131, 137, 140, 160, 164, 178, 274, Brevicipitinae 103 290,300,301,305,371-383,385-420,476, Brine shrimp 507 484, 492, 504, 509, 510, 516, 525, 540, British Isles 330 582 Brood hiders 82, 83, 85 altricial 71,90,95, 140, 141 Buffalo, African 444, 448 of prey 515 Bufo 104, 130 nidiculous 515,516 americanus 368 precocial 71,90,95 Bufonidae 103, 105 Birth interval 449,451,452 Bullacris 262, 273 rate 372 discolor 264, 265 Bitis arietans 129 intermedia 264, 265 Bitterling 83, 93 membracoides 264, 265, 267, 268, 269, Bivalves 78 271,272,273,276 Bivoltine 294,301,305 ob/iqua 264,265 Bkm sequence 48 serrata 264, 265 Blackflies 293-313 unicolor 264,265,268,271,272,273 Black rhinoceros 450,451 Bullfrogs 189, 190 Blacksmith plover 371,373,374,379,380 Bumblebees 283 Blackwinged plover 371, 374, 375, 379, Burden, ontogenetic 519 380 Burrowing 280,288 Blarina 229 Bushman 31,32 Blattaria 282 Bushmasters 146 368,579 Butterflies 34, 72, 204, 472, 538 Bluegill sunfish 539 Butterflyeffect 519 Bluehead wrasse 520 Body mass 285,390,391,392,393,400-420, Caccobius 323 426,436,442,444 cavatus 323 size 128,261,271,275,276,279,284,285, Caecilians 67, 131 286, 307, 331, 334, 335, 398, 426, 433, Caelifera 282 434,442,443,453,442,511 Caenorhabditis elegans 50 Bohemia 159 Calandrella cinerea 395 Bohr, N. 35,471 Calcification 485 Boidae 133 Calcium 159 Bombinatoridae 103 California 324 Bombus 283 Callixalus 107 Bonefish 76, 77 Calories 459,462,463,508 Boolian logic 4 Calving interval 449 Boopthora erythrocephala 302 Camel 51 Bootstrap theory 10 Cameroon 280, 447 Boreal systems 534 Camouflage 273 Bothrops insularis 130 Canalisation 489 Botswana 429,447,516 167 596 Index

Camponotus sericeiventris 288 Chicks 382 Cape Flats 428,429,430,432,433 Chinese philosophy xv, 9,10, II, 12-17,31, Cape macchia 427 247 Cape Province 387 Chondrichthyes 64, 66, 67 Cape sparrow 391 Chreods 521 Cape Town 459,460,461,462 Chrestomutilla glossinae 284, 286 Capra, F. 36 Chromosome 4,30,59, 132, 133, 180,423, Capreolus capreolus 159 489,492,493,522 Caprimulgiformes 406 number 491 Carabidae 318 sex 48,55 Carbohydrates 444 Chrysemys 135 Caretta caretta 135 pieta 133 450, 453 Chrysobatrachus I 07 Carp 539, 542 Chrysomelidae 283, 320 Carribbean Sea 186 Chum 336 Carrying capacity 185, 372, 396, 424, 435, Cichlasoma minckleyi 492 437 Cichlidae 80, 83, 93, 95, 245, 252, 255, 256, Caswell's model 185, 186, 191 511,531 Catabolism 506 nesting 493 Caterpillar 19, 34, 72, 472, 484, 492, 528, Ciconiiformes 400 538 Civil servants 166 Catfish 539 Cladistia 64, 66, 67 Catharthria 325 Cladocera 302 Catostomus commersoni 84 Clam 34 Caves 318,523,528 Clambidae 324 Caviar 542 Clarias gariepinus 93 Cecidomyiidae 204 Cleavage 476 Cell division 44 pattern 586 Central nervous system 157 Climate 120-122, 128, 142, 159, 199, 303, Centrolenella 104 304,305,441,453,516,523,529,535,539 Centrolenidae 103, 104 Clupeonella delicatula 84 Cephalopoda 80 Clutch mass, relative (RCM) 145 Ceratophryninae 103 Clutch size 111,112,115,117,143,144,145, Cereomela familiaris 395 146, 373, 371, 374, 376, 377, 378, 381, Cervus elaphus corsicanus 158 382, 383, 385, 386, 388, 391, 395, 396, Channa argus 85 397,400-420,510 Chaos 504,506, 519, 536, 537, 543 tenders 82, 83, 85 373,374,375,380,381,382 Cnephia 304 Charadrius 381 dacotensis 298, 301 Chardin, T. de 5 Co-adaptation 335 Charr 24, 29, 79, 330, 331, 333, 334, 337, Cockroaches 282 493 Cocoon 286,288,295 Arctic 329-341, 453, 494 Coelacanth 2,66,67,87,476,516 brook 337 Co-evolution xii, xiii, 34, 335, 467, 469, 484, dwarf 492 503, 504, 506, 511, 523, 529, 534, 535, lake 330, 337 538 Chelidae 133 Coho salmon 336 Chelonia xiii, 64, 66, 67,128,129,131,133, Coleoptera 68, 204, 206, 282, 317-326 136,137,141, 142 Coliiformes 407 Chelydra serpentina 134, 135 Collagen fibres 358, 360 Chicken 47,516 Colonization 60,132,163,221,222,270, Index 597

294, 299, 300, 302, 303, 306, 311, 312, Cryptochilini 325 421,432,433,452,508,517,574 Cryptometaboly 72 Colonizer 539 Cryptothylax 107 Colubridae 139 Ctenopharyngodon idella 83, 84, 88 Columbiformes 404 Cuculiformes 405 Comephorus baicalensis 87,90,91 Culling 451 Commensalism 532, 541 Curculionidae 204,318,320 Competent size 520 Cyclical stability 529,531 Competition 32,33,109,117,153,189,200, Cyclicity 200,205,206 201, 228, 262, 267, 273, 333, 341, 396, Cyclopterus lumpus 85 431, 435, 470, 508, 514, 527, 530, 538, Cyclorana 110 539,541,543,544 Cyclorrapha 282 Competitive exclusion 55,56,61,63 Cyclostomes 66 Complexity 471 Cyclothone 518 Complexity begets stability 534 Cyphotilapia 80 Computer simulation 224 Cyphotilapiajrontosa 80,476 Confucians 11 Cyprinidae 83, 88, 248 Conservation 443, 444, 447 Cyprinodon 79,94 Constancy 529,531,536 diabolis 478 Continuity restraints 200,201 Cyprinus carpio 84 Cophylinae 103 Cytoplasm 480, 506 Coraciformes 407 Cytoplasmic inheritance 4, 22 Coral reef 186-189,523,528 Cytospecies 299 Coregonus jera 94 Cytotaxonomy 296 wartmanni 94 Corotoca 320 Danube River 167 Cortex 586 Darwin, C. 57,58,59,504,506,584 Cossypha caffra 395 Darwinian natural selection 518 Coitus 493 Darwinism 3,61,62,64,512,571 Courtship 427, 429 Dasyatis pastinaca 87,90,91 Craniata 64, 65, 67, 68 Dasymutilla bioculata 286, 287 Cranium 119 nigripes 284 Creativity 480,481 Dasyuridae 229 Crematogaster peringueyi 288 De Bono, E. xiv Cristivomer leucoma en is 29 Deer 156, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165 namaycush 29,490 mule 587 Crocodylia xiii, 64, 66, 67, 128, 129, 131, white-tailed 587 133, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142 Demography 113,397 Crocodylusjohnstoni 133,135, 137 Dendrobatidae 103, 104, 105, 112 niloticus 133 Density 452 porosus 133, 138 Density-dependent mortality 508, 514, 535, Cross fertilization 334 540,541,543 Crotalines 139 Density-independent mortality 508,514 Crowding 268 Dermis 357,358 Crowned plover 371,375,379,380,381, Dermochelys coriacea 130 391 Desert 198,202,204,205,218,221,222,223, Crustacea 253 224, 261, 264, 265, 268, 270, 271, 273, Crypsis 203, 263, 268, 273, 326 274, 275, 276, 318, 321, 436, 447, 509, Cryptobatrachus 108 527,535 Cryptobiosis 294 Desiccation 109, 110, 114, 120, 276, 536 Cryptochile 325, 326 Desmodillus 224 598 Index

auricularis 223 Duality 7 Development, direct 71-95, 102, 104-110, Duck 516 112, 113, 118, 119, 304, 348, 349, 350, Duliticola 320 351, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 475, 476, Dwarf 153 484,513,514,515,516,525 paedomorphic 153, 158 indirect 71-95,475,513,514,525 Dynamic states 482 Developmental monsters 162,474 Dyscophinae 103 threshold 306, 307 Dytiscidae 318,324 Diandry 179,182,186,190,191 Diapause 206, 210, 294, 297, 299, 300, 305 East Africa 262,531 Dichotomy 56,57, 576 East Indies 132 Differentiation 22, 248, 249, 255, 333, 361, Echinoderm 73,78 368,492,512 Eco-action 33, 493 Digyny 179 Ecological efficiency 201, 445 Dimorphism 270, 326 isolation 60 Diploglossus delasagra 139 longevity 218 Diploidisation 489 successions 504, 523, 528 Diploidy 287,297,298,301,489 theory 57, 332, 478, 571 Dipnoi 64, 66, 67 Ecology xiii, 4, 197-207,209-237, 306, 389, Dipodomys 224 390,423,424,426,441-454,503-545 Diptera 68, 110, 204, 282, 293-313 non-equilibrium 531 Discoglossidae 103 Ecophenotypes 545 Disease 114,167,170 Ectoparasite 324 Dispersal 7,31,33,153,156,206,210,221, Ecuador 110 237, 274, 279, 283, 284, 304, 429, 431, Effect hypothesis 28, 30 432, 433, 441, 451, 452, 475, 489, 492, 4, 20, 45, 71, 73, 77, 79, 80, 82, 88- 508, 509, 527, 528, 538, 544 93, 101-107, 110-116, 119, 120, 130, 131, Dissipative structures 504, 505,523 135, 136, 142, 145, 190, 236, 237, 268, Diurnal cycles 206 271, 272, 282, 283, 287, 289, 293, 294, Divergence 33, 58, 574, 575, 576, 578 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 304, 305, 308, Diversity 132,318,324,534 310, 311, 312, 320, 335, 336, 351, 373, DNA 34, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 180, 480, 491, 375,376,380,381,389,392,400-420,473, 492, 587 475,476,485, 486, 487, 493, 510, 513, clock 167 514,516,522,523, 586 Dobzhansky, T. 3 aquatic 348 Dodo 516 cleidoic 131 Dog 585 clutch 115,371 Dolichomutilla minor 283 communal site 130 Domestication 516 development 303 Dominance 57,63,467,487,489,493,571 energy content 112, 336 hierarchies 333 envelopes 93, 95 Dominant forms 513 guarders 516 taxon 28 laying 305 Donaciinae 318 scatterers 81,82,83,84,88,89,294,303, Donkey 489,491 304,311,516 Dormancy 140,201,203,237,294,306,310, size 83,111,112,115,130,143,272,297, 507,519, 520, 521, 522, 527 298, 299, 300, 301, 303, 311, 333, 336, Drosophila 48, 49 371,374,380, 381, 522 Drought 221, 305, 396, 436, 441, 450, 452, terrestrial 348 453 Ego-action 33, 493 Dualism 9, 12, 15,22,26,31,210,470,544 Egrets 515 Index 599

Egypt 224 variability 120,234 Eland 448 Enzyme 321,485,504,506,579 Elapidae 133, 139 Ependymal cells 364 Elasticity 529, 530, 536 layer 362, 363 Eldredge-Gould model 252 Ephippia 302 Electrophoresis 121, 132,341,423 Ephutomorpha meranoploides 288 Elephant, African 442, 443, 445, 447, 448, Epicautini 320 449,450,451,452,582 Epidermis 356,357, 358 Elephantulus 218 Epigene mutations 585 Eleutherodactylus 104, 350, 365, 366, 367, Epigenesis xi, xiii, 7,13,22,23,27,29, 118, 368, 369 12~ 257, 295, 467, 473, 478, 503, 512, jasperi 105, 112, 117 521,522,544,572,576 martinicensis 365, 366 Epigenetics 4, 13, 19,21, 29, 30, 34, 119, Eleutheroembryo 79,83,89,93,94 162, 163, 167, 199, 207, 245, 246, 247, Elmidae 318,325 249,251,256,331,372,467-495,504,506, Elopomorph 77,93,476 509,512,513,516,534,585,586 Embryo 3,4, 19,20,21,30,43,45,46,47, amplification 576 48,50,60,71-95,105,119,134,135,136, landscape 481,576 137, 141, 142, 143, 162, 163,219, 246, life-history model 542 248, 253, 333, 336, 337, 338, 348, 368, theory 57, 571 374, 381, 471, 474, 475, 476, 485, 488, Epigenotype 477,480,481,482,585 494,514,515,516,520,521,582,586 Epiphenotype 471,472,477,480 chicken 34 Equidae 444,489,490,491 Embryogenesis 50,52, 142 Equilibrium 478,531 Emoia 139 punctuated 123, 153, 168,245,247,251, Empiricism 11, 18 252,506 Endocrine 473,517,580 species 507, 508 Endoparasite 320 Equus asinus 491 Endothermy 209,218,233 burchelli 491 facultative 140 cabal/us 491 Energetics 220 capensis 492 Energy 476,536 grevyi 491 flow 535 onager 491 Engels, F. 470 przewalskii 491 Entropical restraints 199,200,201 quagga 491 Entropy 34, 199, 200, 201, 202, 204, 205, quagga burchelli 489 206, 504, 523, 528 quagga quagga 489 Environment 513 zebra 491 capricious 517 Erythrocytes 361 cues 44 ESD (Environmentally determined sex) 128, intra-uterine 459-463 134, 135-138 predictable 101,102,110,111,113,117, Esox lucius 79,93 230, 233, 385, 396, 504, 507, 513, 522, Etap concept 472 523,526,531,532,533,544 Ethiopian region 109 stable 120, 132,231,274,372,527,528, Etkin's model 349 534 Eukaryotic cells 477,505,512 unpredictable 101, 136, 143, 221, 224, Euamniota 64 294, 313, 385, 396, 397, 436, 469, 480, Eumeces 139 493, 507, 511, 513, 522, 523, 524, 534, fasciatus 139 535, 540, 544 opsoletus 139 unstable 117, 261, 509, 527 Eumenidae 283 600 Index

Euplectes orix 395 474,475,484,493,514,515,543 Eurasians 31,441,443,453 mixed 515 Europe 158, 160,509 machine 484 Euryphagy 540 Fertility 210,229,575 Eurytopy 510,540 Fertilization 20, 80, 83, 131, 190,246,287, Eutherians 60, 141 312,365,480 Euviviparity 141 internal 127, 131 Evergreen forest 263, 274 Fetal growth 459-463 Evolution xii, xiii, 3,4, 7, 11, 16, 18, 19, Fetus 166 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 35, 55-68, 101-126, Fibroblasts 358 128, 130, 131, 140, 142, 143, 145, 146, Fire 272 153, 163, 171, 198,209, 210, 224, 227, Fisheries 504, 541 233, 234, 237, 245-258, 296, 313, 317- Fishery management 540,541,542 326, 329, 338, 347, 349, 367, 369, 386, Fishes xiii, xiv, 24, 25, 28, 34, 45, 71-95, 422,453,467-495,504,506,507,511,515, 102,110,123,130,164,177-191,248,252, 519, 520, 523, 527, 528, 531, 532, 535, 255, 474, 475, 476, 477, 485, 504, 508, 537,538,541,544,579,588 509, 513, 516, 519, 520, 521, 522, 525, allopatric 544 531,535,539,540,541,542,543 chromosomal 492 altricial 90, 94 divergent 57,61 annual 82 gradual 168 bony 66,67, 136 morphological 492 cartilaginous 66 of novelty 155 culture 334, 542 progressive 57, 61, 67, 574 deepwater 518 protein 492 invasive 539, 540 Evolutionary biology 197,257 484 gyre 36 precocial 90, 94 stable strategies (ESS) 167, 187, 189 salmonine 329-341 theory 505 Fisher, R.A. 3 Exaptations 294,313 Fishing Exploitation 541 line 541 -selection 509, 533 sport 542, 543 24,30,61,62, 120, 132, 136,256, Fish River Valley 422, 428, 429, 430, 432, 443, 453, 467, 478, 481, 482, 483, 487, 435,436 492, 524, 531, 533, 538, 539, 540, 544 Fitness xiv, 65, 102, 113, 114, 115, 136, 163, Extraregulators 515 165, 169, 187, 188, 233, 234, 235, 270, 313, 331, 430, 433, 470, 510, 517, 519, Falconiformes 400-402 522 Faranda 129 Flectonotus 108, III abacura 129 Fledging periods 386, 389, 392, 393, 394, Fecundity 19,77, 102, Ill, 112, 113, 114, 396,400-420 129, 131, 137, 201, 203, 204, 205, 234, 282 235, 268, 275, 284, 307, 331, 332, 397, Flightlessness 67, 205, 268, 270, 272, 274, 421, 430, 433, 434, 436, 451, 508, 510, 279,280,283,540 513,514,518,523,527,542 Floodplain 531,534 Feeding, 79, 112, 113, 123,474 Florida 132 absorptive 515 Flowers xiii, 535 endogenous 77, 112, 113, 123, 474, 475, Fluid dynamics 576 484,492,518,543 Foetus 141,210,219 exogenous 78,83,84-87,92,93,95,112, Food availability 378 113, 123, 141, 333, 336, 348, 365, 366, Foraminifera 453 Index 601

Forest 110, Ill, 120, 122,204,261,263,264, Generalized 28, 31, 33, 83, 101, 102, 107, 265, 268, 270, 271, 272, 273, 275, 276, 111, 112, 198, 199, 272, 291, 293, 296, 289,298,300,324,527,534 301, 302, 304, 309, 312, 348, 467, 468, deciduous 535 486,492,511,513,518,523,525 rain 528 Generation linkages 467,471,480 saturated 274 time 421,422,428,433,434,436 tropical 535 Genetics 3, 4, 22, 65, 118, 121, 122, 158, Form creation 30 160, 161, 164, 178, 197, 199,200,233, 142, 159, 254, 255 246, 257, 268, 29~ 331, 332, 333, 334, Fox 582 335, 336, 337, 338, 341, 396, 398, 437, Fritziana 108, III 478,479,505,507,509,512,584,585 Frog 34,67, 101-126,347-369,535 assimilation 251,480,544,585,587,588 Froglets 104, 106, 113, 348, 354 drift 338 Froth nesters 82 mutations 481 Frugality 165 variation 479,480 Fugitive species 508 Genets 276 Fundamental niche 525 Genital duct 43-52 Fungi 110,477 Genitalia 48, 263, 285 Fynbos 427 Geochelone emys 139 yniphora 137 Gaia system 28 Genome 4, 21, 22, 52, 153, 154, 167, 170, Galileo 10, 11 171, 246, 250, 257, 478, 480, 481, 489, Galliformes 402 504,506,509,520,585,586 Gambusia affinis 80,81 Genotype 45, 65, 132, 133, 154, 164, 221, Gametes 136 226,460,480,513,533,571 Game theory 187 Geological events 55 Gametogenesis 479,480,521 Geometry 15,482 Garstang, W. xv Gerbillinae 214, 224 Gasterosteus aculeatus 86, 339, 520 Gerbil/urus 224 Gastropoda 78, 80, 236 paeba 223 Gastrotheca 108, 118 Gerbil/us 223,224 cornuta 108, 112 dasyurus 218 marsupiata 108 gerbillus 223 nicefori 108 Germ cells 45, 480 riobambae 108, 112, 116 Germany 93, 161, 166,214,218,219 Gastrula 141 Gerontomorphosis 246 Geckos 129, 132, 144 Gestation 90, 166, 211, 227, 372, 421, 422, Geist's theory of health 544 427,428,430,431,434,436,460,461,462 Gemsbok 451 period 448, 449 Gene 4, 24, 48, 49, 50, 52, 118, 133, 137, Giants, hypermorphic 153 153, 154, 167, 257, 332, 471, 480, 481, Giraffe 442,443,449,450 512,517,583, 585 Glaciation 318,331,453 duplication 51, 492, 505 Glial cells 364 fusion 492 Globin 44,51,52 globin 44, 50, 51, 246 Glossinidae 282 pools 56, 296, 333 Glycolytic cycle 504 Geneophryninae 103, 104 Gnathostomata 64, 66 Generalists 7, 115, 117, 120, 123,204,294, Goat 154 303, 306, 311, 441, 445, 477, 479, 484, Gobio gobio 84 489, 490, 491, 492, 503, 504, 507, 510, Goby 180 513,514,522, 539 Goitrogens 367 602 Index

Goldfish 539 Habitat Goldschmidt, R. xv, 162 suitability 307, 308, 309 Gonochorist 127, 131, 132 templet 207,230,306 Gonotrophic cycles 297,298,299,300,301, Haemoglobin 50,51,423 303, 305, 308, 311 Haemothermia 64, 66 Gradualism 120,245-257,475,575 Hagfish 67 cladistic 252, 256 Haldane, J.B.S. 3 model 153 Ha1iplidae 318 phyletic 254 Haplochromine 254 Graptemys ouachitensis 135 cichlids 252, 253, 256 Grass 382, 535 Haploid 287,320 Grass carp 83 Hare 516 Grasshopper 72 Harvester termites 378 bladder 261-276 Hatching 20, 78, 79, 80, 82, 84-87,90, 92, Grasslands 218,265,374,382,424,426,435, 94,95,112,118,121,139,140,248,272, 452 303, 336, 348, 355, 365, 366, 371, 375, Greece 166 380,381,383,389,475,484,485,494 Grevy's zebra 492 size 111,113,114,115 Growth 22,30, 136, 141, 145,154,168, 170, Hatchling 102,113,127,136,138-139,294 182, 183, 185, 187, 188, 189, 201, 209, Hawaii 132 210, 216, 218, 222, 223, 224, 228, 232, Health 164, 165, 166, 169, 170,459 233, 234, 235, 236, 248, 284, 294, 332, theory 154, 169, 171 333, 334, 335, 336, 340, 348, 350, 368, Heart 482 37~ 381, 382, 435, 437, 442, 452, 459- Hedgehogs 60 463, 474, 508, 510, 512, 519, 521, 528, Hegel, G.w.F. 470 536,538,577,578,581,582,583 Hegelian dialectic 15,470 centres 157 Heleophrynidae 103 centripetal, theory of 156, 157, 162, Heliotherms 143 163 Helochares 325 differential 154 Hemidactylus garnotii 132 potential 333 Hemipenes 130 -priority 164, 169 Hemiphractinae 103, 118 retardation 462 Hemiphractus 108 Gruiformes 403 Hemisotidae 103 GSD (Genotypically determined sex) 133 Hennig, W. 56, 57 Guarders 71,82,83,85,484,513,515,533, 219,441,443 539, 541 Herbs 265 Guilds 82, 88 Hermaphroditism 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, breeding 80, 83-89, 91, 101-126, 128, 181, 191 144,218,513,516,524 sequential 133 Gulick, J.T. 58 Heterixalus 107 Gut 579 Heterochrony 119, 121, 141, 197, 199, 200, Gymnopais 301, 302, 312 207, 329, 364, 365, 366, 368, 511, 517, dichopticoides 302 519,520,521,526,540,543 dichopticus 298, 302 Heterogeny 121, 122 holopticoides 302 Heteromorphy 133 holopticus 298,301,302 Heteromyidae 224, 228 Gymnopleurus hamanus 323 Heteronomy 287 Gyrinidae 318,324 Heteronotia binoei 132 Gyrodactylidae 236 Heteropeza pygmaea 204 Heterozygous 121 Index 603

Hibernation 210, 294 Hybernal activity 321,322 Himalayas 318 Hybrid 298, 302, 332, 423 Hippocampus erectus 87 Hydraena 324 Hippopotamus 442,443,445,447,448,449, Hydraenidae 318,324 450, 451, 452 Hydrophilidae 318, 325 Hirundo Hydroscaphidae 318,324 albigularis 395 Hydrous 325 fuligula 391, 395 Hyenas 48, 450 Histogenesis 521 Hyla 104 Histology 356, 364, 427 rosenbergi 114, 116 Histolysis 73 Hylidae 104,105, 108, 111, 112, 113 Histotrophe 90 Hylodinae 103 Hluhluwe-Umfolozi Reserve 445,447,451 Hymenochirus 106 Hodotermes mossambicus 378 Hymenoptera 68, 206, 279-289 Hogsback 265,422,427,429,432,435, Hypermetamorphosis 73 Hokkaido 493 Hypermorphic 153, 168, 169 Holarctic 299, 381 Hyperoliidae 103, 107, 123 Holobiosis 477 Hyperolius 107,108 Holocene 443, 445 viridijlavus Hologenesis 27 Hypothalamus 349,579 Holtfreter, J. 46 Homeorhesis 21,25,119,123,467-495,521, Ice age 453 522, 545, 581 Iceland 166,305, 339, 340 Homeostasis 24, 200, 472, 482, 507, 529, Ichnotropis 129 575, 579 Idioplasm 27 Homeostatic mechanisms 482 Iguana 129, 144 Homeothermy 169,233, 515, 526 Imago 92 Home range 450 Impala 445,447 Homo erectus 169 Impoundment 532 Homopterons 282 Inbreeding 59,478,583 Honeybees 204 Incubation 80, 136, 139,333,335,341,371, Hooker, J. 57 374, 375, 37~ 379, 380, 381, 383, 385, 45,46,47,119,180,577,582,583 386,389,392,393,394,396,400-420,484 prolactin 119 temperature 336, 341 thyroid 119,349, 368 Inertia 529,531 thyroid stimulating (TSH) 119,349 Infant size 461 Horses 489,491,492 Information 201,203,481,523,528 Przewalski's 492 flow 153, 154 Horvitz, H.R. 49,50 Infundibulum 363, 364 Inheritance 586 -parasite relationships 538 extragenic 586 size 286, 287 maternal 586 specific 283 of acquired characters 587 Hucho hucho 29, 490 Insecta xiii, xiv, 43, 48, 49, 68, 73, 78, 79, perryi 29 119,162,164,178,197,199,201,203,204, Human xiii, 33,164,165,166,167,170,459- 205,206,207,253,255,261-276,279-289, 463,492,512,515,543 293-313,317-326,484,504,525,540 Hungary 159, 161 social 203, 207 Hunting 169,450,452,453,538 Interaction matrix 201, 202 Huxley, J. 62 selection 509 H-Yantigen 48, 180 Interbreeding 121 604 Index

Intersex 130, 134 Malawi 256 Interval 450 Sibaya 492 Intestine 579 Superior 330 Invasions 539 Tanganyika 80,256 Invasive organisms 504 Turkana 255 Invertebrata xii, 216, 390, 509, 515, 520 Victoria 245,252,253,254,255,256,531 aquatic 293-313· Lamarckian inheritance 481 Islands 202,295,493,508,540 Lamarck, J.-B. 55,61 Isolation 27,33,57,122,334,335,467,487, Landscape 13 493,511,574 Larks 388, 389, 390 ecological 56 Larva 19,20,34,71-95, 101, 102, 103, 104, non-random 59, 63, 574 109, 111, 113, 114, 120, 123, 188, 206, random 59, 63, 574 246, 248, 253, 282, 285, 286, 295, 296, reproductive 55, 59 297, 298, 299, 301, 303, 304, 305, 306, Iteroparity 114,117, 121,210,231,335,371, 310, 311, 320, 325, 347, 348, 349, 351, 373,381,383,421,433,434,519,522 354, 356, 357, 359, 360, 366, 367, 368, 369, 471, 475, 476, 487, 488, 492, 514, Jack-in-the-Pulpit 181 515,516,520,521,522 Jantsch, E. xi, xv, 472 drifting behavior 294 Juvenile 71-95,514,515 overwintering 305 yolksac 80 Laszlo, E. xi, xv Juvenilization 483,487,489 Lateral line system 366 Jyngidae 389 Lateral thinking 4 Lates niloticus 256 Kalahari Desert 206 Latimeria chalumnae (see also Coelacanth) Kalama River 335 66,67,87,476 Kamchatka 335 Latitude 212, 213, 294, 304, 307, 309, 526, Karyotype 133, 422, 423, 489 527,528 Kassina 107 Laurentian Great Lakes 330 KassiI9inae 103 Laws of thermodynamics 4 Kassinula 107 Lecithotrophy 90 Kenya 447,451 Leiodidae 324 Kheper lamarcki 323 Leiopelma 104 Kiangs 489 Leiopelmatidae 103, 104 King cobra 138 Lek-mating 374 Kinosternon 133, 134 Lenin, N. 470 Kiwi 516 Lepidoche/ys olivacea 130 Koestler, A. xv, 5, 36 Lepidodactylus lugubris 132 Kokanee salmon 335, 341 Lepidoptera 68, 78, 204, 282 Kruger National Park 450,451,452 Lepomis 182 K-selection xiv, 7,19,33,117,145,164,197- gibbosus 86 207, 210, 217, 221, 222, 225, 228, 230, Leptinus 324 231, 233, 234, 235, 237, 261, 272, 273, Leptocephalus 73,77,93,94 274, 295, 371, 372, 373, 374, 381, 383, Leptodactylinae 103, 104 386, 395, 421, 422, 433, 435, 441, 442, Leptopelinae 103 503,508-510,512,520,526,544 Leptopelis 107, 108 brevirostris 123 Labeotropheus trewavasae 83, 86, 89 Leptostethus 205 Lachesis muta 146 Leptotyphlopidae 139 Lactation 139,211,219,449,515 Lesser blackwinged plover 371, 374, 379, Lake Kronotskiy 341 380 Index 605

Leucaspius delineatus 85, 88 237, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 305, 324, Leuresthes tenuis 85 372,421-437,441-454,476,484,489,493, Life expectancy 165,166,170,214 512,515,516,525,544,582 Life-history model xiv, 19, 20, 77, 78, 79, altricial 140 92,170,186,474,475,484,544 Man 300,312 hierarchical 247 Man-made perturbations 534,541 Lifespan 114, 116, 117, 210, 275, 372, 421, Mantellidae 103 430,434,436,442,449,514,542 Mantids 274, 282 Lifetime reproductive potential 334 Marine reserves 541 Limacodidae 282 Marmots 211 Limnodynastinae 103, 104, 105, 106, 117 Marsupial 55, 60, 210, 211, 215, 229, 443, Linnaean classification 56, 63 484,493,516 Lions 450 Marx, K. 470 Lipid 90 Mastomys 422, 426 Litter size 213,214,215,217,220,223,229, coucha 422 230, 232, 372, 373, 421, 427, 429, 430, natalensis 421-437 433,434,436 Materialist dialectics 472 Liver 579 Maternal nutrients 80 Livestock 300,309,312 size 460,461 Lizards 66,67,128,129,131,133,139,142, weight 462 146 Mating swarms 293,300,301,302,311 Llama 51 Matrotrophe 80, 90 Locusts 205,268 Maturation 334,518 Longevity 129,137,153,166,167,211,218, precocious 335 262, 283, 426, 427, 433, 434, 436, 441, thl;eshold 306, 307 447,538 Maturity 138,223,233,270, 331, 333, 335, Longtoed plover 382 340,449,486,514,542 Loricaster 324 Mauritania 223 Lotka, A. 5 Mayflies 79 Louvar 73, 75 Mayr, E. 58 L0vtrup, S. xv Meconium 286 Lung 482 Mecoptera 282 Lungfishes 66 Medaka 90 Lungworm 165 Median eminence 347-369 Luvarus 77, 80 Medicine 171, 544 imperialis 73, 75 Mediterranean 324 Lycidae 320 Megachilidae 283 Lymphocytes 358, 359 Megaherbivore 441-454,516 Lyttini 320 Megaloceros 159 Megaloptera 282 Mabuya heathi 141 Megophryidae 103 Macaws 48 Melanin 52 Macroevolution 326 Melanization 44 Macromutation 317, 325, 487, 571, 573, 576, Melanobatrachinae 103 582,583,584 Meloidae 320 Macropodus opercularis 86 Mendelism 3 Malawi 281,447 Menidia menidia 136 Mallophaga 324 Meranoplus hirsutus 288 Malnutrition 451 Meristics 123, 126 Mammalia xiii, xiv, 25, 45, 47, 48, 51, 64, Mesoderm 358 66,67, 126, 128, 129, 131, 139, 164,209- Mesolithic 167 606 Index

Mesozoic 318 221, 222, 230, 231, 233, 234, 237, 270, Metabiosis 72 382, 396, 430, 431, 433, 436, 450, 451, Metabolic 445 475,514,522,541 efficiency 398 size selective 136 rate 372 Mosquitofish 80,81,539 Metabolism, calcium 143 Moss 306 Metacatharsius 323 Motacilla capensis 395 Metamorphosis xii, 19, 20, 71, 72, 73, 74, Moths 282 77,78,87,90,92,95, 116, 118, 119, 121, peppered 52 320,347-369,471,476,492,504,515,516, Moult 267,269,270,320 520,525 Mountain zebra 492 Metaphyta 477 Mouse 48,52,62, 155,421,422,582 Metazoa 477 pocket 224 Meteorology 519 Mouthbrooders 80,83,86,89,493 Mexico 132, 166, 324 Mule deer 587 Microbial fermentation 444 Mullerian duct 47 Microhylidae 104 Muller-Lyer illusion 26 Microhylinae 103 Multicellular glands 356,357,358, 361 Microbembix monodonta 286 Mu1timammate mouse 421,422 Microchiroptera 226, 227 Multiple parasitoidism 289 Micromalthidae 317,320,325 Mu1tivoltine 299,300,301,305 Micromalthus debilis 320 Muridae 215,228,422 Micromutation 583, 584 Murinae 422 Micromutation theory 58, 60 Mushroom 202, 203 Micropterus dolomieui 86 Musophagiformes 405 Microtine 163,221,228 Mussels 83 Microtus 221 Mutant 579 Microvilli 358 Mutation 48, 51, 141, 326, 505, 507, 572, Mimicry 203 573, 583, 584, 585 Mira/ra 390 epigene 585 Mississippi River 135 Mutilla Mitochondria 477 europaea 283 Mixed feeding 79,80,93,515 thyone 288 MO.25 law 447,448,449 Mutillidae 279-289 Molecular biology 34, 246 Mutualism 524, 538 Molerat 211 My1abrini 320 Mollusca 72, 73, 253, 255 Myobatrachinae 103 Monandry 179 Myoglobin 51 Monoculture 535 Myrnosinae 285 Monogamy 374,381 Mysticism 9,11, 13, 19,31,33,257,468 Monophyly 322 Myxophaga 318 Monsters, hopeful 162 Myxinoidea 64, 66, 67 Morbidity 170 Morgan, T.H. 4, 58 Naje naje 139 Morphoclines 253, 254, 255, 256 Namaqualand 263,265,272,274 Morphodynamics 472,473 Namib Desert 202,204,205,206,218,318, Morphogenesis 15, 22, 25, 34, 43-52 321 Morphology 180, 181, 268, 317, 331, 338, Namibia 223,298,447,451 368,369,422,423,453,476,492,493 Natal 265,269,378,421,422,424,427,428, Morphotypes 253, 338, 340 429,432,445,451 Mortality xiii, 114, 137, 170, 187, 189,211, Natality 222 Index 607

Natural resource management 503 Nothobranchius guentheri 83,85,89 Natural selection xiv, 61, 62, 155, 163, 167, Notochord 77 187, 222, 233, 257, 335, 337, 398, 470, Notokassina 107 477,520,571,572,574 Notoungulate 443 Nature conservation 504, 538, 539 Novelties 35,467,468,469,471,477,481 Ndumu Game Reserve 374, 378, 379 Nuclear monopoly 4, 544 Neanderthal 21,31 Nucleus 506 Nearctic Region 109, 298 Nutrient recycling 535 Necker cube 26 Nutrients 459-463, 475, 476, 492 Nectophrynoides liberiensis 105 Nutrition 156,157,463,543,544,577 occidentalis 105, 112 prenatal 160 tornieri 105 Nylsvley 322, 323 viviparus 105 Nymphs 72, 265, 267, 270, 271, 272, 273, Negentropic 199,203 306 Nematoda 50 Neo-Confucianists 9, 13, 16 Oestrus 449 Neo-Darwinism xi, 3, 4, 5, 10, 28, 33, 58, Okavango 32,516,571,589 62,257,468,477,505,506,571,572,573, Olfaction 139 585,587 527 Neogobius melanostomus 86, 89 Onager 489 Neopachysoma 321 Oncorhynchus 29, 335, 489 Neoteleosteans 89 gorbuscha 29,336,489,490 Neoteny 129-130, 141, 168, 201, 203, 205, keta 29, 336,490 206,265,271,320,348,517,518 kisutch 29, 336 Neotropics 109, 112 masou 29 Nephric tubules 46 nerka 29,335,490 Nerve fibres 361,364 tschawytscha 29 Nest, foam 103, 104, 107, 109, 121 On the Origin of Species 57 spawners 82, 83, 86 Onthophagus Neuro-endocrine mechanisms 347-369 aeruginosus 323 pathway 368 depressus 323 Neurohypophysis 361,363,364 pilosus 323 Newton,1. 10 quadraticeps 323 Newtonian physics 580 quadrinotatus 323 Niche 52, 56, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 72, 201, signatus 323 209, 329, 332, 333, 340, 341, 475, 476, vylder 323 504,507,510,511,522,524-527 Ontogenetic memory 43,45,51,52,313 Niche shifts 332, 333, 340 Ontogenetic niche shifts 330, 332 Nidicolous 484 Ontogeny, saltatory 119, 470, 475 birds 510, 516 Onycephalus capensis 132 Nidifugous 484 Oogenesis III birds 510,516 90, 105 Nile perch 256 Ophiophagus hannah 138 Non-equilibrium systems 34 Ophiosaurus ventralis 139 thermodynamics 505 Opisthothylax 107 Non-guarders 82,513,515,533 Opportunism 153,201,204,321,332 Non-passerine birds 386, 392, 393, 394 Opportunistic species 507, 508 Norm of reaction 162 Optimal foraging theory 525 North America 531 Optimality model 230 Nosodendridae 317,325 Orange River 262 Notechis scutatus 129 Order of Nature 7,9,32 608 Index

Order out of chaos 478, 537 apache 29 Order through fluctuation 4, 34, 483, 505 aquabonita 29,490 Oreochromis mossambicus 492, 540 chrysogaster 29 Organelles 477 clarkii 29,490 Oriental Region 109 gairdneri 29,490 Orthoptera 261-276 gilae 29 Oryzias latipes 87, 90 mykiss 29 Ossification 119 Parasimulium stoneilcrosskeyi 297 Osteolaemus tetraspis 138 Parasites xiii, 110, 169, 189, 202, 205, 236, Osteopilus brunneus 105 283,307,309,320,324,335 Ostrich 387,516 Parasitoids 279-289 Otolith 521 Parental care xii, 71, 83, 90, 92, 102, 104, Otomyinae 422 105, 110, 112, 117, 118, 128, 129, 138, Otomys irroratus 218,421-437 141, 143, 164, 165, 219, 230, 295, 421, tropicalis 422 430,431,433,434,449,459-463,476,484, Ovarian mass III 510,513,515,516,528,544 Overfishing 541 investment 82, 83, 102, 105, 112, 114, Overspecialization 481,518 115, 116, 117, 510, 511, 514, 517, 522, Overwinter 142 523,541,544 Oviduct 586 replacement 116 Ovipary 93, 136, 138, 139, 141, 142, 144 transport 104, 105, 112 Oviposition 136, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, Parr 476 303,304,311,312 Parthenogenesis 129, 131, 132, 201, 204, Ovis canadensis 21, 165 205,206,294,297,298,301,302,303 Ovoviviparous 104,105,117,141 Parturition 20, 431 Oxura 322 Passeriformes 390,409 Oxygen 79,83,325,338,485 Passerine birds 386,389,390,391,392,393, Oxygen isotope 453 394,396,515 Passer melanurus 391,395 Pachylomera femoralis 323 Pathogens 535 Pachysoma 321 PIB ratio 504,526,541 Pacific salmon 489 Pedaria 323 Paedogenesis 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 270, Pekinese 585 320 Pelobatidae 103, 110 Paedomorphosis 28, 29, 34, 118, 168, 205, Pelodryadinae 103, 110 206, 207, 246, 273, 482, 483, 487, 489, Pelodytidae 103 492,503,511,512,513,516,517,579 Pelomedusidae 134 Pa kua 7,14 Penis 423 Palearctic Region 109 Peramorphosis 118, 207 Paleolithic 21, 31, 169 Peramorphy 511, 513 Paleontology 169, 442 Peringueyarcris 262, 265 Panama 187 namaqua 265 Pandora's box 257 Perissodactyla 443, 444, 453 Pappognatha myrmiciformis 288 Perognathus formosus 224 Parabullacrinae 262 Persistence 529 Parabullacris 262,268,271,273 Peru 110 vansoni 264, 265 Pests 203,204,309,311,312,535 Paracassina 107 Petropedetinae 103 Parapatry 338 Petromus 224 Paraphysemacris 262 typicus 223 Parasalmo 29,489 Petromyscus 224 Index 609

collinus 223 Pipa 110 Petromyzontidae 64, 66, 67 arrabali 106 Pets 166 carvalhoi 106 Phasmatodea 282 myersi 106 Phenome 257,480 parva 106 Phenotype 19,31, 118, 153, 160, 162, 163, pipa 106, 112 170 snethlageae 106 definitive 19, 24, 71, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, Pipidae 103, 106, 107 90,92,512, 514, 515, 521 Pituitary gland 349,350,361,362,363,364 dispersal 7, 21, 33, 163, 164, 165, 167, Placenta xii, 82, 91, 492 168,170,503,512 Placental 486,489,493,516 maintenance 21, 33, 163, 164, 165, 167, transfer 141 168, 171,503,512,544 Planipennia 282 manipulation 542 Plankton 475, 520,521 model 164, 165, 166, 167 Plants 181,267,272,273,275,301,506,508, theory 154 509, 519, 520, 521, 526, 527, 528, 533, Pheromones 268, 423 534,535,537,538,539 Philautinae 103 Plasma thyroxine 334 Philetairus socius 396 Plasticity 330 Philopatry 329,335, 338, 341 phenotypic 4, 128, 144, 145, 146, 153- Phlyctimantis 107 176, 191,221,335,338,513,540 Phoresis 285,287,295 Plastids 477 Phoretic copulation 285, 289 Platypsyl!us castoris 324 Phosphate 159 Platypus 516 Photon 471 Platysalmo platycephalus 29 Phototopsis 285 Platysaurus 130 Phrynomerinae 103 Pleiotropy 332 Phyllomedusinae 103 Pleistocene 441,442,443,445,447,453 Phylogenetic constraints 211 Plesiomorphy 105, 262, 263, 324 Phylogenetics 27,30,55,56,57,63,246,247, Pliocene 443 256,262,334,335,386,389,398,474 Ploceus velatus 395 Phylogeny 4, 128, 144, 245-257, 262, 263, Plovers 371-383 486,487,490,491,492,493, 517, 575, Pluteus 72 581 Pneumora 265,271,272 Physemacris 262, 265 inanis 264, 272, 273, 276 variolosus 264 Pneumoracris 262, 268, 273 Physics 4,5,7,10,11,34,35,504 browni 264, 265 Physiogenetics 34 Pneumorinae 261-276 Physiology 105,106,118,120,137,142,143, Poecilia reticulata 87 155, 165, 169, 170, 180, 181, 185, 203, Poeciliidae 73 207, 218, 221, 246, 247, 249, 255, 294, Poikilothermy 515 296,333,424,442,507,519,579,580 Poincare, H. 536 Physophorina Poison glands 67 livingstoni 264 Poland 159 miranda 264 Polarity 586 Phytoplankton 253 Polar regions 528 Piciformes 408 Polyandry 374 Pietermaritzburg 374, 378, 379 Polychaeta 72 Pigmentation 80 Polyfurcations 576 Pink salmon 336 Polygyny 210, 374 Pioneering 534 Polymorphism xii, 330, 331 610 Index

Polyoestry 210 Prosimulium 303, 304 Polypeptide 51 damarense 298 Polyphagidae 282,318 fuscum 297 Polypteriformes 66 ursinum 297, 302, 304 Pompilidae 283 Protandry 179, 180, 188 Popper, K.R. 484 Protein 44, 158, 159,492,579 Population dynamics 4, 118, 122,452,478 evolution 492 genetics 11, 538 Protogyny 179, 180, 183, 186 Port St Johns 265 Prudential species 510 Postlarva 92 strategy 513 Praomys erythroleucus 225 Przewalski's horse 492 natalensis 422 Pseudidae 103 Pre-adaptation 58, 128, 142, 143, 199 Pseudofimicia frontalis 130 Precocial 7, 19, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 92, Pseudogene 51 126, 209, 218, 219, 250, 293, 294, 295, Pseudomethoca frigida 283 296, 301, 303, 304, 312, 313, 331, 373, Psittaciformes 404 430, 431, 467, 476, 479, 484, 486, 487, Psychology 170 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, Pteroc1idiformes 404 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, Pterolarva 476 517, 520, 521, 522, 523, 525, 526, 527, Pterostichula omurambestris 322 528, 530, 531, 532, 533, 538, 539, 540, Punctuated equilibrium 126, 153, 168, 245, 541, 542, 543, 544 247,251,252,506 76,94, 109, 110, 137, 139, 143, Pupa 282,288,295,296,304,306,310,320 145, 146, 164, 168, 169, 205, 220, 252, Pupfish 94, 511 254, 256, 262, 263, 270, 273, 274, 275, Devil's hole 478 276,307,309,311,321,326,338,341, Pygopodidae 133 372,374,381,382,400-420,430,441,450, Python 129, 139 451,452 molurus 129, 141 pressure 83 reticulatus 129 Predator-prey relations 530, 538 Pregnancy 459,460,462,463 Quagga 489, 492 Prenatal nourishment 544 Quantum jumps 471 Prey switching 332 mechanisms 537 Prigogine, 1. xi, 5, 34, 472, 483 theory 471 Primitive 102,293,294,303,304,311,348 Quaternary 121, 122 Prince Edward Islands 205, 206 Queensland 135 Principle of Allocation 235 Quiescence 201,204,205,206 Principle of Parsimony 576 Proboscoidea 443,444,453 Rabbit 52,515 Process structure 521 Rainbow trout 93, 336 Production/biomass ratio (see also P/B ra• Rainfall 120, 221, 232, 272, 378, 385, 386, tio) 504, 526, 541 387,388,389,390,400-420,424,432,435, Productivity 482, 534 436,447,451,516 Profligate species 510 Rainforest 110, 120, 121,202,447,523 strategy 513 Ramphotyphlops braminus 132 Progenesis 472,473,479,480,517,518 Rana 46, 104, 114 Prokaryotes 505 catesbeiana 114, 116 Prolarva 92 pipiens 368 Pronephric tubules 358, 359 pretiosa 114 Pronephros 350, 356, 358, 359, 365, 366, sylvatica 114 367, 368 Rangifer 154 Index 611

Raninae 103 Rhynchocephalia 64, 66, 67 Raphidioptera 282 Ribbonfish 73 Rattus lutreolus 220 Ricketts, E. 468,470 Rays 67 Rivers 284,297,298-300,306,307,311, Realized niche 525, 526 335 Recruitment 185 r-K-A-habitat templet 200 Redd 336 r-K-A-model 200, 207 Regulators 515 Robin 515 Reindeer 154 Rock martin 391 Relative Clutch Mass (RCM) 128, 145 Rocky Mountains 231 Relativity 10, 537 Rodents 209-237,276,324,434,509 Replicator 481 Romanes, G.]. 58 Repressor molecule 49 Rosa's theory 28 Reproductive Rotifers 302 effort 535 r-selection xiv, 7,19,33, 117, 145, 197-207, guilds 101-126, 128, 144,218,516, 535, 221, 225, 231, 234, 261, 272, 273, 274, 540 294, 381, 383, 386, 395, 396, 421, 422, isolation 246, 335, 341 433, 435, 436, 437, 441, 442, 447, 503, lifespan 114 508-510,512,526,544 maturity 451 theory 372 rate 372 r-strategy 272 strategy 113,117,118,120 Ruminants 154,445,446 temporarily dynamic 221,222,224,226 Ruppia 535 Reptilia xiv, 66,128-151,504,525,582 Rutilus rutilus 84 altricial 128, 140, 141 Rwanda 447 precocial 128, 140, 141 Reptilian complex 18 SAFRING 373,374,376,377,378,379,380, Resilience 453, 530, 537 381 Resistance 530 Sahara 318 Resource exploitation 154 Salamander 110 Resource management 530,531 Salmo Resource restraints 199,200,201 fontinalis 490 Respiration 145,295 gairdneri 335, 490 Reversal in priorities by mental competence ischchan 29 (RPMC) xii, 31, 489, 544 letnica 29 Reverse transcriptions 480, 481, 589 salar 29,490 Rhabdomys pumilio 218,421-437 trutta 29, 333,490 Rhacorphorinae 103, 104 Salmon 542 Rheobatrachus 105, 106 Atlantic 333, 334 situs 117 Salmonidae 28,29,30,77,80,329-341,476, Rhinoceros 442,443,445,447,448,449,450, 489,490,491 451 Salmoniformes 493 Rhinodermatidae 103, 105 Salmoninae 329 Rhinophrynidae 104 Salmothymus obtusirostris 29, 490 Rhodeus atremius 88 Saltation 3,59, 120,245-257,472,473,480 sericeus 85 Saltatoria 282 sinensis atremius 83, 88 Saltatory mechanisms 467-495 Rhopalomutilla 287, 288 ontogeny 246,470,475,484,517,522 anguliceps 281,285,288 ontogeny theory 21,24,25,33,126,247, cristata 281 468,472,474,475 Rhopalomutillinae 285, 289 Salvelinus 332, 490, 493 612 Index

a/bus 29 determination 128, 132, 136 alpinus 29,329-341,490,494 dimorphism 44,47,48,50,131,137,279, conj1uentus 29, 490 280, 326, 388 fontinalis 85, 337 environmental determination (ESD) 129, malma 29 133, 143 namaycush 330 epigamic/environmental 133 Saturation densities 452, 509 genotypic determination (GSD) 133 Savannas 110,202,204,441,444,445,450 heteromorphic chromosomes 129 Scales 25, 80 maturity 116,128,441,442,449,452, Scaphiophrininae 104 520 Scaphiopus 110 ratio 128, 133, 135, 136, 137, 144, 180, Scarabaeus 321 183, 185, 186, 221 bohemani 323 reversal xii, xiv, 48, 49,130,177-191 ka/aharica 322 selection 284, 285, 287 scholtzi 321 temperature-dependent (TSD) 133 vansoni 323 Seychelles 132 527 Sharks 60, 67 Scenario choosers 506 Sheep Sciuridae 228 bighorn 21, 165 Scorpionflies 189, 190 mountain 163, 166, 168 Scotland 461 Shizengaku 32, 33 Seasonal 453 Shooting 451 asynchrony 448 Shrews 229 Seasonality 229,268,271,309,321,332,341, Shrubs 265, 535 427,429,430,434,435,441,519,526 Siberia 322 Sea urchin 60, 62, 72 Sickle cell anaemia 584 Second law of thermodynamics 504 Sigelus si/ens 395 Sedges 535 Signal response chain 312 Seeds 520,521,528,535,536 Si/urana 106 Selection, artificial 335, 583, 584, 588 sister group 57 Selection, efficiency 155, 167, 168 Simuliidae 293-313 pressure 61, 284, 481 Simuliini 312 Self-organisation 7, 16, 18, 19,30,31,35, Simulium 294,303,311,312 467, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 475, 478, adersi 300, 302, 304 512,528, 536 albivirgulatum 295 Self-renewal 482, 536 aureum 299, 304 Semelparity 110-112, 114, 117, 121, 142, chutteri 294,300,302,304,306,309,310, 229, 230, 231, 335, 433, 487, 488, 489, 311 522 damnosum 300, 302, 304, 306 Senegal 223, 225 decorum 304 Senescence 20,78,246,471,488,514,515 mutata 305,312 Sensitive dependence on initial condi- nigritarse 299 tions 333,519, 536 vittatum 299, 302, 304, 305, 311 Serengeti National Park 450 wellmanni 295 Sessile 78 Siphonaptera 282 Sesame seed 158 Sisyphus 323 Sesamum indicum 158 Size-advantage model 191 Sex 45,47,48,49,129,132,143,164,177- Size bimodality 331,334 191,221,246,250,261-276,279,302,325, Skates 67 334, 505, 512 Skin 356,357,358, 360, 361, 365, 368 chromosome 128, 131, 137 Skinks 129, 139, 145 Index 613

Slime moulds 504 Sphaeridiinae 318,325 Sloths 443 Sphaeroptha1mini 281 Smolt 476 Sphecidae 283 Smolting 334 Sphenodon punctatus 66 Snails 60, 586 Spiders 274 Snake 48, 66, 67, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, Spizocorys 390 131,133,139,142,144,145,146 Sp1ake 332 balls 130 Sport fishing 541, 542 flower pot 132 Springbok 451 garter 130 Squamata 64, 66, 128, 129, 131, 133, 137, mud 129 138, 139, 141, 142, 144 tiger 129 Suids 444, 447 Sneaking 331 Squirrel 231, 232, 233 Sneaky-male strategy 267 Stability 198,207,481,482,523,531, 534, Sociable weavers 396 535 Sociobiology 197 Stabilized states 3,15,21,33,34,119,123, Sockeye salmon 335 247, 471, 473, 476, 477, 481, 484, 486, Soil erosion 533 487, 521, 529, 53~ 575, 578, 579, 580, Somalian Desert 321 581 Sooglossidae 104, 105 dynamic 471,472 Sorex 229 flow 472 Soricine 228, 229 Stable limit cycle 530 South Africa 132, 203, 204, 262, 263, 264, Stag 158, 159 265, 300, 309, 320, 325, 351, 374, 380, Staphy1inidae 318 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, Starvation 460 394,422,447 Steelhead trout 335 South African Ornithological Society 388 Stefania 108 South America 263, 280, 443 Stegopterna 304 Spawning 78,82, 84, 542 mutata 298, 302, 305 Specializations 348, 396,492,493,527,544 Steinbeck, J. 470 trophic 255, 312 Stenocara 321 Specialized 7,21,28,30,31,34,60,62,67, Stenomutilla argentata 283 83,101,102,104,105,107, Ill, 119, 123, Stenotypes 510 153, 198, 199, 200, 201, 203, 205, 226, Sternotherus odoratus 134 255, 263, 272, 273, 293, 294, 295, 296, Stingray 90 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 309, 312, Stizostedion vitreum 83, 84, 90 330, 348, 349, 366, 369, 444, 453, 467, Stochastic softening 505 468, 471, 477, 478, 479, 480, 482, 483, Stomach 579 484, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 510, brooding 106 511,512,513,514,518,522,523,525, Stomatioidae 476 528, 529, 530, 538, 539, 541 Stratum compactum 356, 357, 360 Speciation xii, 30, 59, 118, 123, 153, 154, corneum 358 162, 226, 246, 250, 251, 252, 313, 322, spongiosum 356 330, 331, 334, 338, 453, 487, 492, 524, Strepsiptera 320 573,578,580 Strigiformes 405 sympatric 59 Striped mouse 421, 422 Species complexes 296,300,312 Strongyloceros spelaeus 159 selection 256 Struthio camelus 387 Specific mate recognition system (SMRS) Stunting 334 312 Sturgeons 542 Spermatozoa 22,45,227,423 Sty10pidae 320 614 Index

Subantarctic 202, 205 310, 311, 318, 322, 338, 340, 372, 379, Succession 332,341,504,529,532,534 380, 381, 435, 485, 509, 515, 523, 526, Sudan 262 528,536,577 Sunapee charr 485 Temporal bet-hedgers 373 Sunfish 182 Temporally dynamic reproduction 372, 436, Supergene 52 510 Superpredator 453 Tenders 382 Superstring theory 10 Tenebrionidae 318,322 Survival 336, 341, 427, 430, 431, 435, 450, Termites 204 451,476,480, 481, 486, 511, 539, 571, Terrapin 134, 137 572 Territoriality 186, 187, 189, 190, 332, 337, Survivorship 110, 114, 116, 117, 121, 223, 380,382,431,541 224, 232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 304, 309, Tertiary 443 475 Testudinidae 137 Swarm mating 312 Tetranucleotide 48 Swim bladder 485 Tetraploid 489, 492 Symbiosis 469,477,532,541 Tetrapoda 64, 66, 67, 128 Sympatry 122,331,335 Thalassoma Symplesiomorphy 106 bifasciatum 186-189, 190,520 Synapomorphy 106, 107 duperrey 180 Syngnathusfuscus 87 Thamnophis Synthetic Theory of Evolution 3, 252 sirtalis 130 Syntopy 424 Thanatosis (death feigning) 273 Thecodontia 64 Tachycnemis 107, 108 Theraspidae 140 Tadpole 19,34,72,105,106,108, Ill, 112, Thermodynamics, nonequilibrium xi, 23 119, 123, 368, 492 Thingvallavatn, Iceland 330, 338,493 Tail 360,361,365,366,367,368,587 Thomian catastrophes 15 Tameness 583, 585 Thorn, R. xv Tanakia tanago 94 Threat, display 273 Tandem gene duplication 492 Three-spined stickleback 339,520 Tanzania 447,450 Threshold junctures 580, 581 Tao xiv, 5, 9, 10, 12, 17, 18, 28, 36, 469, Thyroidectomy 367 470,477 Thyroid gland 347,349,350,367,368 Taoists 9, 11, 12, 13, 16, 18,31,32,33,470 hormone 349,350,351,367,369 harmony 472 stimulation 367 Tao of biology 468 Thyrotropin release factor (TRF) 349 Tatera leucogaster 218 Tilapia 539 Tateril/us 223 Timulla vagans 285 gracilis 225 Tiphiidae 282, 285 pygargus 223 Toad 67,587 Taxonic divergence 59,60,61 Torridincolidae 318, 324, 325 survival 59, 60 Tortoise 60,66, 137, 139, 145 154,161,162,262,265,280,296, Trachipterus 77,80 329,330,334,389,400-420,487,530,587 trachypterus 73, 74 Teleostei 90 Trajectory stability 530 Telmatobiinae 104, 105, 117 Transformation series 106 Temperate 534 Transvaal 322,323,422,427,428,429,430, Temperature 79,94,119,123,128,134,135, 432,433,435,451 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143, 231, 232, Trechinae 321 233, 294, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, Trechus 321 Index 615

Trees 265, 508 lugubris 371,374 Triclads 236 melanopterus 371,374 Trifurcation 575,576 Varanidae 129 Triploidy 298,301,312 Variation, epigenetic 471-481,483 Trochophora 72 genetic 398, 483, 491 Trogaspidia bugalana 281 Veliger 34 Trogidae 206 Venom 128, 142, 143, 146 Trogoniformes 407 Ventricle 363 Trophoderm 90,91,93 Versatility specialists 511 Trophonemata 90 Vertebra 126 Tropics 109, 110, 111, 121, 203, 279, 305, Vertebrata 64, 65, 66, 129, 178, 205, 390, 318, 372, 422, 442, 447, 523, 528, 529, 394, 582 531, 534 Veterinary science 544 Trout 28, 29, 539, 542 Viperids 133 brown 339 19,473,521 rainbow 93 Viviparity xii, 71, 77, 80-82, 90, 91, 93, 102, Tsavo National Park 451 104, 105, 112, 128, 129, 140-144,209 Tsavo West 451 Vlei rat 421, 422, 423 Tsetse flies 282 Vocalisation 423 Tuatara 128, 129, 141, 516 Voles 163,221 Tunicate 78 Voltinism 297,298,299,300,301,305,308, Turbulence 537 309,311 Tuned receiver 312 Von Bertalanffy, L. 36 Turtle Island 135 Turtles 66, 129, 130, 131, 135, 137 Waddington, K. xv, 13, 503, 588 emydine 135 epigenetic landscape 15,23, 506, 578 freshwater 134 Wagner, M. 58 leatherback 130 Wallace, A.R. 58 loggerhead 135 Walleye 83,90 sea 130, 134, 135, 137 Wapiti 159, 162 Twinnia 304 Wasps 279-289 tibblesi 297 spider-hunting 283 Typhlosaurus gariepensis 129 Waterfowl 516 Weaning 430,431,449 Uganda 8,447 Weather 206,372,424,537 Umfolozi Game Reserve 450 Weber, B.H. xi Ungulates 168,447,450,451,453 Weeds 508, 539 United States of America 110 Weismann barrier 506 Unity of polar opposites 468,469,477 Weismann's doctrine 3 Univoltine 293,297,298,303,304,305,308 Whales 508 Upper Volta 447 Whitefish 94 Upwelling zones 540 White rhinoceros 445,451,452 Urodela 64, 66, 67 Wicken, l.S. xi Uterine milk 90 Wildlife management 171 Windermere 330,334 Vagility 201, 203, 204, 262, 270, 274, 283, Wolf 585 284,289,320 Wolffian duct 47 Vanellus 376, 381 Woodlands 374, 452 armatus 371,373,374 World Health Organisation 170 coronatus 371, 374, 391, 395 Wrasse 180, 186-189,520 crassirostris 382 Wright, S. 3, 58 616 Index

Wrynecks 389 Yolksac 80,92,94

X chromosome 49 Zaire 447 Xenopus 46, 106, 107, 364, 365, 366, 368, Zambia 447 369 Zebras 489,491 embryo 23 Zimbabwe 428,429,447 laevis 347,351,364,365,368 Zoarces viviparus 87,90,91 Zonitinae 320 Yantigen 48 Zoo 447 Y chromosome 48, 49 Zooplankton 253 Yin-Yang xv, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, Zosterops pallidus 395 19,21,31,33,35,468,469,477,483 Zulu1and 429,432 19, 71, 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 90, 92, 93, Zygotes 485 III, 136, 333, 336, 348, 356, 358, 367, Zymotaxonomy 296 480,484,487,492,493,523,543 Some of the 230 delegates from 16 countries who attended the conference on 'Alternative Life-History Styles' in Grahamstown, June 1987.