One Planet Living in the suburbs written by Anna Francis and Joanne Wheeler, November 2006 Contents
Acknowledgements 2
Introduction 4
One Planet Living 8
Section A: The Suburban Context 12
Sustainable communities 24
Section B: One Planet Living in the Suburbs 28
Zero carbon 29
Zero waste 45
Sustainable transport 54
Sustainable water 67
Sustainable materials 72
Local and sustainable food 77
Natural habitats and wildlife 84
Culture and heritage 87
Equity and fair trade 90
Health and happiness 94
Key findings and conclusions 97 Ecological Footprint Summary 97 Key Recommendations 100
Appendices 108
References 111
1 Acknowledgements
This report was funded by WWF and co-authored by Anna Francis (BioRegional Consulting) and Jo Wheeler (WWF). We would like to thank everyone who inputted into the report and in particular the Solihull Residents Association and the Stockholm Environmment Institue who provided the baseline footprinting data.
List of Tables Table 1 - OPL principles Table 2 - Types of suburb Table 3 - Local areas by density Table 4 - Barriers and incentives needed to minimise energy demand Table 5 - Average costs and savings from typical energy efficiency improvements Table 6 - Barriers and incentives needed to increase use of sustainable energy sources Table 7 - Ecological footprint of domestic energy for each scenario showing savings compared to scenario 1 Table 8 - Barriers and incentives needed to implement zero waste in the suburbs Table 9 - Ecological footprint of waste and consumer items for each scenario with savings over scenario 1 Table 10 - Barriers and incentives needed to minimise transport demand in the suburbs Table 11 - Barriers and incentives needed to maximise use of sustainable transport options in the suburbs Table 12 - Ecological footprint of mobility for each scenario showing savings compared to scenario 1 Table 13 - Barriers and incentives needed to minimise water use in the suburbs Table 14 - Water demand for each scenario showing savings compared to scenario 1 Table 15 - Environmental impact of window frame materials Table 16 - Ecological footprint of waste and consumer items for each scenario with savings over scenario 1 Table 17 - Barriers and incentives needed to increase provision and procurement of local sustainable food in suburbia Table 18 - Ecological footprint of food for each scenario showing savings compared to scenario 1 Table 19 - Barriers and incentives needed to protect and enhance natural habitats and wildlife in suburbia Table 20 - Barriers and incentives needed to enhance equity and fair trade in suburbia Table 21 - Barriers and incentives needed to enhance health and happiness in suburbia Table 22 - Summary of actions, incentives and policies needed at individual, local and national level to facilitate One Planet Living in suburbia
List of Figures Figure 1 - Ecological footprint of Solihull Figure 2 - Population and housing location in the UK Figure 3 – Solihull’s location Figure 4 - Solihull’s population by age group Figure 5 - Solihull multiple deprivation score by ward Figure 6 - Solihull housing stock by tenancy type Figure 7 - Solihull ethnic composition Figure 8 - Solihull’s top 10 ecological footprints Figure 9 - Comparison of Solihull’s and the West Midlands’ ecological footprint Figure10 - DCLG vision for sustainable communities
Figure 11 - Kilograms of CO2 for different house ages
Figure 12 - CO2 emissions from household heat loss Figure 13 - Per capita energy consumed by north-east households of different sizes Figure 14 - Energy consumption in households by end use
2 Figure 15 - House types in Solihull by ward Figure 16 - Carbon saving and cost per carbon unit saved Figure 17- Average household waste streams Figure 18 - Waste and recyclables according to affluence and area type Figure 19 - Money spent on wasted goods and services in the West Midlands Figure 20 - UK individual transport by purpose Figure 21 - Personal transport patterns by purpose and mode Figure 22 - Transport modes by ward, Solihull Figure 23 - Facilities supported by 5,000 suburban homes
3 Introduction
THE CHALLENGE WWF’s Living Planet Report1 tells us that if everyone around the world consumed natural resources and polluted the environment as we currently do in the UK, we would need three planets to support us.
The Living Planet Report uses Ecological Footprinting (EF) analysis to reach this conclusion. EF is an accounting tool that represents the environmental impacts of a process or a person’s lifestyle in terms of the area of land or sea that is required to produce sustainably a particular natural resource or to absorb waste from its consumption; or, in the case of energy, to absorb the corresponding CO2 emissions generated, using prevailing technology. EF measures the area of biologically productive land that is required to meet the needs of a given product, person or population; it compares this area with the available area on Earth, and informs us whether we are living within the Earth’s regenerative capacity. The areas of land or sea calculated by EF could be anywhere in the world, and Ecological Footprints are measured in ‘global hectares’.
Ecological Footprint figures in the Living Planet Report inform us that it currently takes around 5.6 global hectares of biologically productive land to support each person in the UK. A sustainable Ecological Footprint or ‘Earth Share’, taking into account the protection of biodiversity and areas deemed unproductive, is approximately 1.8 global hectares per person; this figure is falling due to decreasing bioproductivity and increasing human population. Hence, it can be concluded that if everyone on the planet consumed as much as the average person in the UK, we would need three planets to support us.
We need to develop sustainable lifestyles that help us reduce our Ecological Footprint to a level that our one planet can sustain – this is vital to ensure the health of our planet and our long-term survival.
OUR IMPACTS AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT The image below shows the relative contributions of different lifestyle elements that make up the ‘three planet’ lifestyle of an average resident of Solihull in the West Midlands:
4 Figure 1: Ecological Footprint of Solihull2
3% 4%
22% 19 13 11% 8% 13% 7% % %
Food and Drink Energy Land Travel Housing Consumables Services Holiday Activities Capital Investment Government and Other
It is evident that all aspects of our lifestyles that contribute towards our Ecological Footprints are inextricably linked to our local and regional physical infrastructure and built environment. We travel to work and school, for leisure, and to access services; we travel to purchase food, which is made available to us through a system that uses roads, warehouses and airports; we use energy and water in our buildings as well as on our roads and in public spaces; we use services such as schools and hospitals that are part of our local built environment and with which we share infrastructure such as energy, waste and telecommunications networks.
The built environment offers us many opportunities to live sustainably but also throws up potential barriers to doing so. When our local services are not close by, we tend to drive to them; poorly insulated buildings make us consume more energy than is necessary. However, when given the opportunity, many people choose sustainable lifestyle options: we increasingly choose organic products as they become more easily available in ordinary markets; incentives such as the Clear Skies Grant catalysed actions from a variety of stakeholders and made a substantial contribution to micro energy generation; at BedZEDi the car club helped residents cut their transport 3 related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 1.3 tonnes per resident per year . It is thus crucial that we create places, and put in place incentives, that make it easy for residents and users to choose sustainable lifestyle options.
New house-building initiatives (such as the new ‘sustainable communities’ in growth areas such as the Thames Gateway) offer clear opportunities to capitalise on sustainability thinking and put in place energy-efficient, well- connected neighbourhoods, where residents will find it easier than average to live in a sustainable manner, with a reduced Ecological Footprint. These opportunities have been documented in detail by two BioRegional Development Group studies, One Planet Living in the Thames Gateway (2003) (conducted with WWF), and Z- Squared: Enabling One Planet Living in the Thames Gateway (2004)ii.
i Beddington Zero (fossil) Energy Development – BedZED – is a mixed-use eco-village in South London. The village comprises 82 homes, live work units, commercial space and community facilities. In addition to the high performance buildings, BedZED offers services and facilities, such as a car club and food-growing areas, to support the residents in living sustainably. ii Both study reports are available from BioRegional’s website, www.bioregional.com
5 Given the predicted timescales of the environmental challenges and climatic changes we face and the significant impact of existing dwellings, we cannot afford to focus solely on new house-building initiatives.
EXISTING STOCK IN THE SUBURBS
Existing housing stock in the UK contributes 27% of national CO2 emissions, uses half of all public water and generates 8% of total waste4. In addition, renewal rates of existing housing stock are low, at approximately 1% a year, and it is predicted that two-thirds of the dwellings that will be standing in 2050 are already in existence5. Improving the performance of existing communities is therefore vital in helping to reduce the ecological footprint of the UK as a whole.
A recent study by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) examines the CO2 emissions and Ecological Footprint of existing and new buildings in the Leeds city region, looking at how 15 different policy scenarios will affect the CO2 emissions associated with housing between 2003 and 2026. The study concludes that “retrofitting the existing housing stock is the single most important housing policy with regard to CO2 reductions – on a per household basis as well as in reducing long-term overall emissions. The potential net carbon savings are between 19% and 39% compared to business as usual.”6
The Sustainable Communities Plan, produced by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (now Department for Communities and Local Government – DCLG), does consider improving some existing communities through proposals for significant regeneration and refurbishment and the market renewal pathfinder projects, however these regeneration areas account for only a small percentage of our total housing stock. Here, similar opportunities to the new house-building initiatives are available, such as achieving higher densities, providing more amenities and providing a significantly better urban environment. Regeneration also often considers improvements to existing stock, and here there are opportunities to ‘retrofit’ buildings, infrastructure and services to make it easier for residents to live sustainably.
Housing owned by councils and Housing Associations is also receiving attention across the country. For example, initiatives such as Decent Homes are helping to make affordable housing more energy efficient, and various efforts are being made to put in place facilities for easy recycling in social housing. Government policies on issues such as fuel poverty have driven measures to achieve energy efficiency as part of regeneration and retrofit projects in low income areas. However, as the Energy Saving Trust points out, this is not the same as reducing overall energy consumption and emissions. The majority of domestic energy use is by households that are not fuel-poor. There is therefore a need for the government to focus on wasteful households among the fuel- rich. Many of these are owner-occupiers (who account for 70% of households in the UK), many of whom live in the suburbs.
It is clear that there is substantial effort concentrated on making certain types of housing stock more sustainable: new housing; council and Housing Association stocks; and that which is part of regeneration initiatives. However, there is another category on which it is worth spending similar effort: private suburban housing. An estimated 86%7 of the UK population lives in suburbs and, as outlined later in this document, there are high environmental impacts associated with many affluent suburban areas.
6 Figure 2: Population and housing location in the UK
The hypothesis of this study is therefore that perhaps the greatest challenge is to consider how, in existing suburban communities that have not been identified for significant regeneration or planned growth, to retrofit with infrastructure and services that will enable residents to lead sustainable lives.
7 One Planet Living
To help communicate the challenge we all face in reducing our environmental impact, and to facilitate change at local and global levels by working with partners, in 2004 BioRegional and WWF launched the One Planet Living (OPL) initiative. A key aim of the OPL programme is to develop a global network of One Planet Living Communities to enable people to reduce their Ecological Footprint and demonstrate One Planet Living in action.
The OPL vision moves beyond purely environmental aims and envisages “a world in which people everywhere can live healthy, happy, lives within their fair share of the Earth’s resources”. In other words, OPL aims to demonstrate that people throughout the world can enjoy a high quality of life that is sustainable.
This report will examine what it means to apply the OPL framework to existing suburbs. The One Planet Living vision describes a ‘sustainable community’8 as an area that:
• supports a successful, vibrant and integrated mix of homes, shops, businesses, leisure facilities and other uses and activities; • has its own clear and positive identity, building on the strengths of its surrounding context; • has suitable size, scale, density and layout to support other amenities in the neighbourhood, while minimising resource use including land; • contains high quality recreation facilities; • is safe, secure and free of the fear of crime; • supports centres of learning and training at all levels; • gives priority to pedestrians, public transport and cycling, rather than cars; • has an effective public transport system, linking it to urban, regional and rural centres; • has an integrated network of high quality green spaces and green lanes that draws people into and through the area, encourages activity and improves the appearance of the area and the quality of life of the people in it; • provides for the economical, educational, cultural, social and other needs of a diverse mix of residents; • provides a balanced and integrated mix of residential accommodation of different types and tenures to support a range of household sizes, ages and incomes; • has easy access to a diverse range of high quality local public facilities and services, including education and training opportunities, health care and community and leisure.
A set of 10 One Planet Living principles has been developed as a framework to communicate issues and form strategies towards sustainable living. This framework is increasingly being used by the design and construction industry as the framework for sustainable community development in the UK and internationally. The framework is broad and holistic, and encompasses issues raised by most sustainability tools and frameworks, including BRE EcoHomes and the Regional Sustainability Checklistsiii.
iii The Regional Sustainability Checklists are being developed by WWF in partnership with BRE and SEEDA, with part-funding by DCLG. The aim is to provide a comprehensive and straightforward tool to be used by planners and developers, to ensure a wide range of sustainability issues are considered in developments at the planning stage. For further information, visit wwf.org.uk/sustainablehomes
8 THE ONE PLANET LIVING PRINCIPLES
Table 1: OPL Principles
OPL principle Aim
Zero carbon Reduce and ultimately eliminate carbon emissions caused by fossil fuel use in heating, cooling and providing power and heat to buildings
Zero waste All materials should be valued as potential resources, through reusing, reprocessing or energy from waste
Sustainable transport Reduce carbon emissions relating to travel
Local and sustainable Choose materials to deliver high performance in use with minimised impact in materials manufacture and delivery
Local and sustainable food Promote local, seasonal and organic produce resulting in reduced emissions from food production, packaging and transportation
Sustainable water use Reduce energy used in water supply and waste water management; reduce local flooding risks
Natural habitats and Conserve and enhance biodiversity wildlife
Culture and heritage Engender a sense of community through enhancing or reviving valuable aspects of local culture and heritage
Equity and fair trade Promote social justice through local economic development and fair trade internationally
Health and happiness Increase health and overall wellbeing of all involved in the project through design, facilities and operation
This report will use the OPL framework to highlight the challenges and opportunities of creating OPL communities in existing suburbia. Each of the principles will be examined in turn in order to reveal how existing suburbs in Solihull, and suburbs like it, can work towards One Planet Living and the role that each stakeholder has to play in facilitating this change.
SCOPE OF THIS RESEARCH The research identifies challenges and opportunities for sustainable living in the suburbs and intends to complement the work being conducted by WWF focusing on regeneration areas in the West Midlands. The West Midlands Sustainable Communities (WMSC) project will look at four case study areas around the region, from inner city to rural market town. In each of these areas, the team is talking to residents and businesses – first with a focus on the buildings themselves, then with a focus on the surrounding neighbourhood and lifestyles. A range of options will be analysed for the building construction, material impacts and energy efficiency, from replacement in alternative designs, rehabilitation or repair, and changes in lifestyle and management. The
9 WMSC draws on the larger Eco-Budget UK project, which is building a large scale model of all the material flows and impacts through each of the regions of the UK.
Research for the OPL in the Suburbs report follows the successful WWF/BioRegional/SEI collaboration One Planet Living in the Thames Gateway which used Ecological Footprinting to outline the potential for reducing environmental impacts of future residents in the proposed 200,000 new homes in the Thames Gateway growth area in East London, which are part of the government’s Sustainable Communities Plan.
The Thames Gateway report highlighted the important role our lifestyles, shared infrastructure and services play in determining our Ecological Footprint as individuals. While individual action can make a very significant contribution to reducing our Ecological Footprint, this alone is not sufficient to address the problem. This is because a considerable component of an individual’s Ecological Footprint is attributable to their share of infrastructure and services, which individuals can do little to influence. Government and business therefore have a responsibility to deliver sustainable infrastructure and services, and to provide the framework to ‘change the defaults’ of our lifestyle choices – making it easy, attractive and affordable for people to choose more sustainable options.
This conclusion in turn led us to the realisation that to enable people to live sustainably within their fair share of the Earth’s resources, issues need to be tackled at the community and neighbourhood scale, beyond the performance of our individual homes, where much of the focus in the UK has been. This is possible in growth areas because entire new communities and neighbourhoods are being built there, which also have the potential for significant positive impacts on existing neighbouring communities. Opportunities and strategies for such community level initiatives have been outlined in detail by the One Planet Living Communities Programmeiv.
METHODOLOGY This research has tested the strategies outlined by the One Planet Living Communities Programme in the context of private suburban housing. Some strategies have been found to be particularly challenging in existing suburban areas, where opportunities for change are often dependent on individual homeowners and mechanisms for community-scale initiatives are potentially limited. However, other individual-centred strategies have been highlighted as being potentially more potent here, since large owner occupancy may lead to a better appreciation of the cost benefits that sustainable retrofit initiatives can make.
The research was carried out using the following method: • analysis of Ecological Footprint data provided by the Stockholm Environment Institute (an explanation can be found in the following section); • visits to Solihull and discussions with stakeholders including local council, local residents and a local residents’ association; and • extensive desk-based research.
STRUCTURE
Section A: The Suburban Context This section explores the concept of suburbs, and tries to understand the specific opportunities and barriers they raise in the context of sustainable living. A short description of southern Solihull is presented here. This is iv Details of the One Planet Living Programme can be found on www.oneplanetliving.org
10 followed by a brief description of the current concepts, tools and guidance in use regarding sustainable communities, with an analysis of their applicability to the suburban context.
Section B: One Planet Living in the Suburbs This section comprises the main body of the report, where barriers and opportunities to sustainable living are explored in detail, along with possible policy initiatives and incentives to help encourage sustainable living in suburbia. The One Planet Living framework is used to structure this analysis, and the section is arranged according to the 10 One Planet Living principles, as above.
Section C: Conclusion This section summarises some of the discussions and recommendations explored throughout the report, highlighting the roles for national and local government, as well as individual action. It highlights the steps needed to enable the step change required in lifestyles and shared services and infrastructure.
11 Section A: The Suburban Context
DEFINING SUBURBIA The word ‘suburb’ is derived from the Old French ‘sub(b)urbe’ formed from ‘sub’ meaning ‘under’ and ‘urbs’ meaning ‘city’9 and is used to refer to any kind of settlement at the periphery of a large city. Suburbs are generically described as “the outskirts of a town”, “an area on the edge of a large town or city where people who work in the town or city often live”10, or “the line that demarcates suburb and city is in the eye of the beholder”11. Despite sharing some common characteristics, suburbs vary greatly from each other and are notoriously difficult to define.
The ‘true suburb’12 has been described as an area large enough and homogenous enough to form a distinctive low density environment and is “more than just a collection of dense city streets that have reached the edge of the built-up area”. Suburbia is often defined by the primacy of the single family house set in the greenery of an open, park-like setting12. Suburbia can also be defined by what it includes – primarily middle-class residences, and what it excludes – industry, most commerce (except for enterprises that specifically serve a residential area) and lower-class residents.
Fishman describes typical suburbia as the “middle-class suburb of privilege” and adds: “however modest each suburban house might be, typical suburbia represents a collective assertion of class wealth and privilege as impressive as any medieval castle”12. This perceived suburban mindset may pose particular challenges to paving the way towards One Planet Living in suburbia.
Gwilliam et al. (1998) have classified UK suburbs into six main categories summarised in Table 2 below:
Table 2: Types of suburb7
Type Characteristics Examples
Historic inner suburb Established terraced or semi-detached developments not Clapham, London integrated to the rest of the town; urban qualities, e.g. mix of uses; ‘walkability’; good public transport Planned suburb Few enclaves now absorbed into the rest of town; usually Bourneville, successful Birmingham Social housing suburb High or low rise housing estates often with problems of St Helier, Sutton maintenance, safety, vandalism, lack of social mix and non-residential uses Suburban town Suburbs acquiring urban village functions for a wider Croydon sub-metropolitan area Public transport suburb Medium density homogenous speculative suburbs, Ruislip, Middlesex usually in a closely structured urban fabric Car suburb Low density, detached housing, homogenous speculative Bushey Heath, suburbs, often in an ‘open’ townscape fringe area Hertsmere (motorways, out of town shopping centres and golf clubs)
12 Given the perceived high impact of car-based suburbs, this report focuses on a typical affluent ‘car suburb’ and uses the suburban area to the south of Solihull as a primary case study to highlight practical steps to reduce the Ecological Footprint of these types of suburban areas. It is worth noting that the footprinting data used is for the whole of Solihull and therefore includes footprinting data for the ‘social housing suburban areas’ to the north of Solihull. The footprint of Solihull’s more affluent car-based suburbs may therefore be even greater due, for example, to increased energy and car use in these areas.
To further understand what a suburb actually is and gain an insight into its social make-up, life-style patterns and associated ecological impacts, it is useful to put suburbia into context by examining how modern suburbs have emerged and developed over time.
SUBURBIA IN CONTEXT Suburbs have existed for centuries. Traditionally suburbs were not ‘middle class’ but rather “disreputable zones, shantytowns to which the poorest inhabitants and the most noisome manufacturers were relegated”12; 18th century suburbia was defined at the time in the Oxford English Dictionary as a “place of inferior, debased and especially licentious habits of life”.
Suburbia as we know it today evolved gradually in late 18th century London when wealthy bankers and merchants left the city to experiment with a variety of housing forms. The reasons behind the evolution of ‘middle-class suburbia’ are numerous and complex, but the rise of the nuclear family was an important factor. The closed domesticated nuclear family was “inner-directed and united by strong and exclusive personal ties” and began to put an emphasis on the boundary surrounding the nuclear unit, seeking to “separate themselves from the intrusions of the workplace and the city”.12 The issues of distance and ‘boundaries’ from neighbouring residences continue to be a dominant feature of modern day suburbia.
This new nuclear family type created the emotional force that split middle-class work and residence. However, as the suburbs evolved and expanded, suburbia began to lose its strong ties with the city and transport made it easier for people to live further away from the city. In the 20th century the mass production of the car gave new impetus to suburbanisation, allowing commuters to live even further from their place of employment. The car virtually eliminated restrictions on travel, and the subsequent demise of much public transportation in many areas left many dependent on the car. Congestion in the central city and a consequent deterioration of living conditions in many city centres provided an additional incentive for people to move to the suburbs.
Moving along with the population, many companies also started to locate their offices and other facilities in the outer areas of the cities. This has resulted in increased density in older suburbs and, often, the growth of lower density suburbs even further from city centres. Some social reformers attempted to combine the best of elements of deliberately designed new towns and the protection of green belts around cities, through the Garden City movement. Founded by Sir Ebenezer Howard in England in 1898, garden cities were to be planned, self- contained communities surrounded by greenbelts, and containing carefully balanced areas of residences, industry, and agriculture9. Although not a full realisation of Howard’s ideals, some examples of Garden Cities still exist, primarily Welwyn Garden City and Letchworth, and elements from this concept were influential in the development of modern day suburbia.
Although the suburb is physically separated from the urban core, traditionally, modern suburbia has been dependent on the city; economically for the jobs that support its residents and culturally for the major institutions of urban life: professional offices, department stores and other specialised shops, hospitals, theatres, etc. This has
13 increased the associated Ecological Footprint of these areas, owing to increased transport needs, and the car continues to dominate much of suburbia13. This has contributed significantly to the Ecological Footprint through increased energy use, emissions and land use. In Solihull, consumption of energy in the form of car fuel is significantly higher than the average for the West Midlands as a whole and energy consumption is also high, which may be attributable to larger houses and lower densities.
PERCEPTIONS OF MODERN SUBURBIA While many people aspire to suburban living and suburbs are perceived as being green, leafy and spacious, suburbs also have negative connotations: for example, they are often associated with visual monotony, lack of distinctive character and lack of identity, particularly where there is no historic core. According to Fishman, suburbs have been criticised as being “cultural deserts where neighbours are strangers, women are virtually imprisoned, and environmental concerns are scorned”. Dr Goldsworthy, Director of the Centre for Suburban Studies at Kingston University, states that although over 80% of us live in the suburbs, many of us are not willing to admit we have a “love affair with them”. She adds that “the suburb is always described as being inferior to both the city and the countryside”.
Another common perception of suburbia involves the ‘keeping up with the Joneses’ philosophy. This may play a part in the increased Ecological Footprint associated with affluent areas of suburbia. The layout of suburbia, for example, with private drives that reveal individual car ownership, instead of anonymous on-street parking, may encourage neighbour competition and in affluent suburban areas such as Solihull large, fuel-inefficient cars such as 4x4s are common. This philosophy of neighbourhood competition fuels consumerism and may well pose a challenge to reducing the Ecological Footprint of these areas.
While many concerns relating to suburbia continue, some stereotypical views are beginning to fade; in some suburban areas local employment opportunities are increasing and some suburbs are becoming more self- sufficient in terms of employment and leisure. For example, Leo Boland, Chief Executive of the London Borough of Barnet writes that: “This idea that the majority of people in London’s suburbs go to Kings Cross or Liverpool Street every day is wrong. The city centres are no longer the dominant place for work. Suburban life is relativity self-sufficient.”14 However, while this general trend is true of suburban London, in other suburban areas dependence on cities for employment and leisure continues to be high.
Given the varying characteristics of each suburb it is clear that there will not be a generic model with which to integrate sustainability into existing suburbs. However, through examining how an existing suburban area, such as Solihull, can reduce its environmental impact and help to foster sustainable communities, useful insights will be revealed that can be adapted and applied to suburban areas elsewhere. Previous studies7 abovehave concluded that there is a “need for a set of robust principles which enable sustainability and improved quality of life in suburbs”. It is now necessary to examine in further detail what this might entail.
FOCUS ON SOLIHULL As this report focuses on Solihull as a primary case study, it is useful to gain a brief insight into the history and socio-economic make up of the area.
Solihull (originating from ‘soily hill’) is situated in the geographical centre of the UK (see figure 4) and has existed since medieval times, when it was founded as a market centre. The town still retains some historic architecture, including examples of timber-framed Tudor style houses and shops, some dating back to the 16th
14 century. Traditionally agricultural, during the Second World War industry and the town’s population expanded and a large Rover Car Company factory was established, which employed a significant amount of the local population15.
Figure 3: Solihull’s Location
Present day Solihull is described as an affluent town in the suburbs of Birmingham (13km from Birmingham centre) with good motorway links, a railway station to Birmingham and London, and in close proximity to Birmingham airport. Despite being a metropolitan borough, Solihull is still categorized as 70% rural/green belt. The town has a population of approximately 205,600 and is approximately 180 square kilometres. It has five square kilometres of parks and open spaces and two ecologically significant rivers: the Blythe and the Cole.16
As can be seen in Figure 3, about a quarter of the population in Solihull is less than 20 years old, and over a third is over 50. There is a significantly lower percentage of 20-34 year olds in Solihull when compared to the national average. This suggests that young people move out of the suburb in their early working years. However, there is a slightly higher percentage of 35-49 year olds, and a significantly higher percentage of 50-64 year olds in Solihull when compared to the national average, perhaps suggesting that people move back into suburban areas when they are more settled at work and when they are bringing up children. The character of a car-based suburb (low density, detached housing, homogenous, out of town shopping centres, golf clubs, etc.) may appeal more to such people who also may be the ones to find it most affordable. This may also have an impact on Ecological Footprint, as discussed later; lower occupancy dwellings often use more energy and purchase more consumables per person than higher occupancy dwellings.
Over the next 20 years, it is predicted that Solihull’s overall population is likely to remain stable but the composition will change considerably. In particular, it is predicted that there will be greater numbers of people aged over 6016, presumably as the age groups discussed above grow older. This trend is predicted for the whole of the UK and will have implications on the Ecological Footprint of suburbia and elsewhere, particularly in
15 terms of transport and energy efficiency/consumption. This will be explored in further detail in the following sections on energy and transport.
Figure 4: Solihull’s Population by Age Group17
30%
25%
20% Solihull Metropolitan Borough Council 15% National Average 10%
5%
0% % % % % % aged aged aged aged aged 0-19: 20-34: 35-49: 50-64: 65+:
The borough of Solihull has low unemployment at 2.4% of the potential workforce (November 2003). The biggest proportion of people is employed in public administration, education and health; about 2% work in agriculture and a small percentage are self-employed. Large employers include Birmingham Airport and the National Exhibition Centre. In Solihull itself the majority of businesses are in the administration and service sectors: 15% are in construction, 13% in finance and 12% in retail.
Although Solihull as a whole is among the less deprived areas in the UK, a breakdown of the deprivation scores by ward reveals pockets of deprivation towards the north of the town (see Figure 5: a high score equates to more deprived). As can be seen the most deprived areas are primarily concentrated in the north of the borough: Chelmsley Wood, Fordbridge, Kingshurst, and Smith’s Wood. Least deprived areas are generally located to the south of the borough and include Knowle, Packwood and St. Alphege. This study will focus primarily on the affluent southern suburbs such as St Alphege and Silhill.
16 Figure 5: Solihull multiple deprivation score by ward18
Solihull Multiple Deprivation Score by Ward
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 Silhill Olton Elmdon Lyndon Knowle Meriden Bickenhill Packwood Fordbridge Kingshurst St. Alphege St. Shirley East Shirley West Shirley South Smith's Wood Chelmsley Wood Castle Bromwich Castle
It is also important to note that although Solihull is classified as a suburban town, it does have a commercial centre and not all areas of Solihull could be categorised as ‘suburban’. This report focuses on the more affluent suburban areas to the south of Solihull. As previously mentioned, it is often in these more affluent, middle-class areas of suburbia that Ecological Footprint is thought to be high and awareness of personal impact is low. Regeneration programmes have understandably focused on the more deprived wards to the north of Solihull; however, given the large ecological impact of the more affluent suburbs it is vital that incentives and policy also encourage sustainable behaviour in these areas.
Housing in the Borough of Solihull is newer than the regional average: 66% of homes have been built since 1945, and the stock of pre-1919 housing is small19. House prices in the south of the borough are higher than the regional average, and this can make home ownership difficult for low and middle income earners and first-time buyers, which has an impact on equity and the social make-up of the area.
The graphs below give an insight into the composition of the housing stock in Solihull. As can be seen from Figure 6, the majority (78%) of the housing stock is ‘owner-occupied’, which is higher than the West Midlands average of 68%. This, too, is typical in more affluent areas of suburbia.
17 Figure 6: Solihull housing stock by tenancy type
The high level of owner-occupied properties provides significant opportunities for retrofitting such properties to higher environmental standards, as it is the occupier who will directly benefit from any environmental initiatives. Whether these residents are aware of initiatives and are sufficiently motivated, able and willing to implement them will be the primary determinant of them being adopted.
In Solihull, council dwellings comprise the second most common sector (15%) and are concentrated primarily in the north of the borough. The private rented sector (4% of Solihull’s housing stock) is concentrated in the south. This sector represents one of the most challenging areas to retrofit as there is generally no incentive for the landlord to invest in environmental measures as it is the tenant, not the owner, who will benefit from any potential savings, such as reduced utility bills.
Figure 7, below, reveals the ethnic composition of Solihull. As can be seen, the area is primarily ‘white British’.
Figure 7: Solihull ethnic composition
1% Solihull Ethnic Composition 1% 1% 3%
White British White Other Mixed Asian Black Other Ethnic Group
94%
18 ACORN classification of Solihull’s southern suburbs
Using the ACORN classificationv, further insights into the social characteristics of Solihull’s southern suburbs are gained. This highlights both potential impacts associated with lifestyle choices and potential opportunities for reducing these impacts.
Residents of southern Solihull are classified as Type 1 by ACORN, and are described as being primarily wealthy mature professionals living in large houses in wealthy, high status suburban and semi-rural neighbourhoods. Many are highly qualified professionals, senior executives and business owners, often in their 40s and 50s. They tend to live in large detached houses with four or more bedrooms, many of which are owned outright. These households often have more than two cars, at least one of which is likely to be a high value company car. High levels of car ownership were observed when visiting Solihull’s southern suburbs and this will have a direct impact on the area’s Ecological Footprint (examined in further detail later).
These residents are classified as being ‘financially sophisticated, investing directly in stocks and shares as well as unit trusts, bonds and other forms of investments. Technologically literate, they are confident home PC users. The internet is a popular channel for purchases and financial transactions, including online banking. There is a high level of readership of the Financial Times as well as the other quality broadsheets. This represents potential opportunities for increasing awareness of environmental impacts, incentives and initiatives through these media.
According to the ACORN classification, golf is a popular leisure pursuit. There are several golf courses in the Solihull area, two of which are located south of the town. These have an environmental impact in terms of land use, transport, water and chemicals used on the land.
The typical type 1 ACORN resident generally has two holidays a year, perhaps one long-haul destination and a week on the ski slopes. This again contributes significantly to the Ecological Footprint of such areas. These consumers have a well-developed interest in the arts, classical music and opera, as well as enjoying fine wine and gourmet food. They are likely to have charitable interests, often using tax-efficient covenants and direct debit payments to make their donations.17
SOLIHULL’S ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT In the West Midlands the average Ecological Footprint has been found to be approximately 5 global hectares, while the footprint of Solihull was revealed to be about 10% higher, at 5.7 global hectares.20 The Ecological Footprint of this area will therefore need to be reduced almost threefold in order to become sustainable. Strategies to enable this to happen, as well as potential barriers, will be identified and explored in the following sections. Through analysing the Ecological Footprint data for Solihull (provided by the Stockholm Environment Institute) it was possible to identify the main ecological impacts of the area and to formulate strategies and policy recommendations to reduce these impacts.
The Stockholm Environment Institute has conducted a comprehensive Ecological Footprint study of Solihull. Figure8, below, highlights the main Ecological Footprint impacts of Solihull. As can be seen, in terms of a householder’s direct consumption, food has the most significant impact, followed by energy use and transport. These are clearly key areas to focus on and will be examined in further detail in Section 2. Although there will be regional variations in footprint, particularly between the south and north of Solihull, as well as between households and individuals, specific footprinting data for different wards are not currently available. The average Solihull footprint will therefore be taken as a base line figure and will be used in predicting footprints of different scenarios. Potential variations in regional data will be subsequently discussed in each section.
v A Classification Of Residential Neighbourhoods, which classifies every street in the UK into 56 ‘typical’ ACORN neighbourhood categories.
19 Figure 8: Solihull’s top 10 Ecological Footprints
Solihull's Top Ten Ecological Footprints Local government
Other recreational items & equipment 4% 4% 18% 4% Transport services
6% Central government
Private transport (car 9% fuel) Catering services 18% Electricity, gas and 10% other fuels Domestic Energy Consumption 16% 11% Food
Gross fixed capital formation
It is interesting to compare the footprint of Solihull with that of the West Midlands as a whole. The Ecological Budget data from the Footprint of West Midlands reveals that Solihull has a higher footprint than many areas in the West Midlands (see Figure 9).
20 Figure 9: Comparison of Solihull’s and the West Midland’s Ecological Footprint. Source: SEIvi
Ecological Footprint by household expenditure
1.600 1.400 1.200 1.000 Solihull 0.800 West Midlands 0.600 0.400 0.200 - Food Medical Clothing Aviation Tobacco Furniture, Footwear Education Insurance Non-profit Household Changes in Other major Glassware, Purchase of Operation of Non-alcoholic Personal care Telephone and Telephone and Telephone Other services Accommodation Postal Services Personal effects Private transport Social protection Social Domestic Energy Recreational and Recreational Maintenance and Hospital services Hospital Actual rentalsfor Actual Catering services Catering Water supply and Local government Other recreational Financial services Household textiles Imputed rentalsImputed for Electricity, gasElectricity, and Gross capital fixed Transport services Audio-visual, photo Audio-visual, Central government Central Out-patient services Newspapers, books Goods andservices UK residentholidays Alcoholic beveragesAlcoholic Tools and equipment
As can be seen, food, energy and transport all contribute significantly to Solihull’s footprint and are therefore key areas to address in reducing Solihull’s environmental impact. Aviation is also significantly higher in Solihull than for the West Midlands as a whole, this may be attributable to higher incomes and therefore more frequent holidays abroad.
Solihull is among the least densely inhabited areas of the West Midlands, with an average of 11.2 people per hectare, compared to 36.2 in Birmingham (see Table 3).16 This clearly has an ecological impact, as more land is used per inhabitant and lower densities mean that additional transport, and particularly car use, is required.
Table 3: Local areas by density
Physical area (hectares) Persons per hectare
Birmingham 26,547 36.2
Wolverhampton 6,879 35.2
Sandwell 8,564 33.9
Dudley 9,795 31.1 vi Gross fixed capital formation is investment in assets that are used repeatedly or continuously over a number of years to produce goods. For example, machinery used to create a product.
21
Coventry 9,651 30.5
West Midlands 89,874 28.4
Walsall 10,577 24.5
Solihull 17,861 11.2
Land density has a direct impact on Ecological Footprint. For example, in lower density areas, residents will generally need to travel further to reach amenities and work and leisure facilities, and public transport becomes less viable. As suburban houses are generally large and have large gardens, unless residents grow food in their gardens, this low-density housing type also reduces the amount of land available locally, for example, to grow food (communally or in allotments).
In Solihull land values are high (estimated to be approximately £2.5m per acre). Consequently some suburban residents have been selling off plots of their gardens for development. However, this was generally negatively perceived by the residents spoken to, many of whom expressed concern and felt that planning permissions should be restricted. This resistance to change in suburbia is an important potential barrier to making the suburbs more sustainable. As Gwilliams et al point out: “there can be strong resistance to change from local residents who often place a high value on the environment which they have bought”.7
Example of suburban densification in Solihull (Anna Francis)
Although densification of the suburbs in Solihull and elsewhere may potentially help to reduce the area’s Ecological Footprint through, for example, reducing transport requirements and facilitating effective public transport systems, there are also some potentially negative impacts associated with densification. For example, high density areas such as London often experience an ‘urban heat island effect’, where ambient air temperatures are 5-6 degrees higher after sunset than the surrounding green belt areas, because the buildings and roads retain heat more than green areas.21
There are also important social impacts: as mentioned above, many existing suburban residents may not be keen to see their neighbourhoods densified; indeed, the very concept of dense housing goes against the fundamental
22 characteristics of an affluent suburb. This could mean that these residents move out, perhaps to other lower density environments and could potentially result in lowering house values and the general desirability of suburbia. The types of residences built in suburbia also have an important impact. For example, as can be seen in the photo above, in suburban Solihull many of the new developments are ‘luxury’ and therefore do not help to increase the diversity of house type or tenancy mix.
It is important to retrofit suburbs in a manner that retains the ‘selling aspects’ of suburbs such as the feeling of openness and access to green space and to ensure that densification is well planned to ensure cultural sensitivity and to avoid negative ecological impacts such as the heat island effect.
Despite the high property and land value in Solihull, there did appear to be some empty properties in suburban Solihull. The introduction of Empty Dwelling Management Orders (EDMOs), which allow local authorities to take temporary ownership of properties that have been empty for six months or more, may represent an opportunity for retrofitting these suburban properties to higher environmental standards.
Example of an empty home in Solihull’s suburbs (Anna Francis)
23 Sustainable communities
The DCLG defines a sustainable community as “a place where people want to live and work now and in the future”. The DCLG has provided a detailed list of components identified as necessary for sustainable communities22:
“For communities to be sustainable, they must be: 1. Active, inclusive and safe 2. Well run 3. Environmentally sensitive 4. Well designed and built 5. Well connected 6. Thriving 7. Well served 8. Fair for everyone”
“For communities to be sustainable, they must offer: 1. Decent homes at prices people can afford 2. Good public transport 3. Schools 4. Hospitals 5. Shops 6. A clean, safe environment 7. Open public space where people can relax and interact 8. The opportunity to have a say on the way their neighbourhood is run”22
Defra’s sustainable development strategy, Securing the Future23, complements the definition above and also adds:
‘Our aim is to create sustainable communities in England that embody the principles of sustainable development at the local level:
• balancing and integrating the social, economic and environmental components of their community • meeting the needs of existing and future generations, and • respecting the needs of other communities in the wider region or internationally to make their communities sustainable.
Sustainable communities are places where people want to live and work, now and in the future. They meet the diverse needs of existing and future residents, are sensitive to their environment, and contribute to a high quality of life. They are safe and inclusive, well planned, built and run, and offer equality of opportunity and good services for all.’
The government also subscribes to the vision for sustainable communities described in the Egan Review24, which provided the following diagram of the components of sustainable communities.
24 Figure 10: Egan Review Vision for Sustainable Communities
When this model is applied to most modern affluent car-based suburbs, it is clear that a significant amount of work will need to be undertaken if suburbia is to become this kind of ‘sustainable community’, particularly when considering elements such as affordability of housing, connectivity and availability of public transport. The importance of these aspects is also emphasised by Gwilliams et al7, who suggest that sustainable suburban neighbourhoods should have:
• An identified centre focused on public transport nodes normally comprising shopping, mix of community- based services, higher density housing and easy access by foot and bicycle. • Areas of higher density residential development close to the centre which will help to support the range of services and will have low car usage because of those services which are close by. • Their own distinctive character which reflects their history, topography and landscape and the range and type of housing and related development.
These issues will be discussed in more detail in the next section, which outlines specific opportunities and potential barriers to sustainable living in suburbia.
BRE ECOHOMES The most established tool for a sustainability assessment of a home in the UK is the Building Research Establishment’s (BRE) EcoHomes tool. The tool was launched in 2000 and is the homes version of the BRE Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM). It assesses new homes and those that have undergone major refurbishment, according to the following areas:
• Energy • Transport
25 • Pollution • Materials • Water • Ecology • Health
BRE has also recently launched a version of EcoHomes for existing buildings. EcoHomes XB is a sophisticated yet simple tool designed specifically to assist landlords such as housing associations and local authorities in planning, measuring the benefit of improvement works to their housing stock, and aiding the overall environmental performance. While the tool is aimed primarily at social landlords, this represents a significant opportunity to catalyse environmental improvements in existing housing stock and the tool could also potentially be used by private homeowners wanting to improve the environmental performance of their home25.
THE CODE FOR SUSTAINABLE HOMES In October 2003, at the Better Buildings Summit, the government announced the appointment of a Sustainable Buildings Task Group (SBTG), to recommend ways of improving the environmental performance of buildings. The SBTG membership included representatives from across the construction industry, and WWF. In its report, Better Buildings, Better Lives (2004), the SBTG recommended the development of a single national Code for Sustainable Buildings based on the BREEAM/EcoHomes standard.
The government accepted this recommendation and invited WWF and a range of other stakeholders to join the Code Senior Steering Group to oversee its development. The Code is due for completion by the end of 2006. It is proposed that it will have six levels: Level 1 being marginally above minimum Building Regulations standards and Level 6 an exemplary zero carbon standard.
The government is currently considering the potential for requiring the mandatory assessment of all new homes against the Code, and then the possible extension of this mandatory assessment to all new and existing buildings when they are bought, sold or let. WWF believes that, in line with the Code for Sustainable New Homes, EcoHomes XB should form the basis of the forthcoming Code for (Sustainable) Existing Homes.
ENCOURAGING SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOUR It is clear that creating sustainable communities in existing housing stock requires a significant step change at all levels. Government – at the national, regional and local level clearly has a vital role to play in facilitating and encouraging, regulating and providing incentives for this change. Understanding how to change behaviour and encourage sustainable lifestyle patterns is fundamental to this. While it is sometimes assumed that raising awareness of the environmental impact of lifestyle choices alone will lead to sustainable behaviour, in reality behaviour change is very complex and more work is needed in this area. Research to date has found that policies based on information and price signals have had only limited success in changing unsustainable behaviour and awareness in itself is not enough to foster pro-environmental behaviour.
It is important to understand the evolution of social norms to enhance environmental policy. Individual behaviour is deeply embedded in social and institutional contexts. People are guided by what others around them say and do and are sometimes locked into unsustainable behaviour despite their best intentions (the ‘value action gap’). It is vital to make it as easy as possible for people to behave more sustainably: ensuring that incentive structures and institutional rules favour sustainable behaviour; enabling access to environmental goods and
26 services; engaging people in initiatives to help themselves; and exemplifying desired changes within government policies and practices.
According to Tim Jackson, “motivating sustainable behaviour is about building supportive communities, promoting inclusive societies, providing meaningful work and encouraging purposeful lives as much as it is about awareness-raising, fiscal policy or persuasion”.26 The One Planet Living principles go someway towards encompassing these issues and consider the health and happiness of a community as well as ‘zero carbon’ strategies. Further research into understanding the complex motivations behind sustainable behaviour choices will help to improve the effectiveness of these strategies even further.
27 Section B: One Planet Living in the Suburbs
This section examines the impact of car-based suburban areas such as Solihull in further detail. It explores current impacts and potential strategies to facilitate and encourage sustainable living in these areas, using the One Planet Living (OPL) framework and some of the general principles for sustainable suburbs highlighted in Section A. Each of the OPL principles are examined in turn; and the potential role of and strategies for different stakeholders – from private homeowners to local and national government – are highlighted. Each section highlights the potential reductions in footprint associated with different scenarios and strategies.
FOOTPRINT SCENARIOS Baseline footprint figures for the footprinting scenarios were provided by the Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) for the borough of Solihullvii. Assumptions were then made on potential footprint reductions based on previous Ecological Footprinting studies, such as One Planet Living in the Thames Gateway and the Ecological Footprinting study of New Earswick, which also used footprinting data and analysis conducted by the SEI. In this report the availability of new sustainable facilities, products and services where applicable, and behaviour change were also factored in. The study does not aim to be footprint focused – it uses informed assumptions to predict the possible impact of a range of measures for different scenarios and to provide illustrations of opportunities for and barriers to sustainable living in the suburbs.
The aim of the study is to understand the context, opportunities and constraints in the suburbs under the 10 OPL principles. Future research might test these assumptions against new data, possibly using the Ecological Footprinting tool the Resources and Energy Analysis Programme (REAP)viii. REAP provides scenario modelling and policy assessment on the issue of sustainable consumption and production. Designed by the SEI and the Centre for Urban and Regional Ecology, REAP uses some of the most sophisticated modelling approaches to understand the material flows, CO2 emissions and Ecological Footprint of the UK, regions and local authorities.
The four scenarios highlighted in this report are as follows:
Scenario 1: ‘Average’ resident of Solihull Scenario 2: ‘Average’ resident of Solihull living in retrofitted suburb Scenario 3: ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull Scenario 4: ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull living in retrofitted suburb
Under these scenarios ‘keenness’ is defined as residents who are aware of their ecological impact and who are sufficiently motivated to try to reduce this impact, for example, through turning off lights when not in use, growing food in their gardens, composting their organic waste and reducing car use and aviation where possible. A retrofitted suburb is one in which homes have been retrofitted to have a lower ecological impact and sustainable goods, services and infrastructure are locally available, such as microgeneration, efficient public transport, local food systems and rainwater harvesting.
vii Footprinting data for each local authority is available from the REAP website: http://www.sei.se/reap/ viii http://www.sei.se/reap/
28 Zero carbon
The aim of the Zero Carbon principle is to reduce and ultimately eliminate carbon emissions caused by fossil fuel use in heating, cooling and providing power to buildings.
CARBON IN CONTEXT
Increased levels of CO2 in our atmosphere from burning fossil fuels have been linked to climate change and global warming. As a result, global temperatures are predicted to rise between 1.4 and 5.8°C by 2100. This rise will affect our weather patterns and sea levels.
The government’s Energy White Paper sets out the need to reduce CO2 emissions by 60% in the UK by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. Domestic buildings alone are responsible for 27% of UK carbon emissions.27 If all sectors shared equally in this target then energy consumption and the resulting CO2 emissions in houses needs to fall by 60%. Through the government’s climate change programme, domestic energy efficiency measures are expected to provide a 4.4 million tonne reduction. However, with transport emissions on the increase and industrial emissions already reduced due to the decline of manufacturing, many believe that buildings, and in particular housing, will need to take a bigger share of the emissions cut. The White Paper states that “the cheapest and safest way of addressing our energy policy objectives is to use less energy”, and aims for a reduction in CO2 of 4-6 million tonnes.
However, domestic energy demand is continuing to rise: since 2002, electricity consumption has risen by 1% and gas consumption by 5%; the use of coal has also increased CO2 emissions. According to the Sustainable Development Commission, “the current take-up of energy efficiency improvements through the existing policies will not deliver the carbon emissions savings required to achieve targets, therefore a strengthened policy framework for energy efficiency must be developed”.
Existing housing stock in the UK performs poorly in terms of energy use, with an average SAP rating (the government’s Standard Assessment Procedure for rating energy consumption) of only 45-5028 compared with the ix new-home standard of around 100 . While domestic energy use accounts for around a third of CO2 emissions, this varies from place to place and emission levels of homes are affected by a variety of factors including age and type of housing stock, quality of heating systems, ownership of appliances, occupancy levels, fuel mix and habits of occupants.
Figure 11 reveals the average energy requirements of different house ages. As can be seen, newer houses generally use less energy per unit area than older properties. Newer dwellings tend to be more energy efficient than older ones and are also typically smaller (83 sq m).
ix SAP ratings have recently been re-benchmarked and this rating may now have reduced to approximately 80.
29 29 Figure 11: Kilograms of CO2 for different house ages
120
100
80
60
40 Kg CO2/m2/yr. Kg 20
- <1919 1919-39 1940-64 1965-82
Figure 12 reveals CO2 emissions through heat loss for different housing styles; it shows that detached houses have the greatest impact. The type of house and the number of people living in the property also have a significant impact on energy use, as can be seen in Figure 13 below.
Figure 12: CO2 emissions from household Figure 13: Per capita energy consumed by heat loss north-east households of different sizes30
A recent study found that, on average, people living alone use 55% more electricity and 61% more gas, and consume 38% more products and 42% more packaging per person than an individual in a four-person 31 household.
As shown in Figure 14 below, space heating accounts for the largest proportion of energy use in the home, followed by hot water. Space heating and hot water are therefore two key aspects on which to focus when reducing the impact of housing stock in the suburbs and elsewhere. It is important to note, however, that space heating and hot water generally use gas, which produces less CO2 than electricity from fossil fuels.
30
Figure 14: Energy consumption in households by end use5
Energy Consumption in Households 4% 1% 6% 4% space heating 3% hot water cold appliances 6% consumer electronics cooking 56% lighting wet appliances 20% misc
ENERGY USE IN THE SUBURBS In the suburbs, housing is often newer than the national average, generally having been built since 1945. However, suburban houses tend to be detached, larger and built at a lower density than average, which has implications on energy use and CO2 emissions. The style of the property in particular has a significant impact on energy use; for example detached houses, which typify Solihull, use the most and are three times as energy intensive as the average flat32. In addition, in more affluent suburban areas there may also potentially be less financial imperative to turn off electrical equipment and lighting when not in use, due to higher incomes; this also contributes to higher energy use in suburbia. A recent study commissioned by British Gas found that areas of relative affluence produce the highest levels of CO2 per dwelling, and concludes that people who have more money spend more on energy.33 This may be due to the heating and lighting of bigger homes, as well as owning more electrical appliances.
As highlighted in Figure 13, the number of people in a household also has an impact on energy use and Ecological Footprint. While in suburbia the number of people living alone may well be lower than in cities, given the prevalence of retired people in the area the number may well still be significant, and ‘lone living’ is a national trend which is set to increase in the future.
ENERGY USE IN SOLIHULL Domestic energy use is particularly high in Solihull – 1.1gHa compared to a national average of 0.607gHa. While housing in Solihull is newer than the regional average, with 66% of homes having been built since 194519, there is a higher proportion of detached houses. Figure 15 highlights the type of housing type by ward. It shows that detached houses are particularly prevalent in more affluent suburban areas such as St Alphege and Knowle. The prevalence of such houses in these areas contributes to the increased energy use of Solihull as a whole.
31 Figure 15: House types in Solihull by ward34
100% Caravan or other mobile or temporary structure
Flat; maisonette or apartment: In 80% commercial building*
Flat; maisonette or apartment: Part of a converted or shared 60% house (including bed-sits) Flat; maisonette or apartment: Purpose Built block of flats or tenement
40% Whole house or bungalow :Terraced (including end terrace)
Whole house or bungalow : Semi-detached 20%
Whole house or bungalow : Detached
0% With no residents: Second residence / holiday accommodation
With no residents: Vacant Alphege East 00CT South West Wood Wood Bromwich 00CTFM St. 00CTFR Silhill 00CTFKOlton 00CTFBCastle 00CTFP Shirley SOLIHULL 00CTFN Shirley 00CTFQ Shirley 00CTFD Elmdon 00CTFS Smith's 00CTFH Lyndon 00CTFJ Meriden 00CTFG Knowle 00CTFA Bickenhill 00CTFC Chelmsley 00CTFL Packwood 00CTFE Fordbridge 00CTFF Kingshurst
ZERO CARBON SOLUTIONS
The Zero Carbon principle considers reducing CO2 emissions associated with heating, cooling, lighting and providing power to buildings by:
• minimising energy demand; and • supplying energy from zero/low carbon and renewable resources.
Minimising energy demand There are three main strategies that can be used to minimise energy demands:
• high levels of thermal efficiency in the built fabric; • use of energy efficient lights, fittings and appliances; and • co-location of buildings, orientation and other passive energy design strategies.
There are opportunities and barriers in the application of these strategies to existing suburban homes. Table 4, below, assesses the strategies needed to reduce energy demand, the potential barriers to action and the potential measures needed to drive change.
32 Table 4: Barriers and measures needed to minimise energy demand
Measures for Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in reducing energy place to drive change? demand High levels of thermal Requires effort and initial financial The transformation of energy suppliers efficiency in built outlay, although owner-occupiers will into Energy Services Companies (ESCOs) fabric, e.g. good benefit directly in the long run through Part L Building Regulations should insulation; draught reduced energy bills require ‘consequential improvements’ proofing; double- when the carbon footprint of a home is glazing increased (e.g. through extension)
Energy performance certificates (EPCs) for homes will be required from June 2007. Extension of EPC requirement to a more comprehensive mandatory assessment of all homes against the Code for Existing Homes on sale/purchase/ change of occupancy could help to provide incentives for energy efficiency improvements in existing homes. Incentives linked to energy performance certificates, including green mortgages, stamp duty and council tax charges Reduced VAT on energy saving technologies and equipment Use of energy efficient Extra initial expense, although long- VAT reductions on energy efficiency appliances and fittings, term savings. Higher incomes may appliances e.g. lights, boilers, mean that small financial savings are Phase out of inefficient appliances washing machines not a significant incentive Increased labelling of appliances and fittings Product development by retailers, e.g. promotions linked to energy efficient products Regulations to ensure only efficient fittings can be installed
33 Passive energy design Most passive strategies are difficult to strategies such as co- retrofit and low densities in suburbia location of buildings are a potential barrier. Some and orientation opportunity does exist through addition of south facing conservatories and porches Energy use control and Dependent on individual resident Requirements for smart (whole house monitoring through energy) meters to be introduced through better technologyx regulation/ESCOs
Reducing through Dependent on individual awareness Increased funding for research examining changed behaviour – and motivation effective ways to motivate sustainable e.g. switching lights off behaviour and not leaving Legislate against inefficient appliances electrical equipment on that can be left on standby standby
In the suburbs, whether the property is retrofitted to be more thermally efficient or not depends largely on the will of the individual owner. However, in owner-occupied residences any financial benefits from reducing energy demand will be experienced directly.
Energy requirements can be decreased relatively easily through improving the thermal efficiency of buildings, for example, through increased insulation and the use of energy efficient heating systems, as well as through the installation of energy efficient appliances. The charts below summarise the average carbon savings associated with each measure as well as the associated cost per metric tonne of carbon saved per year.
x One initiative to raise awareness is the Application Home Initiative which is working to bring digital technology into the home and estimates that smart home technology will be in the average home within the next five years. This may help to raise awareness of energy use as householders will be able to monitor their energy usage via their digital TV, PC or mobile phone.
34
Figure 16: Carbon saving and cost per carbon unit savedxi35
xi Brown appliances include TVs, DVD players, camcorders, stereos etc.
35 Measures such as installing condensing boilers, cavity insulation and efficient cold appliances not only save significant amounts of carbon but are also relatively cost effective in terms of cost per carbon unit saved. Table 5, below, summarises some of the energy saving measures and their associated payback time. Measures such as installing cavity wall insulation are particularly cost effective, and this will increase as energy prices rise.
Table 5: Average costs and savings from typical energy efficiency improvements36
Measure Installation cost (inc VAT) Average annual saving (£) Payback (years) £
Cavity wall insulation 314 58 5.4
Solid wall insulation 800-2,300 70-250 8-11
Loft insulation 259 23 11.3
Draft proofing 95 7 13.6
MEASURES REQUIRED
REGULATION The Energy Efficiency Commitment (EEC), which is funded by domestic energy bills, offers a significant opportunity for increasing the efficiency of suburban housing stock. The EEC funds a range of programmes to reduce energy consumption in individual homes – such as free or subsidised energy efficiency measures. However, awareness of these measures does not appear to be very high in suburbia and some commentators feel that the EEC has not engaged deeply enough with householders to create the reductions needed or to encourage them to consider their energy demand and their effect on the environment.
A transformation of the current EEC into a supplier cap and trade scheme has the potential to revolutionise the delivery of energy efficiency measures. Placing a cap on total gas and electricity supply would force supply companies to embrace a new, exciting business model based on provision of energy services. Previous efforts to promote energy service companies (ESCOs) have been hampered by the fact that the existing market structure and regulation is based around provision of energy as a commodity.37 ESCOs are ideal vehicles for bringing financial, environmental and social objectives together.
A strengthened Directive on Energy-Use Efficiency and Energy Services, with mandatory targets for demand reduction in Member States, reflecting the large available potentials38 could also help to reduce energy consumption and provide incentives for energy efficiency in suburbs and other dwellings throughout Europe.
Part L of the Building Regulations potentially offers the opportunity to increase the energy performance of the existing housing stock. The concept of ‘consequential improvement’ would have represented a significant opportunity for retrofitting suburban housing to higher environmental standards. The provision would have ensured that anyone undertaking significant refurbishment or extension works in a home would be required to improve its overall energy performance ‘within the bounds of practicality and cost-effectiveness’. However, despite receiving much support in the consultation process, this provision was dropped.
The DCLG is currently undertaking a review of the existing stock. The report is expected by the end of the year.
36
The forthcoming Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) offers an unprecedented opportunity to raise awareness about home energy performance. From 1 June 2007 all home owners in England and Wales will need to arrange for an EPC to be prepared before putting their homes up for sale. The EPC will inform buyers about how energy efficient their home is and what they can do to improve it. This offers a major incentive to suburban home sellers to improve the energy efficiency of their homes, as a low rating could have a negative impact on sale value. Although the certificates will be valid for 10 years a new certificate may be obtained at any time – for example, when the energy efficiency of the property has been improved.39 Furthermore, analysis has shown that more than 90% of some types of home improvements take place just after a home is sold. With proper energy efficiency information available it is much more likely that a new boiler or energy efficiency measures will be part of this work.
The new Code for Sustainable Homes should be extended to cover existing homes and the forthcoming requirement for an EPC should be extended to a mandatory requirement of assessment against the Code for all homes on sale/purchase/change of occupancy.
Legislative support for manufacturers and retailers to design and promote efficient products could help to further develop the market for efficient appliances. It is estimated that one million tonnes of greenhouse gases are released per year in the UK through leaving appliances on standby (equivalent to powering 600,000 homes40). Regulations to ensure that appliances cannot be left on standby could eliminate these unnecessary emissions.
OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES
There are significant social, environmental and fiscal drivers for improving the energy performance of existing housing stock in suburbia. For example, it is estimated that if every home in the UK that could install cavity wall and loft insulation did so, it would save enough energy to meet the needs of 2.5 million households, save more than £1.5bn in domestic utility bills and reduce CO2 emissions by 11 million tonnes a year, or almost 4% of the national total. Research for the European Commission estimates that better insulation in homes and offices could cut Europe’s energy use from 6 million barrels of oil a day to 3.3 million. Upgrading an old domestic boiler to a 41 modern condensing boiler will save £1,740 over the lifetime of the boiler – and 24.2 tonnes of CO2. The private homeowner represents the largest category of housing tenure in suburbia (78% in Solihull) and is therefore the key stakeholder to target in order to increase efficiency and encourage the use of renewables in existing suburban housing. However, while many lower income households have taken advantage of existing energy-saving programmes, uptake among wealthier suburban residents is thought to be low. Eye-catching incentives are needed to motivate middle income suburban households, which are not eligible for free measures and perhaps have not yet seen the need to save energy and reduce their costs. Interactions with residents of Solihull’s southern suburbs showed that awareness of the existing incentives was low. For example, although grants for loft insulation are available in the area, many residents claimed not to be aware of this and felt that more publicity was needed. Some of the existing incentives are listed below.
Financial cost was listed as a primary barrier to energy efficiency in suburban housing in Solihull. Reduced VAT on energy saving technologies and equipment could be one strategy to help to overcome this.
Other fiscal incentives include the introduction of centrally funded council tax rebates for owner occupiers of existing properties that install energy efficiency measures. This could be particularly effective in suburbia where environmental improvements are generally initiated on an individual basis. According to the Energy Saving Trust’s recently published report Changing climate, changing behaviour, an estimated 1.64 million homes would be likely to take up energy efficiency incentives based on council tax rebates. The savings associated with this
37 are estimated to be substantial. For example, the EST predict that if a quarter of the UK’s homes took up an incentive linked to council tax, nearly £10 billion would be saved in lifetime energy bills and up to one million tonnes of carbon a year could be saved42. Some local authorities, such as Braintree in Essex, are already trialling council tax rebates to encourage uptake of energy efficiency measures and are finding uptake to be greatly increased (see the Case Study below).
Stamp Duty Land Tax incentives should also be Case Study: Council tax rebates introduced for suburban owner occupiers who install Braintree District Council, Essex, has set up a council energy efficiency measures upon moving house and could tax rebate scheme for energy efficiency in homes. A complement the planned Home Information Packs. This £100 tax rebate is offered for spending of £170 on might work particularly well in wealthier suburban areas wall insulation, which in turn saves over £100 on where due to higher property values stamp duty can be heating bills in the first year. They have received over very significant. The EST predicts that if a quarter of UK one thousand enquiries and are on target to install homes took up an incentive linked to stamp duty land tax, cavity wall insulation in 250 homes.43 over 60,000 tonnes of carbon could be saved a year and householders’ energy bills would reduce by £650 million over the lifetime of the measures.
As previously mentioned, in suburbia competition between neighbours, or ‘conspicuous consumption’, is sometimes apparent. Retrofit initiatives could harness this – for example, through offering three or four streets at a time access to energy efficiency and renewable microgeneration technologies. Energy competitions between areas or streets could be set up, with prizes offered to streets with lowest energy use (per occupied household). Bulk retrofitting could also lead to cost savings due to bulk purchasing and workmanship.
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION
Individual attitudes and action clearly have a significant impact on energy consumption and CO2 production. A recent study44 of non-domestic buildings in the UK found that many buildings with an energy certificate rating of B actually performed at a D rating, owing to the way the building was managed; this may well also be the case in domestic buildings. As can be seen from the footprinting scenarios at the end of this section, ‘keen’ suburban residents, i.e. residents who are aware of their impact and are prepared to work towards significantly reducing this, can potentially reduce their energy use by 10-20% through simple actions such as turning off lights and not leaving electrical equipment on standby. Ensuring that sustainable behaviour is encouraged, incentivised, supported and made as easy as possible is therefore vital.
A key role for local authorities is to raise the profile of energy efficiency and provide support for residents to act. Local authority groups such as Local Agenda 21 have already played an important role in promoting energy conservation and in facilitating a forum for keen residents to discuss the issues. In Solihull, the Solihull Agenda 21 group was set up to promote the social and financial benefits of energy conservation, and facilitated access to sources of advice and assistance.45 Similar groups and initiatives are still needed in many suburban areas. These kinds of community groups not only help catalyse local initiatives (see Case Study ‘Westmill Wind Farm Coop’ in the following section), but also increase the feeling of local ownership of projects and enhance community spirit.
‘Keen’ local residents, or ‘champions’, could also promote energy efficiency and renewables at a local scale, having implemented energy efficiency measures and possibly renewable microgeneration on their homes, they could promote the benefits to neighbours, answer questions and provide information and contact details for technologies and initiatives.
38
Incentives for the private landlord Incentives are clearly also needed for suburban landlords. Within existing stock, the private rented sector has the poorest energy performance and is arguably the most difficult sector in which to promote energy efficiency measures, as the most tangible benefits of energy efficiency i.e. reduced energy bills and increased comfort, are not realised by the landlord. SAP ratings in privately rented properties have been found to be lower than average (45 compared to national average of 51). It is also estimated that in the private rental sector 35% of homes could be fitted with cavity wall insulation and 25% could be fitted with central heating.46
Some incentives for landlords to invest in such measures do exist, such as the Landlord’s Energy Saving Allowance, which provides all private landlords who pay income tax with upfront relief on capital expenditure (up to £1,500 per property per annum) for installations of loft, cavity wall and solid wall insulation in rented accommodation. However, these schemes have generally not been well publicised and up take so far has been limited.
In 2005, the government announced that it was considering introducing a Green Landlord Scheme and has pledged to explore how other tax deductions and reliefs, including the existing Wear and Tear Allowance, might be developed to encourage and reward landlords who improve the energy efficiency of their property47; additional incentives may well be introduced in the near future. However, information and publicity of these schemes needs to be increased48. Energy certificates for rented accommodation could help to provide incentives for energy efficiency measures in private rentals, as tenants may well be prepared to pay more for a property that has lower energy bills.
The government should lead the way in retrofitting existing housing stock to more sustainable energy standards. One example is the Generation Homes concept, which aims to equip homes with renewable-energy generation and improved energy performance so they are fit for future generations – see Case Study below.
The Generation Homes project will be invaluable in Case Study: Generation Homes – leading by example retrofitting the suburbs as it will give an insight into Generation Homes aims to reduce CO2 emissions by 60% and the most effective strategies, stimulate the market hit targets of around two tonnes CO2/pa for a typical three- and raise awareness of the importance of bedroom semi-detached house. Different strategies will be refurbishment of existing stock. trialled and monitored over a further 12 month period and lessons concerning the buildability and integration of the various measures will be highlighted.49 The output will be USING SUSTAINABLE ENERGY integrated packages of measures that can be applied to achieve the 60% reductions, and it is hoped the initiative will Having minimised energy requirements, the second stimulate the market for this type of refurbishment in the UK. step towards ‘zero carbon’ is to meet the minimised requirements through sustainable energy sources. There are two ways of doing this:
• on site • off site
Table 6 summarises the key barriers and measures needed to increase sustainable energy use in suburbia.
39 Table 6: Barriers and measures needed to increase use of sustainable energy sources
Using renewable Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in energy place to drive change?
On-site sustainable Opportunities for community scale Well-promoted fiscal incentives including energy generation: generation are more limited when increased funding for renewable dealing with low densities and technologies • community level dispersed units. Individual (e.g. district heating Reduced planning requirements for retrofit microgeneration makes more sense; and cooling of integrated renewables or community however, this involves individual networks) heating systems. Council tax and stamp effort, interest and capital outlays that duty rebates • individual level may discourage some people (microgeneration Requirements for ESCOs to provide
e.g. micro-wind, efficient and renewable supply solar panels, household scale CHP etc.) Off-site renewable Deep green tariffs are less possible at Regulation is needed to ensure that the energy supply through an individual level and it is up to the premium paid by green tariff customers green tariffs individual to join a scheme ensures investment in increased renewables capacity and that a proportion • ‘deep green’, where of Renewable Obligations Certificatesxii new renewables are retired to ensure additional investment capacity is added in renewable production • ‘light green’, where existing capacity is used
While new developments and social housing provide opportunities for the introduction of community-wide initiatives, such as district heating systems, in suburbia, where the majority of properties are privately owned, this option will be more of a challenge. Focusing on individual action could therefore be more effective. However, there are also some examples of some very successful community-scale initiatives that could potentially be replicated in suburbia (see Westmill Wind Farm Co-op case study).
xii In 2002, the Renewable Energy Obligation was introduced, obliging all energy suppliers to provide 3% of their electricity from renewable sources (increasing each year until it reaches 10% in 2010). Suppliers receive Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs) for each unit of renewable electricity they buy. Suppliers who buy less than 3% of their electricity from renewable sources can buy additional ROCs from those who are willing to trade.
40 ON-SITE MICROGENERATION Case study: Westmill Wind Farm Co-op A recent EST report51 claims that small scale Westmill Wind Farm is the UK’s largest community-owned wind renewable technologies (microgenerationxiii) such farm. The cooperative achieved the maximum funding required to as mini wind turbines and solar panels could construct a five wind turbine wind farm supplemented by a bank potentially provide 30-40% of electricity needed loan after a three-month share offer period, during which over 8,500 people requested a prospectus. Shares were offered to the in Britain by 2050 and reduce CO2 emissions by 15% per year. The Design Council’s ‘do tank’ local community and over £4 million was raised by members of RED estimates that if 12m households installed the public wishing to support the project. The wind farm will generate enough clean energy to power thousands of homes. domestic combined heat and power systems, CO2 emissions would be reduced by 33 million tonnes Annual interest will be paid on members’ shares from trading a year. Given the number of residences classified surpluses from the sale of the electricity and the original as ‘suburban’, mass retrofitting of these properties investment will be returned in full when the wind farm is to include microgeneration could help decommissioned at the end of the 25-year duration of the scheme.50 significantly to reduce the amount of CO2 produced in the UK. However, as there are currently only around 80,000 micro-renewable installations across the UK,xiv increasing awareness and providing incentives for the uptake of these renewable technologies, in suburbia as elsewhere, is vital. A decentralised approach to energy planning and policy is needed.
Solihull residents we spoke to expressed interest in renewable technologies but listed cost and lack of accessible information as key barriers. However, one property in St Alphege was seen to be using solar thermal to provide hot water for the residence (photo below).
Suburban home in southern Solihull with solar thermal panels (Anna Francis)
GREEN TARIFFS Initiatives such as green tariffs can help improve the amount of renewable energy in the national grid. However, awareness of such schemes in suburban Solihull was found to be relatively low (none of the residents we spoke to in Solihull knew about green tariffs), and other perceived barriers include perceived ‘hassle’ and ‘time’ to xiii Microgeneration is defined as any technology connected to the distribution network (if electric) and with a capacity below 50-100kW
41 arrange changing suppliers. Raising awareness of such schemes and making it as easy as possible to switch could help increase uptake in suburbia.
There are also important issues surrounding accounting for renewables, and under the current system renewable energy can be sold multiple times. Green tariffs charged to customers do not therefore necessarily guarantee increased renewable capacity. Renewable Energy Guarantee of Origin certificates are to be required from July 2007 and this may help, although it is predicted that some ‘fiddling’ may still possible. Tighter regulations are needed in this area to ensure that green tariffs guarantee increased renewable capacity.
MEASURES NEEDED
REGULATION Planning – National policies are needed to enable the use of sustainable energy – for example, the proposed private members’ bill ‘Management of Energy in Buildings’, which would make it easier for homeowners to install small, energy-efficient devices to generate up to 10kW of electricity, without needing to acquire planning permission.52
Local authorities should be required to ensure that an increasing amount of energy within their borough (i.e. for schools and public buildings) is from renewable sources.
The EU Renewable Electricity Directive needs to be implemented promptly, together with additional national policies to achieve national targets. Additional measures should include the introduction of, or increase in, fiscal and other support mechanisms for renewables, with a reduction of subsidies for non-renewable energy.38
There is also a need to compile and analyse the findings from existing and future refurbishment initiatives such as the Generation Homes project, in order to assess the real savings of retrofit measures. It would then be possible to develop new packages that provide a one stop shop approach to the maintenance of new and renewable systems. This could include teaching designers how to overcome the strategic and detailed problems of specifying the packages and training builders on how to apply the measures in practice, as well as supporting industries that are trying to develop energy saving and renewable technologies. It is also important to monitor how people manage these technologies and how important their roles are in securing real CO2 reductions. This could also include a programme of monitored local exemplars which develop, test and monitor low carbon refurbishment projects and investigate what is needed for the widespread uptake of low carbon homes53.
A Sustainable Energy Policy should be developed. The government’s Energy Review should aim to uphold the vision, objectives and targets for sustainability, security, prosperity and fairness set out in the 2003 Energy White Paper. The government needs to reaffirm its commitment to all related statutory and non-statutory targets and introduce supporting annual milestones. The government also needs to develop the long-term policy framework necessary to provide enduring investment signals for businesses of all sizes to deliver the major changes needed to our energy system. This includes a long-term carbon market beyond existing emission trading schemes. The priority should be to minimise the ‘energy gap’ before trying to fill it. As previously mentioned, the first priority is to reduce demand; followed by encouraging efficient energy production and usage; then boosting renewables. Incentives and support measures should reflect these priorities.
Energy is an interrelated system and policy should pay equal attention to all parts of the mix, including sustainable heat and transport as well as electricity. Government and agencies should be structured to meet these
42 objectives by identifying a single body responsible for achieving sustainable energy targets. The primary duties of the regulator should reflect all national energy policy objectives.
The government should aim to put the UK in the top five EU members for renewable energy contribution by 2025. Coherent transitional support measures are needed to build scale and reduce costs. The government should champion sustainable energy at home and abroad and press for international policies to encourage energy efficiency, boost renewables and eliminate barriers to sustainable energy. It must lead by example in its own procurement policies and infrastructure developments. The government should invest in a sustained programme of education to achieve cultural change in energy use.
OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES In March 2006 as part of the Microgeneration Strategy, the government announced £50m extra funding for microgeneration. More fiscal grants, such as the Clear Skies initiative, are needed to encourage uptake of renewable technologies in suburban housing. Some grants are currently available for installing renewable energy technologies such as solar panels, wind turbines, hydro turbines, ground source heat pumps, automated wood pellet feed stoves and wood-fuelled boiler systems.
Other funding programmes – such as the Community Energy Programme, which provided grants for community level heating systems such as CHPs, saving an estimated 25,000 tonnes of carbon – play a vital role in boosting the market for renewable energy solutions. However, this programme has recently been discontinued.54
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION As can be seen from the footprinting scenarios at the end of this section, a ‘keen’ resident in a retrofitted property including microgeneration and reduced energy demand can reduce their carbon-related Ecological Footprint by up to 80%.
There is clearly a need for promotion of the various incentives and various technologies listed above. As the market for these technologies develops, cost per unit should reduce and awareness and availability increase. Some British retailers such as Currys and Homebase have recently started selling solar panels in high street shops for the first time.55 Although this does help to increase access, prices of the appliances in these shops are substantially higher than if bought directly from the supplier and therefore may increase the perceived financial barriers to microgeneration. Grants are available, however, under the Low Carbon Buildings scheme.
Suburban residents in Solihull and elsewhere are classified as ‘financially sophisticated’ and frequently read the Financial Times. Such residents may therefore be interested in investing in community-scale renewable generation, such as the Westmill Wind Coop, highlighted in the Case Study above. They may also be interested in taking out loans for green improvements, including microgeneration. This is an area that needs further research and promotion.
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTING SCENARIOS Table 7, below, summarises the reductions associated with a range of measures that individual suburban homeowners could implement in Solihull and elsewhere. It shows that although changes to the building fabric will result in a lower footprint, the ‘keenness’ of individual residents also has a large impact.
43 Table 7: Ecological Footprint of domestic energy for each scenario showing savings compared to scenario 120
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 Carbon ‘Average’ resident of ‘Average’ resident of Solihull ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull Solihull living in retrofitted suburb living in retrofitted suburb
Assumptions Standard Solihull Efficient appliances Efficient appliances Heating demand energy demand save 20% electricity save 20% electricity reduced further 30%
Insulation reduces hot 10% further savings 10% savings due to water by 20% due to conscientious conscientious resident resident Electricity generated by renewables EF/habitant 1.1gHa 100% 0.77gHa -30% 0.66gHa -40% 0.22gHa -80%
44 Zero waste
The aim of the Zero Waste principle is the substantial reduction of waste flows to landfill by reducing waste arising; and valuing all materials as potential resources, through reuse, reprocessing or generating energy from waste.
WASTE IN CONTEXT
Across the world, unsustainable linear consumption patterns result in the majority of our extracted and refined resources being used once and then discarded in landfill sites. Some predictions estimate a fivefold increase in global waste generation by 2025. In the developed world, per capita waste generation increased three times between 1977 and 1997 and is approximately five to six times higher than in the developing world56.
The UK produces around 430 million tonnes of waste per year, of which approximately 36 million tonnes is municipal waste (2002/03)57. Although household waste represents a relatively small percentage (about 8%) of the total amount of waste produced, it is a highly significant proportion because it contains large quantities of organic waste that can cause pollution problems, as well as materials such as glass and plastics which do not break down easily.
As can be seen from the following graph, paper and cardboard only constitute 18% of the average household waste streams. Compostable material such as kitchen and garden waste represent the largest waste streams. This is potentially easy to deal with in the suburbs as most residences have access to green spaces and could compost this organic matter.
Figure 17: Average household waste streams57
45 WASTE IN THE SUBURBS While there are no specific figures for waste generation in the suburbs compared with other urban and rural areas, some research has been done on waste generation of affluent areas compared with less-affluent areas. Figure 18 is based on a study conducted in London boroughs comparing waste arising and recyclables in such areas. The study found that generally more affluent areas produced more waste; this may be due to higher consumption levels in wealthier residences and also the increased prevalence of gardens and hence increased quantities of green waste. In affluent suburbia, waste production is also thought to be higher than average – especially compostable waste – for similar reasons. The survey also found that higher income residences generally recycled a higher percentage of their waste. However, even taking these higher recycling rates into account, overall residual waste production is still generally higher in more affluent areas.
Figure 18: Waste and recyclables according to affluence and area type58
Waste arisings and recyclables by area
1200
Recyclables kg/h’hld/yr – affluent 1000 Refuse kg/h’hld/yr – affluent
800 Refuse kg/h’hld/yr – less affluent Recyclables kg/h’hld/yr – less affluent 600
400
200
0
WASTE IN SOLIHULL Food waste is a primary component of domestic waste streams, and a recent study found that more food is wasted in the Midlands than in any other region of Britain (equating to approximately £442 worth of waste food per person each year – see Figure 19 below).59 The study found that in the Midlands an estimated £12.5 billion is wasted on unused goods and services, with the average person in the Midlands wasting £1,665 per year.
46 Figure 19: Money spent on wasted goods and services in the West Midlands59
Waste in the Midlands (£)
19% 27% Food Luxury Gadgets Entertainment 21% Hobbies 16% Travel
12% 5%
In Solihull, in 2003/04:
• 13.2 % of household waste was recycled; • 59.4 % was incinerated with recovery of heat and power; and • 27.4 % was land filled and the resultant gas used to generate power.60
The amount of waste going to landfill in Solihull is reduced through the use of an energy from waste disposal facility that produces heat and electricity. This means that only 27% of domestic waste is sent to landfill, while the rest is incinerated after the metal is removed for recycling. The resultant ash is used for building blocks, and the energy provided by burning the waste heats neighbouring Peugeot works and estates.
Currently, the local council collects waste and recyclables from residences once a week. However, the scheme is quite limited and only includes paper and compostable material (in wheeled bins). The council also provides subsidised compost bins to enable residents to compost their organic waste in their gardens. Although recycling banks are located around the borough for other materials, many residents expressed a wish for the recycling scheme to be expanded to include other materials such as aluminium, plastic and glass.
Many residents currently have to drive to recycle other materials, and one resident cited doing a 22km round-trip to take items to a recycling centre. A few residents were concerned over storage of waste and recyclables and the number of bins that might be required if the recycling scheme were to be expanded further. However, this could be overcome with the introduction of a commingled/mixed collection of recyclables. Although an informal furniture recycling network is present, with charities collecting furniture for reuse, there is a general lack of awareness – residents we spoke to were generally not aware of this.
ZERO WASTE SOLUTIONS The aim of the Zero Waste principle is the substantial reduction of waste flows to landfill by: • reducing waste arising; and • valuing all materials as potential resources, through reuse, reprocessing or generating energy from waste.
47
Table 8 summarises the main potential barriers to action and measures needed to reduce waste arisings and maximise recovery.
Table 8: Barriers and incentives to maximising waste recovery in the suburbs
Reducing waste Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place to arising and drive change? maximising recovery
Low levels of Hard for individual residents to Engage with superstore chains to reduce packaging in consumer influence this – a resident can choose packaging goods to buy goods with less packaging, Set targets for packaging minimisation and although this is dependent on local increase percentages of recyclate used in facilities and individual preference packaging and products High levels of materials Potential time implication of sourcing National incentives, such as reduced VAT reclamation and waste local and reclaimed materials on reclaimed materials minimisation Knowledge and awareness among Local authority can help to set up informal local tradespeople and reclamation or recovery networks for residents/customers is also key retrofit works such as furniture reuse networks
More council-supported schemes, e.g. ‘real nappies’, are needed; and increased promotion of community-scale reuse initiatives such as Freecycle (see Case Study below)
48 High levels of Individual not able to influence this National government: provide incentives recycling and easily and is dependent on local for local authorities to increase the scope composting with zero scheme of recycling services waste to landfill Whether residents decide to compost Local authority: all recyclable material their waste on site is dependent on collected and centrally recycled individual preference and space Track take-up of recycling services, monitor participation and engage with defaulters Provide fiscal incentives: cash discounts, prize draws, council tax rebates and trial disincentives such as ‘pay as you throw’ Promote and subsidise home composting facilities ‘Clean’ waste to energy Invest at a national/local level in anaerobic recovery solutions digestersxv to produce biogas for energy explored and vehicles Majority of products Down to the individual to purchase Information needs to be made available. and packaging made recycled products; availability is a key Could introduce targets for percentages of from recycled materials barrier to overcome recyclate used in packaging and products
MEASURES REQUIRED
REGULATION
Reducing waste arising Lowering levels of packaging and using packaging and products with recycled contents: Consumption patterns are integrally linked to waste production; encouraging residents to purchase goods with less packaging is therefore important. For example, this could be achieved through the provision of fresh local produce delivered in reusable cardboard boxes. As noted above, currently it is down to the individual to purchase goods with less packaging, and recycled products. Changing consumer habits to avoid over-packaged goods is a long, expensive and difficult process. Local community networks may be able to make some difference; however, the real difference can be made by national level regulation and working with large retailers such as supermarkets to minimise packaging from the outset. Supermarkets have a massive role to play in helping us meet this challenge. Millions of tonnes of unnecessary waste packaging are thrown out, which costs tax payers millions each year to dispose of61. Engagement would best be achieved through regulation at national level, but local authorities could also use this as a consideration in their dealings with superstores, in land transfers, planning permissions, etc.
Maximising recovery and reuse As it is not currently feasible to eliminate all waste arisings, ensuring that waste is reused and recycled is vital.
xv Anaerobic digestion is the process of the breakdown of organic matter by anaerobic organisms in environments lacking oxygen. Anaerobic digesters use the natural process of anaerobic digestion to treat waste, produce renewable energy or both.
49 Recycling: It is important that local authorities are required and given incentives to maximise recycling rates. The Landfill Directive has compelled local authorities to collect recyclables from residences in most areas in the UK. However, average recycling rates are only 23% (including composting) and the UK is far behind other EU countries. Also, different local authorities have different schemes – while all have some sort of household recycling scheme, some collect more materials than others, and some offer trade waste recycling while others do not. It is also important to ensure that the most energy saving, valuable materials with developed end markets such as aluminium are prioritised over less energy saving and valuable materials such as glass.
Councils need additional support from the government and the private sector to meet recycling targets. The Local Government Association action plan calls for new discretionary powers to charge households directly for the waste they produce, creating a financial incentive to throw less away and recycle more. It asks for more funding from central government to help meet recycling targets and discourage people from buying single-use, disposable products such as disposable nappies, and also asks for increased monitoring of producer responsibility schemes such as the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE) to make sure it is truly the producer, and not local authorities, that ends up picking up the tab.61
In suburbia, service provision of recycling collections and the impetus for encouraging and facilitating waste reduction and recycling lies primarily with the local authority. Many suburban areas are served by a door to door collection scheme for some recyclables and green waste. The scale, scope and take-up of these services need to be enhanced substantially. First, more services need to be put in place – all recyclables should be collected and centrally recycled. Second, the take-up of the recycling services needs to be tracked – Hackney Council in London is now tracking the take-up by individual homes of the recycling services, and will individually engage with defaulters. Cash discounts, prize draws, council tax rebates and other financial incentives could be used to encourage participation and waste reduction.
OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES One barrier to home recycling is that many homes are not equipped to enable easy recycling, such as segregated bins in kitchens. The refitting of kitchens in existing properties where much waste separation and storage is sited provides an opportunity to improve recyclable materials storage. A specific piece of research on retrofitting homes to make recycling easier is required to better understand this issue. In suburbia, introducing segregated bins and bin stores may be easier due to larger kitchen sizes, external space and also relatively high rates of kitchen refurbishment.
As with renewable energy technology, another potential barrier may be visual impact. For example, when talking to suburban residents in Solihull, they mentioned the visual impact of wheeled recycling bins as a potentially negative association with recycling; residents also expressed concern over having to store additional bins for other materials. One potential strategy to overcome this barrier could be to redesign bin stores to reduce visual impact and/or to introduce a combined collection scheme so that separate containers are not required.
Materials reclamation: With limited new construction in suburbs it is not always viable to source reclaimed construction materials from formal sources. However, reclamation of targeted materials should be possible. For example, the addition of conservatories is a common practice in suburban homes. Local authorities could put in place incentives for small reclamation yards to store specialised items relating to conservatories. Equally, conservatory suppliers with a large suburban presence, such as B&Q could be given incentives to provide materials made largely from reclaimed or recycled materials – national regulation in this matter would also help.
50 Reuse: For materials other than construction materials (such as furniture, shelving, etc.) individuals often find it difficult to find ways to share their unwanted goods and, equally, to source other used materials. It is therefore key for a suburb to have informal reclamation and recovery networks for items such as furniture. Freecycle networks (see the Case Study below), junk swaps, give or take daysxvi and council run or backed schemes such as ‘real nappies’ could all help to increase reuse of resources in suburbia.
Composting: Composting at home is Case Study: Freecycle especially important in suburban areas, owing The Freecycle network was started in May 2003 to promote waste to the profusion of gardens, high generation reduction in Tucson, USA, and help prevent desert landscape from being taken over by landfill. The Freecycle network has now of compostable waste and the possibilities to expanded worldwide and is made up of many individual groups. It reuse the resulting compost within gardens. is a grassroots and entirely non-profit movement of people who Subsidised compost bins should be made are giving (and getting) items for free in their own towns. Each available, with free composting support and local group is moderated by a local volunteer; membership is free. advice. The network provides individuals and non-profit organisations with an electronic forum to recycle unwanted items. One person’s trash can truly be another’s treasure!62 There are many examples of successful composting strategies (such as the Food waste recycling case study below). As suburbia is often situated close to countryside, this could be an option for reducing waste and energy requirements of local food. In addition, given the profusion of green space in suburbia in the form of individual gardens, encouraging home composting and vegetable production might further reduce this impact.
Clean waste to energy: Suburban Case Study: Food waste recycling in Japan using ‘eco-money’ residents have no control over this A new recycling project for food waste using ‘eco-money’, a community element and are dependent on what currency, at a shopping arcade in Atsugi, Japan. Household food waste is the local council is providing. The collected and composted for local farmers to produce organic vegetables. introduction of energy from waste Each kilogram of waste is rewarded with 10 points of eco-money, which can incinerators may be unpopular with later be used as 10 yen (about four pence) for purchases in the arcade. The local residents due to concerns collected waste is dried and composted before being distributed to the about emissions. In addition, studies farmers in the city to grow organic vegetables. The initiative aims to establish have found that waste incinerators a sound cycle of local produce for local consumption, while also revitalising which generate electricity emit a the shopping arcade.63 third more greenhouse gases for the electricity they produce than gas- fired power stations64. Anaerobic digesters could potentially be used to recycle sewage and compostable waste, creating gas for use in cooking and transport.
From the discussions above it has become clear that local authorities need regulating, supporting and to be given incentives to increase the scope of their recycling services. Residents also need support and incentives. Defra recently conducted a pilot study on the effectiveness of a range of local authority household incentives in England.65 These were categorised into the following:
Financial ‘carrots’ Individuals or communities are rewarded with a financial inducement to participate in a scheme. Financial ‘carrots’ appeal to people’s sense of monetary value. This includes: xvi Where local residents bring unwanted goods that people can take for free (and any remainder is taken to local CA site for reuse or recycling).
51
• prize draws (e.g. for participating in recycling); • cash back incentives (e.g. for real nappy use); • cash rewards (e.g. ‘cash for trash’ schemes); and • cash discounts (e.g. subsidised compost bins).
Financial ‘stick’ Individuals face a cost or levy for non-participation in a scheme, or additional costs for excessive waste generation. Financial ‘sticks’ act as disincentives that force people to do something they would otherwise not do. This includes:
• charging schemes (e.g. green waste collections); and • compulsory participation (e.g. fines for ‘non-recyclers’).
Voluntary ‘carrots’ Voluntary carrots appeal primarily to people’s good nature and natural willingness to do something good for the community and environment. This includes:
• community rewards (e.g. tree planting per tonne recyclate collected); • charitable donations (e.g. donation to charity per tonne recyclate collected); • school rewards (e.g. equipment for schools per tonne recyclate collected); and • personal (non-financial) rewards (e.g. ‘experience’ vouchers for local attractions).65
Although there were some difficulties in monitoring the success of the incentives, the study found that 81% of the trials seemed to have a positive, attributable impact in raising awareness through offering an incentive; and 57% of the trials had a positive, attributable impact, increasing the tonnage of recyclables collected (although rates varied in different locations). The study found that more localised, community initiatives are easier to promote than broader initiatives offered to a large number of individuals. The trials focused on schemes offering rewards for those householders that recycled their waste, rather than any scheme that threatened fines against those that did not recycle. Some of the local authorities involved felt that the best way to increase participation in recycling could be through increasing recycling streams and the development of new end markets.
Some areas, such as Barnet, have trialled fining residents who do not recycle, and recycling rates have subsequently increased. In Exeter, a resident was taken to court for putting ordinary rubbish in a special recycling bin. Although the defendant was acquitted, the council found that during the three months surrounding the trial, recycling rates increased to 31%, compared to 25.5% for the same period in 200566.
Case study: Recycling fines in Barnet Other fiscal initiatives include ‘pay as you Barnet Council looks set to meet a government target to recycle throw’ schemes (or ‘direct variable charging’), 30% of household waste four years early, following the introduction where householders with kerbside collections of of compulsory recycling. Over the last year, residents have faced recyclate are charged directly for the uplift of fines of up to £1,000 if they did not recycle a range of items such as residual waste, with these charges varying glass, paper and cans in special black boxes every week. So far, depending on the amount of waste in the the council has threatened legal action to just one household, which residual bin. This helps to drive waste was not using its box but it promptly started recycling. prevention and recycling and introduces a direct link for the householder between waste collection and disposal and costs. ‘Pay as you throw’ programmes in the
52 US are estimated to have reduced the disposal of waste by around 17% by weight. This could, however, impact most on poorer households (and rebates may need to be given for people on lower incomes); it could have a high administrative cost; and could lead to increased flytipping.67
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION Barriers to recycling, in suburbia and elsewhere, often include householder apathy, lack of information on recycling options and lack of recycling facilities or services. Ensuring that there is a comprehensive recycling scheme and clear communication on this and any initiatives and incentives is very important. Informing and providing incentives for new residents is also key and, for example, information could be included in council tax letters.
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTING SCENARIOS Table 9, below, highlights the footprint reduction associated with different actions and behaviours. As with energy it is interesting to note that individual behaviour (i.e. whether the resident is ‘keen’ or not) has a significant impact.
Table 9: Ecological Footprint of waste and consumer items for each scenario with savings over scenario 1
Waste and Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 consumer ‘Average’ resident ‘Average’ resident of ‘Keen’ resident of ‘Keen’ resident of items of Solihull Solihull living in Solihull Solihull living in retrofitted suburb retrofitted suburb Assumptions typical Solihull 25% recycling rate Waste levels reduced Waste levels reduced waste generation 20% by 50% typical Solihull 25% of remainder 50% of remainder recycling rate recycled or recycled or composted composted EF/habitant 0.6gHa 100% 0.54gHa -10% 0.42 -43% 0.49 -62%
53 Sustainable transport
The Sustainable Transport principle considers reducing the need to travel and providing sustainable alternatives to private car use.
CONTEXT The transport sector is responsible for 25% of UK carbon emissions, of which road transport accounts for 85%. Passenger cars account for around half of all transport-related carbon emissions and around 18% of an individual’s Ecological Footprint is attributable to personal transport.68 According to 2002 census figures, 29% of households own two or more cars compared with 24% a decade ago.
Increased traffic makes for less ‘liveable’ streets. ‘Liveability’xvii requires high quality public spaces, less danger from traffic and a clean, well-managed safe and secure street environment. High traffic volumes make public spaces noisier, more stressful and lead to more road casualties and deaths. It also results in increased paving – or carving up of the countryside to provide roads.
Other less direct ecological impacts include vehicle storage, which often results in front gardens being paved over. The London Assembly has calculated that car ownership in London has led to roughly two-thirds of its 1.9m front gardens being paved over – an area roughly 22 times the size of Hyde Park. This, it suggests, has increased the local temperature, led to a dirtier environment, increased run-off and localised flooding, greatly reduced the amount of greenery in the city (and therefore has an impact on nature and wildlife) and encouraged more car noise and pollution.69 In suburbia, many properties also have paved areas to enable off-street parking.
Figure 20, below, shows UK personal transport patterns according to purpose. It shows that more than half of personal transport patterns are associated with commuting and business.
Figure 20: UK individual transport by purpose
Commuting/ business UK Transport by Purpose Education/ escort education 2% 14% Shopping 6% 3% Other escort
Personal business 51% 3% Leisure 21% 0% Other
xvii Described by the Prime Minister in 2001 as “all things which improve our daily experience of life where we live”.
54 In addition, as shown in Error! Reference source not found. 21, approximately 75% of commuting and business travel is made by car. Focusing on significant areas such as this through, for example, car sharing initiatives for work, could substantially help to reduce the impact of personal transport in suburbia and elsewhere.
Figure 21: Personal transport patterns by purpose and mode
100%
80% Other public rail/ metro 60% bus 40% Other private 20% Motor cycle Car passenger 0% Car driver Bike Other All
Leisure Walk escort Personal business Shopping purposes Education/ business Other escort Other Commuting/
TRANSPORT IN THE SUBURBS Transport infrastructure is inextricably linked to land use planning, and high car dependency is a key feature of most suburbs, permitting lower density residences. The average suburbanite uses a car for 64% of all journeys and goes by bus or train for only 8%70, with the remaining journeys being made on foot. Commuting is generally quicker in the suburbs than in cities; for example, average commuting times in suburbia are 24-25 minutes, 34 minutes for residents within cities like Bristol and Birmingham and 43 minutes for those living and working in Greater London.84
The population in the suburbs is due to increase by 1.75 million over the next 20 years, accounting for 43% of the total growth for England. Propelled by this increase in population, as well as more cars, higher incomes and longer journeys, traffic in the suburbs is expected to grow faster and to account for 60% of all traffic growth for England. With more people owning more cars and trying to drive further, congestion in the suburbs is predicted to increase and commuting is forecast to take 40% longer.84 In addition, in Solihull as elsewhere, the number of old and very old people living in the suburbs, many of whom drive, is also expected to grow and this will also have an impact on transport patterns. The provision of efficient public transport systems in these areas will be vital.
According to a recent Department for Transport report71, the factors influencing behaviour can be described in terms of high-level consumer needs that transport has to meet. Through understanding these needs it is felt that more sustainable transport options could be provided. The key elements of these consumer needs are: individualism, reassurance, flexibility, convenience and immediacy and the car was perceived by respondents as the optimum mode of transport to meet these needs. ‘Habit’ and mental convenience were also found to be important factors in explaining travel choices.
55
As car use is high in the suburbs, this ‘habit’ may prove to be a significant obstacle to sustainable transport options, particularly given the often negative perception of alternatives to car use. For example, the DfT study found that while perceptions of the car were highly positive, there was a pervading negative image of the alternative public transport options and despite recent fuel price increases, respondents indicated resistance to public transport. Although the most accessible alternative to the car is the bus, buses were seen as undesirable and low status; an opinion based both on hearsay and past experience.
The DfT study found that Park and Ride, on the other hand, running in tandem with an associated car journey was a more desirable option than sole bus use. Light rail was also regarded as an acceptable and convenient alternative to the car and generally considered to be frequent, quick, clean and safe. The train was largely used for long-distance travel with additional use unlikely unless the network extended further into suburban and rural areas. The train was widely seen as offering comfort but low connectivity in comparison with the car and some other transport means. Cycling and walking were generally only considered as modes of transport for leisure and recreational journeys and for keeping healthy. However, in meeting some of the high level consumer needs, cycling in particular was considered as an alternative to the car in response to extreme future projections of reduced car availability and/or increases in cost.
The study found that cost, defined in pure monetary terms, did not emerge as a strong factor in the respondents’ choice of how to travel, and fuel costs tended to be considered as part of the household budget; insurance and other “one-off costs” were generally disregarded. There was also the perception that the more the car was used, the better the value it represented. It was only when respondents were forced to consider an extreme projection (doubling or more in fuel prices) they said they would consider adapting to a new set of circumstances.
With public transport, cost was seen as a secondary issue, with the negative factors associated with public transport emerging as the primary concern. However, if significant tangible improvements are made and promoted, it is felt that the cost of travel will be elevated to a primary issue. Fare subsidies and special offers may encourage use but only if the old negative perceptions are well and truly diminished.
TRANSPORT IN SOLIHULL Transport was felt to be one of the main ecological impacts and concerns of the residents we spoke to in Solihull. The majority of the residents owned at least one car (one of which was often a high fuel consumption vehicle such as a 4x4). There is currently no car club in Solihull and car sharing initiatives also appear to be limited. The bus service in Silhill and St Alphege was felt to be quite good although link-ups were not always well organised, and it was felt that the system focused on transporting people to Birmingham rather than enabling journeys in and around Solihull. Expanding the service to provide better links to suburban and rural area was highlighted as a potential improvement. There were also other negative perceptions expressed over bus use, with one resident quoted as telling his neighbour with ‘pride’ that he and his wife had not taken a bus for over 40 years!
56
Example of cycle route in suburban Solihull Cycle storage at train station (Anna Francis)
Solihull has a train station with relatively quick train links to Birmingham and London as well as local towns and villages; it is serviced by regular buses. While the train system was perceived by many as an attractive form of transport, particularly for longer journeys, frustration was expressed over the lack of parking spaces at the station. One resident explained that after 8.15am there are generally no parking spaces left and this was felt to be a significant barrier to train use. There is secure cycle parking at the station; however, many residents expressed concern over the safety of cycling in the area due to lack of protected cycle routes (although these were perceived to be improving); speed and volume of traffic; and the frequent presence of large lorries.
Some examples of suburban housing and high car ownership in Solihull’s suburbs (Anna Francis)
The school run was highlighted as a significant contribution to congestion in the suburbs. Some residents explained that their streets get very congested during peak school times. Although there used to be a walking
57 busxviii in St Alphege it was unclear whether this initiative had been continued. Many residents felt that rearranging transport to schools such as walking buses, school buses, car share and specific parking areas for parents (including incentives for car sharers) should be prioritised in order to try to tackle this problem.
As can be seen in Figure 22, the more affluent suburban areas to the south of Solihull (primarily St Alphege and Silhill) have higher car ownership, with a few notable exceptions such as Smiths Wood to the north. Increasing the efficiency of cars, and promoting alternatives to car ownership will be fundamental to reducing the suburb’s Ecological Footprint.
Figure 22: Transport modes by ward, Solihull34
100%
Public transport users in households Without car or van
Public transport users in 80% households With car or van Usually travel to w ork by: Other**
Usually travel to w ork by: On foot 60% Usually travel to w ork by: Bicycle
Usually travel to w ork by:Taxi or minic ab 40% Usually travel to w ork by: Passenger in a car or van
Usually travel to w ork by: Driving a car or van* 20% Usually travel to w ork by: Motorcycle; Scooter; moped
Usually travel to w ork by: Bus; Mini Bus or coach
0% Usually travel to w ork by: Train
Usually travel to w ork by: Underground; metro; light rail; Tram Wood Bromwich Pl h kil 00CTFR Silhill 00CTFK Olton 00CTFBCastle 00CTFD Elmdon 00CTFH Lyndon 00CTFJ Meriden 00CTFG Knowle 00CTFABickenhill 00CTFC Chelmsley 00CTFL Packwood 00CTFE Fordbridge 00CTFF Kingshurst 00CTFM St. Alphege 00CTFM St. East 00CTFN Shirley SOLIHULL 00CT SOLIHULL 00CTFQ West Shirley 00CTFP Shirley South 00CTFP Shirley 00CTFS Smith's Wood
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT SOLUTIONS Solutions under the Sustainable Transport principle can be divided into two categories: • reducing transport needs; and • providing sustainable transport options.
Reducing transport needs There are four main strategies that can be employed to minimise transport demands: • high density around transport nodes; • provision of local facilities;
xviii Usually aimed at children aged between 5 and 11 years old, the walking bus is a safe and healthy way for children to walk to and from school. Each bus has an adult volunteer 'driver' at the front and 'conductor' at the back. The bus follows a set route, based on where the children live and assessed by a road safety officer, and picks up children at pre-arranged 'bus stops'.
58 • facilitating work from home; and • internet ordering and delivery.
Table 10: Barriers to and incentives for minimising transport demand in the suburbs
Reducing transport Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place to drive change?
High density development Densification around suburban Local authorities can attempt to attract near transport nodes. transport nodes may prove businesses or ‘starter unit’ providers unpopular or unviable since it goes around existing transport nodes through Need to travel reduced against suburbs’ very reason for reduced business rates and other fiscal through provision of local existence incentives facilities, homes and employment Suburban residents have limited Creation of, and support for, local influence over the location of local centres with independent local shops facilities, although they can choose and service providers to support local facilities where existing and lobby for facilities where not available Need to travel reduced This strategy depends on Cost-effective high speed broadband through provision of high availability of connection and the internet connections are now available speed ICT network willingness of local employers to in most areas, and some providers have allow working from home started to provide free connections Need to travel reduced Dependent on preference, personal Reinstate the tax exemption for through opportunities to work situation of individual resident and employer-provided equipment which from home conversion possibilities underpinned the Home Computing Initiative72 Need to travel reduced This is available in most suburban Residents can be encouraged to use this through internet ordering and areas and is dependent on option, for example, through the home delivery services individual preference and provision of local collection points or accessibility subsidised/reduced VAT on secure delivery containers such as the ‘hippobox’xix system.
As Table 10 reveals, there are a range of strategies that can be employed in existing suburban areas. The issue of density and local facilities provision are key to reducing travel demand but may prove more of a challenge in suburbia. The low density characteristic of suburbia means that more land is required per residence and residents have to travel further to local facilities and work. One possible solution is therefore to densify suburbia. However, as previously mentioned, as many suburban residents move to suburbia to have large gardens and access to green space, resistance to densification may be high. This was found to be the case when talking to residents of Solihull’s southern suburbs. If not well planned, densification through new build, could lead to some residents moving further out into ‘greener’ areas with a consequential impact on surrounding green areas and a lowering of popularity and property prices in areas the ‘densified’ areas.
xix http://www.hippo-box.co.uk/
59 Figure 23: Facilities supported by 5,000 suburban homes73
Research conducted by JMP Architects73 has found that a community of 5,000 suburban homes could support:
Facility Number Hectares (net) Health Centre 1 0.33 Primary School 2.5 1.65 Secondary School 0.5 1.76 Nursery School 2.5 0.11 Library 0.5 0.03 Leisure Centre 0.5 0.2 Playing Field 1 1.95 Local Store 1 0.05 Main Access Roads n/a 4.0 Open Space n/a 4.0 TOTAL 13.0
Well planned, sensitive densification around transport nodes may, however, be one viable option. It is also important to note that densification does not necessarily have to entail new build. If incentives such as reduced council tax, were provided for residents who offer rooms for rent in their own homes or convert an area of their home into a flat for rent, this could also help to increase density, reduce emissions (see Figure 12) revealing increased CO2 emissions for single or low occupancy dwellings), help to facilitate improved local services including public transport, and increase availability of affordable housing.
REGULATION National transport policy such as the National Policy Planning Policy Guidance 13 aims to ensure a complementary approach to land-use planning and transport, reducing the need to travel by private car, and this could help to reduce transport needs of ‘redensified’ suburban areas. However, national policy has traditionally neglected existing suburban areas and governments have concentrated on improving access to city centres and on long distance inter-city road and rail routes. Land use and transport policies tailored to the suburbs are therefore urgently needed.
MEASURES AND INCENTIVES Local authorities can play an important role in helping to reduce travel demand. As mentioned above, local authorities can attempt to attract businesses or ‘starter unit’ providers around existing transport nodes through reduced business rates and other fiscal incentives. They could also consider providing local collection points or subsidised secure delivery containers to enable home deliveries (and to reduce the frequency of supermarket trips, most of which are done by car, particularly in car-based suburbs).
Encouraging employers to allow working from home could also reduce transport needs. Home Computing Initiatives (HCI schemes) enable organisations to loan computing equipment to their employees for home use, free of income tax and National Insurance liability. However, in the 2006 Financial Statement and Budget Report, the Chancellor announced that the exception would be removed72. This needs to be reinstated in order to encourage home working. As the case study below highlights, allowing working from home can significantly reduce transport demands.
60
Case study: Teleworking Encouraging employers to provide incentives for car A detailed travel diary study of 40 participants in the sharing and/or sustainable alternatives such as work State of California Telecommuting Pilot Project found buses can also help to significantly reduce private vehicle that, on average, telecommuters made 27% fewer trips in use, as well as potentially increasing the happiness of total on days when they worked at home – made up of a employees. Working with local businesses and providing reduction in car trips to work and an increase in car trips support for development of travel plans could also help for other purposes. They travelled 77% less distance by reduce car use in suburbia. car, compared to their behaviour before they began telecommuting. Interestingly, although non-work trips Reducing the dominance of the car in suburbia may also increased, non-work mileage fell: that is, the teleworkers help to encourage a reduction in car use. For example, made shorter but slightly more frequent non-work car home zone areas can be created in existing suburban trips on teleworking days. streets (see Case Study below). In the UK, some local authorities are piloting home zones, supported by the Department for Transport Local Government and the Regions (DTLR), and are using a range of approaches. Although there is no ring-fenced funding for home zones, local authorities are encouraged to include schemes in their Local Transport Plans. Retrofitting suburban areas to include home zones could be an effective way to reduce British Gas, car sharing in Solihull car dominance and create a safer, healthier place for In 2001, British Gas moved its operation from Wharf Lane people to live and may also help to encourage walking in Solihull to The Phoenix, a few miles away. Parking and cycling. spaces for the 1,700 employees were reduced from 2,000
to 386 and there was only one bus service, running every Initiatives that reduce transport use and car ownership 30 minutes from Solihull town centre. A travel survey was can also have financial advantages for residents. For conducted and a car sharing scheme was formulated. example, it is estimated that members of car clubs can Initial resistance was quite strong – comments received save up to £1,500 a year (compared to running a car and included: “I’ve worked for British Gas for 25 years. I’ve driving an average of 10,000 miles a year).75 The low earned my own parking space”. Owning a car was often density nature of suburbia may mean that car clubs are seen as a right of passage and a measure of success. potentially less popular in these areas; however, they could help reduce second car ownership by providing a However, staff involved in the scheme found that as they flexible alternative for more occasional use. now split petrol costs, travel expenditure has decreased.
Others commented that work journeys have turned into an Creating local centres within suburbia, with independent “enjoyable and social experience”; some even suggested local shops and service providers, would not only reduce that car sharers arrive at work less stressed than non- the cost of transport but could also make suburbia a 74 sharers. more attractive place to live.
Initiatives such as ‘walking buses’ can also help to reduce transport demand and associated congestion and impacts; they improve the health of the children using them, teach them vital road safety skills, save parents’ time and reduce traffic congestion and pollution in the streets around the school. Given the low density characteristics of much of suburbia, ‘walking buses’ may not be an option for all school children. However, schools could be supported in order to facilitate car sharing, through for example, providing parents with contact details of other parents living in the same area, so that one car transport the pupils, rather than four separate trips.
61 INDIVIDUAL ACTION As can be seen from the footprinting scenarios at the end of this section, residents living in ‘retrofitted’ suburban areas could potentially reduce their transport related Ecological Footprint by 30%. Ensuring that it is easy for residents to access local facilities, home deliveries and work from home where possible can all help to reduce transport demand.
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT OPTIONS While it will not be possible to eliminate transport demand in the suburbs, it is possible to provide sustainable alternatives to conventional car use. The following table summarises the main barriers and measures needed to encourage the provision of sustainable transport options in existing areas of suburbia.
Table 11: Barriers and incentives needed to optimise sustainable transport use in the suburbs
Sustainable transport Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place options to drive change?
Facilities and routes to make Dependent on provision by the Local authority should provide safe walking and cycling safe and local council. Traffic speeds are cycle paths linked to local networks convenient often high in the suburbs and it can Home zone retrofit of suburban streets be difficult to create good walking may also help to make walking safer conditions. Cycle paths are more and more attractive easily created; however, in suburbs they will need to be very carefully Local authority could provide secure designed to offset high car speeds bicycle storage and/or cheap bicycle hire at suburban stations Local authority can provide support for ‘walking buses’ for all local primary schools Facilities for electric, hybrid, Dependent on provision by local National and local government need to hydrogen and biodiesel- council and individual preference act on this. National government should fuelled vehicles to purchase these vehicles consider significantly increasing the target for biofuels from the current requirement for 5% of all fuel sold by 2010 to at least 10% by 2015
Local authority can help to provide oil recycling initiatives for biodiesel Excellent public transport Dependent on provision by local Research, investment and regulation to provision using low-impact council enhance low-carbon technology for fuels public transport. Real time information easily accessible to users
62 Car replacement facilities Resident has little influence over Local authorities can work with car club such as cycle club and car this, although can play a role in providers to provide initial funding and club catalysing the start-up of such a promote services club in their area Incentives could include reduced or eliminated congestion/parking charge in cities Road charging for driving into city centres should be introduced combined with suitable alternatives such as park and ride and/or car sharing schemes to discourage suburban residents from driving to work or town centres
As most suburban residents own and regularly use cars and with the low density layout of most suburban areas, encouraging residents to reduce car use and choose more sustainable alternatives may well be challenging. However, providing incentives and convenient, flexible alternatives such as car clubs may be one way to reduce car use.
As previously mentioned, density is a key factor, particularly to the provision of sustainable transport options. Research by the former DETR and others suggests that in order for a regional transit link to be viable, it is necessary to have 5,000 dwellings within a 10-minute walk (or a 600m radius). Subtracting space dedicated to community facilities, open space and major streets (based on LDA estimates), an area of 100ha remains, so in order to accommodate 5,000 dwellings, an average density of 50 homes per hectare is needed. This establishes an important threshold density for a walkable suburb.
Better bus services are key to improved inter-suburban public transport; however, significant work will need to be done to improve the perception of public transport in suburbia. As car use is so dominant in suburbia, fiscal and land use policies are needed to persuade residents to improve the efficiency of their vehicles (for example, through simple measures such as ensuring their tyres are pumped to correct levels), to buy ultra-economical cars and minimise car use where possible. Policy options include company and school travel plans and suburban road user charging. Initiatives such as car sharing clubs have been successful in reducing traffic; it is estimated that for every car club car, six privately owned cars are displaced.76 Again, density may be a potential barrier to setting up car clubs in suburbia and further research is needed to assess whether car clubs are viable in low density areas.
REGULATION There is a range of legislation and policy guidance outlining government’s commitment to reducing congestion and pollution and encouraging local authorities to monitor traffic use and air quality. These include:
The Environment Act (1995), which places a statutory requirement on local authorities to achieve air quality objectives by 2005 and the Road Traffic Reduction Act 1997, which places requirements on local authorities to monitor traffic levels and set targets to reduce them.
63 Transport White Paper (1998), details the government’s commitment to reducing congestion and pollution by encouraging travel by modes other than car. The policies it sets out have been reinforced through the Transport Act.
Transport 2010: the 10 Year Plan published in 2000 makes £180 billion available for improved transport services. The extent to which the Plan can facilitate investment in modern fleets of buses, providing the services that people want will be vital in reversing the perceptions of car users.77
INCENTIVES FOR CHOOSING SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT OPTIONS There is wide variation in the willingness and ability of car users to switch to other forms of transport. A range of targeted policies and packages of measures are needed that, in particular, will offer practical help to those currently unable to shift and coerce or persuade those presently unwilling to do so.
A recent report commissioned by the Department for Transport (DfT)78, analysed public attitudes to climate change and travel behaviour. It found that knowledge of the link between the two is weak and changes to transport policy are the least publicly acceptable way of tackling climate change. Greater emphasis should be put on this link in policy making in order to attract support for transport policies to reduce carbon emissions, but this is perhaps not enough to change behaviour on its own.
The researchers found that policies introducing financial penalties within transport are the least supported. However, support increases considerably when the revenues raised are earmarked for reinvestment in infrastructure. The report recommends that communication resources should be targeted at specific groups of people, rather than attempting a one-size-fits-all approach. For example, resources would be better spent encouraging those already using alternative types of transport to use them more often, rather than on those who have no intention doing so.
A study in Scotland found that financial disincentives to car use are likely to impact disproportionately on car users in the poorest households; while it is those in the most affluent households who are most likely to have access to cars and to use them most often. For this latter group, the study found that improvements in public transport appear more likely to help bring about modal shift. 79
Previous studies (highlighted in the case study below) have found that providing affordable, flexible travel tickets played an important part in increasing use of public transport and reducing car use. Fiscal incentives such as free public transport tickets for families who reduce or give up their car have also been found to be effective.
Case study: From car to bus in Belgium Providing flexible alternatives that allow suburban Almost 30,000 families in Flanders have traded their cars for travellers to use a range of transport options may an annual pass for bus and rail. The Flemish transport agency also encourage public transport use in suburbia. For De Lijn has offered the trade offer since 2002, and in 2005 example, providing increased secure bicycle storage 11,000 Flemish families switched from car to public transport. and/or cheap bicycle hire at suburban stations (such So far only 800 families have since returned to owning a car. as the Lyon system outlined below) may be one Anyone who cancels the registration for their second family option, especially as some suburban train lines do car receives a three-year pass. If a family has only one car not allow bicycles on the trains. Flexible ticketing and deregisters it, a bus pass is provided for the whole systems, such as London’s Oyster card, which can family.80 be used on a range of public transport systems, have also been found to increase use.
64
In Leeds, a text messaging service (in conjunction with information on the internet and signs at bus stops) was trialled to allow users to find out when their next bus will arrive. Over 1,000 buses in West and South Yorkshire are now equipped to report their positions via a radio network to a central computer that estimates how long they will take to reach subsequent stops.81
Case study: Cycle hire in Lyon The local authority could also work with transport companies to introduce alternative fuel sources for public In Lyon, the city is now littered with cycles for hire. By transport services such as buses and this could potentially buying a card similar to an Oyster card, you can hire a be expanded to provide, for example, biofuel filling bike from anywhere in the city and return it to any other stations for private vehicle use too. registered location. With the first 30 minutes of a journey being free in theory the system allows users to avoid In London, a pioneering initiative has been set up where paying for cycling, and users do not have the hassle of waste oil from local restaurants is converted to biodiesel owning a bike. There are also different types of cards for (see case study below). This type of initiative might also 82 ‘heavy’ or ‘light’ users. A similar system called On Yer be possible through collecting oil from town centre and 83 Bike is also operating in London. suburban catering outlets and using it for local buses.
Case study: Waste oil in London INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION The SELTRANS project in South London collects waste Providing incentives for efficient vehicle use, cooking oil from catering establishments in Bromley and turns it alternative fuels, providing an easy, flexible into biodiesel for use in council fleets. Biodiesel Initiative for transport system, and promoting the associated Sustainable Transport from Recycled Oil (BISTRO) offers a social, financial and environmental benefits and free collection service for restaurants, canteens, fast-food incentives will be key to reducing the Ecological outlets and takeaways in the area. Over 100 businesses in Footprint of transport in the suburbs. Bromley have already signed up to the trial. The used cooking oil collected will be turned into biodiesel, which substantially reduces greenhouse gas emissions and will help prevent dumping of used oil down drains which accounts for more than ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTING SCENARIOS half the 100,000 blockages Thames Water clears from its Table 12, below, summarises the predicted footprint sewers every day.84 reduction associated with different scenarios. It has been assumed that there will be some reduction in the use of cars due to the provision of good local amenities, efficient public transport and a car club, but that a greater saving will be made by ecologically conscious residents. Initiatives such as local employment, home working and a transport system that favours walking, cycling and public transport over the car will bring about greater savings.
65 Table 12: Ecological Footprint of mobility for each scenario showing savings compared to scenario 120
Transport Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 ‘Average’ resident ‘Average’ resident of ‘Keen’ resident living ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull Solihull living in in Solihull’s suburbs living in retrofitted retrofitted property property Assumptions Typical Home working on Increased public Home office and Solihull travel occasions – 10% transport use – local pattern, high journey reduction 10% lower car employment – levels of car 10% reduced car use 40% journey use use as public Half of these reduction transport and car journeys Increased public club eliminated, made transport use, car Average air travel by foot/cycle, the club member – rest by bus 60% lower car Lower air travel use Lower air travel EF/habitant 1.04gHa 100% 0.9gHa -13% 0.64gHa -38% 0.43gHa -59%
66 Sustainable water
The Sustainable Water principle considers ways to reduce energy used in water supply and waste water management; reduce flooding risks and conserve water resources.
Although the amount of energy expended in treating and pumping water is fairly low, the environmental impacts of providing potable water, disposing of waste water, and managing rainfall and flooding are considerable.
A recent UN-backed report revealed that one in every three people lives in regions with water shortages and predicts that demand for water, led by irrigation, is likely to almost double by 2050. Available data suggests that 20-35% of freshwater fish are vulnerable or endangered.85 Heavy abstraction of internationally important rivers such as the Kennet and Itchen is causing miles of riverbed to dry up in the summer, leading to very serious damage to their ecosystems. In many rivers, such as the Gipping in East Anglia, summer flows are only maintained due to the amount of treated sewage effluent being discharged into them.86
The problems associated with the sustainable management of water are often most apparent at a regional and sub-regional level. It is widely believed that, across the UK over the next 20-50 years, the situation will change owing to increased supply and management pressures. Climate change will bring marked changes in rainfall patterns with increased rain in winter, drier summers, and more intense rainfall events. There will be increased pressure on water suppliers to meet increased domestic demand with these predicted changes in rainfall and distribution patterns. Demand for water in the UK is steadily rising: more than 60% of treated water supplies are used in dwellings and the average person in the UK uses 150 litres a day.87 According to UN estimates typically a calorie of food demands a litre of water to produce; a kilo of industrially produced meat needs 10,000 litres while a kilo of grain requires 500-4,000 litres.88 In addition, it is estimated that in the UK 3.6 billion litres of water are lost per day owing to leaks in the water system.89
WATER USE IN THE SUBURBS While there is currently limited information specifically concerning water use in suburbs, it is likely that water consumption will be higher in suburbia than elsewhere, in part due to the proliferation of gardens. Some commentators even define suburbia as ‘a place that grows lawns.’90 The four main domestic uses of water are: toilet flushing, showering, gardening and doing laundry. In suburbia, popular activities such as car washing may also add an additional water demand, and some suburban houses may have swimming pools and jacuzzis.
In addition, many suburban front gardens are paved over to provide off-street parking and this can increase the risk of flooding. When grass or earth is covered by concrete or tarmac, rainwater cannot be absorbed and runs off into underground drains putting more pressure onto sewage and drainage systems, many of which date back to Victorian times and are already stretched to their limits.
WATER USE IN SOLIHULL In Solihull, water use accounts for 0.3% of the area’s Ecological Footprint, mainly due to the energy used in water treatment. While this is a relatively small impact in Ecological Footprint terms, water represents a finite natural resource, and furthermore, reducing consumption and recycling water leads to reduced energy demand. Although exact water consumption figures were not available it was assumed that water use in Solihull’s southern suburbs may well be higher than elsewhere in the borough, owingto the presence of lawns and high car
67 ownership. Some residences have installed water-butts, which are available at a subsidised price from Solihull council. Some residents felt that compulsory water meters were a good idea, and a resident who had installed one had reduced their bill by 50%. However, others felt that for larger families it might be more expensive.
SUSTAINABLE WATER SOLUTIONS
Table 13: Barriers and incentives needed to minimise water use in the suburbs
Sustainable water use Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place to drive change?
Reducing water use Dependent on individual A Code for Sustainable Existing Homes should be through the use of water- resident’s awareness, developed and introduced as soon as possible, with efficient appliances and preference and local mandatory assessment of all homes on sale, rental fittings availability or change of occupancy. This should include information on the water efficiency of the property Homeowners should be provided with incentives to upgrade water- and energy- efficiency in their homes, e.g. through stamp duty and council tax rebates The water efficiency of household appliances should be regulated Compulsory water meters would encourage residents to choose these appliances and fittings A Water Efficiency Commitment, similar to the Energy Efficiency Commitment, could be introduced requiring water suppliers to achieve domestic energy efficiency improvements and leak reductions A significant campaign to raise public awareness of water efficiency incentives and measures should be ongoing Labelling of food to show how much water is used in production could help combat mounting pressure on the world’s water supplies Rain and waste water Dependent on individual to Reduced VAT on water-butts and other rainwater managed locally for reuse purchase harvesting systems
Flood risk analysis and Garden landscape design is Planning requirements to ensure that local landscape design to dependent on individual authorities design landscapes/in-fill development/ reduce flood risk awareness and preference encourage use of porous surfaces to alleviate flood risk
There are a range of strategies and technologies available to reduce water use in existing homes and suburbs. These include: fitting low flush dual flush WCs or retrofitting water saving devices into existing WC cisterns
68 (available from local water suppliers); fitting flow regulators on basin taps and showers; and collecting as much rainwater as possible for use in the garden and toilets. Designing gardens that require minimum water, with drought resistant species and plenty of organic mulches also reduces water demand and the strain on surface water drains during storms.87 Technologies now exist to easily recycle rainwater, such as the ‘droughtbuster’, which uses a siphon pump to take water from the bath and uses gravity to siphon the waste water into the gardenxx.
Waterless composting toilets are also available91. The benefits of such systems are that they save water that would otherwise be used to carry toilet waste; protect water sources from pollution by human waste; create fertiliser for use in agriculture; and provide irrigation water for plants (through grey water recycling system). Although such systems look very similar to conventional toilets, a potential barrier in suburbia may well be perceived negative visual impacts along with awareness and the perceived hassle of installation and cost.
Collecting water from roofs and sealed surfaces for use in gardens and car-washing is another way to reduce water use in suburbia. Managing local surface water flows to reduce the local effects of flash flooding from the sealed surfaces and roofs is also important.
REGULATION The Water Framework Directive (WFD) is the most far-reaching piece of European legislation affecting water. It requires that water bodies in Member States achieve ‘good ecological status’ by 2015. Member States are required to develop broad-based River Basin Management Plans by 2009 that set out how this will be achieved. These plans offer a unique opportunity to introduce the required coordinated measures across sectors. Defra and the Environment Agency should use the opportunities afforded by the WFD to introduce the widespread and coordinated measures necessary to secure future water supply while protecting freshwater ecosystems.
A Code for Sustainable Existing Homes should be developed and introduced as soon as possible, with mandatory assessment of all homes on sale, rental or change of occupancy. This should include information on the water efficiency of the property.
The extent of leakage replacement is principally determined by the water regulator, OFWAT, which approves company spending programmes under guidance from ministers. Defra should guide OFWAT to approve significant leakage reduction programmes in water scarce areas. Environmental costs must be fully accounted for in the assessment of the economically acceptable level of leakage.
The London Assembly is calling on the government to introduce legislation to limit the number of gardens in an area that can be turned into driveways, and for greater planning control, this could also be an effective strategy in suburban areas.
OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES As with energy and transport, the local authority has a key role to play in promoting and encouraging use of water saving devices such as water-butts. Encouraging suburban residents to maintain green areas in their gardens, instead of paving, can also help to reduce the risk of flash flooding, thereby making the sewage system
xx http://www.droughtbuster.co.uk
69 more effective and ultimately reducing the cost to the community of water cleansing. It should also be ensured that any densification through new build requires Sustainable Urban Drainage (SUDs) and green areas.
Landlords can reduce water use in suburbia through installing water efficient fittings, appliances and water saving devices such as water-butts. However, as it is not the landlord that will directly benefit from such measures, incentives are needed to encourage landlords to do this. Information on the water efficiency of a dwelling included in the Home Information Pack for rentals could be one way to do this – if coupled with water meters, tenants may well be prepared to pay slightly more for a dwelling with reduced utility bills.
The way in which water is used in the suburban home has a significant impact and small actions such as turning the tap off while brushing teeth can result in significant savings. Water meters have also been found to reduce water use and encourage residents to think about their water consumption. Defra estimates that 70% of customers will see their bills reduced, with metered customers using up to 15% less water. Metering can also lead to the more effective location of leakages. Modern meters can allow for flexible tariffs, for example charging more for high levels of ‘luxury’ use, or during times of high demand pressure.98 The Environment Agency would like to see 75% of households on meters by 2025, compared with current figures of 28%.92
Long-term cost savings may provide an additional incentive: water efficient appliances can be fitted for around £160 per dwelling and appliances will generate annual savings of £50-£70, resulting in a payback period of approximately three years.
Water saving rebates, Australia INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION
In Australia, Sydney Water is trialling a year-long rebate scheme Recent water shortages, particularly in the south- to provide incentives for the uptake of water saving devices. A east, and the resultant hosepipe bans have helped to rebate of $150 is available to customers who purchase a new increase awareness of the need to save water. The washing machine with a 4-star water efficiency rating, which range and availability of water saving devices have save more than 21,000 litres of water a year compared to older also been increasing. Purchasing water efficient machines. The rebate offer could help to save one million litres appliances and fittings, installing rain and grey a day. Sydney Water also has a Rainwater Tank Rebate water harvesting systems and ensuring landscape Programme offering customers up to $650 to install a rainwater design minimises flood risks are all key strategies tank and a rebate of up to $2,500 for schools who install a for individuals to reduce their water use. rainwater tank.93
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTING SCENARIOS Table 14, below, reveals the estimated Ecological Footprint and water consumption reductions associated with different water saving activities. As with previous issues, the impact of individual action is key and coupled with retrofitting measures such as water efficient appliances can lead to a 65% reduction in water use.
70 Table 14 - Water demand for each scenario showing savings compared to Scenario 1
Water Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 ‘Average’ resident ‘Average’ resident of ‘Keen’ resident living ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull Solihull living in in Solihull’s suburbs living in retrofitted retrofitted suburb suburb Assumptions Average UK Equivalent savings to Reduced water Water efficient water BedZED through consumption appliances, consumption water efficient through behaviour behaviour and appliances and rain water grey water harvesting for recycling irrigation Litres/ 134 100% 82 -39% 82 -39% 47 -65% person/day
71 Sustainable materials
The Sustainable Materials principle aims to maximise the use of local, reclaimed, recycled and low environmental impact materials.
Increasing levels of international trade have resulted in higher volumes of materials being transported greater distances. Purely economically-motivated pressure for increased trade can frequently result in detrimental environmental effects in both the country of origin, and globally through increased transportation. The extracting, processing, manufacturing and transportation of materials all have significant environmental impacts.
MATERIAL USE IN SUBURBIA In suburbia, extensions, refurbishment and redecoration are quite frequent and many of the materials often used not only have a negative environmental impact but also have a potentially harmful effect on human health – for example, painters suffer from higher rates of lung cancer than average and their children are also more prone to cancer94. Petrochemical paints are also notoriously wasteful, producing up to 10 times their own weight in waste. In addition, as paint is relatively cheap, people often over purchase; more than 300 million litres of paint are sold in the UK each year and approximately 40 million litres are left over and eventually disposed of.95
Tropical hardwoods from Africa are primarily imported for use in construction, but also for the manufacturing of doors, windows and some garden furniture96. The Congo Basin loses close to 1.5 million hectares of forest cover every year – about a third of the four million hectares of forest destruction Africa experiences each year.97 In Indonesia, more than 200 species are threatened or endangered, including the Javan and Sumatran rhino, the Bali starling and the Sumatran tiger, owing to logging and habitat loss. Logging has contributed to destruction of the rainforest, which in turn causes soil erosion and floods.98 Ensuring that all wood purchased is from credibly certified sources such as those certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)xxi is therefore vital.
Materials such as uPVC, frequently used in double glazing and conservatories, also have a high environmental impact. Compared to other materials such as timber, uPVC has higher embodied energy, a shorter lifespan, and is more difficult to recycle.99 Some low quality uPVC windows have also been found to degrade over time, breaking up and becoming brittle. Removing a window is also difficult without damaging the unit, so there is little possibility for reuse. The table below summarises the environmental impacts of different window frame materials. As can be seen, uPVC has the lowest score.100
xxi The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is an independent, not for profit, non-governmental organisation that provides standard setting, trademark assurance and accreditation services for companies and organisations interested in responsible forestry.
72 Table 15 - Environmental impact of window frame materials
Kitchen and bathroom refurbishments are also frequent in suburbia and elsewhere. It is vital to ensure that the materials used are produced as locally and with as low an impact as possible, and are durable.
MATERIAL USE IN SOLIHULL Use of sustainable materials, such as FSC timber, over materials with higher embodied energy such as uPVC did not appear to be high in Solihull. When talking to residents, awareness of alternative materials appeared to be generally quite low. Local suppliers of conservatories and double glazing all seem to use uPVC as the main material.100
SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS SOLUTIONS The table below summarises the main barriers to action and the measures needed to provide incentives for the use of sustainable materials in suburbia.
Sustainable materials Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place to drive change?
Locally sourced materials Dependent on individual awareness, National and local government ‘local used preference and local availability procurement’ policies and strategies
73 Less processed and more Dependent on individual awareness, Higher VAT on environmentally harmful ‘natural’ materials used preference and local availability materials and/or carbon tax Labelling of materials revealing the estimated embodied energy of the product Require DIY and other retailers to source increasing percentages of credibly certified timber from well managed forests Provide training programmes for tradespeople in using local sustainable materials and ‘green’ products Join the WWF-UK Forest & Trade Network Make use of the government’s Central Point of Expertise on Timber for procurement policies Produce a green directory that highlights sources of local sustainable and reclaimed materials High levels of reclaimed Dependent on individual awareness, Reduced VAT on reclaimed and recycled and recycled materials preference and local availability materials used
Renewable materials Dependent on individual awareness, National, regional and local government used from sustainably preference and local availability procurement policies, EU-wide and managed sources domestic legislation, government awareness raising campaigns, engage more widely with business and industry, effective advertising, economic and fiscal reform Buildings designed on Only possible in new build although National/local planning policy ‘long life, loose fit’ should also be a consideration in principles extensions/densification
Compact city form and Possible through redensification but National/local planning policy transport strategy this may not be popular resulting in reduced infrastructure built
Designing for This is dependent on the awareness National planning policy deconstruction and training of the building companies involved in any suburban development/extension, etc
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While developers of new, particularly large-scale developments are able to specify use of local, sustainable materials, opportunities may be more limited at an individual level. Suburban residents will generally be dependent on local tradespeople and suppliers for the majority of their refurbishment work and, as a result, will not have as much influence over the type of materials used.
The Halifax survey (see Appendix 1) of home improvements found that most of the homeowners surveyed preferred to employ local firms (47%) to carry out improvements.101 The material choice, knowledge and skills of local tradespeople and suppliers will therefore have a significant impact on what materials are used in suburbia.
REGULATION There is currently no regulation stipulating the use of local and sustainable materials in retrofit projects (apart from in listed buildings), or to discourage the use of higher embodied energy products such as uPVC. The Sustainable and Secure Buildings Act 2004 offers an opportunity for these issues to be addressed through the Building Regulations and should be used to this effect. For example, regulations could be introduced stipulating maximum values of embodied CO2 per square metre of material used and minimum percentages of credibly certified timber from responsibly managed sources such as FSC.102
As public procurement spending is worth approximately 16% of EU GDP, greening the public procurement rules at EU and national level could substantially help to reduce unsustainable production and consumption patterns.103 The forest law enforcement and governance (FLEG) process launched by the G8 countries, and the EU Action Plan on Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade (FLEGT), may also help to convince governments to take actions in curbing illegal logging and trade.104
A strengthened Framework Directive on Eco Design of Energy Using Products, followed by speedy and ambitious implementing measures introducing minimum energy efficiency standards for a range of appliances and goods could also help to reduce the ecological impact of the products and materials used in the suburbs and elsewhere.
OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES As many suburban residents use local tradespeople for home improvements, local availability of sustainable materials and knowledge and skill of local tradespeople is fundamental. Incentives to increase these could include tax breaks for less polluting, sustainable materials such as eco-paint, as well as free or subsidised training for tradespeople in sustainable methods and products. Local resource mapping, for example, in the form of a green suppliers directory (or ‘green pages’), distributed free of charge to residents and tradespeople could also help to highlight the availability and promote the procurement of local, sustainable materials.
Cost is not a significant barrier for choosing low impact materials and with most building components, environment-friendly materials can be specified and provided at costs equal to other materials; reclaimed materials can often be provided at lesser cost than new materials. Incentives could also be provided for sustainable DIY products, for example, through promotions by DIY hardware stores.
75 INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION Some materials such as timber window frames and conservatories can be harder to source and more expensive on an individual level, unlike for builders where price seems to be comparable. Targeting builders to source these materials may therefore be an effective way to reduce the impact of materials in suburbia.
In terms of reclaimed or recycled materials, individuals are generally the best reclaimers and are the biggest market for reclamation yards. Encouraging the set-up and use of reclamation yards for tradespeople as well as residents could help to increase the use of reclaimed materials. Information on sources of local, sustainable and reclaimed materials could also be included in the local green directory or ‘green pages’.
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT ANALYSIS In the footprinting data used for this study, material use was primarily incorporated into ‘consumer items’, i.e. the impacts of goods purchased such as household appliances, and includes the impact of associated waste production. As can be seen, significant savings are possible if facilities for waste reduction, reuse and local sustainable materials are provided and residents are given incentives to use these services.
Table 16: Ecological Footprint of waste and consumer items for each scenario with savings over scenario 1
Waste and Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 consumer items ‘Average’ resident ‘Average’ resident of ‘Keen’ resident living ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull Solihull living in in Solihull’s suburbs living in retrofitted retrofitted property property Assumptions typical Solihull 25% recycling rate – Waste levels Waste levels waste generation small increase due to reduced 15% reduced by 50% typical Solihull segregated bins in 25% of remainder 50% of remainder recycling rate kitchen and council recycled or recycled or collection of all composted composted recyclables EF/habitant 0.6gHa 0.54gHa -10% 0.42 -43% 0.49 -62% 100%
76 Local and sustainable food
The Local and Sustainable Food principle aims to reduce emissions due to food transport and food manufacture and reduce environmental pollution due to chemicals used in food production.
Negative environmental impacts from agriculture result from converting natural ecosystems to agricultural production and from intensifying agricultural systems.98 Changed farm practices in the UK are believed to be responsible for a decline in more than 40% of farmland bird populations since 1970. Agriculture also draws 70 per cent of the world’s freshwater – more than 90% in some countries – and this contributes to the massive degradation that has taken place in the world’s freshwater ecosystems.105
The modern food system involves resources being consumed and pollution and waste being generated at each stage of the food chain: production, processing, packaging, distribution and retailing. Food comprises approximately a third to a quarter of the Ecological Footprint of an individual living in the UK and the food system now accounts for up to 40% of all UK road freight.
The distances involved in the distribution of fresh produce can be demonstrated by looking at a traditional meal. If bought at a supermarket, many ingredients will have been imported and could have travelled, cumulatively, over 39,000km. However, choosing seasonal products and purchasing them locally, for instance at a farmers’ market, could reduce the total distance by 66 times – to just 605km.106
Food has a large impact that is unevenly divided across different food types. As Table 17 shows, almost a third of the Ecological Footprint of food is due to meat. This is because on ascending the food chain 90% of the energy is lost at each level, and thus the yield factor for meat is about a tenth of that of cereals (i.e. 100g of cereal produces approximately 10g of beef). Equally, as the demand for meat increases animals are being more intensively reared; instead of roaming on grazing land they are being housed and fed crops. This is leading to an increased area of high grade crop land being used to feed animals rather than humans. Thus the large quantity of meat and dairy in the modern diet is one of the reasons for the very high Ecological Footprint of food.
There is another factor for the elevated impact of food, which is shown in Figure 24. Over 40% of the Ecological
Footprint of food is due to energy land, i.e. the land required to sequester the CO2 emitted in the cultivation of the food. Modern agriculture is extremely energy intensive; the production of pesticides and fertilisers and modern machinery all use large quantities of fossil fuel, resulting in an area of forest required to sequester the
CO2 being greater than the physical area of the land being cultivated.
Table 17: The impacts of producing different food types for an average person in the UK107
Food type % of food EF
Meat and animal fats 33.2%
Dairy 24.7%
Cereals 9.1%
Fresh fruit and vegetables 6.6%
Vegetable oils 6.1%
77 Processed fruit and vegetables 4.1%
Alcoholic drinks 4.0%
Fish 3.8%
Non alcoholic drinks 3.2%
Eggs 2.7%
Sugar preserves and sweets 1.9%
Figure 24, below, shows the different impacts of food and reveals that direct impact of growing or rearing food accounts for over four-fifths of the total. The impact of packaging is highlighted by showing that its impact is almost the same as the arable land area required to grow the food. As transport accounts for only 1% of the impact it would appear that buying local food is not an important issue. However, this is not the case as there can be a link between the amount of packaging and food wastage with greater transport distances. Both associated impacts cause increased methane emissions from landfill. There are also other impacts of the food transportation system which impact negatively on human health, for example, noise, pollution to air, land and water.
Further analysis highlights large differences in the transport impact of different food stuffs. Importing fresh vegetables accounts for about a third of the transport impact of food in the UK, but less than 10% of the imported mass. This is due to the fact that many vegetables consumed in the UK are air freighted, releasing over
50 times more CO2 per tonne-kilometre than sea freight. The impact of importing vegetables is 18 times greater than that of buying UK grown, with further gains if the vegetables are sourced within 30km. 106
Figure 24: Ecological impacts of food production for the UKxxii
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0% energy land pasture land arable land packaging sea space transport methane
In this chart, energy land is the amount of land needed to absorb the carbon emitted from food production, such as transport and fertiliser production. Arable land is land cultivated for crop production and pasture land is land used for grazing animals. Methane production results from wasted food decomposing.
78
FOOD IN SUBURBIA Although specific data on food purchasing habits in the suburbs is currently not available, most of the residents we spoke to in Solihull claimed to purchase the majority of their food in supermarkets and generally use their cars to travel there. This dependence on supermarket food is a key area to target to reduce the Ecological Footprint of suburbia.
Any community that is aiming for sustainability should aim to produce as much food to meet its needs as it can. Given the profusion of gardens in suburbia, there is a significant opportunity for growing a large proportion of food needed. There has also recently been an increase in the number of people keeping chickens in urban and suburban gardens and stylish chicken coups are now available. This reduces the demand for intensively produced eggs and could potentially help to reduce waste through feeding chickens some types of leftover food.
While the potential to grow food in suburban gardens is huge, potential barriers include time, perceived ‘hassle’ and awareness. The appearance of suburban gardens is often something that residents take pride in and some may not be keen to sacrifice a section of their garden to growing vegetables.
An important way to reduce the Ecological Footprint associated with food in suburbs is to increase the availability of local produce. In recent years there has been a proportionately greater decline in the number of independent grocery stores than there has in their market share of grocery sales. This is because the stores that have closed are the most precarious single grocery stores, with the smallest amounts of business. Isolated corner shops are more likely to close than shops on parades. However, once one or two shops on a small suburban parade of six shops close, footfall to the remaining ones falls so far that they too are at risk.108
FOOD IN SOLIHULL Food in Solihull’s southern suburbs appears to primarily provided by supermarkets. Although there is a farmers’ market in Solihull’s town centre, this only takes place once a month and is also perceived by some residents as ‘more expensive’. In addition, if residents drive to the market this will reduce the ecological benefit of purchasing local food. There is an organic produce box scheme provided by a local organic farm and a local milk delivery scheme is still in place in the area, although uptake is thought to be relatively low. There is also an organic gardeners’ group which provides support and social contact for local residents interested in gardening and growing food organically.
Allotments in Solihull (credit www.solihull.gov.uk) Solihull Farmers Market (credit www.solihull.gov.uk)
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In Solihull there are 13 allotment sites across the borough, at a reasonable price (including a discount scheme of rent reduction for tenants over 60). The Solihull Allotment Society also holds a regular stall at Shirley Farmers Market to recruit new members and answer questions, and has been very successful in raising awareness of the facilities in the borough.
SUSTAINABLE FOOD SOLUTIONS Table 18, below, summarises the main potential barriers and measures needed to increase local food production and uptake in suburbia.
Table 18: Barriers and incentives needed to increase provision and procurement of local sustainable food in suburbia
Local sustainable food Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place to drive change?
Low amount of animal Dependent on individual awareness Promotion of health benefits of low protein in diet and preference meat/dairy diet Food growing on site There is substantial opportunity to Promotion of benefits of food growing, grow food in suburban gardens; support and promotion of allotments, however, this depends on individual permitting residents to grow food in willingness unused green areas (such as verges) Mainly local and seasonal Dependent on local availability, Promote local economic and potential produce individual awareness, preference health benefits of eating locally and disposable income Eco labelling/eco points of food highlighting estimated embodied energy (including transport, production, etc) Mainly organic food and Dependent on local availability, Promote health and environmental produce with low chemical individual awareness, preference effects of high chemical use on food and intensity and disposable income land Regulate harmful pesticide use
Reduced levels of food Substantial opportunities to compost National composting targets and local wastage food waste in suburban gardens, council collection scheme, particularly depends on individual preference. in areas with no gardens.
The ecological impact of food in suburbia is primarily determined by individual choice. Growing food locally, in suburban gardens and local allotments is a key way to reduce this impact. Buying from local farmers, through farm shops, farmers’ markets, local organic vegetable box schemes and community supported agriculture is another important strategy. Where possible, avoiding imported, overly-packaged produce is also important, as is reducing car use through sharing lifts with neighbours, cycling or taking the bus to local shops, and or coordinated home deliveries. It is also important that supermarkets work to source increasing amounts of local produce, and to reduce packaging. Reducing animal protein in the diet is another key strategy. However, all these strategies rely primarily on the individual resident’s awareness and willingness to support these initiatives.
80 Discussions with residents in Solihull revealed that price, availability and awareness appeared to be the key barriers to more sustainable food purchasing habits. Although most residents were aware of the monthly farmers’ market, some felt that the food was more expensive at the market and that the market was not held frequently enough.
Local box schemes are a particularly practical option for suburbia as they can be delivered directly to the resident without having to drive to the supermarket or to be at home for the delivery. Community buyers groups or community food cooperatives could also help to reduce food miles and packaging and allow suburban residents to gain access to local, sustainable food. Produce from these schemes can be similar in price to supermarket produce due to reduced transport costs and packaging.
Encouraging suburban residents to eat less meat might pose a challenge; however, promotion of the ecological and health impacts of meat and promoting the alternatives could potentially help. Increases in fuel price rises may also make meat more expensive which may also reduce consumption.
There are a range of social, ecological and financial benefits associated with growing food locally:
• Better health through a culture of home food consumption: consumption of genuinely fresh fruits and vegetables from a local garden can underpin good health and help to combat the current obesity epidemic. Garden produce keeps you healthy when you grow it and also when you consume it. • Economy through home food production and food preservation: growing food at home and preserving seasonal surpluses bypasses the so-called ‘value-adding’ processes of the commercial food chains, and means food is much less expensive. • Retrofitting greenhouses to existing homes: an attached greenhouse can help capture warmth from the sun while extending the garden growing season. • Animals in productive garden ecosystems: hens and ducks are excellent components of a sustainable suburban garden system and can significantly expand the range and value of foods produced at home. They deal with various types of food waste and pests such as insects and slugs, while their manure adds natural fertiliser to the soil. • City farms and community gardens: cooperative gardening and farming of suburban open spaces allows these productive activities to move beyond backyard scale, opening up a further range of possibilities for food production and community engagement.109 • There are also financial benefits to sourcing food locally. For example, according to the Sustainable Development Commission, every £10 spent on local organic food generates £25 for the local community, whereas the same £10 spent in a supermarket generates only £14. Feedback from retailers adjacent to farmers’ markets has also indicated that takings have increased by up to 30%.
REGULATION There is currently no regulation to encourage the purchase of local sustainable food. Eco-labelling of food – for example, highlighting the approximate amount of CO2 from production, processing and transport of food items – could help to raise awareness and encourage local food production and procurement. High embodied energy products could also pay more tax than ‘greener’ food items.
WWF is part of a group that lobbies the British government to develop and implement a plan to have 30% of agricultural land in England and Wales under organic cultivation by 2010.110 The Common Agricultural Policy
81 (CAP) impacts directly on the production choices of farmers in Europe, on trade patterns, and on global governance in agriculture through the WTO’s Agreement on Agriculture. The CAP should contribute to the EU Treaty’s objectives of sustainable development and environmental integration.111
OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES In suburbia, the local authority has a key role to play in both promoting and facilitating local food production. As some residents may be reluctant to sacrifice an area of their garden for vegetable growing, providing and promoting allotments locally is one way to overcome this potential barrier.
Encouraging residents to plant fruit trees in their gardens, for example, through reduced VAT on native fruit trees, might be another way to increase local food production. Promoting and supporting local food systems such as community supported agriculture, organic box schemes and farmers markets is also key and can be done at community and local authority level.
Case Study: Fruit tree project Case Study: Tablehust and Plaw Hatch CSA, Forest Row, East Sussex The fruit tree project connects people who have fruit trees, people who can help harvest fruit, and community groups Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) is a that use fruit in their programmes. Using local backyard fruit, partnership between farmers and consumers where the the local community is enhanced and food security is responsibilities and rewards of farming are shared. strengthened. People who have excess fruit from their Generally, local people invest in their local farm in backyard fruit trees are connected with those who have the some way in return for a share of the harvest. In East time and energy to harvest it. Most of the harvested fruit is Sussex the CSA scheme farms around 700 acres on donated to community organisations and individuals in need. two small mixed farms. The farms have an annual Canning and pruning workshops are also run to pass on turnover in excess of £250,000. The CSA scheme aims skills which are quickly being lost in urban environments. A to “re-establish the connection between the process of fruit tree hotline is active year-round providing information food production and the people who consume the food, 112 and support for the project. creating support for sustainable farming practices in the future.”113
As many suburban residents are working professionals, often commuting significant distances, time to grow food may be limited, but given the higher rate of disposable income, money to support local food initiatives may be available. One option could be to work with and provide training for local gardeners who could set up and manage kitchen gardens in suburban gardens. This would increase the availability of fresh, local produce, provide local employment and reduce packaging waste related to convenience food.
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION Encouraging local schools to grow a proportion of their own food on site where possible with involvement from the pupils is one way to encourage the uptake of food growing opportunities. Cookery classes in schools and the local community, including mother and toddlers groups for example, which have a focus on home grown, local organic produce could also help to raise awareness. Organising community events which promote local produce, such as apple days, can also raise the profile and awareness of local produce.
82 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTING SCENARIOS Table 19, below, summarises the potential footprint reductions associated with four scenarios. As can be seen through reducing meat and dairy, buying predominantly local, organic produce, minimising waste and composting any remainders, an individual’s Ecological Footprint associated with food can be more than halved.
Table 19: Ecological Footprint of nourishment for each scenario showing savings compared to Scenario 1
Food and Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 drink ‘Average’ resident ‘Average’ resident of ‘Keen’ resident living ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull Solihull living in in Solihull’s suburbs living in retrofitted retrofitted property property Assumptions average Solihull low meat and dairy low meat, dairy low meat, dairy consumption diet and fish and fish diet rates mainly all local, consumption nearly all local, organic produce twice fresh fruit organic produce 30% less waste and vegetable no food waste consumption increased transport impact due to increased vegetable and fruit consumption EF/habitant 1.22gHa 100% 0.64gHa -48% 0.83gHa -32% 0.55gHa -55%
83 Natural habitats and wildlife
The Natural Habitats and Wildlife principle aims to integrate approaches for the conservation of existing biodiversity and the regeneration of degraded land, as well as increased access to nature by residents.
Over the last 100 years in the UK we have lost more than 100 species, and in the past 30 years we have lost 30% of the species from our planet1. A reduction in natural habitats results in a reduction in the productive biocapacity of the planet and thus to reduced resources in future. As well as their intrinsic importance, ensuring that suburbia supports a rich biodiversity and a varied landscape will contribute significantly to the quality of life and to the wellbeing of the community.
NATURAL HABITATS AND WILDLIFE IN SUBURBIA The OPL vision incorporates “an integrated network of high quality green spaces and green lanes that draws people into and through the area, encourages activity and improves the appearance of the area and the quality of life of the people in it”. Provision of and access to green space is a fundamental aspect of suburbia and it will be important to enhance and maintain this element, especially during any densification initiatives.
Larger house size and lower density mean that suburbia has a large impact on land use, potentially leading to a reduction in available space for agriculture and natural habitats and wildlife. Car use also has a direct impact: approximately 50,000 badgers, 100,000 foxes and at least 10 million birds are maimed or killed on our roads each year.114 Paving over gardens to create driveways means there is less green space available for wildlife. Cat ownership is also thought to be high in suburbia and has a significant impact on local wildlife: the Mammal Society estimates that in the UK cats catch up to 275 million prey items a year, including 55 million birds.115 This is only the known number of prey items; the actual figure is thought to be much higher.
It is clear that suburban lifestyles have a significant impact on wildlife in the UK. Suburban gardens do, however, also offer significant opportunities for enhancing biodiversity. Recent studies have discovered that suburban gardens are not always the wildlife deserts many people assume. A study of one suburban garden in Leicester, designed to attract wildlife, recorded more than 2,200 animal and plant species.116 Suburban gardens can also act as biodiversity ‘corridors’ through housing areas linking open green spaces.
NATURAL HABITATS AND WILDLIFE IN SOLIHULL Access to green space is an inherent and valued feature of many suburbs, and Solihull is no exception. Access to green spaces and conservation of wildlife was listed as a concern by many of the residents we spoke to. The council has a ‘Strategy for Parks and Open Spaces’, which aims to “maximise the benefit derived by creating accessible, attractive, clean, safe, varied and welcoming environments which contribute to the quality of life of people who live in, work in and visit Solihull”.117 The council has also developed a local Biodiversity Action Plan in partnership with Warwickshire and Coventry, which sets out strategies for landowners, land-managers and policy makers to protect the characteristic wildlife and landscapes of the sub-region.118
However, despite these plans, the strong development pressures affecting Solihull have had a significant impact on its environment and the scale of outward urban expansion into the Green Belt has, according to some, impacted upon the quality and character of the landscape. Development has placed pressures on the borough’s
84 natural assets and the increasing congestion on the borough’s roads has implications for air quality in some locations.119
NATURAL HABITATS AND WILDLIFE SOLUTIONS Table 20, below, summarises some of the strategies, potential barriers and measures needed to protect and enhance natural habitats and wildlife in suburbia.
Table 20: Barriers and measures needed to enhance biodiversity and wildlife in suburbia
Supporting natural habitats Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place and wildlife to drive change?
Development will support a Suburban gardens are important Ensure Code for Sustainable Homes rich biodiversity and a varied wildlife habitats although this is includes ecological assessment credits landscape dependent on individual gardening for densification developments habits and preference Local authority plays a key role through local biodiversity strategies and action plans Balanced recreational/ Difficult for individual resident to Local authority strategy/policy ecological approach to avoid influence this conflicts of use in areas of managed open space Native planting and Dependent on individual awareness, landscape strategy to preference and local availability increase biodiversity
Development primarily on Local authority can stipulate this sites with low ecological value
Whether natural habitats and wildlife are protected in gardens will primarily depend on the individual and family. However, the local authority has a key role to play through local biodiversity strategies, protecting parks and green spaces, raising awareness and encouraging suburban residents to plant native species and include bird and bat boxes in their gardens.
REGULATION The England Biodiversity Action Plan sets out a series of actions that will be taken by the government and its partners to make biodiversity a fundamental consideration across all main sectors of public policy and biodiversity indicators published yearly. Commitment to improving biodiversity against these indicators in suburbia could help to improve biodiversity protection, for example, through enabling additional funding for local conservation projects.
85 OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES The benefits of the Earth’s productive capacity are considerable – at a global scale, it has been valued at approximately US$33 trillion – more than global gross national product.
At a national level, key initiatives include: the Biodiversity Action Fund which supports projects that help achieve the UK government’s commitment to halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010, through delivering the objectives of the England Biodiversity Strategy and Biodiversity Action Plan targets. This could be used as a potential source of funding for local biodiversity conservation projects in suburbia.
At a national level, government could introduce reduced VAT rates for native flora species in order to encourage their uptake and increased tax on environmentally harmful substances such as chemical fertiliser and weed killer.
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION Given the profusion of gardens in suburbia, the individual suburban resident has a prime influence on biodiversity and uptake of any measures such as planting native species and installing bird and bat boxes will depend primarily on the awareness and ‘keenness’ of the resident.
According to the ACORN classification associated with Solihull’s southern suburbs, the internet is used frequently by many residents. Web resources that provide information on indigenous species and ways to enhance biodiversity in gardensxxiii could therefore be a useful tool in raising awareness.
xxiii For example: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/plants-fungi/postcode-plants/
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Culture and heritage
The Culture and Heritage principle aims to engender a sense of community through enhancing or reviving valuable aspects of local culture and heritage.
As well as conserving our valuable culture, both physical (such as buildings and infrastructure) and intangible (such as language and music), sustainable development needs to reflect social, cultural and religious diversity.
CULTURE AND HERITAGE IN SUBURBIA Gwilliams et al’s vision for sustainable suburbia are suburbs that have “their own distinctive character which reflects their history, topography and landscape and the range and type of housing and related development”. This may prove challenging in suburbia, particularly in low density car-based suburbs that do not have a historic core.
Some commentators feel that suburbia itself is culturally significant and should be protected. Nick Hubble, a research fellow at the centre for suburban studies at Kingston University states: “The historic nature of suburbia should be taken seriously. Britain’s mass culture grew up in the suburbs and the majority of the population live there. It’s an important part of our history and heritage. In terms of social history its significance is vast.”120 As the search for new housing intensifies, suburbia is coming under pressure; the challenge facing many suburbs in the coming years is therefore how to densify without adversely affecting the area’s character.
Under Planning Policy Guideline 3 (PPG3) suburban gardens can be classified as brownfield sites and developers are encouraged to build in these areas. In many areas, developers have started to buy houses, knocking them down and building scores of flats on the land instead121. Bungalows are a particular target for demolition, because they tend to have large garden plots. Although densification could help to reduce the Ecological Footprint of suburbia, through increased provision of local facilities and public transport, it is vital to ensure that such initiatives: respect and enhance the local culture and heritage; support key aspects of suburbia such as access to green space; protect and enhance local biodiversity; and ensure that there is sufficient green space to prevent the heat island effect and to mitigate flooding.
CULTURE AND HERITAGE IN SOLIHULL Unlike some suburban areas, Solihull does have a traditional historic core and there is a range of cultural events and facilities including: a wetlands, farmers’ market, nature reserve, community centre, arts centre and theatre. There is also an annual environmental festival and a range of activities including: wildlife walks, outdoor cinema, dance, drama and music.
CULTURE AND HERITAGE SOLUTIONS Table 21, below, summarises the main barriers and measures needed to promote and enhance culture and heritage in suburbia.
87 Table 21: Barriers and measures needed to enhance biodiversity and wildlife in suburbia
Culture and heritage Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place to drive change?
Sensitive development in National policy should be introduced acknowledgement of the history to ensure densification developments area in suburbia are culturally sensitive Opportunities for local Mostly applicable for densification Regulation could ensure that this is references and interpretation of or provision of new facilities incorporated into any new history and heritage maximised developments in suburbia
Revival of traditional industries Local council able to assist with this as a local employment generator
Local residents can be involved with helping to protect and enhance local culture and heritage in suburbia. Enabling the revival of traditional industries as a local employment generator is an effective way to promote local heritage (see lavender case study, below) and reduce the impact of employment, especially as employment of suburban residents is often outside of the area.
The local authority has a key role to play in Local lavender, Sutton protecting and promoting culture and heritage in
suburbia; for example, ensuring developments are Since 1996, Sutton Council, HMP Downview, BioRegional and sensitive to local needs, culture and heritage. They Yardley have worked together to revive south London’s can also help to encourage community events; for historic lavender fields in a suburban area in Sutton. In 2003, example, making it easier for local people to run the project was handed over to a local community group, street festivals, in which living rooms could be Carshalton Lavender. The three acres of lavender at Stanley transformed into art galleries and opened up to the Park Allotments have matured and hundreds of people, mostly public (such as in Southville, Bristol) and giving locals, turn up every year to ‘pick their own’ at the annual local communities the power to pedestrianise their community harvesting event. The flower heads left after the street for local festivals, (as currently happens to picking are harvested using BioRegional’s innovative communities when there is big sporting or cultural harvester built by Cranfield University. In 2004, more than event nearby). In Southville, Bristol, an annual arts 1,000 small bottles of lavender oil were produced and sold 122 festival takes place in people’s front rooms, with through local outlets and farmers’ markets. neighbours visiting each others homes. In Kingston, an annual Festival of Ideas is now held, celebrating suburbia and discussing new ways to revive suburban culture123.
REGULATION National policy should be introduced to ensure developments or densification in suburbia are culturally sensitive, protect local biodiversity, provide needed local facilities and do not create ‘heat island’ effects.
88 OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES Enhancing local culture and heritage does not only have a positive effect on the local community but can also contribute substantially to tourism and economic development; for example, the opening of a new gallery in Walsall led to increased sales of £4,000 a day for the local Boots store.
Free advice on how best to protect and enhance suburban areas is also to be made available for local authorities. English Heritage has launched a campaign to alert local authorities to significant suburbs in their patch. It will also give advice on how to accommodate future development without compromising the historic character of suburbs.120
Support for local independent businesses is also needed to preserve local heritage and diversity. These businesses and shops could also be included in the local area’s ‘green pages’ (as suggested in ‘Sustainable materials’).
OTHER MEASURES AND INDIVIDUAL ACTION Raising awareness of the cultural heritage and significance of suburbia and working to protect and enhance these aspects is integral to the culture and heritage principle to help create sustainable communities. Participation in local groups working to enhance local culture and heritage is also important, as is support for local cultural events and local businesses and produce.
89 Equity and fair trade
The Equity and Fair Trade principle aims to promote social equity, inclusion, local economic development and fair trade. Living sustainably is not only about not compromising the quality of life of future generations, but also that of our present neighbours around the world. Social equity is one of the principal values underlying sustainable development, with people and their quality of life being recognised as a central issue. Equity involves the degree of fairness and inclusiveness with which resources are distributed, opportunities afforded, and decisions made124. Fair trading is essential to One Planet Living: both promote social equity, justice, local economic development, decent prices and fair play. So when we’re not buying locally, we should buy as much as possible that’s fairly traded.
Access to local goods and services is also an integral part of equity and fair trade. The New Economics Foundation estimates that between 1995 and 2000, the UK lost 20% of some of its most vital institutions: corner shops, grocers, high street banks, post offices and pubs, amounting to a cumulative loss of over 30,000 local economic outlets. They estimate that on current trends, the number of local outlets will have dropped by nearly a third in the two decades to 2010; many communities of 3,000 people or less will have no such local outlets by the year 2010 and in some low-income neighbourhoods this is already the reality. The average shopper now drives an extra 160km a year to do their shopping, compared to 1991.125
EQUITY AND FAIR TRADE IN SUBURBIA The DCLG vision of sustainable communities includes “decent homes at prices people can afford”, enabling access to housing for all sectors. This is a particular area to address in suburbia as there is often a lack of affordable housing in most affluent car-based suburbs. Improvements in public transport and local facilities will enhance this process, as currently even if social and/or affordable housing is provided, the car-dependent nature of suburbia may preclude some residents from moving to these areas. There is a need for the local authority to work with housing associations in order to ensure that social and affordable housing is available. Ensuring that all housing is well insulated and has good levels of thermal comfort will also help to reduce fuel poverty. Access to local goods and services is also important, particularly for older residents and those who may have limited mobility.
EQUITY AND FAIR TRADE IN SOLIHULL Lack of affordable and accessible housing in Solihull may lead to less diversity of different socio-economic groups in its suburbs. It seems that often new developments in Solihull are classified as ‘luxury’ (for example, see photo on page 21).
Access to fair trade products in Solihull did not appear to be high, although some supermarkets in the area do stock fair trade goods.
90 EQUITY AND FAIR TRADE SOLUTIONS Table 22, below, summarises the key barriers and measures needed to increase and enhance equity and fair trade in suburbia.
Table 22: Strategies for increasing equity and fair trade in suburbia
Equity and fair trade Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place to drive change?
Provide access to a range of Opportunities for the individual to The local council should promote a facilities and opportunities for influence this are limited mix of accommodation, employment all and facilities where possible. Local authority could work closely with social housing providers to develop a strategy for integrating an affordable housing provision in suburbia Local employment opportunities enhanced through local training programmes and support for local businesses Diverse and inclusive Opportunities for the individual to Local council could implement community with a sense of influence this are limited access strategy for buildings, identity and place transport systems and open areas incorporating guidance on disabled access Local council and/or keen residents could work together to establish community intranet and website
Fair trade retailers and goods Participation in local community Local authority commitment to work promoted groups can catalyse movement with local stakeholders to achieve towards fair trade status ‘fair trade town’ status
Explore the prospects for Support for local authorities to do community enterprise schemes this to provide employment and skills acquisition to local youths e.g. producing local food or reinvigorate local crafts and traditions
Supporting local small and medium sized businesses and enhancing local employment opportunities is key to this principle and to making suburbia more sustainable, through reducing transport demand and facilitating access to local amenities.
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While new developments are able to provide more direct incentives for fair trade suppliers, for example, through reduced concessions for fair trade retailers on site, in suburbia these opportunities are potentially more limited. However, the local authority has a role to play in promoting fair trade in the area, ensuring that buildings and transport are accessible and could also help to facilitate the establishment of a community intranet. Encouraging a mix of facilities and housing types could also help to improve the accessibility of suburbia, which is generally thought to be the reserve of more affluent, car-owning residents.
Case study: Garstang REGULATION Garstang in Lancashire became the UK’s first Fairtrade Ensuring that affordable housing is provided in suburbia, town in 2000. A 2003 survey demonstrated 70% as elsewhere, is vital in order to create a diverse, vibrant recognition of the Fairtrade mark among residents, sustainable community. Providing opportunities for local compared to a 15% recognition in 2001. Garstang is employment, training and support for community scale twinned with cocoa-producing town New Koforidua in initiatives such as time banks and through tax breaks or Ghana and regular exchanges between townspeople similar is also important. take place. Local supermarkets have increased their ranges of Fairtrade products and regular promotional OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES events are held in the town with a range of activities engaging local school children in Fairtrade issues.126 Time banks and similar programmes can help to increase equity and fair trade in an area and also help to enhance community feeling, especially for those with more spare time such as the retired. One such system is the LETS system which is a locally initiated, democratically organised, not-for-profit community enterprise which provides a community information service and records transactions of members exchanging goods and services by using the currency of locally created LETS Credits. It is simply a community information system attached to its own market-place. Different LETS systems call their LETS Credits by different names, adding a local flavour. By supplementing conventional cash flow with a local currency, a community can maintain full employment, and protect itself from changes and fluctuations in the money supply. LETS schemes also enhance the knowledge and skill base of the community, foster self-reliance and self esteem, increase personal savings and disposable income, provide opportunities for businesses, create local economic control, encourage local purchasing, build community support networks, foster social justice and equality and often help community projects.127
Social enterprises can provide economic benefits to local communities, and it is estimated that every £1 received by a social enterprise generates £2.08 for the local economy.
In order to bring fair trade into suburbia, Demos – the think tank for ‘everyday democracy’ – suggests transforming the traditional ‘tupperware party’ into fair trade and ethical good networks in the suburbs. This would help to promote fair trade, increase local entrepreneurial opportunities and create an enhanced sense of community.
Demos also suggests encouraging entrepreneurship in the suburbs through using garden sheds or garages as innovation labs of the middle-aged suburbanite, boosting local economic development. With the rapid uptake of broadband in suburban homes (twice as fast as mobile phone uptake in the 1990s), creativity and entrepreneurship is increasingly accessible by housewives and schoolchildren as well. The fastest growth group for new enterprises are women in their 30s with young children who want to work in a different way and do more home working. Organisations such as the Women’s Institute (WI) could perhaps help foster this creativity by launching a ‘Young Mums’ Enterprise Club’.
92 INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION Individual action can play a key role in promoting equity and fair trade in an area; through supporting local independent businesses, produce and also through participating in community initiatives such as LETS. Community groups have also been key in instigating fair trade initiatives.
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTING SCENARIOS For ‘softer’ principles such as equity and fair trade is it not possible to directly calculate an associated Ecological Footprint.
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Health and happiness
The Health and Happiness principle aims to foster strategies to promote health and wellbeing, both in the present and into the future.
There is a proven correlation between the state of our environment and our health; our buildings and our wellbeing. The long-term health of the planet is fundamentally related to how we choose to live now; the sustainability of our lifestyles. Living unsustainably can not only lead to poor quality of life today, but may also jeopardise the quality of life of our descendants in the future.
A new global measure of progress, the ‘Happy Planet Index’, reveals that people can live long, happy lives without using more than their fair share of the Earth’s resources. The ranking unmasks a very different world order to that promoted by global leaders such as the G8. The UK for example, only ranks 108th and the USA is 150th on the Index.128
HEALTH AND HAPPINESS IN SUBURBIA According to a survey conducted by the DETR in 1998/99 to reveal satisfaction with local areas, suburban, and particularly suburban/rural areas were found to be places where satisfaction was among the highest (although this will vary from location to location). Protecting the elements of suburbia that residents relish, such as access to green space, is therefore fundamental and promoting community structures and groups could help to enhance satisfaction even further. Demos has also started to examine ways of modernising suburbia whilst seeking to preserve the core values and distinctiveness. Demos’ ideas include:
• Fostering a sense of community: this can be enhanced further through, for example, local councils creating suburban spaces where communal neighbourhood events can happen. In Denmark, for example, many suburbs have communal benches and barbecue areas in cul-de-sacs and suburban streets. Encouraging neighbours to get to know one another can also help to reduce crime and reduce policing needs. • Encouraging YIMBY-ism (i.e ‘Yes (rather than ‘not’) in my backyard’): suburbia is often associated with nimby-ism, opposing new developments etc. Demos suggests that Councils should allow local people and organisations to use unused land banks such as roundabouts and roadside verges and turn them into suburban communal gardens.123
HEALTH AND HAPPINESS IN SOLIHULL Generally the residents spoken to seemed to be happy with life in suburban Solihull. The Solihull Residents Association has a large network of over 350 members and is active in working towards protecting the interests of residents in Solihull’s suburbs. It was also generally felt that there was a good sense of community and groups such as Neighbourhood Watch and local resident groups were active in the area.
94 HEALTH AND HAPPINESS SOLUTIONS Table 23, below, summarises the differing approaches to promoting health and happiness in new communities compared to existing suburban housing areas.
Table 23: Barriers and measures needed to enhance health and happiness in suburbia
Health and happiness Potential barriers to action What measures could be put in place to drive change?
Promote healthy Lifestyle issues depend on individual The local authority can encourage lifestyles including awareness, preference and the exercise through the provision of exercise, healthy food availability of local facilities such as welcoming and safe public open space and community cycle routes and allotments and can help to facilitate access to involvement affordable, healthy fresh food Engender a sense of Some opportunities to do this exist in community and identity suburbia and are influenced by individual via community residents; for example, residents’ structures and networks associations. Council also has a role to play through for example, allowing communities to organise festivals and take ownership of unused land for community gardens Making use of existing community hubs such as schools, churches and existing community groups can also help to facilitate behaviour change
Undertake ongoing Council could do this, through for monitoring of buildings example, a community or borough-wide and support services to happiness survey (such as the ‘Making 129 measure levels of Slough Happy’ index ) resident satisfaction and happiness
While the scope for directly promoting and facilitating healthy lifestyles at community level is potentially greater for new developments, in suburbia some community initiatives and structures may already be in place. The local authority also has a role in promoting exercise, healthy food and community involvement in the area; for example, through providing free bicycle route maps, promoting local vegetable box schemes and linking with community groups. The local authority could also conduct resident satisfaction surveys and indicators in order to monitor and identify ways to increase the happiness of local residents.
REGULATION Mandatory happiness surveying of boroughs could be introduced. Limits could be placed on advertising unhealthy products, particularly those aimed at children.
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OTHER MEASURES AND INCENTIVES According to Demos, encouraging community development – for example, through allowing residents to organise cultural events such as art exhibitions in their front rooms and being able to pedestrianise their streets for an annual street festival – not only creates happier communities but can also lead to safer communities through reduced crime rates. Designing a healthy and secure environment has been found to increase educational attainment between 5-26% and reduce crime rates by approximately 50%.
INDIVIDUAL AND COMMUNITY ACTION Although in some cases individual residents may feel they are unable to influence policy or their environmental impact, many environmental initiatives are catalysed through small numbers of people coming together to work on environmental projects or put pressure on local and national decision makers, for example, many fair trade towns are such because residents got together to start the process. In suburbia lower density and lack of connectivity could be a key barrier to action; however, important community hubs such as schools, churches and other groups are present in suburbia and these groups could help to initiate change. Encouraging and supporting community groups could not only help to reduce the ecological footprint of suburbia but could also help to enhance the sense of community in suburbia. Research has also found that people who regularly volunteer tend to live longer those who don’t. Healthy diets and regular exercise have also been found to improve people’s quality of life.
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Key findings and conclusions
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT SUMMARY This study has revealed that there are significant opportunities to reduce the Ecological Footprint of existing suburban communities. Table 24, below, summaries the potential reductions for the four different scenarios examined in Section 2, for the five main measurable OPL principles.
Table 24: Summary of footprinting scenarios
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 ‘Average’ resident ‘Average’ resident of ‘Keen’ resident living ‘Keen’ resident of Solihull Solihull living in in Solihull’s suburbs living in retrofitted retrofitted property property Carbon Standard Efficient Efficient Heating demand Solihull energy appliances save appliances save reduced further demand 20% electricity 20% electricity 30% Insulation reduces 10% further 10% savings due hot water by 20% savings due to to conscientious conscientious resident resident Electricity generated by renewables EF/habitant 1.1gHa 100% 0.77gHa -30% 0.66gHa -40% 0.22gHa -80% Waste and typical Solihull 25% recycling Waste levels Waste levels consumer waste generation rate reduced 20% reduced by 50% items typical Solihull 25% of remainder 50% of remainder recycling rate recycled or recycled or composted composted EF/habitant 0.6gHa 100% 0.54gHa -10% 0.42 -43% 0.49 -62% Transport Typical Home working on Increased public Home office and Solihull travel occasions – 10% transport use – local pattern, high journey reduction 10% lower car employment – levels of car 10% reduced car use. 40% journey use use as public Half of these reduction transport and car journeys Increased public club. eliminated, made transport use, car Average air travel by foot/cycle, the club member – rest by bus 60% lower car Lower air travel use. Lower air travel EF/habitant 1.04gHa 100% 0.9gHa -13% 0.64gHa -38% 0.43gHa -59%
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Water Average UK Equivalent savings Reduced water Scenario 3 with water to BedZED consumption grey water consumption recycling Litres/ 134 100% 82 -39% 82 -39% 47 -65% person/day Food and average Solihull lower meat and dairy low meat, dairy low meat, fish and drink consumption diet and fish dairy diet rates mainly all local, consumption nearly all local, organic produce twice fresh fruit organic produce 30% less waste and vegetable no food waste consumption increased transport impact due to increased vegetable and fruit consumption EF/habitant 1.22gHa 100% 0.64gHa -48% 0.83gHa -32% 0.55gHa -55%
Services 0.24gHa 0.24gHa 0.24gHa 0.24gHa
Other 1.3gHa 1.3gHa 1.3gHa 1.3gHa
Total 5.5gHa 4.42gHa 4.09gHa 2.99gHa
The footprinting scenarios for this report were based on base-line Ecological Footprint data provided by SEI and previous footprinting scenario studies. They are therefore only an indicator of the potential footprint reductions associated with the different scenarios. However, they do give a general insight into potential impacts, and reveal that individual attitudes and lifestyle patterns, i.e. whether residents are ‘keen’ (i.e. aware and prepared to act) or not, has a big impact on the overall footprint of an area. However, even a ‘keen resident living in a retrofitted property’ still needs approximately 1.5 planets to support them. This is partly because, under this footprinting analysis, 1.54 gha of an individual’s footprint is attributable to factors outside of an individual’s immediate sphere of influence, such as services (including education and hospitals) and ‘gross fixed capital formation’24.
24 Gross fixed capital formation is investment in assets that are used repeatedly or continuously over a number of years to produce goods. For example, machinery used to create a product. 98
Global Ecological Footprint of Retrofit Scenarios Planet Hectares equivalents 6
5
4
3
2
1
0 ‘Average’ ‘Average’ ‘Keen’ resident ‘Keen’ resident resident of resident of of Solihull living in a Solihull Solihull living in retrofitted a retrofitted suburb suburb
The findings of this report suggest that action is needed at all levels to work towards One Planet Living in the suburbs. As we noted in our previous report, One Planet Living in the Thames Gateway, while individual action can make a very significant contribution to reducing our Ecological Footprint, this alone is not sufficient to address the problem. This is because a considerable component of an individual’s Ecological Footprint is attributable to their share of infrastructure and services, which individuals can do little to influence. Government and business therefore have a responsibility to deliver sustainable infrastructure and services, and to provide the framework to ‘change the defaults’ of our lifestyle choices – making it easy, attractive and affordable for people to choose more sustainable options.
Suburbia poses particular challenges in relation to One Planet Living; the reasons for this are fourfold:
1) Affluent areas of suburbia are generally perceived to be financially and socially stable and successful and the environmental impact of suburban life is therefore frequently overlooked by policy makers and awareness is consequently low.
2) Fundamental aspects of car-based suburbs are inherently unsustainable: they are low density, with high energy use, high car use and a dependence on external inputs. Resistance to change such as redensification may also be strong.
3) Opportunities for change are primarily determined by the awareness and keenness of the individual suburban resident, opportunities for community wide initiatives are more limited than in social housing or new developments.
4) Suburban culture may be a barrier; high incomes may result in higher levels of consumption.
However, there are also significant opportunities: 99
• Detached houses are easy to retrofit and the impact of retrofit measures such as increased energy efficiency will directly benefit individual owner-occupiers and so uptake may well be high if incentives and awareness raising initiatives are provided. • Green space in suburbia presents significant opportunities for food growing, composting and enhancement of biodiversity. • Suburbia is highly dependent on external resources; as energy prices rise so too will the cost of natural products (food, timber, etc), higher commodity prices could be a stimulus for greater self-reliance and more organic farming. Local products will be more competitive than imports; repair, retrofitting, and recycling will all be more competitive than new replacement; there will be rising demand for sustainable life-skills education; and there could be a resurgence of community life, ethics and values. • Suburbs contain existing ‘community hubs’ such as schools, churches and other groups which could provide a strong basis to help initiate change.
Individuals, communities, local, regional and national government all have an important role to play in paving the way towards One Planet Living in suburbia and government regulation and incentives are needed to facilitate and encourage sustainable lifestyle patterns. However, it is also what local people decide that they would like to implement on their own “territory” (in their homes, gardens and local public areas) that will determine whether suburbs become more environmentally sustainable entities. Local communities need to become involved in re- planning and re-engineering their own neighbourhoods, to achieve greater environmental as well as social sustainability. When communities work together more elaborate regenerative design solutions can be developed at a neighbourhood level which can also be developed to maximise the potential of the open surface areas within suburban development.
Understanding how to change behaviour and encourage sustainable lifestyle patterns is vitally important. While it is sometimes assumed that raising awareness of the environmental impact of lifestyle choices alone will lead to sustainable behaviour, in reality behaviour change is very complex and more work is needed in this area. It is vital to ensure that incentives favour sustainable behaviour, enabling access to environmentally friendly choices, engaging people in initiatives and exemplifying desired changes within government policies and practices.
KEY RECOMMENDATIONS It is important to recognise that the problems and potential of existing suburban areas can be very diverse – no blanket national or even city-wide solution can be applied, since local physical and natural conditions vary greatly throughout the UK. However, some general principles can be applied and individuals, communities, local, regional and national government all have an important role to play. A comprehensive and detailed set of recommendations for each of the OPL principles can be found on page 102. Here we set out the overarching recommendations for national, regional and local government, communities and individuals.
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT The government has a key role in making One Planet Living a realistic option for individuals, communities and businesses. It should:
• Adopt Ecological Footprint as a critical indicator for sustainable development and use it to inform policy decisions and develop strategies for One Planet Living. Only by clearly understanding our ‘environmental
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baseline’ will we be able to decide the necessary measures to move from ‘three planet living’ to One Planet Living. • Introduce a carbon budget that requires year-on-year cuts in carbon emissions from all sectors of the economy. • Provide a strong policy and regulatory framework to facilitate One Planet Living in the suburbs. • Provide incentives, grants and support to local authorities, communities and individuals to encourage the take-up of sustainable options: for example, retrofitted renewable energy systems and water efficiency measures. • Support the Energy Saving Trust's proposal for a cap and trade scheme on domestic energy supply, and introduce appropriate incentives to open a new market for energy service companies. • Publish a strong Code for Sustainable Existing Homes and require mandatory assessment of all homes. • Invest in research to provide a greater understanding of the barriers to behaviour change in communities and among individuals. They should also take advantage of government grants and incentives to retrofit their homes, and thereby save money on energy and water bills, as well as reducing their footprint.
REGIONAL AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES • Adopt Ecological Footprint as a regional/local indicator for sustainable development and use it to inform decisions and develop strategies for One Planet Living in the region. • Set targets for Ecological Footprint stabilisation and reduction. • Work with business to facilitate the development of energy service companies, and link council tax charges to improvements in home energy and environmental performance. • Work with local communities to understand the barriers to sustainable lifestyles.
INDIVIDUALS Individuals can and must play their part. They can do this by adopting ‘green’ behaviour wherever possible: making use of local facilities on offer and exercising their purchasing power. Individuals can dramatically reduce their footprint by, for example: increased recycling and composting; use of public transport; consumption of local organic food; and purchasing of ‘green’ products and services. They should also take advantage of government grants and incentives to retrofit their homes, and thereby save money on energy and water bills, as well as reducing their footprint.
While the footprinting scenarios suggest that One Planet Living is difficult to achieve in suburbia, because much of the infrastructure is already in place, it is clear that very significant opportunities exist for large reductions in residents’ impacts. For this to be achieved, it will require a combination of ‘top down’ and ‘bottom up’ action.
Clear responsibility lies with central government, which must commit to adopting ecological footprint as an indicator of sustainability, and then set the necessary overarching regulatory and enabling framework to deliver One Planet Living. Regional and local authorities must also develop strong policy frameworks to encourage, provide incentives, and where appropriate require greater sustainability in their existing suburbs. Business must also play its part and work with government and consumers to develop new business models, such as energy services companies that will deliver exciting opportunities for greater energy efficiency and decentralised energy generation in the suburbs. Finally, in order to achieve One Planet Living, we must make it easy, attractive and affordable for individuals and communities to choose more sustainable options.
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Table 25, below, summarises the main actions, incentives and policies needed to encourage One Planet Living in suburbia at the individual national and local government outlined in this report.
Table 25: Summary of actions, incentives and policies needed at individual, local and national level to facilitate One Planet Living in suburbia
Zero carbon: reducing carbon dioxide emissions by optimising building energy demand and supplying from zero/low carbon and renewable resources National government • Part L Building Regulations extended to require improvements in existing homes - i.e. through ‘consequential improvements’ • Ensure that a robust Code for Sustainable Existing Homes (CSEH) is developed and over time extend the energy performance certificate to an assessment of all homes against the Code on sale/purchase/change of occupancy • Enable the introduction of incentives linked to energy performance certificates/CSEH, including green mortgages, stamp duty and council tax charges • Require a percentage of renewable energy generation and improvements in energy efficiency from existing communities through the new Planning Policy Statement on climate change • Facilitate the development of energy services through a supplier cap and trade system • Require smart metering • Legislate against inefficient appliances that can be left on standby • Reduce VAT on energy saving technologies and equipment, and increase labelling of appliances and fittings. Increase fiscal grants for microgeneration and renewable energy community schemes • Require/facilitate the installation of microgeneration technologies through the planning system • Regulate to ensure premiums paid by green energy tariff customers ensure investment in additional renewables capacity beyond regulatory requirements • Improve landlord incentives such as the green landlord scheme
Local authority • Give council tax rebates for increased energy efficiency and enhanced environmental performance of homes • Introduce requirements for renewables in existing communities • Use Section 106 for well planned suburb densification where appropriate Individual • Purchase energy saving devices, increased insulation, double glazing, energy efficient appliances etc • Some solar gain potential through addition of south facing conservatory where possible • Whole house energy monitoring • Sustainable behaviour e.g. turning off lights when leaving rooms • Invest in microgeneration such as solar thermal
Zero waste: achieving a substantial reduction of waste flows to landfill by reducing waste arising; and valuing all materials as potential resources, through reuse, reprocessing or generating energy from waste
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National government • Engage with superstore chains to reduce packaging • Set targets for packaging minimisation and percentages of recyclate used in packaging and products • Incentives for local authorities to increase the scope of recycling services
Local authority • Support for local reclamation yards, real nappies, furniture re-use networks etc • All recyclable material collected and centrally recycled • Track the take-up of recycling services tracked to monitor participation and engage with defaulters • Provide fiscal incentives: cash discounts, prize draws, council tax rebates • Trial financial disincentives such as ‘pay as you throw’ • Promote and subsidise home composting facilities
Individual • Avoid overly packaged goods • Participate in waste minimisation schemes such as real nappies • Use recycled and reclaimed materials and products where possible • Participation in local recycling scheme and set up compost in garden/outside space
Sustainable transport: reducing the need to travel and providing sustainable alternatives to private car use
• Promote incentives for employers to allow home working, including reinstatement National government of tax exemption for employer-provided equipment through the Home Computing Initiative • Increased car tax for high emission vehicles • Reduced vehicle fuel tax on biofuels • Increase target for biofuels to at least 10% by 2015
Local authority • Attract businesses or ‘starter unit’ providers around existing transport nodes through reduced business rates and other fiscal incentives • Consider providing local collection points or subsidised secure delivery containers to enable home deliveries of local produce • Creation of home zone areas (included in Local Transport Plans) • Create local centres with independent local shops and service providers • Provide initial funding of alternatives to private car ownership such as car clubs • Provide fiscal incentives for residents who reduce or give up their car • Provide flexible systems that allow suburban travellers to use a range of transport options • Provide secure bicycle storage and / or cheap bicycle hire at suburban stations • Increase density around transport nodes • Provide support for ‘walking buses’ for all local primary schools • Provide oil recycling initiatives for biodiesel
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Individual • Support local facilities • Work from home where possible • Use internet ordering and home delivery services • Cycle or walk where possible • Use of public transport • Join a car club • If car ownership is deemed unavoidable, use of alternative fuels and fuel efficient vehicles
Sustainable water: reducing energy used in water supply and waste water management; reducing flooding risks and conserving water resources National government • Develop a ‘Code for Sustainable Existing Homes’ with mandatory assessment of all homes on sale, rental or change of occupancy, with fiscal incentives to upgrade the water and energy efficiency of homes • Reform building and water fitting regulations to ensure all newly installed water using appliances are highly water efficient • Introduce mandatory water metering • Introduce tougher leakage targets, to reflect environmental impacts and public concern • Reduced VAT on water saving devices • Label food to show how much water is used in production
Local authority • Subsidise water saving devices such as water butts • Limit the number of gardens paved over; require Sustainable Urban Drainage systems
Individual • Purchase water efficient appliances and fittings • Harvest rain and grey water harvesting • Design garden landscape to minimise flood risks i.e. maintenance of porous surfaces
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Local and sustainable materials: maximising the use of local, reclaimed, recycled and low environmental impact materials
National government • Label materials to reveal the estimated embodied energy of production • Introduce higher tax rates for high embodied energy products and ‘unsustainable’ materials • Develop local procurement policies where appropriate for all government bodies • Require regional and local government to source increasing percentages of credibly certified timber from well managed forests • Require DIY and other retailers to source increasing percentages of credibly certified timber from well managed forests
Local authority • Introduce a training programme for tradespeople in using local sustainable materials and ‘green’ products • Join the WWF-UK Forest and Trade Network • Make use of the government’s Central Point of Expertise on Timber (CPET) for procurement policies • Produce a green directory that highlights sources of local sustainable and reclaimed materials • Support the establishment of reclamation yards
Individual • Make maximum use of locally sourced, certified, reclaimed and recycled materials
Local and sustainable food: reducing emissions due to food transport and food manufacture and reducing environmental pollution due to chemicals used in food production National government • Fund and promote local food systems, for example through grants for Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) systems25 • Introduce food labelling that stipulates the embodied energy of food products • Set national composting targets
Local authority • Promote and support of local food production networks • Provide and promote local allotments and food growing facilities
Individual • Reduce the amount of animal protein in diet • Grow food growing in garden or local allotment • Buy local, seasonal and organic produce (home grown and local vegetable box or farmers’ market) • Reduced levels of food wastage and composting in gardens
25 CSA is a partnership between farmers and consumers where the responsibilities and rewards of farming are shared. CSA members often commit in advance to buying their food directly from the CSA farm. CSA farms are directly accountable to their consumer members and strive to provide fresh, high-quality food, typically using organic methods.
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Natural habitats and wildlife: conservation of existing biodiversity, regeneration of degraded land and increased access to nature by residents National government • Ensure Code for Sustainable Homes includes ecological assessment credits • Reduced VAT on native plant species
Local authority • Introduce local biodiversity strategies and action plans • Provide discounted or free professional advice
Individual • Plant native species in gardens • Increase biodiversity through planting
Culture and Heritage: engendering a sense of community through enhancing or reviving valuable aspects of local culture and heritage
National government • Introduce policies to ensure the historic character of suburbia is protected especially during densification/new housing provision Local authority • Run an awareness campaign towards creating a new culture of sustainability • Introduce policies to ensure historic character of suburbia is protected especially during densification/new housing provision
Individual • Participation in local groups working to enhance local culture and heritage • Support for local cultural events and local products
Equity and fair trade: promoting social equity, inclusion, local economic development and fair trade
National government • Work with social housing providers to develop a strategy for integrating affordable housing in suburbia • Introduce procurement policies for the purchase of fair trade goods by all government bodies Local authority • Promote a mix of accommodation, employment and facilities • Enhance local employment opportunities through local training programmes and support for local businesses • Introduce an access strategy for buildings, transport systems and open areas incorporating guidance on disabled access • Develop a community intranet and website • Support for local fair trade networks
Individual • Participate in community groups to help obtain fair trade status • Purchase fair trade goods
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Health and happiness: fostering strategies to promote health and well-being, both in the present and into the future
National government • Support researchto better understand personal and community health and well- being • Increase the power of local communities to organise events and use vacant public land Local authority • Provide safe public open space and facilities for exercise and recreation for all age groups • Increase access to affordable, healthy fresh food • Conduct community or borough-wide happiness survey
Individual • Maintain a healthy diet and lifestyle, including regular exercise and consumption of fresh fruit and vegetables • Participate in community groups, events and initiatives
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Appendix 1: Energy efficiency measures as part of home improvement
In 2000 Halifax conducted a survey of its customers to gain an insight into home improvement trends. It found that adding value is the main motivation for 2 in 5 of today’s home improvers. However, reducing fuel bills through increased efficiency was also found to be a prime motivator, with 1 in 10 improving to reduce fuel bills26.
Double glazing was found to be the most popular home improvement for 1 in 3 home owners, while 8 in 10 of those who wish to add value to their homes feel it will help sell their property.
Top home improvements:
Overall To help sell a property (No change from 1998) 1. Double glazing 1. Double glazing 2. Fitted kitchen 2. Central heating 3. Garden improvements 3. Fitted kitchen 4. New bathroom 4. Garage 5. Home security 5. New bathroom
Reasons for Improvements: 1. Add value to the home 2. Improve standard of living 3. Reduce fuel bills 4. Increase saleability of home 5. Don’t want to move
Younger people aged 24-34 and those who’ve been in their homes for up to five years are most enthusiastic about carrying out home improvements, and also people in the northern regions (46%). The tables below summarise the types of improvements made by region and the reasons for the improvements. As can be seen
Type of Improvements Made NAT North Midlands South
% % % % Overall % making improvements 38 43 32 31 Double glazing 33 28 39 36 Fitted Kitchen 26 26 23 28 Garden improvements 23 18 39 26 New Bathroom 20 20 16 21
26 http://www.hbosplc.com/media/pressreleases/articles/halifax/2000-08-25-00.asp 108
Home Security 12 13 13 10 Central Heating 11 11 10 8 Fitted Bedroom 9 7 3 15 Extension to house 9 8 13 10 Conservatory 11 11 3 8 Garage 8 9 3 10 Energy/Fuel Saving 10 11 13 3 Other 8 5 16 10 Reasons for Improvements NAT North Midlands South
% % % % Add value to home 40 38 42 44 Improve standard of living 37 38 29 31 Reduce fuel bills 24 22 26 31 Improve security 16 13 26 21 Increased saleability 20 15 39 23 Don’t want to move 17 15 10 21 Need more space 12 12 10 13 Hobby/DIY 10 11 3 10 Provide accommodation for children 8 8 6 8 Essential repair 4 5 - 3 Can’t afford to move 2 2 6 - Invest spare funds 2 2 3 3 Other 6 8 3 5
Financing home improvements Just over half of those surveyed (56%) used personal savings to pay for home improvements. Savings were much preferred by women (62%), whereas men were more likely to finance their improvements with a loan (46%). The level of borrowing to fund improvements was found to be increasing, especially with the number of people taking out secured personal loans. People taking out home improvement loans to finance the work tended to be in the 35-44 year age bracket (30%), and those who had been in their homes between 5 and 20 years. 1. Home Improvement Loan 18% 2. Unsecured personal loan 12% 3. Secured personal loan 10% 4. Inheritance 2% Availability of home improvement loans may therefore be an important factor in allowing individuals to retrofit their homes to higher environmental standards and some banks, such as Halifax, offer Home Improvement Loans, Homeowner loans and personal loans for a wide range of home improvements. However, ‘home improvement’ covers a range of measures and although some measures such as double glazing and energy/fuel
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saving will help to reduce energy use of the home, many such as ‘fitted kitchens’ may well have a negative environmental impact. This will be explored in further detail in the materials section.
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