Journal Volume 19, June-July 2018

INDEX

Sr. Page Name of the Research Paper Author No. No. 1 Ecological Light Pollution- Causes And Effects Arunima Bhattacharya 1-4 Genesis And Morphology of Coastal Potholes and Depressions : 2 Dr. Ajay Kamble 5-10 A Case Study From North Konkan, Analysis of Trends And Causes For Variations of Fluvial Dynamics Dr. Rajesh Kumar Mahato 3 And Sedimentation Behavior In Sapt Basin of 11-17 Dr. Satyapriya Mahato Plain () And Mountainous Region of Eastern . Spatial Variations in Agricultural Productivity of Koppal District in 4 Dr. Basavaraj R. Bagade 18-23 Karnataka State Samsul Hoque Chronological and Chorological Dimensions of Literacy in Malda 5 A K M Anwaruzzaman 24-30 District with Special Reference to Gender Gap Nuruzzaman Kasemi Impact of PMGSY on Socio-Economic Development : A Case Rentu Biswas 6 Study of Chandpur- Kushabaria Road, MurshidabadTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHERDistrict, West 31-39 A K M Anwaruzzaman Bengal Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Productivity of Boro Paddy in 7 Subhasis Mondal 40-47 Bolpur Sub- Division Industrial Scenario and Potentialities of Industrial Development of Dr. Sanjib Majumder 8 Hooghly Industrial Region With Special Reference to Hooghly 48-55 Sandip Saha District Nanasaheb P. Kamble Survey of Avian Diversity in Selected Area (Kudal And Kankavli Bhagyashri K. Parab 9 56-60 Taluka) of , Maharashtra State, India Manish M. Joil Janvi P. Keluskar A Geographical Perspective of Spatio –Temporal Trend In Sex 10 Mr. Shridhar Pednekar 61-65 Ratio A Study Of Palghar District: 1981-2011‟ Kavita Saini 11 Spatio- Temporal Analysis of Social Crimes in Haryana 66-69 Sunil Kumar 12 jktLFkku esa i;ZVu % ,d fo'ys"k.kkRed v/;;u Dr. Abhay Krishna Singh 70-77

13 tSo fofo/krk gkzl ,oa laj{k.k % ,d HkkSxksfyd o tSfod vk;ke MkW- ,l- ,e- iztkifr 78-83 Factors Influence on the Distribution of Settlement in Sindhudurg Dr. R. B. Patil 14 84-87 District (MS) Dr. B. A. Survase

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ACS College, Onde, Vikramgad, Palghar

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Veer Wajekar ASC College, Phunde, Uran

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Ecological Light Pollution - Causes and Effects

Arunima Bhattacharya Assistant Professor, Vidyasagar College for Women, Kolkata

Abstract : Kolkata The artificial light that alters the natural patterns of light and dark in ecosystems is called “ecological light pollution”. Light varies in intensity (the number of photons per unit area) and spectral content (expressed by wavelength). Ideally, ecologists should measure illumination in photons per square meter per second with associated measurements of the wavelengths of light present. Since polarized moonlight is believed to be used by many animals for navigation, this screening is another negative effect of light pollution on ecology. Ecological light pollution has demonstrable effects on the behavioural and population ecology of organisms in natural settings. As a whole, these effects derive from changes in orientation, disorientation, or misorientation, and attraction or repulsion from the altered light environment, which in turn may affect foraging, reproduction, migration and communication. Birds. Sea turtles and insects like moths are mostly affected. Zooplanktons and plants are also not spared which affects the ecology of a place on a long term basis. Developing lighting strategies that minimize adverse ecological impacts while balancing the often conflicting requirements of light for human utility, comfort and safety, aesthetic concerns, energy consumption and carbon emission reduction constitute significant future challenges. With enough control, most of the sea, sky and terrestrial life can return to normal. Keywords: ecological light pollution, threats, developing light strategies, legal measures.

Introduction : The term “light pollution” has been in use for a number of years, but in most circumstances refers to the THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER degradation of human views of the night sky. A glance at the night sky might make us think the Milky Way has dried up. The glow of light pollution has hidden one of the night's most striking features from one-fifth of humanity. This is “astronomical light pollution”, where stars and other celestial bodies are washed out by light that is either directed or reflected upward. This is a broad-scale phenomenon. The artificial light that alters the natural patterns of light and dark in ecosystems is called “ecological light pollution”. Verheijen (1985) proposed the term “photo pollution” to mean “artificial light having adverse effects on wildlife”. The phenomenon therefore involves potential effects across a range of spatial and temporal scales. The first atlas of artificial night sky brightness illustrates that astronomical light pollution extends to every inhabited continent (Cinzano et al. 2001) and calculated that 18.7% of the terrestrial surface of the Earth is exposed to night sky brightness that is polluted by astronomical standards. A shortened or brighter night is more likely to affect tropical species adapted to diurnal patterns with minimal seasonal variation than extra tropical species adapted to substantial seasonal variation. Light varies in intensity (the number of photons per unit area) and spectral content (expressed by wavelength). Ideally, ecologists should measure illumination in photons per square meter per second with associated measurements of the wavelengths of light present. More often, illumination is measured in lux (or foot-candles, the non-SI unit), which expresses the brightness of light as perceived by the human eye. The lux measurement places more emphasis on wavelengths of light that the human eye detects best and less on those that humans perceive poorly, however, other organisms perceive light differently – including wavelengths not visible to humans. Generally speaking, blue light is more likely to be damaging to mammals because the non-imaging photoreceptors in mammalian eyes are most sensitive in the blue region. Artificial planar surfaces, such as glass windows or asphalt reflect highly polarized light. Many insects are attracted to polarized surfaces, because polarization is usually an indicator for water. This effect is called polarized light pollution and although it is certainly a form of ecological photo pollution, "ecological light pollution" usually refers to the impact of artificial light on organisms. In the night, the polarization of the moonlit sky is very strongly reduced in the presence of urban light pollution, because scattered urban light is not strongly polarized. Since polarized moonlight is believed to be used by many animals for navigation, this screening is another negative effect of light pollution on ecology.

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Objective of the Study : The study has been done with the following objectives in mind.  What is ecological light pollution  The harmful effects of ecological light pollution on different species of animals.  The preventive measures and the challenge faced by the advanced nations. Methodology : The methodology followed in this work relates to the collection of data from various sources like magazines, books, journals and the internet. The Sources : Sources of ecological light pollution include sky glow, lighted buildings and towers, streetlights, fishing boats, security lights, lights on vehicles, flares on offshore oil platforms, and even lights on undersea research vessels, all of which can disrupt ecosystems to varying degrees. . It comes from sources such as:  domestic exterior and interior lighting  commercial properties  factories  streetlights  sporting venues

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

The Effects : Ecological light pollution has demonstrable effects on the behavioural and population ecology of organisms in natural settings. As a whole, these effects derive from changes in orientation, disorientation, or misorientation, and attraction or repulsion from the altered light environment, which in turn may affect foraging, reproduction, migration and communication. Constant artificial night lighting may also disorient organisms accustomed to navigating in a dark environment. The Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) works with building owners in Toronto, Canada and other cities to reduce mortality of birds by turning out lights during migration periods. The Fatal Light Awareness Program (FLAP) estimates that in North America at least 100 million birds, mostly low-flying songbirds, die each year in collisions with man-made structures. The best-known example of this is the disorientation of hatchling sea turtles emerging from nests on sandy beaches. Under normal circumstances, hatchlings move away from low, dark silhouettes (historically, those of dune vegetation), allowing them to crawl quickly to the ocean. With beachfront lighting, the silhouettes that would have cued movement are no longer perceived, resulting in disorientation (Salmon et al. 1995). Lighting also affects the egg-laying behaviour of female sea turtles. Newly hatched turtles need a dark night sky to orient them toward the sea, but artificial lights behind beaches lure them away. Hatchlings are attracted to lights and crawl inland, or crawl aimlessly down the beach, sometimes until dawn, when terrestrial predators or birds get them, said Michael Salmon, a biologist at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida. Birds can be disoriented and entrapped by lights at night (Ogden 1996). Once a bird is within a lighted zone at night, it may become “trapped” and will not leave the lighted area. Large numbers of nocturnally migrating birds are therefore affected when meteorological conditions bring them close to lights, for instance, during inclement weather or late at night when they tend to fly lower. Within the sphere of lights, birds may collide with each other or a structure, become exhausted, or is taken by predators. Birds that are waylaid by buildings in urban areas at night often die in collisions with windows as they try to escape during the day. Artificial lighting seems to be taking the largest toll on bird populations. Nocturnal birds use the moon and stars for navigation during their bi-annual migrations. Not wanting to fly back into the dark, they continue to fly in the light‟s beam until they are exhausted, fall or become prey. The artificial lights

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can also cause migrating birds to wander off course and never reach their natural destination. Marine birds have been known to collide with lighthouses, wind turbines and drilling platforms at sea. Many groups of insects, of which moths are one well-known example, are attracted to lights. Other taxa showing the same attraction include lacewings, beetles, bugs, caddis flies, crane flies, midges, hoverflies, wasps, and bush crickets. Attraction depends on the spectrum of light – insect collectors use ultraviolet light because of its attractive qualities – and the characteristics of other lights in the vicinity. Reproductive behaviours may be altered by artificial night lighting. This attraction expends too much energy and interferes with mating and migration, causing population reduction makes them easy prey for bats and other nocturnal predators, further reducing their numbers, impacts all species that rely on insects for food or pollination. Female glow-worms attract males up to 45 m away with bioluminescent flashes; the presence of artificial lighting reduces the visibility of these communications. Similarly, the complex visual communication system of fireflies could be impaired by stray light. When insects are attracted to lamps they can be killed by exhaustion or contact with the lamp itself, and they are also vulnerable to predators like bats. Insects are affected differently by the varying wavelengths of light, and many species can see ultraviolet and infrared light that is invisible to humans. Because of variances in perception, moths are more attracted to broad spectrum white and bluish light sources than they are to the yellow light emitted by low pressure sodium vapour lamps. Dragonflies perceive horizontally polarized light as a sign of water. Dragonflies searching for water either to drink or in which to lay eggs often land on roads or other dark flat reflective surfaces such as cars and remain there until they die. The night blooming flowers that depend on moths for pollination are affected by night lighting as there is no replacement pollinator that would not be affected by artificial light. This can lead to species decline of plants that are unable to reproduce and thus change an area‟s long term ecology. The haze from sky glow extends far beyond the borders of an urban city, impacting the environment for miles, including wetlands, the natural habitat of amphibians. It causes amphibians, and other creatures of the marshes, to become confused and disoriented, causing: a decrease in reproduction, resulting in lower populations reduced foraging for food and lower body weight Confusion of natural instincts that protect against predators and the elements. Female frogs, for example, are less selective about mate choice when light levels are increased, presumably preferring to mate quickly and avoid the increased predation risk of mating activity. Night lighting may also inhibit amphibian movement to and from breeding areas by stimulating photo tactic behaviour. Visual communication within and between species may be influenced by artificial night lighting. Some species use light to communicate, and are therefore especially susceptible to THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER disruption. Unexpected changes in light conditions may disrupt predator–prey relationships. Gliwicz (1986, 1999) describes high predation by fish on zooplankton during nights when the full moon rose hours after sunset. Zooplankton had migrated to the surface to forage under cover of darkness, only to be illuminated by the rising moon and subjected to intense predation. This “lunar light trap” illustrates a natural occurrence, but unexpected illumination from human sources could disrupt predator–prey interactions in a similar manner, often to the benefit of the predator. Many aquatic invertebrates, such as zooplankton, move up and down within the water column during a 24-hour period, in a behaviour known as “diel vertical migration”. The Act : The Clean Neighbourhood and Environment Act 2005 makes light nuisance subject to the same criminal law as noise and smells. It applies to "artificial light emitted from premises so as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance". The Environment Protection Act of 1986 defined a hazardous substance as “any substance or preparation which, by reason of its chemical or physics-chemical properties, or handling, is liable to cause harm to human beings, other living creatures, plants, microorganisms, property or the environment.” This law enlists general powers of the central government which included “all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment and preventing, controlling and abating environmental pollution.” Conclusion : Maintaining and increasing natural unlit areas is likely to be the most effective option for reducing the ecological effects of lighting. However, this will often conflict with other social and economic objectives. Decreasing the duration of lighting will reduce energy costs and carbon emissions, but is unlikely to alleviate many impacts on nocturnal and crepuscular animals, as peak times of demand for lighting frequently coincide with those in the activities of these species. Reducing the trespass of lighting will maintain heterogeneity even in otherwise well-lit areas, providing dark refuges that mobile animals can exploit. Decreasing the intensity of lighting will reduce energy consumption and limit both sky glow and the area impacted by high-intensity direct light. Shifts towards „whiter‟ light are likely to increase the potential range of environmental impacts as light is emitted across a broader range of wavelengths. According to Gaston and Davis, there are five management options to reduce night-time light pollution. These are to (i) prevent areas from being artificially lit; (ii) limit the duration of lighting; (iii) reduce the „trespass‟ of lighting into areas that are not intended to be lit (including the 3 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 19

night sky); (iv) change the intensity of lighting; and (v) change the spectral composition of lighting. Developing lighting strategies that minimize adverse ecological impacts while balancing the often conflicting requirements of light for human utility, comfort and safety, aesthetic concerns, energy consumption and carbon emission reduction constitute significant future challenges. In the past decade, many cities and even a few countries have made regulations to do the same. With enough control, most of the sea, sky and terrestrial life can return to normal.

References : 1) Cinzano, P., F. Falchi, and C. D. Elvidge. 2001. The first world atlas of the artificial night sky brightness. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 328:689–707. 2) Deutschlander, M. E., J. B. Phillips, and S. C. Borland. 1999. The case for light-dependent magnetic orientation in animals. The Journal of Experimental Biology 202:891–908. 3) Verheijen, F. J. 1985. Photopollution: artificial light optic spatial control systems fail to cope with. Incidents, causations, remedies. Experimental Biology 44:1–18. 4) Ruth L. Kamrowski1, Col Limpus, James Moloney, Mark Hamann. Coastal light pollution and marine turtles: assessing the magnitude of the problem, Vol. 19: pgs 85–98, 2012 5) Wiltschko, R., and W. Wiltschko. 2003. Avian navigation: from historical to modern concepts. Animal Behavior 65: pgs 257–272. 6) Travis Longcore and Catherine Rich 2004. Ecological light pollution. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2: pgs 191-198 7) Kevin J Gaston, Thomas W Davies, Jonathan Bennie and John Hopkins. Reducing the ecological consequences of night-time light pollution: options and developments Journal of Applied Ecology, Volume 6, pgs 1556-1566, December 2012.

8) Nancy B Grimm, Global Change and the Ecology of CitiesTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 319 no. 5864 pgs. 756-760.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018

ISSN 2277 – 4858

Genesis and Morphology of Coastal Potholes And Depressions :

A Case Study From North Konkan, Maharashtra

Dr. Ajay Kamble Bhavan’s College, Andheri, Mumbai.

Abstract : Potholes are the result of concentrated, gyratory erosion by water. Though they are formed in fluvial as well as in coastal environments, the processes of their formation are different. This paper is a discussion of the formation and morphology of coastal potholes and depressions on the rocky shores of North Konkan in Maharashtra. Quantification with reference to pothole morphology has been attempted for variables like pothole depth, diameter, shapes, overhangs etc. Variations in these different attributes indicate that their genesis is controlled by different independent processes, or a combination of these. Potholes may be classified as Erosion-induced, weathering-induced and potholes formed due to higher sea-levels in the past. Analysis of the morphometric variables suggest that there may exist an equilibrium condition for pothole depth and diameter. Keywords : Potholes, weathering depressions, joint widening, pothole axis Introduction : Potholes are common micro-forms in fluvial as well as coastal environments. These are circular, oval or irregular-shaped shallow depressions in the parent rock which seldom show a singular occurrence. Group of potholes closely spaced, as well as fused into one another, is rather a familiar sight. The process of pothole development is THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER generally attributed to concentrated circular erosion by water (Alexander, 1932). This appears to be the logical outcome of the observation of the deep circular shapes of the potholes. However, a detailed study of various morphological characteristics of potholes may throw light on various processes operative and stages in their formation. Study Area : The area for the present study is a part of North Konkan coast, in Raigad District of Maharashtra. It is a strip of about 35-40km, extending from Murud in the north, to Velas in the south. It lies between 17055‟ to 18019‟ latitude and confined between 72055‟ and 730E long (fig.1). The study area is underlain by Deccan trap formation made up of Basaltic flows. These rocks were formed due to outpouring of lava during the Cretaceous and Eocene period (Krishnan 1982). Besides general observations, pre-field visits led the researcher to identify the probable sites which were thought to be desirable for conducting detailed surveys. In order to carry out detailed survey of potholes, six rocky coast sites were selected. Among all the sites that were surveyed, not all have occurrence of potholes. They are completely absent on Dighi platform, Bharadkhol headland while show a restricted occurrence between Adgoan-Sarva belt. Towards south, Hareshwar and Velas have a larger number as well as a greater variety of potholes. At Hareshwar, the potholes are in form of large circular Fig. 1. The Study Area

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shallow depressions. Rounded, deep potholes are present only on the raised, seaward margin of platform. Linear depressions of large size are observed at Adgoan, while irregular shaped shallow depressions are encountered near Sarva. These pools are generally bordered by small quartzveins. There also appears a certain degree of association of rock-types and potholes. Sites like Dighi and Shekhadi, which have rocks with dense horizontal joints, seldom show pothole development. Similarly, uniform vesicular, and highly altered basalt found at Bharadkhol, also does not have pothole formation. The potholes seem to be more common where rocks are homogenous. The potholes observed were from two sample sites, some occupied the lower level platform and were in the zone of tidal inundation. Another category was of seemingly defunct ones, which occupied a higher level shore platform about 7m above the LTL. These potholes were well above the tidal wash zone. Apart from visual interpretation, measurements were taken and morphometric variables such as diameter of the pot-hole (if present) orientation and shape were collected. Analysis of these variables leads to following observations. 1. Most of the potholes which were smaller than 25 cm in depth show and oval or irregular shape, whereas potholes deeper than this depth are circular in shape. 2. Pot-hole diameter and depth (in case of circular potholes) are directly proportional. Large the diameter, the deeper is the pot-hole. 3. Pot-holes on the lower level platforms are roughly circular, but show an inclination in axis, towards sea. 4. Presence of grinding stones is common in case of upper level pot-holes. The pot-holes on the lower platforms are generally devoid of grinding stones. 5. Generally large pot-holes have grinding stones. 6. Lower level pot-holes have smooth overhangs and polished surfaces. Upper level pot-holes do not have overhangs and have comparatively rough walls. 7. Irregular shaped pot-holes are generally found on the lower platforms within the splash zone.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Fig. 2. Irregular shaped potholes formed due to weathering

Fig. 3. Erosion Induced Pothole with grinding stones Fig. 4. Pothole formed due to joint-widening

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Fig. 5. Seaward inclination of Pothole axis Fig. 6. Potholes on Second level relict platform

Discussion : Keeping all the above mentioned observations together, some conclusions regarding the process of formation of the pot-holes may be drawn. These are as follows: 1. Not all potholes are result of erosion. Though it is commonly believed to be a result of circular movement of water, irregular shaped depressions cannot be accounted by this explanation. In the warm tropical areas where chemical weathering is intensive, depressions may be created by block disintegration along lines of weakness or granular weathering. In the study area, such pot-holes are found near the swash zone where alternating wetting and drying takes place and weathering has major role to play. 2. Potholes developed by weathering, besides being irregular, are shallow (Fig.2). In amygdaloidal basalt, removal of secondary minerals shall cause a primary depression. Once formed, this irregular depression collects water during high tides. This collected water doesn‟t completely drain away during low tides and continues to be at the same location for a longer period even in the low tide period. Shallow pools of water are thus created (Fig. 2 and 6). The fastest rate of rock disintegration occurs, where alternateTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER wetting and drying takes place. The bottom of the pool is always kept wet by collected water. As a result, down-ward penetration of weathering is slow, whereas lateral widening takes place easily as the edges of depression become wet and dry frequently. Increase in surface area of depression collects more water and the widening process repeats itself. This phenomenon continues, till a comparatively resistant material is encountered at the edges. Their presence shall be restricted to the swash zone where periodic wetting and drying takes place. 3. Potholes which are circular are a result of circular motion of water and resultant erosion. They seem to be developed near seaward edge of shore platform where waves break releasing tremendous shock pressure on the rock. A block removal may provide the initial place where gyratory action of water gets concentrated at the bottom the depth increases faster producing a high depth/ width ratio. At times the block dislodged by the wave attack, may be too big to be carried by waves. Such loosened large blocks are trapped within their casings and are rotated by incoming and outgoing flow of water. Their rotation on one hand makes the casing roughly circular in shape, and secondly, the block themselves assume a spherical shape. However, continuous abrasion of the irregular edges of the block, gives the pothole only a rough circular shape. The pothole edges remain unpolished and irregular (Fig. 5 and 6). Depth of such large potholes with grinding stones is a direct effect of the dimensions of the dislodged boulder. As long as the grinding stone is present in the pothole, prevents further deepening by restricting the gyratory movement of water underneath. The waves, however, may rotate the grinding stone, causing an increase in the diameter of the pot-hole. 4. It has been observed that the size of pothole and presence of grinding stone are directly related i.e. large potholes have grinding stones. Such a relationship is logical, since the small dislodged blocks can be carried out of their casing by waves. The resultant potholes shall be shaped by action of water alone. On the other hand, it is only due to their size and weight that large grinding stones are not removed. Hence, only large potholes have grinding stones. Such large potholes formed by turning of large grinding stones by water, obviously would require a high energy wave environment, which is found only within the swash zone. In the study area, such potholes are observed at about 7m above LTL(Fig. 5) where only a weak spray action is observed. Presence of circular pot-holes and spherical grinding stones at this heightindicate a higher relative sea level in the past.

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5. Smaller depressions may be a result of removal of small boulders or widening at the junction of joints (Fig.4 and 6). Such small depressions may then be shaped by grooving action of water. Such pot-holes are smaller in diameter and depth then the ones having grinding stone. Nevertheless, their main characteristic is their smooth edges and smooth sharp overhangs (Fig.7). Abrasion and polishing by sand, quartz grain sand lateritic pebbles is the reason for their characteristics. Sand particles being heavy, tend to settle at the bottom. At the time of high tide when the water rushes in and develops gyratory flow, these particles are lifted up in suspension and are rotated with water. Maximum cutting and polishing is thus done at a little height from the bottom (Fig.7). Finer the abrasive material, the smoother are the pothole edges and overhangs. A maximum of 25cm of overhang was observed in potholes of 100 cm diameter. Potholes with overhangs were not found on the higher platform away from tidal wash zone. It seems that as the wave attack ceases or the potholes become defunct, the overhangs weather and crumble, making the potholes rough and irregular. 6. The axis and orientation of the potholes also very according to their process of formation. Weathering induced depressions follow joints and other planes of weaknesses, hence do not show any particular orientation with respect to wave attack. Large potholes formed due to grinding by dislodged boulders are roughly circular but with a perpendicular axis, as rotation of grinding stones does not get inclined due to their size. However, potholes in which, circular motion of water along with fine grinding material, is the main process, the pothole axis shows an inclination towards the sea (Fig. 4 and 7). This maybe due to two reasons. a. The platforms slope towards the sea hence abrasion against the slope by incoming waves is weak. Particles in response to gravity, tend to roll in the direction of slope and carve a seaward inclined axis. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER b. The flow of water is not unilateral as in case of fluvial erosion. The back wash is equally strong which counters the swash and deflects the axis of erosion.

Equilibrium condition in pothole growth : Even after having evolved and matured as a landform, potholes are constantly acted upon by waves or by sub-aerial processes. However, they remain micro- forms, and one does not observe an infinite increment in their dimensions, This suggests that potholes may have a self-limiting stage, after which a pothole ceases to change its size as well as shape. In case of any change in the processes, the equilibrium shall get disturbed. The alterations in pothole shape and size shall take place until a new equilibrium is reached. Such stages of equilibrium may be visualized in all the above mentioned categories of potholes Fig. 6. Processes of Pothole formation

.In case of weathering pits, the bottom of the pothole is constantly kept wet and hence, restricts down-wearing. The depth, thus, remains shallow and lateral extension takes place on larger extent. Such shallow pools extending from either sides often fuse together leaving behind resistant parts as small pinnacles or stacks (Fig 8a) pothole at this stage doesn‟t remain a pothole but becomes a part of newly exhumed surface of a platform. Pothole development may start afresh on this surface. The width of a weathering pit is thus, a self-controlling factor. Potholes which have large grinding stones do not increase much in depth since process of grinding stones does not allow an effective circular flow of water. Their width initially increases due to side wall abrasion. However, after 8 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 19

sidewalls are widened a little more than the size of grinding stone, the stone rotates within the casing but may not strike the sidewalls very frequently. The increment in width slows down consequently. By this time the grinding stones themselves get reduced in size due to abrasion and weathering. Hence, with a constant reduction in size, there occur lesser and lesser chances of the grinding tool striking the sidewalls. There can not be any further increase in width or depth after this stage (Fig. 8b). As the grinding stone go on becoming smaller and smaller, they now can be picked up and carried by waves outside the pothole. The remnant depression may be occupied by waves as a potential site for a new pothole. Potholes in the swash zone, which are shaped only by circulation of water and abrasion by fine tools, show an interdependence of width (diameter) and depth. Initially, as water rotates in the pothole, it increases the diameter of the same. With a larger diameter of circular motion, the axis of downward penetration also gets increased (Fig.8c). As a result wider pothole become deeper it becomes. However, after attaining a certain size, the surface diameter becomes too large to maintain a single circular flow. Moreover, the velocity of the flow also falls, and only a sluggish movement of water takes place. Hence, pothole-widening, and consequent deepening also stops. This may be called as the equilibrium condition approached due to width increment. Fig. 7. Pothole formation by fine abrasion tools THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Similarly, an increase in depth may also bring about an equilibrium stage. A pothole may become unusually deep as compared to its diameter, due to lithological control. A narrow, pipe-like depression is thus created with a small diameter but a large depth (Fig. 8c). The water column from the pothole bottom up to the surface, is too high to be rotated completely by waves. Hence, turbulence at the surface hardly makes any impact on the pothole bottom, where the water remains near-stagnant. Depth ceases to increase at this point. However, in due course of time, a pothole may again become shallow due to lowering of the platform surface. The waves can now make an impact on the pothole bottom and deepening may start again. Thus, any given type of potholes do tend to reach a self-attained equilibrium in any given wave environment.

Fig. 8. Equilibrium conditions in Pothole growth

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References : 1. Alexander, R.s. (1932): Pothole erosion. Journal of Geology. 40:305-37 2. Birkland, P.W. (1974): Pedology, Weathering and Geomorphological Research.Oxford University Press 3. Galvin, C.J. (1968) : Breaker type classification on three laboratory beaches, J. Geophys. Res. 73, 12, pp 3651-9. 4. Karlekar, S.N. (1990) : The significance of Harihareshwar shore platform in interpretation of sea level changes along Maharashtra coast, Trans. Inst. Ind. Geo. Vol 12, no 2, Pune. 5. Smith, B.J. (1978): The origin and geomorphic implications of cliff foot recesses and tafoni limestone hamadas in the northwest Sahara. Zeitschrift fuer Geomorphologie. 22: 21-43 6. Swan, S.B.St.C. (1971) : Coastal Geomorphology in humid tropical low energy environment : the islands of Singapore, J. Tropical Geogr. 33, pp 43-61. 7. Swinnerton, A.C. (1927) : Observation on some details of wave erosion, wave furrows and shore potholes. Journal of Geology. 35: 171-79 8. Trenhaile, A.S. (1987) : Geomorphology of Rock Coasts, Clarandon Press, Oxford, 384 p. 9. Wentworth, C.K. (1944): Potholes, pits and pans: Subaerial and marine. Journal of Geology. 52: 117-30 10. Zenkovitch, V.P. (1967): Processes of coastal development, Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Analysis of Trends and Causes For Variations of Fluvial Dynamics And Sedimentation Behavior in Sapt Kosi River Basin of Bihar

Plain (India) and Mountainous Region of Eastern Nepal. Dr. Rajesh Kumar Mahato - Assistant Teacher, Geography, N.D. Rashtriya Vidhyalaya,

Sitarampur, Pashchim Burdwan, West Bengal.

Dr. Satyapriya Mahato - UGC–MRP Project Fellow, P. G. Department of Geography, Dr. S.P.M University, Ranchi, Jharkhand

ABSTRACT: Kosi river basin an important tributary of Ganga river system form by the confluence of the three river i.e. Sunkosi, Tamur, and Arun, which originates in the snow covered peaks of Sikkim, Nepal and Tibet. The river has extremely variable discharge (5-10 times between the average non-monsoonal and monsoonal discharge) creating channel instability and bank erosion. An added factor is the high sediment load of the riverbed leading to continual aggradations. They are fed by glacier of Gauri Shankar-Everest-Makalu-Kanchenzonga group of peaks. Landslide and soil erosion is the basic key for the obtaining sediment materials in the basin, in which Tamur is the major source of sediment. During month of August in 2011 double time discharge occurred and twice time siltation occurred on record level near Kosi barrage in Nepal. Through this paper we can see the present situation of trends and causes for variations of fluvial dynamics and sedimentation behavior in the Sapt Kosi river basin particularly in Eastern Nepal and northern Bihar (India).

Keywords :- Fluvial dynamics, hydrograph, river dischargeTHE KOKANand GEOGRAPHER sedimentation Introduction : Data on sediment yield from large basins at specified control sections are scarce (Lai, Banerji and Narayanan, 1970). Water flowing down to the sea over and immediately beneath the land surface, is the dominant agent of landscape alteration (Bloom, 2012 third Edt.). Near-surface weathering and groundwater solution provide a load for flowing streams, and mass wasting may dump great quantities of rock debris at the foot of slopes, but eventually rivers must carry all but a small fraction of the total rock waste from the land to the sea. Estimates of the relative importance of various agents of continental denudation can hardly be better than orders of magnitude, but one careful evaluation credited rivers with 85% to 90% of total present sediment transport to the sea, glaciers with about 7%, groundwater and waves with about 1 to 2%, and wind and volcanoes with less than 1% each (Garrels and Mackenzie, 1971). The fluvial system is powered by the conversion of the potential energy of solar distillation and gravity to the kinetic energy of motion and heat. Most of the energy is lost to friction of internal turbulence in flowing water, but perhaps 2% to 4% (Rubey, 1938, p. 138) of the total potential energy of water flowing downhill over an erodible bed is converted to the mechanical work of erosion and transportation. Fluvial dynamics obviously vary in intensity among climatic regions and along gradients of temperature, precipitation, altitude, and seasonality. The Sunkosi storage dam at Kurale would possibly store about 50% of the Kosi sediment and nearly 40% of its flood flow. The Tamor-I storage dam would also hold about 20% of the Kosi sediment. Altogether 70% of the Kosi sediments will be stored and the remaining 30% will probably be required to sustain the turbidity of the Kosi River flow. These two storage dams would control 60% of the Kosi flood flow (Nayak, 1996). Overbank flooding is a commonly observed phenomenon in the region and controls flood Plain structure in a major way. Sediment supply in the plains is mainly from the rising Himalaya (Singh, 1995). River drains water from the upper catchment to the low lying places and are the principal routes for transporting the products of weathering. Gravity provides the force by which both excess water and movable debris are brought from higher to lower elevation. In accomplishing this transfer the water which flows off the land toward the low lying place forms and maintains a highly organized system of physical and hydraulic feature. As in any part of the natural environment, the interrelations in the system make it difficult to visualize all of it simultaneously. Yet it is these interrelationships which consists the most distinctive and pervasive characteristic of rivers.

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Geographic setting : The Kosi river basin lies between 25024‟N to 30027‟n latitude and 8404‟E to 88012‟E longitude (Fig. no. 01). It is roughly rectangular in shape and has a longitudinal extent of 885 km east west and 145 -241 km north to south. The basin is extended over the country of India, Nepal and China. The Kosi river basin characterized by diverse and very complex topographic conditions, as the basin relief characterized by high altitudinal mountainous region full of peaks and passes with a shape of 900 and sometimes more than 900 form south to north. Data used and methods : Hydrological and sedimentation analyses were carried out with the help of data obtained from Government Organizations including the DHM (Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, , Nepal), Kosi barrage office at Supaul, Bihar, CWC website and Bihar Govt. website. River discharge data are available for many stations along the Baghmati and Sapt Kosi river while sediment load data are available for only Kosi barrage. An integrated multi-technical approach was used including laboratory investigation as cartographic work (IGIS, version 1.1) and toposheets (72/G & 72/K) and satellite imageries (including Google Earth images for remote regions of Tibet). FLUVIAL DYNAMICS : The dynamic nature of the Kosi River has initiated a number of debates. The river has extremely variable discharge (5-10 times between the average non- monsoonal and monsoonal discharge) creating channel instability and bank erosion. An added factor is the high THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER sediment load of the riverbed leading to continual aggradations – this has been further exacerbated by the construction of embankments on both sides and the upstream barrage. Kosi breached and flooded unprecedented areas are because we have interfered without understanding the processes of Kosi‟s lateral movements. An „integrated‟ management of Kosi is what is needed (Rajiv, S., 2008). The fundamental aspects of rivers and their hydraulic processes turn upon basic principles of physics or chemistry. Infinite variations seem possible because of different local conditions of lithology, topography, climate, or vegetation. But it is the systemization, the interrelationships, and the basic mechanical principles which seem to us most important for an understanding of rivers. A graph of discharge plotted against time at a gauging station is called a hydrograph (Bloom, 2012, Third Edt.). Depending on vegetation, soil type, infiltration rate, and a host of other factors, the hydrograph reflects the precipitation in the watershed above the station. Stations progressively downstream have broader hydrographs with flatter crests at progressively later time, depending on the time required for the storm water to reach the station and various temporary storages within the basin. There is close relationship between elevation and discharge (Fig. No. 02). The higher catchment area of the basin possess low amount of discharge where as lower elevation of the catchment area possess higher values of discharge. Instead, data belonging to various hydrological stations situated in the basin area such as Uwa Gaon (1,294 m), Beni (2,350 m), Helambu (2,134 m), Panauti (1,480 m), Budhanilkantha (1,454 m), Gauri Ghat (1,300), Shyamdado (1,660) and Sundarijal (1,600 m) having 192, 6.15, 7.14, 2.26, 165.8, 2.32, 0.41, 0.41 m3/s of discharge respectively, which possesses very low amount of discharge due to high elevation. Where as in Chatra (183 m), Baltara (50 m), 12 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 19

Kampughat (200 m), Mainachuli (125 m), Simle (151 m), Mangalpur (177 m) and Pandhera Dobhan (180 m) having 1,589, 2,236, 966, 76.5, 444, 146.4, and 85.5 m3/s of discharge respectively which is evident from the above graph‟s central tendency. The average discharge of the river is 2,06,347.4 m3/s (DHM, Nepal & CWC, India) provided data), and about 49×109 m3 of water flows into the Ganges River and merges into the Indian Ocean every year (Gleick, 2003). But in 2009 it was 1,560 m3/s water average discharge in Kosi river near Chatra. It is evident from the above table (Table no. 1) that the mean discharge of Kosi river in Nepal‟s some selected hydrological station is 448.8 m3/s. Highest yearly mean river discharge is found in Sapt Kosi near Kosi barrage, it is 3,294,827 m3/s. It is interesting to note that Baltara is located in Terai region that is why the hydrological station got its optimum water resource from the upper catchment area where as lowest water quantity is found in Khimti Khola near Rasnala village because it is located in the upper catchment area of about low precipitation region. Table No.: 1 YEARLY MEAN DISCHARGE OF DIFFERENT TRIBUTARIES OF SAPT KOSI RIVER (NEPAL) YEARLY MEAN S.N. RIVER LOACTION DISCHARGE (m3/s)

1 SAPT KOSI (CHATRA) 1310 CHATRA-KOTHU 2 SAPT KOSI (BALTARA) 2236 BALTARA 3 ARUN RIVER (UWA GAON) 192 UWA GAON 4 ARUN RIVER (TUKEGHAT) 466 TUKEGHAT 5 ARUN RIVER (SIMLE) 444 SIMLE 6 SUN KOSI (KHURKOT) 553 KHURKOT 7 SUN KOSI (PACHUWAR GHAT) 176 PACHUWAR GHAT 8 SUN KOSI (HAMPUACHUWAR) 716 HAMPUACHUWAR 9 BHOTE KOSI (BARABISE) 239 BARABISE 10 TAMA KOSI (BUSTI) 145 BUSTI

11 KHIMTI KHOLA (RASNALA VILLAGE THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 19 RASNALA VILLAGE 12 BALEPHI KHOLA (JALBIRE) 56 JALBIRE 13 BAGMATI (BHORLENI) 67 BHORLENI 14 BAGMATI (GAURI GHAT) 28 GAURI GHAT 15 BAGMATI (PANDHERA DOBHAN) 85 DOBHAN 16 KOSI BARRAGE 3294827 HANUMAN NAGAR MEAN 206347.4 Source: DHM, Nepal & CWC, India, 2009. RIVER DISCHARGE AT KOSI BARRAGE : There is only a single big dam constructed over Sapt Kosi near Hanumannagar in Nepal with the help of Govt. of India during late 50th decade. Records available for some years in the barrage‟s hydrological department who regularly monitoring discharge and sedimentation. From the below Fig. no. 03 it is evident that huge amount of discharge are occurring which is more than 80,000 m3/s. Few discharge daily discharge also recorded up to 1,00,000 m3/s. It is again clear from Fig. no. 04 that maximum river discharge occurs during maximum fluvial season, which is July, August and September month of 2009 year, whereas during winter season the river discharge is very low.

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SEDIMENTATION : The sedimentary environment is the complex of physical, chemical and biological conditions under which sediment accumulates. Sedimentation operate within a framework controlled by the physiographic setting of the environment, by relations of land and sea, and by the action of dominant geological agents, such as streams, wind, waves, or currents (Krumbein, & Sloss, 1953). Sedimentary environments vary widely in their persistence through time, in the size of the area occupied by them, and in the uniformity or variability of their conditions. An ox-bow lake on a flood plain, on the other hand, may be small and ephemeral, changing to a bog within the span of a few years.

Table No.: 2 SEDIMENTATION IN THE KOSI RIVER BASIN CATCHMENT AREA SEDIMENTS SEDIEMNT LOAD S.N. RIVERS (Sq. km.) (106m3) (m3/sq. km) 1. Sunkosi 19230 54.2x 2818 2. Arun 36533 34.6x 947 3. Tamur 5900 29.6x 5016 Total 61663 116.4x Source: Sharma, C.K., 1983: River system of Nepal. In any sedimentary environment, the sediment is derived from some source, it is carried from the source to the point of deposition by some agents, and the agent is energized in the source area, and depositional landforms are developed in the source area, and depositional landforms and sedimentary deposits are formed in the sedimentary environment. Under suitable conditions, organisms in the environment may greatly affect the accumulating sediments (Krumbein, & Sloss, 1953). Therefore, sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism. In geology sedimentation is often used as the polar opposite of erosion, i.e., the terminal end of sediment transport. In that sense it THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER includes the termination of transport by saltation or true bedload transport. Settling is the falling of suspended particles through the liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the settling process. Sediment in the rivers is two types that are suspended sediment and bed load. Suspended sediments are fine and are mixed with water which is cause of silting and bed load are reason for channel shifting. Mass of sediment increases with landslide, mass movement, deforestation, rainfall etc.

SEDIMENTATION IN KOSI RIVER BASIN : River systems of part of the Himalayan foreland, northern Bihar plains, India, are described in terms of their channel morphology, hydrology and suspended sediment characteristics (Sinha & Friend, 1994). The present-day Indo- Gangetic plains are not only one of the world‟s largest areas of Quaternary alluvial sedimentation, they also form the upper surface of one of the largest, still actively subsiding, foreland basins (Parkash & Kumar, 1991). The part of the Kosi River valley in India is an alluvial plain, an important part of the Ganges Plain (Chen, Hu, Sh, Deng, Khanal, Zhu, and Han 2013). Huge sedimented mega fan is found in this part of Kosi river basin in a triangular shape. Behavior of the Kosi River is inextricably interlinked with the geomorphology of the Kosi mega fan and its formative mechanism. Sedimentation process played a dominant role in the shaping of Kosi river basin particularly in the lower catchment area of Bihar plain. The stream bed of Indrawaty river : The meeting place of Indrawaty and Bhote Kosi in , Nepal is significant to describe the fluvial work and their bed-form materials. Bed-forms of Indrawaty river near Dolalghat. There is basically both channels of the river

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Indrawaty and Bhote Kosi in Dolalghat where a long and triangular boulder bar created by both stream. Usually the bed was covered with boulders in both marginal portion of 20 to 30 cm in size. In the middle of these the size of boulders becomes smaller and in the middle of the bar there was deposition of sand materials. In the end of the boulder bar the deposition of sand is also found. Landslide and soil erosion is the basic key for the obtaining sediment materials in the basin. In which Tamur is the major source of sediments, it carries 5,016 m3sq km sediment load. But in scenes of total sediment, it is Sun Kosi river (54.2 X 105m3) in middle Himalaya of Nepal carries highest amount of sediment. These can be clear from the following data. In the above Fig. no. 06 it is evident that Sapt Kosi carries highest amount of sediment where as Bagmati in second place, Arun river contributes lowest amount of sediment in Kosi river basin. In 2008 total siltation was higher in July month but it was only 8,500. That‟s mean comparatively it is very low quantity of siltation occurred than year 2007. But another hand siltation of medium and coarse material was more released during 2008. In Fig. no. 08 there is sited graph of relation between discharge and siltation on the basis of data obtained from Kosi barrage, Supaul.

There is absolutely close relationship between THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER sedimentation and volume of discharge in the river channel. During month of August of 2011 twice time discharge goes up and we can see that both time siltation goes on record level. In Fig. No. 09 the date wise monthly silt flow through Kosi barrage is sited. Peak silt flow occurred twice time, it was 07.08.2011 and 15.08.2011. It is remarkable here that silt flow reaches on optimum level only in maximum fluvial season that is rainy season of the year that is why we choose only rainy season data for analysis purpose.

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TRENDS AND CAUSES FOR VARIATIONS OF FLUVIAL DYNAMICS AND SEDIMENTATION BEHAVIOR IN THE RIVER BASIN: Sediment deposition produces many depositional landforms. Among depositional processes alleviation, or subaerial sedimentation by river, is of major interest to fluvial geomorphologists and the subject of a large literature. Alluviation occurs when the production of debris exceeds the amount that can be carried away by the processes of transpiration. There are a variety of conditions leading to production of sediment in large quantities and to modification of regimens of sediment transport large and small stream channels. These conditions and with the kinds of channels which produce different types of deposits, the rates at which these conditions and with the kinds of channels which produce different types of deposits, the rates at which these deposits accumulate, and the stratigraphic or depositional characteristics that can be used to interpret the conditions during deposition. Size of material which deposits is also a matter of concern such as in the upper basin there is large size (boulders) are lying on the channel bed, in middle course of the river there are medium size deposition of boulders, pebbles and gravels (specially in Terai region), in upper Kosi mega fan area there is large distribution of big size of sand particles where as at the last course area near Kursela there are fine to very fine sand particles are THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER distributed. These patterns of deposition directly correlated with formation of landform of entire basin (created by deposition process). Examples as in north of Naugachia, Vijayghat (25025‟40” N 87004‟47” E) there is large deposition of very fine sand particles in April to June month (very dry) creates Aeolian landscape as Sand dunes of different pattern which is very migrating landscape in nature. RECENT CHANGING BEHAVIOR : This kind of highly discharging and sedimented bed surface are highly changeable. Kosi river basin several changes occurred in the plain tract of Bihar where sedimentation and shifting of channels are together occurring. Some of them our observations are as follows: CHANGES NEAR MOUTH OF SAPT KOSI TILL 15/04/2014 : The following changes identified by researcher during her field excursion: 1. We are viewing two separate channels (namely channel „a‟ and channel „b‟) in above Fig. no. 10 but when I went for ground checkup than there was only single channel which was channel b, where as channel a was vanished. 2. Middle bar or sand deposition was totally vanished, and mostly submerged by water mass. 3. In the Google map above we can clearly see that in the left embankment of Ganga possesses deposition of sand bar but during our field excursion I seen there was KATNI (bank erosion) active; local civilian loosed some Katta of land through this Katni and it is still in active mode. The main reason for this katni is Sapt Kosi river‟s water mass which contains very fine sediment with sand particles and this is responsible for bank erosion which is located in the left hand side of cliff of Ganga. The inflow sediments of Sapt Kosi river is clearly visible in first photo plate above.

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CONCLUSIONS : Analysis of trends and causes for variations of fluvial dynamics and sedimentation behavior in Sapt Kosi river basin particularly in Eastern Nepal and northern Bihar (India) denotes the following conclusions: 1. The average discharge of the river is 2,06,347.4 m3/s and the highest river discharge is near Kosi barrage (3,294,827 m3/s) which is basically due to development of single outlet drainage system from Chatra to Kosi barrage. In the mountainous region of Eastern Nepal near Chatra its only 1,310 m3/s where as near Baltara there is 2,236 m3/s river discharge. 2. The huge amounts of discharge are occurring which is more than 80,000 m3/s. Few discharge daily discharge also recorded up to 1,00,000 m3/s. It is interesting to note that Baltara is located in Terai region that is why the hydrological station got its optimum water resource from the upper catchment area where as lowest water quantity is found in Khimti Khola near Rasnala village because it is located in the upper catchment area of about low precipitation region. 3. Maximum river discharge occurs during maximum fluvial season, it is July, August and September month of 2009 year, whereas during winter season the river discharge is very low. 4. Many region of upper region of Tribeni experiences such type of debris flow especially in basin where very loose material such as limestone and slate are available. Landslide and avalanches are common in this region which is basically the source of debris materials. 5. In 2008 total siltation was higher in July month but it was only 8,500. That‟s mean comparatively it is very low quantity of siltation occurred than year 2007. But another hand siltation of medium and coarse material was more released during 2008. 6. There is absolutely close relationship between sedimentation and volume of discharge in the river channel. During month of August of 2011 twice time discharge goes up and we can see that both time siltation goes on record level. Fluvial dynamics and sedimentation behavior in Sapt Kosi river basin are very sensitive which can be also see in Fig. No. 10 where the channel erosion and embankment erosion both are very active. Only in a single fluvial season landscape has been changed. Therefore, it is clear that causes of variation in Fluvial dynamics and sedimentation behavior of Sapt Kosi river basin is dominant by Tamur river system which is northeastern tributary of Sapt Kosi river system. Huge amount of river discharge and sedimentationTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHERleads to stands and single reason for nothing permanent in the river basin means its dynamism is very high. Acknowledgements : The work presented in this paper is a part of the doctoral thesis of Rajesh Kumar Mahato at the University department of Geography, Ranchi University, Ranchi while he was supported by IPCC and Foundation Coumo fellowship. The DHM (Department of Hydrology and Meteorology), CWC, Kosi barrage are thankfully acknowledged for the data provided for this study. The authors are thankful to Dr. Jitendra Shukla and Dr. Saroj Kumar Singh for their critical comments and valuable suggestions. REFERENCES: 1. V. B. Lai, S. Banerji and J. Narayanan, 1970: Sediment yield in relation to drainage basin characteristics in some Indian river valley projects, pp. 93-97. 2. Bloom, A.L., 2012 (third edition): Geomorphology, A systematic analysis of late cenozoic landforms, Rawat Publication, New Delhi, pp. 198-229. 3. Garrels, R.M., and Mackenzie, F.T., 1971: Evolution of sedimentary rocks, W.W. Norton & Co. Inc., p. 44. 4. Nayak, J.N., 1996: Sediment management of the Kosi River basin in Nepal, Erosion and Sediment Yield: Global and Regional Perspectives (Proceedings of the Exeter Symposium July 1996). IAHS Publ. no. 236, pp. 583-586. 5. Singh, R., 1995, Sedimentology of Quaternary Alluvial Deposits of the Gandak-Kosi interfan, Plains, J.G.S.I., Vol.46, Nov.1995, pp. 521-532 6. Hussain, M., 2009: Fundamentals of Physical Geography, Rawat Publication, New Delhi, p. 220. 7. Dingman, S.L., 1994: Physical hydrology, Macmillan Publising Company, New York, p. 575. 8. Krumbein, W.C. & Sloss, L. L., 1953: Stratigraphy and Sedimentation, W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, pp. 186-223. 9. Sinha, R. & Friend, P. F., 1994: River systems and their sediment flux, Indo - Gangetic plains, Northern Bihar, India, Sedimentology, Vol. 41, pp. 825-845. 10. Parkash, B. & Kumar, S., 1991: The Indo-Gangetic Basin: Sedimentary Basins of India, Tectonic Context (Ed. By S.K. Tandon, C.C. Pant and S.M. Casshypa), Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India, pp. 147-170.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Spatial Variations in Agricultural Productivity of Koppal District in Karnataka State

Dr. Basavaraj R. Bagade Assistant Professor, Dept.studies in Geography, School of Applied Sciences Rani Channamma University, Belagavi (Karnataka state)

Abstract : Agriculture is not only an important economic activity but also a farm of social heritage and a way of life for the millions of Indian farmers. The agricultural sector in India contributes nearly half of the national income, provides jobs to about 3/4th of the population and supplies bulk of the goods and raw materials required by the non-agricultural sectors. Transport, marketing, processing and other aspects of agriculture production and utilization have also high bearing on the national economy. Therefore, the agriculture in India continues to be an area of vigorous research interest for the social and natural scientists. In some parts of India, progress in irrigation and farm practices have touched the basic problems of low agricultural productivity and rural poverty. Climate is one of the major physical factors influencing on Indian agriculture. Due to uncertainty of monsoonal rains, agriculture in India is not developing uniformly besides other constraints such as life quality of soil and infrastructural facilities. Therefore, Geographers can certainly play their role in understanding the problems of land use and agriculture of all the regional level like micro, meso and macro. In this regard Koppal district which is a conglomeration of wet and dry weather features and also the mixture of different soils and irrigated and dry cropping system represents a typical region to study the agricultural geography in general and agricultural productivity in particular. Introduction : THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Agricultural productivity is measured as the ratio of agricultural outputs to agricultural inputs. While individual products are usually measured by weight, their varying densities make measuring overall agricultural output difficult. Therefore, output is usually measured as the market value of final output, which excludes intermediate products such as corn feed used in the meat industry. This output value may be compared to many different types of inputs such as labour and land (yield). These are called partial measures of productivity. Agricultural productivity may also be measured by what is termed total factor productivity (TFP). This method of calculating agricultural productivity compares an index of agricultural inputs to an index of outputs. This measure of agricultural productivity was established to remedy the shortcomings of the partial measures of productivity; notably that it is often hard to identify the factors cause them to change. Changes in TFP are usually attributed to technological improvements. History: The history of Koppal can be traced back to the kingdoms of Shathavahanas, Gangas, Hoysalas and Chalukya Dynasties. The name of the district i.e. "KOPPAL" is found in the poetic work of the great poet Kavirajamarga (During King Nrupathunga's time of 814-878 A.D.) as "VIDITHA MAHA KOPANA NAGARA". During Ashoka's period, the Jainism gained greater momentum in this region. Therefore, it was called "Jainkashi". In twelth century A.D. Veerashaivaism of Social Reformer Basaveshwara became popular. The present Gavi Math of Koppal has great attraction.Anegundi of Gangavathi Taluk was the first capital of great Vijayanagara Dynasty. The old palace and fort still exist where annual festival called "Anegundi Utsava" is being celebrated in a befitting manner every year. The other important historical places of Koppal district are Itagi, Kukanoor, Madinoor, Indrakeela Parvatha, Kanakagiri, Pura, Chikkabenakal, Hirebenakal & Huligi. Before Independence, Koppal was under the Nizam of Hyderabad. India got Independence on 15th August 1947, since Koppal was part of Hyderabad region, the people of the region had to struggle further to attain Independence from the clutches of Hyderabad Nizam. On 18th September, 1948, the Hyderabad-Karnataka got independence from Nizam. Since then until 01-04-1998, Koppal District was in Raichur District of Gulbarga Revenue Division. On 01-04- 1998, Koppal district consisting of four taluks viz. Koppal, Gangavathi, Kushtagi & Yelburga came into being.

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Locational setting of study region : Koppal District is one among 30 Districts of Karnataka State. Koppal District Administrative head quarter is Koppal. It is is Located 357 KM South towards State capital Bangalore . Koppal District population is 1391292. It is 21 st Largest District in the State by population .It is Located at Latitude-15.3, Longitude-76.1. Koppal District is sharing border with Bellary District to the East . Koppal District occupies an area of approximately 7190 square kilometres. . Its in the 601 meters to 472 meters elevation range. This District belongs to Southern India . Climate of Koppal District : It is too Hot in summer. Koppal District summer highest day temperature is in between 32 ° C to 41° C . Average temperatures of January is 25 ° C , February is 27 ° C , March is 30 ° C , April is 33 ° C , May is 34 ° C . Demographics of Koppal District Kannada is the Local Language here. Koppal District is divided into 4 Taluks , 102 Panchayats , 595 Villages. Yelburga Taluk is the Smallest Taluk by population with 236373 population. Gangavathi Taluk is the Biggest Taluk by population with 406334 population. Census 2011 of Koppal District : Koppal district Total population is 1391292 according to census 2011.Males are 701610 and Females are 689682 .Literate people are 920479 among total.Its total area is 7190 km². It is the 21 st largest district in the state by Population . But 10 th Largest District in the state By Area. 348 th Largest District in the Country By Population. 25 th highest District in the State By literacy rate. 449 th highest District in the Country By literacy rate.its literacy Rate is 67.28

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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Table-1 General Land Use of Koppal District 2011-12 Sr. Geographical Land not Other Fallow Talukas Forest Net Sown No. Area cultivated Uncultivated Land 132131 14482 12361 7753 13289 113794 1 Gangavati (23.91) (2.62) (2.23) (0.13) (2.41) (20.60) 136755 10779 27229 2126 12216 100247 2 Koppal (24.75) (1.95) (4.92) (0.38) (2.21) (18.15) 135729 4110 10019 4709 36571 99029 3 Kustagi (24.56) (0.74) (1.81) (0.85) (6.62) (17.93) 147830 80 60021 2865 37687 120125 4 Yelaburga (26.75) (0.14) (10.86) (0.52) (6.82) (21.74) 29451 109630 17453 99763 433195 Total 552445 (5.33) (19.84) (3.16) (18.06) (78.41) Table-2 Area under Principal Crops In Koppal District 2011-12 (In Hecters) Sr. Other Oil Sugar Talukas Paddy Jowar Bajra Maize Wheat Tur Cotton No. Millets Seeds Cane 68051 3121 11087 4430 60 1005 1773 11035 998 642 1 Gangavati (89.45) (9.89) (16.83) (8.34) (1.35) (36.42) (16.59) (12.58) (8.94) (21.68) 7745 7167 9476 31518 747 666 2618 20124 3828 1502 2 Koppal (10.18) (22.71) (14.38) (59.33) (16.88) (24.13) (24.50) (22.95) (34.29) (50.72) 167 9568 32763 7150 1050 513 3798 21412 854 319 3 Kustagi (0.21) (30.32) (49.73) (13.46) (23.73) (18.59) (35.54) (24.42) (7.65) (10.77) 110 11697 12548 10018 2567 575 2495 35079 5482 498 4 Yelaburga (0.14) (37.07) (19.04) (18.86)THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER(58.02) (20.84) (23.35) (40.02) (49.11) (16.81) Total 76073 31553 65874 53116 4424 2759 10684 87650 11162 2961

Table 3 AREA UNDER PRINCIPAL CROPS IN KOPPAL DISTRICT (m. tns) 2011-12 (ranking co-efficient)

Other Oil Sugar Total Avg. S. No Talukas Paddy Jowar Bajra Maize Wheat Tur Cotton Millates Seeds Cane Ranks Ranks

353795 1860 6847 7017 30 196 410 4378 76 65 1 Gangavati 27 2.7 (2) (4) (2) (3) (4) (1) (4) (3) (3) (2)

40266 4672 3288 4992 371 130 605 8375 291 2 Koppal 152 (1) 20 2.0 (1) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (2) (1) (2)

869 5708 11369 11369 522 100 827 7277 65 32 3 Kustagi 24 2.4 (3) (2) 9 (1) (2) (1) (4) (1) (2) (4) (4)

572 6971 4354 4354 1276 112 576 1440 417 50 4 Yelburga 28 2.8 (4) (1) (3) (4) (3) (2) (3) (4) (1) (3)

District total 395502 19211 25858 27732 2199 538 2418 21470 849 299

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Analysis : The district has total Geographical area of 552445 hectares. Out of which 5.3% of land under forest. The net sown area accounts for 78.41% the non-agriculture land is 19.83%, the fallow land is 18.06% and cultivable waste land is 3.16%. From the above data it reveals that, the district has good percentage of land under agriculture. The forest land is less concentrated in entire district Gangavathi taluk ((2.62%), Koppal ((1.95)) and Kustagi taluks(0.74) have land under forests. There is less forest land in Yelaburga (Table 1). It is a known fact that, forests play an important role in maintaining the environmental and ecological balance of an area. The deciduous forest and in the rest of the part of entire District the forest is bushy, thorny and desert type. It is advisable that in the district more land under forests can be brought by making a wise plan of reallocation of existing land use. In this regards the land which is fallow ((18.06) , cultivable waste land (18.06), can be utilized for forest growth of different botanical varieties, depending upon rainfall distribution and soil type. If this is materialized the district will have land under forest, which is an almost approved figure for maintenance of ecological setting of a region. However, while making this plan the taluks that have very less percentage of land under forest should be considered on top priority for afforestation. The general land use in the district exhibits that 78.14% of land is devoted for cultivation and with a good sign for the development of agriculture.The total geographical area of the Koppal district was 552445 ha, out of which the net cultivable area was 433195 ha, Talukwise net area irrigated in the district during 2012-13 49% of irrigated area is by source of ground water through wells and bore wells. There is no scope for futre for ground water development in over exploited areas. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY : Agricultural productivity is an important indicator to show the spatial pattern of agricultural development in Koppal district. A study would help the planners in preparing the future perspectives in agricultural development on a rational basis and to reduce the regional disparities. Studies on crop productivity are very important in the countries where food requirements need constant attention to feed its teeming millions. Increasing in crop production is inevitable in a country like India as the areal spread of cropland has already reached its saturation limit. Studies on agricultural productivity are significant in countries like India where the food problem is acute and horizontal expansion of agriculture is impossible. It may even be noted here that after more than a decade of “Green Revolution” Indian agriculture has yet not been able to break the chains of under development and food shortage persist in some parts of the country. In recent years many attempts have been made to define the connotationTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER of agricultural productivity and hence a considerable amount of literature exists on these subjects. Agricultural productivity may be defined as the ratio of output to the input used in form production. V. K.R.V. R.ao explained that the “productivity is a physical phenomenon rather than a value concept and it describes the changing relation between output and the major inputs like land, labor and capital”. S.S.Bhatia equated agricultural productivity with agricultural efficiency and defined agricultural productivity as “The aggregate performance of various crops in regard to their output per acre, but the contributions of each crop to the agricultural efficiency would be related to its share of the crop land”. Therefore, agricultural productivity is more important and is closely related to per hectare yield. Thus it is the actual performance of the land in terms of per unit area yields of crops. Agricultural productivity is measured in the following methods: 1) Output per unit of labour applied or man hours. 2) Output is a relation to input or output input relation. 3) Output per unit area. 4) Output as expressed in terms of grain equivalent per head of population. 5) Output in terms of calories. 6) Output in terms of monetary value. Several statistical methods have been adopted by social scientists in determining the agricultural productivity. On the basis of per hectare yield of different crops, M.G.Kendall (1939) attempted to major agricultural productivity and called as “Ranking co-efficient method” to obtain the ranking coefficient, first the enumeration units were ranked according to acre yield for each the selected crops and then the sum of the ranks occupied by the unit was divided by the number of crops to obtain the average rank of the unit. The lower is the rank value higher is the productivity and its vice- versa. L.D.Stamp (1960) made an international comparison of agricultural productivity of twenty countries by applying Kendall‟s method obtain the ranking co-efficient based on the acre yield of the selected crop. In India Professor M.Shafi (1960) used this method for determining agricultural productivity of Uttar Pradesh by considering per acre yield of eight food crops. There are as many as seven methods which can be considered for determining the agricultural productivity of Koppal district. They are as follows M.G.Kendall‟s ranking co-efficient method, S.S.Bhatia‟s acre yield and share of crop

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land method, M.Shafi‟s overall yield index method, N.B.Gangully‟s yield index method, Sapre and Deshapande‟s weighted ranking co-efficient method, G.Y.Enyedi‟s per hectare yield index method, and E.Dayedi‟s land productivity and labour productivity method. The methods mentioned above suffer from one or other weaknesses. In fact there is a wide controversy over the concept,controversy and approaches to major agricultural productivity as if is not only a natural phenomena but also a product of human ingenuity which is reflected in the individuals subjectivity and perforce in selecting the criteria in determining the agricultural productivity of a region. REGIONS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY: As per M. G. Kendall‟s method the results have been grouped into three broad categories of agricultural productivity regions based on the mean and standard deviation techniques (Tables 2&3). Table No. 4 High >2.5 Gangavati and Yelburga Medium 2.1 to 2.4 Kustagi Low <2.0 Koppal

HIGH AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY REGIONS : During 2012-13 two taluks viz. Gangavathi and yelaburga appears in this category. These two taluks fall under farming regions. The facilities extended by the government might have influenced the farmers to grow more food /cash crops. Besides this, the fertile soil, use of fertilizer pesticides and insecticides have also played an important role to bring these taukas In the irrigation facility extended by Canels and borewells has influenced the farmers of these taluks to grow more than three crops a year. Assured irrigation facility, black cotton soils use of HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and the use of modern farm technology have made in these taluks as high productivity. Besides this, timely arrival of monsoon rain also plays an important role to bring these taluks under high productivity region. MEDIUM AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY REGIONS : In the medium range of agricultural productivity region, during 2012-13 there are one taluka Kustagi because THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER the low fertility of soil, lack of irrigational facility in these taluks and storage of rain water or ill distribution of rainfall must have caused this taluks to fall in this medium productivity region. LOW AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY REGIONS : During 2012-13 only one taluk i.e. Koppal fell under low agricultural productivity region, because the farmers are in traditional minds. This kind of situation in Koppal district calls for further investigation. However as the researchers are aware of the situations of this taluk (Koppal), it is to be noted that the availability of irrigation and intensity of modernization in agriculture have profoundly played their role for high yield. CONCLUSION: Agricultural productivity is measured as the ratio of agricultural outputs to agricultural inputs. While individual products are usually measured by weight, their varying densities make measuring overall agricultural output difficult. Therefore, output is usually measured as the market value of final output, which excludes intermediate products such as corn feed used in the meat industry. The district has total Geographical area of 552445 hectares. Out of which 5.3% of land under forest. The net sown area accounts for 78.41% the non-agriculture land is 19.83%, the fallow land is 18.06% and cultivable waste land is 3.16%. From the above data it reveals that, the district has good percentage of land under agriculture. The forest land is less concentrated in entire district Gangavathi taluk ((2.62%), Koppal ((1.95)) and Kustagi taluks(0.74) have land under forests. There is less forest land in Yelaburga. High agricultural productivity regions: During 2012-13 two taluks viz. Gangavathi and yelaburga appears in this category. . Koppal fell under low agricultural productivity region, because the farmers are in traditional minds.

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REFERENCES : 1) Afganijan (1998): “Industrializaiton in Kolar Dist with Spl.Ref to Agro-Based Industries: A Geographical Analysis” (Unpublished Ph.D Thesis) 2) Aher Rao, D.Y. (1987): “Impact of Irrigation on Agriculture and Socio-Economic Change – A Cast Study of Ahmednagar District (Maharashtra): A Geographical Analysis”, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Karnanataka Univrsity, Dharwad. 3) Ali Mohamamad (1978): “Studies in Agricultural Geography”, Rajesh Publications, New Delhi. 4) Alonso, W.C. (1968): “Urban and Regional Imbalances in Economic Development”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, Vol, 17, PP. 1-14. 5) Datye, V.S. And Diddee Jayamalal (1981): “Micro Level Analysis Of Land Holdings And Agricultural Practices: Case Studies”, Transactional, Institute Of Indian Geographers, Vol.3 No.1, PP.89-99. 6) Dayal, E. (1967): “Crop Combination Regions: A Case Study Of The Pubjab Plain”, Tefdshrift Voor Economische On Sociale, Vol.LVIII, NO.1 PP.39. 7) Vidyanathan, A. (1987): “Irrigation And Agricultural Growth”, Indian Journal Of Agricultural Economics, Vol.42, No.4, PP. 503-527. 8) Vyas Anjana and Thangaval, c. (1983): “Diffusion Of Agricultural Technology And Its Implication for Future Adoption: A Case Study”, Transactions, Institute Of Indian Geographers, Vol.5 No.1, PP. 23-28. 9) Yadav, H.S.A nd Minocha, A.C. (1987): “Spatial Diffusion Of Modern Agricultural Technology In Madhya Pradesh”, Indian Journal Of Regional Science, Vol. 19, No.2, PP. 65-80.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Chronological and Chorological Dimensions of Literacy in Malda District with Special Reference to Gender Gap

Samsul Hoque, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of Geography, Darjeeling Govt. College, Darjeeling, (W.B.). A K M Anwaruzzaman, Associate Prof., Deptt. of Geography, Aliah University, Kolkata (W.B.). Nuruzzaman Kasemi, Associate Prof., Deptt. of Geog., Raiganj University, U. Dinajpur,(W.B.)

Abstract: Education may be considered backbone of any nation. Through education one develops skill, reasoning and become rational being. The elementary education that may be termed as literacy that reflects several dimensions of the society, including socio-economic conditions, gender equality etc. Unfortunately, in spite of having rich heritage of Malda district the lower level of literacy is quite disturbing. One of the lowest literacy rates along with very low level of Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in higher education is equally disturbing. Moreover, spatial variation and gender gap has been a contentious issue in the development of the district. The present study aims at bringing out the temporal variation and regional disparity in the literacy along with gender gap. Primarily Census of India data has been analyzed using suitable statistical tools and portrayed using ArcGIS software (version10.3). Keywords : Literacy, GER, Gender Disparity, Census of India, Regional Variation, Tal, Diara, and Barind. Introduction : Literacy and education are important indicators in a society and play a central role in human development that impacts overall social-economic development milieu. Higher levels of literacy and education lead to better attainment of health and nutritional status, economic growth, population THEcontrol, KOKAN GEOGRAPHER empowerment of the weaker sections and community as a whole. Also, higher literacy rates improve development indicators consistently.The concept of literacy that varies from country to country, generally refers to the minimum level of literacy skills. This minimum level of skills varies from ability to communicate orally, to make a check of variety of difficult arithmetical computations. However, the length of schooling has often been considered as a basis of distinguishing between a literate and illiterate (Chandna, 2008). The population Commission of the United Nations considers “the ability to both read and write a simple message with understanding in any language a sufficient basis for classifying a person as literate.” The Indian census has adopted this definition and now many of the developing countries are shifting to this definition too. Census obtains information on literacy for every individual, as this is recognised as one of the most important social characteristics. In census, a person aged seven years and above who can both read and write in any language, is treated as „literate‟. A person, who can only read but cannot write, is not considered as „literate‟. It is not necessary that a person should receive any formal education or pass any minimum education standard. Literacy can also be achieved in adult literacy classes or through any non- formal education system. People who are blind but can read in Braille have been treated as literates. All children of six years age or less are treated as „illiterate‟ even if the child is going to a school and has picked up reading and writing skills. In the Censuses prior to 1991, children below five years of age were treated as illiterates. Since the ability to read and write with understanding is not ordinarily achieved until one has time to develop these skills, therefore in 1991 Census, it was decided that all children in the age group of 0-6 years be treated as illiterate by definition and population aged seven years and above only be classified as either „literate‟ or „illiterate‟. Since then, the same criterion has been retained in subsequent censuses of 2001 and 2011(Census of India, 2011). The literacy in a country or region is determined by the historical, social cultural and economic factors. The main factors that determine the literacy rates are: cost of education, political and ecological background, type of economy, standard of living, degree of urbanization, stage of technological advancement, degree of development of means of transportations and communications, religious background, medium of instruction, status of women in the society, availability of educational institutions etc. (M. Hussain 2006). According to 2011 Census the literacy rate of India and West Bengal is 74.04 per cent and 77.08 per cent respectively while this rate in Malda is 61.73 per cent (2011) which is extremely low. Moreover, there is high level of intra-

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regional and inter- regional variations and the male- female literacy gap in literacy too in the district. In such alarming situation, the study of spatio- temporal variation in literacy rates assumes significance. General Information of Malda District : Malda is known as the gateway of North Bengal. The total geographical area of this district is 3,733 sq. kilometers (as per 2011 Census) which makes it 12th ranks in the state. It is located between the latitudes of 24º 40' 20" N to 25º 32' 08"N and the longitudes of 87º 45' 50"E to 88º28'10" E (District Profile- Malda). The southern part of this district is bounded by the Murshidabad district across the Ganga river, Bangladesh and South Dinajpur district to its east and north-east, North Dinajpur to its north and the states of Bihar to its west and Jharkhand to its south-west across the Ganga river. It is the home and permanently resting ground of 3988845 persons which shares 4.37 per cent of the total population in the State in which only 13.58 per cent urban population while 86.42 per cent reside in countryside (2011 Census). The sex ratio is 944 and the literacy rate is 61.73 per cent wherein male and female literacy is 66.24 and 56.96 per cent respectively. The district has 2nd highest decadal population growth in the state with 21.20 Per cent which is much higher than the state average of 13.80 per cent. It has two sub-divisions (tehsil), 11 Police Stations, 15 Blocks, 146 Gram Panchayats and two municipalities. Total number of the village is 1771 of which 1613 inhabited and 158 is uninhabited (2011 Census). In spite district having a long history and rich heritage it lags behind in terms of literacy as compared to other districts. Aims and Objectives : The following are the aims and objectives of my study- 1. To analyze the trends of literacy of Malda district since 1951 to 2011. 2. To discuss the spatio-temporal patterns of literacy in the district. 3. To study the male- female literacy gap during 1951-2011. Data Base and Methodology : The present study is based on the secondary sources of data which have been collected mainly from District Statistical Handbook and the District Census Handbook, Census of India. Besides these sources, other related information was collected from various published and unpublished books, periodicals and journals etc. The collected data was processed in tabular form in order to derive specific conclusions.THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER GIS has been used for analysis and representation of the data through a number of maps and cartograms. Trends of Literacy (1951-2011) : The literacy of India, West Bengal and Malda district is continuously improving during last. But this improving rate is very slow particularly up to the 1991. The literacy rate of India, West Bengal and Malda district since 1951 is depicted in Table:1. During a span of last 60 years (1951-2011), the literacy rate of India has increased by 55.73 per cent points from 18.31 per cent in 1951 to 74.04 per cent in 2011. In 1951 the literacy rate in India was 18.33 per cent for total persons and the corresponding figures for the males and females were 27.16 per cent 8.66 per cent respectively whereas in West Bengal and in Malda the literacy rate was 24.90 percent and 11.68 percent while this rate for males and females 34.60 per cent and 13.20 per cent in West Bengal and the corresponding figures for males and females were 18.10 per cent and 5.00 per cent respectively. So the literacy rate of Malda was lagging far behind the West Bengal and country‟s average rate from historical time. The literacy rate increased in the successive years. In 1961 it was 28.30 per cent and 34.50 per cent in India and West Bengal respectively but in Malda this figure was 16.60 per cent which is very low as compare to national and state average. With the passage of time, as the population increased, the number of literates and illiterates also increased. More or less 50.00 per cent people were illiterate in India and in West Bengal up to 1991 census. In 1991 Census, the literacy rate revealed a leap forward primarily due change in criteria to define literate. It should be mentioned here that the number of literates in the country has, for the first time, exceeded the number of illiterates. For instance, in 1991the number of literates (aged 7 and above) was 352 million against 324 million illiterates. It has recorded 52.21 per cent of India‟s population as literate while in 1981 it stood at 43.65 per cent but in West Bengal the corresponding figures were 57.73 per cent in 1991 and 46.38 percent in 1981. The Malda was at worse condition in terms of literacy in the same period (1981-1991). The rate stood at 26.52 per cent in 1981 and 35.62 per cent in 1991. It means in 1991, only 1 out of every 3 persons could write and read in Malda. This low achievement can be perceived from the perspective of fall out of partition of the district, high concentration of SC, ST and minority population, prevalence of mother tongue other than Bengali (Maithili, Darbhangia, Khotta and Santhali etc) and also frequent shifting river courses causing devastation to economy, habitation and also infrastructure including institutions.

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Fortunately, Malda recorded a quantum jump in its literacy rates during the decade 1991-2001 Census both in case of males and females. In 2001 Malda district recorded 50.28 per cent literacy rate as against 68.64 per cent and 65.38 per cent of state and country‟s average respectively. So in case of Malda, for the first time, the number of literates exceeded the number of illiterates. It should be mentioned here that the literacy rate increased 14.66 per cent points in Malda whereas in West Bengal and in India the corresponding figures were 10.91 and 13.17 per cent points respectively.

90 Literacy by Gender of India/WB/Malda 80 1951 70 1961

60

50 1971 40 1981

Per cent Per 30 1991 20 2001 10 2011 0 M F T M F T M F T India West Bengal District Figure 1: Trend in Literacy during 1951-2011 During the last decade also India, West Bengal and Malda have continued to rapid growth of literacy. In 2011 census Malda district recorded literacy of 61.73 per cent as against 77.08 per cent and 74.04 per cent of state and country‟s average respectively. During 2001-2011 Census the literacy rate increased by 14.45 per cent points in Malda. It means the rate of increment is about as much as in the previousTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER decade (1991-2001) while these increasing rates are 8.44 per cent points and 8.66 per cent points respectively. This substantial improvement in literacy has been achieved due to Universalizing of Elementary Education (UEE) which has been accepted as a national goal in India during this decade. For achieving this goal, Govt. of India implemented a many of schemes like Sarva Shiksha Mission (SSM) formerly Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), National Literacy Mission (1988) for adult education etc. Change and Distribution of Literacy Rate (2001-2011) : Change in literacy is a very critical component of demographic transition in country. It is because of the fact that demographic transition in any area is intimately intertwined to its literacy transition (Chandna, 2008). Malda district is one of the marginalized districts in terms in literacy of the state of West Bengal. The literacy rate of the Malda district is 61.73 per cent which is lagging far behind the state average of 77.80 per cent as per 2011 Census. Malda stands at 18 th place among the 19 districts of the state. Only Uttar Dinajpur (60.13 percent) closely followed by Malda district. The situation of literacy prevailing in the district is an indicator of the spread of education therein. Malda‟s literacy rate that stood at 50.28 percent in 2001 increased to 61.73 per cent in 2011. An increase of 11.45 per cent points just in a decade is significant development. Though both male and female literacy rates have increased during 2001-2011, the increase in case of females is relatively more impressive. While the male literacy rate in the district increased from 58.80 per cent to 66.24 per cent during same period, the female literacy rate increased from 41.25 per cent in 2001to 56.96 per cent in 2011. The increase in case of male literacy rate is to the tune of 7.44 per cent points while corresponding figure for the females is 15.71 per cent points which is more than double than that of male increasing points of literacy. Not only that but also the female literacy rate in the district exceeded 50.00 per cent mark for the first time. It has been partly because of the government encourages education in general and female in particular though various schemes including Kanyashree. The block-wise literacy rate of Malda district in 2001 and 2011 by sex has been presented in Table: 2 According to 2011 census, with 68.09 per cent literacy rate, Bamamgola ranks first among the blocks of the district. The male and female literacy rates in this block are 75.52 and 61.20 per cent respectively. Bamamgola is closely followed by Kaliachak-I and Chanchal-I with literacy rates of 65.25 per cent and 65.09 per cent respectively. Harishchandrapur-I has the lowest literacy rate of 52.47 per cent in which male and female literacy rates are 57.37 and 47.21 per cent respectively. Harishchandrapur-I is closely followed by Kaliachak-III and and Harishchandrapur-II with the literacy of 54.16 and 54.34 per cent respectively. It is interesting to note that according to the 2011 Census, the male literacy rate is 26 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 19

the lowest in Harishchandrapur-II (57.21%) in case of females Harishchandrapur-I is the lowest (47.21%). The blocks with noticeably low literacy rates are Hrishchandrapur-I (52.47%),Kaliachak-III (53.75%), Harishchandrapur-II (54.34%), Habibpur (55.79%), and Ratua-II (56.19%). In these blocks the literacy rates are far lagging behind the district average. The moderate literacy rates observed in the blocks namely Chanchal-II (57.39%), Manikchak (57.78%), Old Malda (57.90%), Ratua-I (60.14%). The high literacy rates which is above the district average (61.73%) observed in 6 blocks namely Gazole (62.12%), Kaliachak-I (63.52%), English Bazar (63.26%), Chanchal-I (64.72%), kaliachak-II (65.12%) and Bamangola (68.09%). Harishchandarpur-I and II and Kaliachak-III are mainly based on subsistence agriculture and because of it people of these blocks are very much traditional with social and cultural customs not encouraging education along with repetitive shifting of river course etc. There were wide regional variations in the incidence in the change of literacy in Malda district. Also that regional variation in the magnitude of change of female literacy is far more striking than those in male literacy. As against the district average of change (11.45% points) in literacy, the change in literacy rate by blocks ranges between the highest of 19.03 per cent points in Kaliachak-I and the lowest of 7.57 per cent points in Habibpur block. The blocks such as Kaliachak- II, Ratua I, Manikchak, Harishchandrapur-II, Chanchal-II, English Bazar, Bamangola, and Kaliachak-III have recorded the high magnitude of change in literacy. It means that the magnitudes in change in literacy in all these blocks are higher than the district average. While Habibpur, Ratua-II, Harishchandrapur-I, Chanchal-I, Kaliachak-I, Old Malda and Gazole which recorded lower magnitude of change in their literacy rate due to their already existing comparatively high literacy only exception in Harishchandrapur-I and Kaliachak-II. The magnitude of change in female literacy rates in the district is much more pronounced in the district. The female literacy rate increased from 41.25 per cent in 2001 to 56.96 per cent in 2011. Therefore, the magnitude of increase in literacy rate is 15.27 per cent points in the district. The block –wise variations ranges between the highest of 22.32 per cent points in Kaliachak-II to the lowest of 10.96 per cent points in Habibpur. The most striking feature of the female literacy change is that most of the blocks experienced high change. There are 7 blocks where the change in female literacy is higher than district average (15.71 per cent points). This rapid change in literacy mostly because of their existing low female literacy in the previous decade (1991-2001). It should be mentioned here that the change in female literacy rates are higher than that of males in every blocks in the district.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Figure 2a & 2b: Literacy Rates in Malda District (2001, 2011)

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Decadal Change in Literacy by Gender (2001-11)

40

M 20 F

Per cent Per 0 T

Gazol

Ratua-I

Ratua-II

Habibpur

Old Malda Old

Chanchal-I

Kaliachak-I

Manikchak

Chanchal-II

Bamangola

Kaliachak-II

Kaliachak-III

English English Bazar

Harishchandra… Harishchandra… C D Blocks

Figure 3: Decadal Variation in Literacy (2001-11) Male-Female gap in literacy : One of the important characteristics of the Indian literacy is that there is sharp difference between the literacy rate of males and females from the historical period that is continued after the independence. Table:3 and the figure:3 show that there are wide gap in literacy between the males and females in India, West Bengal as well as Malda. This gap was 18.33 per cent in 1951 but in the successive decades this used to be fluctuating. For example, this gap increased from 18.33 per cent in 1951 to 24.93 per cent in 1961 to 26.60 per cent in 1981 but it decreased in the decade of 1981- 1991 (from 26.60 % to 24.80%). Fortunately, after 1991 Census this gap is continuously narrowing down and 2011 census reduced to 16.68 per cent. In case of West Bengal the male- female gap in literacy is continuously decreasing from 1961 Census but in Malda district the male literacy was mere 18.10 per cent and the corresponding figure for the female was only 5.00 per THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER cent in 1951. It, therefore, means the male literacy rate was substantially more than three times than that of females in 1951. Unfortunately this gap in literacy was increasing up to 1991 Census in Malda. In 1991 Census, the male literacy was 45.60 per cent and the corresponding figure for the female was just half of those of males that stood at 24.92 per cent. It is mainly because of females in India have for long been confined within four walls of the house as a dutiful home bird.

80 Trend of Gender Gap in Literacy

60 Malda

40 WB Percent 20 India

0 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 Year

Figure 4: Gender Gap in Literacy (1951-2011) Moreover, there were fewer opportunities for females to participate in the families‟ economic struggle. Besides these there were several factors like general poverty, status of women in the society, prevalence of early marriage in especially among girls, and prejudices against their employment and also mobility. All these factors have kept them far behind their male counterparts as far as educational achievement is concerned. Fortunately, this gap is narrowing down in 2001 and 2011 Census. This gap in 2001 and 2011 were 17.55 per cent and 9.28 per cent respectively. In 2011, the male literacy stood at 66.24 per cent and female literacy at 56.96 per cent. However, with increasing socio-economic

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awareness and with literacy among females increasingly becoming a matrimonial necessity, the gap between male and female literacy rate is steadily narrowing down indicating a positive social transformation. Results/ Findings : The above analysis reveals the followings with respect to literacy and it‟s pattern in the district. Malda district is one of the marginalized districts in terms of literacy in the state of West Bengal.  From the historic period the literacy rate and the progress of it is very slow as compared to others district of West Bengal.  The general literacy rate of this district is 61.73 per cent and the male and female literacy rates are 66.24 per cent and 56.96 per cent (2011) respectively. It means the literacy level is far lagging behind the state average in all fronts.  The literacy level in this district has not reached a respectable level by any standard where about 4 out of every 10 persons could not read and write.  The female literacy has crossed the critical threshold value of halfway i.e.50.00 per cent in the district in 2011. However, there is still wide regional variation in the literacy rates in the district.  The block –wise variations in case of female literacy rates are much more pronounced than that of male literacy.  The literacy rates in the district recoded a quantum jump during 1991-2001 and it is continuing till to the last Census (2011).  The change in case of female literacy is much more pronounced than those of males which is quite encouraging.  There is wide variation in block-wise quantum of change in literacy rates during last decades.  It is more satisfying to observe that the disparity between the blocks in literacy rates have narrowed down during 2001-2011.  There is wide gap in the literacy rates between the rural and urban areas in the district at the tune of approximately 16 per cent.  In case of rural area, about 6 out of every 10 persons could read and write while for the urban areas the corresponding figure is 3 out of every 4 persons (2011) indicating rural-urban divide in the literacy level.  The male- female gap in literacy was continuously increasing up to 1991 in the district but fortunately this gap is

narrowing down from 2001 Census to till the 2011 CensusTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER indicating women empowerment and emancipation of the members of fair sex. Suggestions :  To achieve the goal of Universalization of Elementary Education, implement different policies and schemes such Sarva Shiksha Mission, the National Policy on Education of 1986, and Programme of Action of 1992 properly in letter and spirit is essential.  Setting up of new schools and building adequate infrastructure in the already existing schools to retain the children to arrest the illiteracy in the district is essential.  Mid-Day-Meal programme should be implemented in its proper spirit in every school to attract the first time learners on the one hand and retaining the already enrolled in the district.  In view of the reservation of sending their daughters in the co-educational schools, more girls‟ schools needed to be set up in the backward areas to encourage female literacy and to narrow down the gender gap in literacy.  Creation of co-lateral infrastructure and services so that children, particularly girls, are not engaged in fetching drinking water, collecting firewood, taking livestock for grazing etc. to arrest high drought out rate.  Vocational schools and training centres required to be set up in the backward areas to fulfil the needs of the local people and to encourage retention in schools that will ultimately uplift the literacy rate in the district.  The Government must come up with the sufficient number of scholarships and stipends on the basis of their parent‟s income so that drop out due to financial distress is minimised. Conclusion: Growth in the level of literacy in the district is found to be more than both state and country during1951-2011, particularly high in the last decade as the district is late starter. Decadal growth in literacy among females in the district is more than general literacy and also male literacy. While sharp fall in gender gap in literacy in the district as compared to state or country is witnessed, rural-urban divide is quite high at the tune of 16 per cent registered in 2011. Gender gap in 2011 in rural is found to be 10 per cent and the same in urban area is 5 per cent. High gender gap and rural-urban divide is the indication of overall backwardness of the society. Though relatively high literacy is found to be partially in all three geographical regions of Tal, Diara and Barind in Kaliachak-I & II C D Blocks, Bamangola, Gajole and Chanchal in 2011 at

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the same time low literacy is found in Kaliachak-III, Harischandrapur-I and II C D Blocks, Habibpur, and Ratua-II, all are falling in the marginal and frontier areas of the district, the overall condition is not much encouraging. Thus, its imperative a time bound sustainably effective and of course acceptable to the local community is to be adopted to improve the situation. References : 1. Census of India. (2011). District Census Hand Book, Malda, Series-20, Part XII-B, Village and Town Directory, Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved from http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB.html. 2. Census of India. (2011). District Census Hand Book, Malda, Series-20, Part XII-, A, Village and Town Directory, Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved from http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB.html. 3. Chanda, R.C. (2009). Geography of population (8thed.). Ludhiana: Kalyani Publishers. 4. Government of West Bengal (GoWB). (2007). District human development report: Malda. Development and Planning Department. Government of West Bengal, Kolkata.Retrieved from http://www.wbplan.gov.in/ 5. Government of West Bengal (GoWB). (2007). West Bengal human development report, Development and Planning Department, Government of West Bengal, Kolkata. Retrieved from http://www.wbplan.gov.in/ 6. Government of West Bengal (GoWB).(2004). District Statistical Hand book:Malda. Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics. Government of West Bengal, Kolkata. Retrieved from http://wbplan.gov.in/docs/Handbook_2004/Malda.pdf 7. Hassan, M. I. (2005). Population geography. Jaipur: Rawat Publications. 8. Husain, M. (2002). Human geography (3rded.). Jaipur: Rawat Publications. 9. Hussain, N. (2011). Dimensions of Education, Employment and Fertility Status of Muslim Population in Malda District, West Bengal (Ph.D. Thesis, chap-III). Department of Geography, Aligarh Muslim University: Aligarh. Retrieved from http://shodhganga. inflibnet.ac.in THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 10. Jhingan, M. L., Bhat, B. K. & Desai, J. N. (2005). Demography (2ndrev.ed.). Delhi: Vrinda Publications (p) Ltd. 11. Khullar, D. R. (2006). India: A comprehensive geography (2nded.). Ludhiana: Kalyani Publishers. 12. Town-wise Primary Census Abstract (PCA), Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Retrieved from http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/dchb/DCHB.html.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER

Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Impact of PMGSY on Socio-Economic Development: A Case Study of Chandpur- Kushabaria Road, Murshidabad District, West Bengal

Rentu Biswas, Research Scholar, Department of Geography, Aliah University, Kolkata-14

A K M Anwaruzzaman, Associate Prof. (Department of Geography, Aliah University, Kolkata-14.

Abstract : Accessible road transport network of rural area is one of the most important key factors for the development and transformation of the rural area and also the nation a whole. The rural road connectivity helps the rural people to access the various economic and social services easily and propels the agricultural and industrial production. It generates employment opportunity which reduces the poverty level and change the standard of living from traditional subsistence level to a modern way of self sufficiency to affluency. The PMGSY road has improved the social, physical, financial and human capital of the population of the connected villages by which the villagers are coming up in the main stream and contribute in the progress of the nation. The present paper brings out the impact of Chandpur-Kushabaria PMGSY road on socio-economic development of its adjoining villages as a case study of impact of PMGSY on social and economic transformation. Keywords: Accessibility, Agricultural productivity, All weather roads, Connectivity, PMGSY, PURA Introduction: Rural road connectivity plays a vital role in the process of improvement of socio-economic status and also helps in reduction of poverty level of the rural communities (Samanta, 2015). Rural road increases the mobility level of passenger (persons) and goods (materials) which facilitatesTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER economic growth. The ex-prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee launched a massive National Highways Development Project in 1998 for building a four/six lane expressway network connecting the four metro cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata along with connecting the four corners of the country (Damodaran, 2016). Aiming poverty reduction and bringing the rapid sustainable development and socio-economic transformation in rural India, the Government of India implemented several schemes across the country. Among them PMGSY is one, a nation-wide programme aimed at improving transportation network. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), a central govt. sponsored scheme was launched on the 25th December, 2000. The main objective of this programme was to provide good all weather road connectivity with necessary culverts and cross drainage structures which is operable throughout the year to eligible unconnected habitations in the rural area with a minimum population of 500 in the plains and 250 in the hill states, tribal districts and desert areas. It also permits the upgradation of the existing roads in those districts where all the eligible habitations of the designated population size have been provided with all weather road connectivity. Literature Review: The number of literatures available on the issue under consideration is highly limited for the study area. However, a very few similar studies are available. A short review of the available literatures is presented below. Ministry of Rural Development (2015) pointed out in a report entitled “Impact Assessment Study of Improved Rural Road Maintenance System under PMGSY” that the implementation of PMGSY road increases the agricultural production and changes the cropping pattern. It helps to increase employment opportunity, accessibility of health, education, and other social services which reduce the poverty level of the citizen. The study of four districts from each state Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh has been given such a result. Mamun and Paul (2017) discussed the impact of rural transport system on the agricultural development of Jalangi block as a case study. The study concluded that improvement of rural road system leads to increase the agricultural productivity. Singh (2015) analysed the role of Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana on socio-economic development and infrastructural improvement of Bastar district. Lokesha and Manesha (2016) highlighted the agricultural development in the light of road infrastructural development in India.

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Study Area: For the present study of Chandpur- Kushabaria PMGSY road segment has been selected to assess the impact of PMGSY road on socio-economic development of rural areas adjoining the road. Chandpur- Kushabaria road stretch is in Domkal CD block of Murshidabad District, West Bengal. The road passes through a number of villages like Kushabaria, Kalyanpur, Dobapara, Bil Bamas, Goribpur, Jitpur, and Chandpur etc. The total length of the road is 6.93 km of which one end is at Chandpur and the other end is at Kushabaria more (connector). Quite a few other village pucca roads, kuchcha roads, concrete roads also join this selected road at different places. The construction of the road has been completed on the 30th January, 2007. It offers the villagers a new road connectivity. There are 18 Cross Drainage works and the total cost of the construction is ₹ 281.13 crore. After five years of construction it has also been repaired. A number of villages get the benefits from the road once it came into existence.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Objectives : The main objective of this paper to assess the socio-economic impact on the lives of the rural people who are beneficiaries as a result of enhanced rural connectivity provided through Chandpur-Kushabaria PMGSY road in the form of change in- a) Agricultural productivity and economic benefit through enhanced production and hike in price of commodities. b) Educational development through greater accessibility to educational institutions. c) Social development, rural transformation through enhanced social interaction, effective integration and fulfilling cultural and higher needs of life of the people. Database : The present paper is prepared based on mainly on primary data and supplemented by secondary data. The secondary data have been collected from different books, journals, websites etc to fulfill the set objectives. The detail information on Chandpur-Kushabaria road is taken from Murshidabad Zila Parisad. The primary data have been collected through administering survey schedule during 29/12/2017- 31/12/2017 for assessing the impact of the road. Methodology : A number of statistical tools and cartographic techniques have been used to fulfill set objectives of the present study. The primary data have been collected administering survey schedule among conveniently selected 50

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respondents including cultivators, daily wage earners, businessmen, servicemen (employed in govt./non govt. organized sector), students, unemployed youths and others. Besides, group discussion and in-depth-interview methods were also applied for better understanding of the impact of the road. Subsequently, the data have been tabulated, synthesized, analysed, and interpretation is done along with graphical representation. MS Excel is used for analyzing the data and also for graphical representation of the results. QGIS-2.14.1 software is used for preparation of the map of the study area. Results and Discussion: The result of the study is presented in brief and a short discussion on the results presented below. A brief Profile of the beneficiaries: To assess the impact of Chandpur-Kushabaria road 50 beneficiary-respondents have been interviewed from the selected villages adjoining to the PMGSY road such as Kushabaria, Kalyanpur, Dubapara, Jitpur and Goribpur. A brief profile of the respondents is presented in the table-01 as shown below. Table-01: Characteristics of the respondents

Attribute Distribution of respondents Male Female Sex 47 (94%) 3 (6%) <30 Years 30-50 Years >50 Years Age (year) 12 (24%) 20 (40%) 18 (36%) Literate Illiterate Literacy (%) 44 (88%) 6 (12%) Educational level up to 10th X-XII UG PG & above (class passed) 24 (48%) 11 (22%) 6 (12%) 3 (6%)

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Occupational Cultivator Day Labour Business Service Student Unemploy Others structure (%) 16 (32%) 12 (24%) 9 (18%) 1 (2%) 6 (12%) 1 (2%) 5 10%) up to 3 4 to 6 7 & above Family size 5 (10%) 37 (74%) 8 (16%) Source : Calculated by author from primary data Impact on Agriculture – Enhancement of Productivity: Agriculture plays a pivotal role in the economy of the country and also the prime sector of employment. According to the 2011 Census, about 70% people are directly involved in this sector of employment i.e. agriculture. Agriculture is the sector around which whole economy revolves. Their needs and dreams are tightly weaven to agriculture. Murshidabad district is one of the most backward districts in the state as well as India. All the people of the study area live in rural areas and their source of income is fully intertwined with agricultural sector. Due to this reason they always face a host of problems emanated from lack of modern technology and improved equipments associated with agriculture. As the remote areas were nearly unconnected to the major roads or other market centres, dissemination of information and technological innovation/progress was faced with a great hindrance. But after the construction of PMGSY road, the villagers can easily now access the benefits. As a result of this they can presently harness the advantages of new connectivity; this makes a revolutionary change in their economic basis for the people. They can easily access chemical fertilizers, HYV seeds, pesticides, insecticides, herbicides etc. from the markets and also they can sale out the surplus production at a distant market, different perishable products like milk, vegetables etc to the market at a lower transportation cost. It has initiated changes in the cropping patterns particularly, a shift from traditional food crops to cash crops and vegetable & fruits in the study area. The change of production of agricultural crops as recorded in the study area is given below-

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Table-02: Growth in yield of crops Productivity of Crops in kg/bigha* Productivity of Agricultural Before After Growth rate Crops Before and After the Crops PMGSY PMGSY (%) Chandpur-Kushabaria PMGSY

1000 Road Paddy 528 775 46.78 800 Before Wheat 294 453 54.08 600 PMGSY Other 400 109 183 67.88 Cereals 200 Jute 299 434 45.15 0 Oil seeds 144 216 50 Paddy Wheat Other Jute Oil Productivity Kg/Bighain Productivity Cereals seeds Source: Calculated by author from primary data Crops (*1 Bigha=13.3780376 acre=0.133803776 hectare) Fig. No.: 02

The leading agricultural crops of the study area are paddy, jute, wheat, other cereals, and oil seeds etc. Prior to the construction of the PMGSY road, the yield rate of the crops was quite low due to low application of fertilizers, HYV seeds, pesticides, and also lack awareness etc. But after the construction of the road, they can now have easy access to the modern agricultural equipments and inputs like chemical fertilizers, seeds, pesticides etc. from the nearby market centres of their choice (Bagdanga bazaar, Kushabaria bazaar, Jitpur bazzar, Dubapara Bazaar and even from Domkal). As a result the productivity of each crop has increased substantially which is shown in the figure (02) above and also in the table (02). The highest growth rate in productivity has been recorded in the production of cereals among all crops.

Besides, the cultivation of the banana, sugarcane, vegetableTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHERetc. have been recently introduced in the study area. Impact on the Industrial Growth : Murshidabad district does not have much strong base for industrial sector. But the construction and up- gradation of PMGSY roads played a significant role to the growth and development of small and medium scale industries in the rural areas of the district. Bakery, biri rolling, brickfield, dairy etc are some of the mention worthy. Cottage & small scale industries have improved considerably in the remote villages of the district at a fast pace due to low transportation cost, reduced travel time and enhanced transportation efficiency. Besides, the entrepreneurs can easily deliver the goods and products at a cheaper rate to the consumers of the study area in the improved situation. The people of the study area now can easily travel to the nearby brickfields of Bagdanga (4 km away), Juginda (8 km away), Par Diar (3 km away). Carrying cost for bricks and other building materials have remarkably reduced. During the survey it is noticed that a new brickfield is under construction along the road near Dakshin Jitpur. A villager holds the opinion “I used to go to brickfield on foot (walking) about 4 km before the construction of the PMGSY road due to the pore and dangerous condition of the road but now I can easily go to the place using bicycle or other vehicles even at 3 am”. Impact on Employment Generation : The newly built connection of the villages with major roads (PMGSY and otherwise) and village service centres affects the infrastructural development, agriculture, industry etc. positively in Murshidabad district. The villagers are directly or indirectly involved in the process of construction and up-gradation of the roads generating direct employment. A number of people of the locality established tea stalls, grocery shops, other business establishments etc. along the constructed PMGSY roads. They involve in their activities throughout the year as they have presently all weather road connection. The users are now capable of covering more distance very easily at their work place due to better the accessibility through the village road network. All such advantages help to create spontaneous working days throughout the year. According to the field survey, there is a positive impact on employment generation by the PMGSY road as 78% respondents affirmly responded and about 22% respondents say that it has no impact. None of the respondent identified any negative impact of the road regarding employment generation.

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Impact on Transport Facilities : As a matter of fact, during the pre-PMGSY period, the dominating modes of transportation in the study area were Bullock cart, cavalry etc. But in the post-PMGSY period, the mode of transportation system is fully replaced by motorized vehicles like bus, tractor, bike, scooter, motorized van etc in the area under study. As a result, the mobility level of the passengers and goods are increasing rapidly day by day. Their basic needs and demands are fulfilled fast which they actually dreamed for a long time. The surplus productions of agricultural commodities and other perishable products like vegetables, eggs, milk etc are easily transported to the centres by the help of the PMGSY road at a low transportation cost. Changes in modes of Transportation in the study area (Pre & Post PMGSY Period) Before PMGSY Road Construction After PMGSY Road Construction Bullock cart, Van, Horse cart, Bi-Cycle, Motor cycle, Bus, E-Rickshaw, Maruti van, Taxi, Auto, Bi-Cycle, Motor Tractor etc. cycle, Motorized van, Lorry, Tractor etc. Source: Based on primary field survey Table No. 03 Time (Minutes) Modes Distance Purpose Growth Rate (%) Before PMGSY After PMGSY Bullock Goods 90 50 -44.44 Cart Horse cart Goods 80 45 -43.75 From Kushabaria Van more to Chandpur Goods 60 35 -41.67 Tractor more (6.93 km) Goods 40 25 -37.5 Bi-cycle Person 40 18 -55

Motor cycle Person THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 25 12 -52 Source: Calculated by author based on primary field survey After the construction of Chandpur-Kushabaria PMGSY road the connectivity of the village areas has improved considerably and thus has enhanced mobility level also substantially. Modes of transportation have gone through a sea change in the area and it has replaced the traditional modes of vehicles by modern motorized vehicles, thus physical distance has been apparently shortened from the perspective of travel time. During the field survey a villager accounts “Before 2007, pre-PMGSY period when a lady driven a scooter, most of the villagers came out their houses to witness strange phenomena but now so many women drive the scooters in the study area that no one is curious”. Survey results reveal that travel time has reduced for Panchayat Office, BDO, BL&LRO, SDO, District HQS, and nearest hospital etc. Table No. 04 Average Travel Time (Minutes) From To Growth Rate (%) Before PMGSY After PMGSY Study Area Gram Panchayet Office 17 7.8 -54.11764706 Study Area Block Development Office 115 67 -41.73913043 Study Area Sub Divisional Office 102 59 -42.15686275 Study Area District Headquarter 149 120 -19.46308725 Study Area Nearest Hospital 73 39 -46.57534247 Source: Calculated by author based on primary field survey

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Impact on Education: Before the PMGSY came into being to improve road network of the villages of the study area, the same was very poor and in a dilapidated condition. It was a common phenomena that during the monsoon season most of the students and teachers were absent in their institutions due to bad road condition as road was fill of mud and water logging, even the students often needed much more time to reach to schools. A number of students used to be absent due to drenched condition while going to school as the require much longer period to reach the school. But as a result of the construction of PMGSY road, there is a positive change in the accessibility of the stake holders to the education institutions. The number of students going to middle and high school has substantially increased due to improvement of roads under PMGSY. The parents are now much more confident to send their children to the more distant school. As a result the male-female gap in literacy is narrowing down day by day. Not only the students but also the well qualified and efficient teachers are attracted to the schools of the region due to the easier access and improved transport facilities. Therefore, the attendance of students and teachers is remarkably increased throughout the year even during monsoon season. Table 05: Reduction in travel time to the schools (institutions) from different inhabitations

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Surveyed Nearby High Destination Modes of Transportation Time (Minutes) Villages School High school Before 2007 After 2007 Before 2007 After 2007 Kushabaria On foot Kushabaria Kushabaria H.S. H.S. (Walking) Bicycle 10 5 Kushabaria On foot Kalyanpur Kushabaria H.S. H.S. (Walking) Bicycle 15 7 Kushabaria On foot Bicycle & E- Dubapara Kushabaria H.S. H.S. (Walking) rickshaw 40 10 Kushabaria On foot Bicycle & E- Goribpur Jitpur H.S. H.S. (Walking) rickshaw 60 25 On foot Jitpur Jitpur H.S. Jitpur H.S. (Walking) Cycle 35 20 Source: Calculated by Author based on primary survey The students of Goribpur get highly benefited by the construction of road. It reduces not only the travel time from 60 minutes to 25 minutes by changing the modes of transportation, but it also increases the regularity of the students in the school. Before the construction of the road, it was in a dilapidated condition from the perspective of the movement of the people especially in the monsoon season. If they miss a ferry boat on Bhairab River for one time slot, they could not reach to the school at right time. They were in a very difficult situation of vulnerability. A villager states during field survey “They had an imagination to arrive the school, even in monsoon season they carried double dress without any shoes or chapple in their feet”. But now-a-days the pupils of the areas frequent to Kushabaria for school and also for tuition purpose. Impact on Health : During pre-PMGSY period, the road condition and also modes of transportation was very poor from the perspective of movement of patients in the villages under study area. There was a day when one needed more time to

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take the patients to the hospitals and health centres. Especially more dangerous situation used to be faced by the people in case of shifting pregnant women was needed. But PMGSY under study connects the eligible habitations (Kushabaria) to the nearby Bhatsala-Kushabaria Major District Road (MDR) and Gangadhari-Berhampore MDR which provides enhanced facilities for the patients to reach hospitals, and also encourages to set up more health centres, and dispensaries etc. The patients are now able to reach the health centres or hospital quickly due to availability of motorized vehicles coupled with all weather i.e. throughout the year road. The ambulance service is presently active in the study area with the help of ASHA workers. Further in the study area, the PMGSY road has left more impact on the pregnant women. Most of the women are now admitted to the hospitals due to available accessibility of transport facilities and thus mortality of both neonatal and maternal is reduced rapidly. Before 2007 most of the sick people visited the quake doctors for their primary treatment but now they go to the Sub-Divisional Hospital, District Hospital, and to a specialist doctor and also to a nursing home (private hospital) as easy available transport system and improvement of socio-economic condition have enabled them. They are now much more aware about their health and services required under duress. Impact on Urbanization: Before the PMGSY road came into existence it was observed that there used to be a long distance (physical & travel) between village and town of the study area. But PMGSY connected these unconnected habitations to the nearby towns or higher level of roads and reduces the physical distance between them. The villagers can easily access some of the basic urban amenities and facilities from their own habitation. A rapid change in transportation is noticed from traditional to modern way of life of the rural inhabitants. It is noticed that there has been increasing trend of use and ownership of television, two wheeler, four wheeler, different electrical equipments, computer, and mobile etc. and also other electrical and electronic gadgets. Conversion from kuchha house to pucca house is a more frequented phenomenon accelerated by the PMGSY. Impact on Poverty Alleviation: The village road connectivity under PMGSY reduces the growth rate of poverty in the rural area by providing direct employment and also involving the people in different employment generating sectors in their own villages and others using all weather road throughout the year. The average income is rapidly increasing as recorded by the villagers. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Impact on Culture Development: The PMGSY road increases the road connectivity and it reduces the physical distances and break the cultural barriers among the different communities on one hand and on the other hand as they can interact frequently with each others, exchanges their values and ideas etc. become easy and it make acculturation. Many villagers are now in a position to frequent to the fart off distance to attend festivals, cultural events & occasions, tourism, marriage etc. purpose easily and comfortably. As high as 82% respondents state the positive impact on cultural improvement propelled by the road development where as only 18% respondents are in the favour of no impact on cultural sphere. Impact on socio-economic and cultural front: Table 05 : Impact of the PMGSY road on different attributes of socio-economic development

Positive Negative No Impact Impact on Sectors No. of % of No. of % of No. of % of Respondent Respondent Respondent Respondent Respondent Respondent Employment 39 78 0 0 11 22 Generation Social Interaction 46 92 0 0 4 8 Cultural Progress 41 82 0 0 9 18 General Awareness 49 98 0 0 1 2 Land Price 50 100 0 0 0 0 Source: Calculated by author based on primary survey

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Distribution of Respondents by Opinion Impact of PMGSY

150 Positive 100 Negative 50

0 % of Respondents of % Employment Social Cultural General Land Price Generation Interaction Progress Awareness

Fig. No.: 04

It has been observed from the field survey that the Chandpur-Kushabaria PMGSY road has highly affected the land price on the both sides of the road. All the respondents opined that the positive impact of the road on land price can be observed. The people of the study area now are more aware due to exchange of information within the villages and also with outside villages. As high as 98% of the respondents opined about the positive impact of the road on peoples‟ general awareness and as such only 2% respondents opined no impact. As the physical distance is reduced due to increasing accessibility and connectivity by the road and therefore, travel time is also reduced and as a result, the social interaction is also increased. As many 92% respondents mentioned the positive impact of the road on social interaction and only 8% respondents opted for no impact. But at the same time nobody mentioned about the negative impact of the road. Fig. No.: 05 Land Price : After the construction of the road in 2007, the uses of the road i.e. the frequency and volume of vehicular traffic has also rapidly increased. Many stalls, shops, store rooms,THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER godowns etc. have come up on both sides of the road. So the demand for the land adjoining the road has increased remarkably. It is found in the field survey that before the construction of the road the land price was very low i.e. ₹ 5188/Katha but presently the land price has jumped to ₹ 50800/Katha. Though it‟s undeniable fact that increasing land price may have caused by several other factors, yet the improving transport definitely has been an effective contributing cause. Changes in Housing Condition: Housing condition is considered to be one of the indicators of socio-economic condition of any area. Before 2007 most of the households were economically Changes in Housing Condition backward in the study area but within short span of time 120 their socio-economic condition has visibly uplifted due to 100 enhanced connectivity along with others. As a result of 80 this their housing condition has been also changed and has improved. 60 Kuchha Table-06: No. of households by types 40 Pucca Nature of House Before PMGSY After PMGSY 20 0

Kuchha 66% 0% Respondents of Percent Before After Pucca 34% 100% PMGSY PMGSY Fig. No. 06 Source: Calculated by author based on primary survey

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The primary field survey result shows that about 66% respondents had kuchha house before 2007 followed by 34% respondents with pucca house. But after the road construction all the respondents have changed to pucca houses. During field survey they also mentioned that all the building construction materials i.e. sand, brick, cement, paints etc. for house building have been transported through road which has reduced cost of building materials. Major Findings :  Productivity of paddy, jute, and wheat etc. have increased perceived to be due to easier access to agricultural inputs such as HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, herbicides etc. and saling out of agricultural produce.  Some of the cash crops like banana, sugar cane etc. and vegetables have been recently introduced in the study area after the construction of the road to mainly as cash crops.  Traditional transport modes are replaced by motorized vehicles offering much more quick and efficient transportation services.  Field survey shows that there has been a sharp rise in the land price as it‟s found that the land price prior to 2007 was only ₹5188/Katha which is now increased to as high as ₹50800/Katha.  The respondents expressed their opinion and found that positive impact of the road on increasing the land price (100% respondent) followed by increasing general awareness (98% respondent), increasing social interaction (92%), increasing cultural improvement (82%) and employment opportunities (78% respondent).  It‟s found that before 2007, as many as 66% respondents had kuchha houses and now 34% households had pucca houses but now all the respondents have pucca houses. Conclusion : The PMGSY is the very effective and tremendously wide programme taken by the Govt. of India. The aim of this programme is to connect the unconnected habitations of rural areas to urban centres or higher order roads by providing all weather road connectivity. PMGSY is the window for modern urbanization process for contemporary period. As a marvelous consequence of this mention worthy programme PMGSY, has played a very significant and pivotal role on the rural people of the remote study area to grow sense of modernism and self reliance. They are in a position to easily utilize their basic resources and facilities and also fulfill their need. Now they perceive that without touch of THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER globalization and urbanization it is quite impossible to improve their socio-economic condition. This realization comes mainly after the implementation of the programme and creates a dream in their mind „billion‟s dream‟, a „Strong India‟. Thus it may be said with a certain amount of confidence that PMGSY has brought desired transformation in the rural area. References : 1. Damodaran, H. 2016. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana: How the programme impacted Indian hinterland. The Indian Express. Retrieved from http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/pradhan-mantri-gram-sadak- yojana-how-the-programme-impacted-indian-hinterland/ accessed on 12/10/2017. 2. Lokesha, M.N. and Mahesha, M. 2016. Impact of Road Infrastructure on Agricultural Development and Rural Road Infrastructure Development Programmes in India. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 5(2): 1-7. 3. Ministry of rural Development. 2015. Impact Assessment Study of Improved Rural Road Maintenance System under PMGSY. retrieved from http://pmgsy.nic.in/Impact_Asmt_RRM.pdf accessed on 06/12/2017. 4. Mumun, A.L. and Paul, S.K. 2017. Impact of Rural Transport on Agricultural Development: Case Study Jalangi Block, Murshidabad, West Bengal. International Journal of Management and Applied Science, 3(11): 16-19. retrieved from http://www.iraj.in/journal/journal_file/journal_pdf/14-424-151685922016-19.pdf accessed on 09/04/2018. 5. Programme Evaluation Organization. 2010. Evaluation Study on Rural Roads Component of Bharat Nirman. Planning Commission, Government of India, New Delhi, Report No. 210 retrieved from http://planningcommission.gov.in/reports/peoreport/peoevalu/eva_bhar0106.pdf accessed on 09/04/2018. 6. Samanta, P.K. 2015. Development of Rural Road Infrastructure in India. Pacific Business Review International, 7(11): 86-93. retrieved from http://www.pbr.co.in/May2015/12.pdf accessed on 12/10/2017. 7. Singh, Y. 2015. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana: Analytical Study of the Development of the Bastar Didtrict. International Journal of Research in Commerce & Management, 6(6): 104-106.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Productivity of Boro Paddy In Bolpur Sub- Division Subhasis Mondal

Subhasis Mondal,Senior Senior Research Research Fellow, Fellow, Department Department of Geography, of Geography, Visva-Bharati Visva -Bharati

Abstract: Bolpur Sub-Division is located at the south-eastern part of the Birbhum District, West Bengal. This study area is intensively and extensively irrigated by means of canal, submersible pump, tank and river lift sources of irrigation. By virtue of irrigation practice the entire part of this sub-division has been successfully brought under cultivation. Above all, the modern socio-economic parameters comprehensively give rise to higher degree of agricultural development, where irrigation plays the role of catalyst. Due to the presence of irrigation almost all the farms have more than 90% of their land as net sown area. Boro paddy is the second most highly productive food crop, produced in the study area. Boro paddy is cultivated where Submersible pump is primarily available. Besides subject to the availability of water in the reservoir irrigation department may release canal water or through rivers. With these available water resources the cultivation of Boro paddy takes place. Higher level application of chemical fertilizers and pesticide, timely and adequate supply of irrigation and higher level supervision help to have a upper level productivity of this crop. Key Words : Irrigation, Boro paddy Introduction : As the chief crops in Bolpur Sub-Division Rice, Potato, Mustard seed, Til and Mursuri may be mentioned. Recently the production of boro cultivation has increased for the improvement of irrigation. Four blocks of the Sub- division depend on agriculture. The total quantity of agricultural land in Bolpur sub-division is 2,18,900 acre. Almost them 1,35,937 acre under the facility of irrigation, i.e. 62.1 percent of the total agricultural land is irrigated. Crops are produced THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER twice in a year almost 83,188 acre land. Boro paddy is the gift of irrigation in Bolpur Sub-Division. It is summer crop generally grown in some places where irrigation is available). In Bolpur Sub-Division is intensively and extensively irrigated by means of canal, submersible pump, tank and river lift sources of irrigation. Statement of problems : In the study area monsoons are active only for 3-4 months in a year. The remaining 8-9 months are marked by dry season when irrigation is needed for successful growth of crops. Rice, which requires more water, is the principal crop of the study area. The above importance and problems have prompted the investigator to select this topic and the area to have an intensive study. Literature Survey : Motebennur, S.S. (2013) studied “Impact of irrigation on agricultural development in dharwad district of karnataka state” He found that irrigation is very important input of agriculture. Without irrigation very little can be expected from extensive cultivation. Agriculture without irrigation in areas having less than fifteen centimeters rainfall is a sucidal uneconomic venture. Todkari, G. U. (2012) studied “Impact of irrigation on agriculture productivity in Sholapur district of Maharashtra state” He found that irrigation is a decisive factor for agricultural development. Inadequacy of rainfall call for irrigation for successful agriculture. He farther observed as Sholapur is affected by drought and famine therefore irrigation is necessary both intensively and extensively for higher production because under the assured irrigation the farmer will be abled to apply the pacage of technological input which will give arrive to higher productivity. Objectives of the study : To observe the impact of irrigation on agricultural productivity of Boro paddy in the study area To uncover the problems and to suggest policy measures Data base : The data have been collected from the two sources i.e. secondary which is collected from different Books, References, Journals, different offices and primary which is collected through field investigation.

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Analytical procedure : Keeping in mind the objectives of this research five (5) villages namely Ruppur and Benuria from Bolpur-Sriniketan Block, Goltikuri from Illambazar Block, Kurumba from Labhpur Block, Saota from Nanoor Block were purposively selected as sample village for survey. Every sample village is 100% irrigated. Thus, the total number of Blocks were four (4). Finally the total number of households were surveyed two hundred fifty (250,fifty (50) households from each sample village).The collected data have been processed and represented by statistical and cartographic technique. Correlation co-efficient : The linear relationship between two variables are known as correlation, where as the coefficient that measures the intensity of correlation between that two sets of variables is called correlation coefficient. The interrelationship between the independent and dependent variable has been computed by Co-relation technique. Regression (bi-variate) : The word „regression‟ is used to denote estimation or prediction of the average value of one variable for a specified value of the other variable. The estimation is done by means of suitable equations, derived on the basis of available bi- variate data. Such an equation is known as regression equation and its geometrical representation is called a regression curve (N.G. Das-2007). The cause and effect relationship has been obtained by means of regression analysis : a) Bar graph: The graphical representation of geographic elements as bars, according to a definite scale is known as bar graph. (Srivastava-1999). b) Scatter diagram: When statistical data relating to the simultaneous measurement on two variables are available, each pair of observations can be geometrically represented by a point on the graph paper the values of one variable being shown along the x axis and those of the other variable along y axis. If there is n pair of observations, finally the graph will contain n points. This diagrammatic representation of bi variate data is known as scatter diagram (N.G.Das-2007). c) GIS map: The location map has been prepared through the application of ARC GIS 10. Location of the study area :

Bolpur Sub-Division is located at the south easternTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER part of Birbhum district, West Bengal. Total area of Bolpur Sub- Division is 1175.93 Sq. Km. It extended from 23032‟30‟‟ to 23053‟00‟‟north latitudes and from 87023‟30‟‟to 87057‟30‟‟east longitudes. Shape of Bolpur Sub-Division is like reverse gun. This Sub-Division is bounded by Murshidabad district in the north east, by the district of Burdwan in the south and east, by the block of Dubrajpur in the west, by the block Saintha and Mayureswar in the north as shown in Fig. 1. This sub-division comprises four Blocks viz. Illambazar in the west (261.54 sq kms area), Bolpur-sriniketan in the middle (334.58 sq. kms area), Nanoor block in the east (311.83 sq. kms area),Labpur in the north(267.98 sq. kms area). Ajoy river in the south detaches Bolpur Sub-Division from Burdwan district. Agriculture and allied activities are the primary occupations that are practiced in this area. Fig.1.(Showing map of the Bolpur Sub-Division) Socio economic characteristic of farmer : The Sub-Division is a dwelling place of farmers, belonging to different caste groups. These includes high caste hindu (Brahmin, Baidya, Kayestha ), middle caste Hindu (Sadgope, Ugrakhatriya,Mayra etc.) ,scheduled castes( Bagdi, bauri, Dome etc.), scheduled tribes (santal, Konra,Mal etc.) and Muslims. Educational status of farmers have been observed from primary to masters degree in the study area, but secondary passed number of farmers are high. The total number of family member of farmers have been observed from 1 to 13(1 lowest and 13 highest).Agriculture is the chief source of livelihood in Bolpur sub-division. Almost 76.8% of the working population are employed in agriculture, either as cultivators or as agricultural labourers. The highest amount of owned land of farmers 15.5 acre have been observed but the most of the size of holding are below 1 acre.

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Table analysis : Generally the productivity ranges here in between 12 quintal and 28.50 quintal per acre in different parts of the study villages. Kurumba and Binuria villages obtain better production from per acre of land by cultivating this crop. On the other hand farmers of Saota and Goltikuri villages produce this crop with moderate amount of productivity. Whereas Ruppur village has low level of productivity. The study also shows that larger amount of productivity of this crop is obtained by those farmers who produced it with the help of regulated supply of submersible pump water and larger amount of application of NPK and urea fertilizers. The following table shows these facts. Table (1) : Percentage distribution of farms according to different size classes of productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in different study villages Productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre Villages 12-17.5 17.5-22.30 22.30-28.50 Total Percentage of farms Saota 20 20 60 100 Kurumba 0 60 40 100 Goltikuri 20 40 40 100 Binuria 0 60 40 100 Ruppur 40 40 20 100 Source : Field Survey. Fig (2): Bar diagrams showing percentage distribution of farms according to different size classes of productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in different study villages

Percentage distribution of farms according Percentage distribution of farms according to to different size classes of productivity in different size classes of productivity in quintal quintal per acre of Boro paddy in Saota per acre of Boro paddy in Kurumba village

village THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

70 80 60 60 50 40 40 30 20 20

0 10 Percentage of farms 12-17.5 17.5-22.30 22.30-28.50 of farms Percentage 0 12-17.5 17.5-22.30 22.30-28.50 Productivity of Boro paddy in quintal per acre Productivity of Boro paddy in quintal per acre

Percentage distribution of farms according to different size classes of productivity in Percentage distribution of farms according to quintal per acre of Boro paddy in Goltikuri different size classes of productivity in quintal

50 village per acre of Boro paddy in Binuria village

40 80 30 60 20 40 10 20

Percentage of of farms Percentage 0

percentage of farms of percentage 0 12-17.5 17.5-22.30 22.30-28.50 12-17.5 17.5-22.30 22.30-28.50 Productivity of Boro paddy in quintal per Productivity of Boro paddy in quintal per acre acre

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Percentage distribution of farms according to different size classes of productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in Ruppur village

50 40 30 20 10 0

12-17.5 17.5-22.30 22.30-28.50 Percentage of of farms Percentage Productivity of Boro paddy in quintal per acre

Correlation analysis between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and productivity in quintal per acre Boro paddy in the study villages: Positive correlation coefficient between the percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre has been observed in all the sample villages(Saota,Kurumba,Goltikuri,Binuria and Ruppur),which means that both the variables are directly proportional to each other. The computed t values of all the sample villages(Saota, Kurumba, Goltikuri, Binuria and Ruppur) are significant at 1% and 5% level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted indicating there is significant statistical correlationship between the percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area (X variable) and agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre (Y variable). Table (2) : Correlation analysis between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and productivity in quintal per acre Boro paddy in the study villages

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Tabulated In depended Depended value Variable(X) Variable (Y) Computed Level of Null Alternative Villages Percentage Agricultural r value t value significance hypothesis hypothesis of net productivity 1% 5% irrigated area of Boro to net sown paddy quintal area per acre Saota 0.99 49.42 2.66 2.00 1% and 5% rejected accepted Kurumba 0.97 30.40 2.66 2.00 1% and 5% rejected accepted Goltikuri 0.99 51.36 2.66 2.00 1% and 5% rejected accepted Binuria 0.99 104.26 2.66 2.00 1% and 5% rejected accepted Ruppur 0.98 41.81 2.66 2.00 1% and 5% rejected accepted

Degree of freedom (df) = 48 Source : Computed by the researcher

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Fig (3): Scatter diagrams showing correlation between Percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and productivity in quintal per acre Boro paddy in the study villages Relationship between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in Saota village

30 y = 0.5719x - 29.3 20 R² = 0.9807

10

acre ofBoropaddyacre 0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Productivity in quintal quintal per Productivity in Percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area

Relationship between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in Kurumba village

30 25 y = 0.544x - 26.505 20 R² = 0.9506 15 10 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 5

acre ofBoroacre paddy 0

Productivity Productivity quintal in per 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area

Relationship between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in Goltikuri village 30

25 y = 0.4539x - 18.506 20 R² = 0.9821 15 10

of Boro paddy ofBoro 5 0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Productivity in quintal quintal acre per Productivity in Percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area

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Relationship between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in Binuria village

30 y = 0.2969x - 4.3296 20 R² = 0.9956

10

0 acre ofBoropaddyacre 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Productivity in quintal quintal per Productivity in Percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area

Relationship between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in Ruppur village

30 y = 0.4874x - 23.941 20 R² = 0.9733 10

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 acre of Boro paddyBoro of acre

Percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area Productivity per quintal in Productivity

Regression analysis between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and agricultural productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in the study villages: In the case of Saota village the regression coefficient (b) is (0.57) where the equation is(Y=-29.30 + 0.57x). This shows that per unit increase of percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area will increase 0.57 unit of agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre in this village. The coefficient of determination (r 2)is 0.98,which means 98% of the total variation in Y(agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre ) is being explained by X(percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area). The intercept (a)is -29.30 which means the regression coefficient shows variation below this constant figure. In the case of Kurumba village the regression coefficient (b) is (0.54) where the equation is(Y=-26.50 + 0.54x). This shows that per unit increase of percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area will increase 0.54 unit of agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre in this village. The coefficient of determination (r2)is 0.95,which means 95% of the total variation in Y(agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre ) is being explained by X(percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area). The intercept (a)is -26.50 which means the regression coefficient shows variation below this constant figure. In the case of Goltikuri village the regression coefficient (b) is (0.45) where the equation is(Y=-18.51 + 0.48x). This shows that per unit increase of percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area will increase 0.45 unit of agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre in this village. The coefficient of determination (r 2)is 0.98,which means 98% of the total variation in Y(agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre) is being explained by X(percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area). The intercept (a)is -18.51 which means the regression coefficient shows variation below this constant figure.

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In the case of Binuria village the regression coefficient (b) is (0.30) where the equation is(Y=-4.33 + 0.30x). This shows that per unit increase of percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area will increase 0.30 unit of agricultural productivity of Aman paddy quintal per acre in this village. The coefficient of determination (r2)is 0.99,which means 99% of the total variation in Y(agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre ) is being explained by X(percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area). The intercept (a)is -4.33which means the regression coefficient shows variation below this constant figure. In the case of Ruppur village the regression coefficient (b) is (0.49) where the equation is(Y=-23.94 + 0.49x). This shows that per unit increase of percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area will increase 0.49 unit of agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre in this village. The coefficient of determination (r2)is 0.97,which means 97% of the total variation in Y(agricultural productivity of Boro paddy quintal per acre ) is being explained by X(percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area). The intercept (a)is-23.94 which means the regression coefficient shows variation below this constant figure.

Table (3) : Regression analysis between percentage of net irrigated area to net sown area and agricultural productivity in quintal per acre of Boro paddy in the study villages In depended Depended Variable Variable (Y) (X) Villages Agricultural b(Slop) a (Intercept) R2 Percentage of Net productivity of Boro irrigated area to paddy quintal per Net sown area acre Saota 0.57 -29.30 0.98

Kurumba 0.54 -26.50 0.95

Goltikuri 0.45 -18.51 0.98

Binuria THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 0.30 -4.33 0.99

Ruppur 0.49 -23.94 0.97

Source : Computed by the researcher

Identification of problems: 1. Canal water are not available after kharif season for irrigation in the study area. 2. Very close agricultural field to canal get sufficient water but agricultural field located away from the canal not get sufficient water for their irrigation. 3. Some part of canal has eroded at the study area, as a result during heavy monsoon rainfall the water slops down vigorously over the agricultural field to cause soil erosion. 4. Tank irrigation is still an important source of irrigation in the study area. But these tanks are in many cases, silted up, neglected and derelict. 5. There are very few submersible pumps in the study area. 6. The expenditure of cultivation are being increased for increasing the water cost of submersible. 7. The cost of irrigation is be increased for increasing the price of electric unit. Policy measures: 1. Ten submersible pumps should be installed in agricultural field. 2. The canal should be aligned on the ridges, from where water can easily slop down to the distance part of the agricultural field. 3. Permanent field canals should be made on the agricultural field for distributing irrigation to the farthest part of the area with least possible wastage. 4. Derelict tanks should be renovated and the farmers should not be allowed to cultivate on the banks. Deposit of eroded soil into these tanks should be controlled. 5. The derelict canals should be renovated and damages should be repaired immediately. 6. The price of electric unit for agricultural use should be monitored and controlled by the government.

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Conclusion: The farmers in this area produced Boro paddy at the rate of 7.95 quintals to 25.10 quintals per acre of land. The study also shows that larger amount of productivity of this crop is obtained by those farmers who produced it with the help of regulated supply of submersible pump water and larger amount of application of NPK (10:26:26) and urea fertilizers. More development of that area will be possible if a unity between agriculture and scientific irrigation infrastructure is created. References : 1) Amiri.Z. and Kakolvand.E.(2014): Increasing of productivity of production sources via connected lands usage of modern irrigation method,International Journal of farming and Allied Sciences,pp-702-704. 2) Annual Production Plan on Agriculture,1989-90, Birbhum,Principal agricultural Office, suri, Birbhum. 3) Ashraf,M.et.al.(2007): Impact of small dams on agriculture and ground water development: A case study from Pakistan.Agricultural Water Management ,Elsevier,92,pp-90-98. 4) Basu,S.K. and Mukherjee, S.B.(1963): Evalution of Damodar Canals: A study of benefits of irrigation in the Damodar region,Asia Publishing House,pp-90-130. 5) Biswas,S.et.all(2015): Role of Multipurpose Projects on Distribution of Cropping Intensity and Canal Irrigation: A study on DVC projects of the Middle valley of West Bengal.Journal of Environment and Earth Science,Vol.5,No.8, 6) Blum.A.(2009):Effective use of water and not water use efficiency is the target of crop yield improvement under drought stress field crops research , Agricultural Water Management,Elsevier112, pp-119-129. 7) Camargo,D.C.et.al.(2015): Modeling the Impacts of Irrigation Treatments on Potato Growth and development,Agricultural water Managrment,150.pp-119-128.

8) Das, D.(1984): Canal and its benefit effects on CroppingTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Pattern- A case study of a village,Transactions, Vol. 12,March,1984,pp-8-16. 9) Das,N.G.(2007): Statistical Method,(Part-I&II), M.Das and Co.BB-67,Salt Lake, Sector1,Calcutta-700064,pp- 206,297,314. 10) Hunter, W.W.(1867,2001): A statistical account of Bengal. District of Birbhum. 11) Kumar, S.(1989): Role of Irrigation for Agriculture Development in Chambal Command Area. Unpublished Ph.DDisertation.Pp2-20. 12) Motebennur,S.S.(2013):Impact of Irrigation on Agricultural Development in Dharward District of Karnataka State,International Journal of Scientific Research,Vol.2,Issue. 1,pp.119-121. 13) Todkari,G.U.(2012):Impact of Irrigation on Agriculture Productivity in Sholapur District of Maharashtra State,International Journal of Agriculture Sciences,Vol.4,Issue.1,pp.165-167.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018

ISSN 2277 – 4858

Industrial Scenario and Potentialities of Industrial Development of

Hooghly Industrial Region with Special Reference to Hooghly District

Kalyani Mahavidyalaya, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal Dr. Sanjib Majumder, Sandip Saha, Sudhiranjan Lahiri Mahavidyalaya, Majdia, Nadia, West Bengal

ABSRACT: Geography has traditionally been concerned with man-environment relationship and therefore, man and his activities on the earth surface have occupied an important place in the discipline for a very long time. Industries are categorizes as secondary activities in human economic life. After industrial revolution many industrial regions were started to develop. Hooghly industrial belt is one of the most important as well as ancient industrial region of West Bengal as well as India. In 1818 the first cotton textile industry was established in this region. By 1921, this region accounted for two-third of the total factory employment in the country. This industrial region is located at both bank of Hooghly river, from Tribeni-Kalyani(north) to Uluberia-Budgebudge(south). This is a narrow belt of industrial units covering Hooghly, Howrah, North and South 24 Pargana and Kolkata. In this paper we tried to highlight the present industrial scenario of Hooghly industrial region with special reference to Hooghly district and potentialities of industrial development in Hooghly district. INTRODUCTION : Broadly we can divide the different occupations into three types- Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. Agriculture, forestry, pasturing, fishing are known as Primary activities as their products are essential or vital for human existence. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Manufacturing industries, mining are known as secondary activities whereas all types of services like trade and commerce, transport and communication are under tertiary activities which directly or indirectly help to mention other two types of activities. West Bengal is an agro based economy but secondary and tertiary based economy are also dominating in some parts of the state. Out of 23 districts of West Bengal Hugli is one of the main districts whose economy is developed and stands upon mainly agriculture and industries. This industrial region is located at both bank of Hooghly river, from Tribeni-Kalyani(north) to Uluberia-Budgebudge(south). This is a narrow belt of industrial units covering Hooghly, Howrah, North and South 24 Pargana and Kolkata. ABOUT THE STUDY AREA: The Hooghly district lies on the right bank of the Hooghly River and about 15 km away from Kolkata. The people here are engaged in both agricultural and industrial activities. At present, multi-national companies are showing interest in setting up of industries in the district. Thus, industry is growing fast in the district. This district has several types of industries like jute, paper, cotton, engineering, chemicals, rubber etc along the bank of Hooghly River from Tribeni to Uttarpara, which is in the Hooghly industrial belt, in Hooghly district. The region is developed as for the historical importance from the British period, perennial river Hooghly, good power supply, cheap labour, port orientation, capital, developed transport facilities. LOCATION OF THE STUDY AREA: The district is surrounded by Nadia in the east, Burdwan in the north, Bankura in the west and Paschim Midnapore in the south. Hooghly industrial region is mainly located on the bank of Hooghly River. So the study area is chosen for 3 blocks (namely Chanditala II, Srerampore, Chincuhra-Mogra), which is in Hooghly industrial belt, out of 18 blocks of Hooghly district. The study area is bounded on the north by parts of Balagarh and Pandua C.D block. Polbadadpur, Singur and Chanditala–I C.D block is located in the eastern portion and in the southern portion Haora district is situated. The total area of the study area is 134 Sq. Km. According to 2001 Census total population of the study area is 550914.

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Fig. 1.Location Map of the Study Area

Latitude Longitude . North South East West 23.01’ 22.39’ 88.30’ 87.30’ 20” N 32” N 20” E 15” E Latitude Longitude . North South East West

23.01’ 22.39’ 88.30’ 87.30’

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 20” N 32” N 20” E 15” E

OBJECTIVES: The main objectives of the present study are to know the present condition of industries of the study area It‟s also includes  To study the present industrial scenario.  To analise the changing nature of the industrial scenario.  To s the problem of the present industries.  To study the potentialities of further development of the industries.  Lastly to suggest measures for the Industrial development of the study area. DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY : The paper is based on some primary and secondary data which are very important for description and analysis of the paper. Primary data are collected from the micro level field survey on the basis of a structured questionnaire, and secondary data are also collected from different Government departments and published literatures. Various techniques have been applied to understand the status of industrial scenario. TABLE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE STUDY AREA Percentage of Name of Area In Population Density Population to District Blocks Sq.Km. Population CHANDITALA-II 70.34 213485 3035 4.23 SERAMPORE - 44.8 126380 2821 2.51 UTTARPARA CHINSURA- 81.86 211049 2578 4.19 MOGRA

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Industrialization may be thought to be synonymous with economic development and agriculture acts here as a catalytic agent because of its 'product contribution', 'factor contribution' and 'market contribution'[Kuznet (1961)]. Moreover, for any sustainable economic development only the expansion of service sector supported by the growth of the agricultural sector would not be sufficient; rather industrialization is essential, which also helps enlarge the capacity as well as the choice-base of the individual. Any document on Human development in any region, therefore, should give emphasis exclusively on industrialization. Industries inany region flourish if that region has a past legacy of developed industrial establishments or if that region provides requisite infrastructural facilities like rail and road connectivity, water and electricity supply, availability of suitable workforce, proximity to potential markets, etc.Hooghly district satisfying most of these features becomes one of the industrially developed districts in West Bengal. Historically industrialization in the Hooghly district can be traced back to 17th and 18th centuries from when different industrial units came into existence with the development of various European settlements along the river Bhagirathi, namely, Chinsura, Chandannagar, Serampore, Hooghly, Saptagram etc. The traditional industries in the district were silk and cotton handloom weaving, chikan embroidery, brass and bell- metal manufacture, bricks and tiles, rural oil pressing, hand-pounding of rice, salt, ice, indigo, tobacco and boat making industries, manufacturing of fishing hook and thread, carpentry etc. Later on large-scale modern industrial units, like different jute and cotton mills, thermal power plant, Hindustan Motors, Dunlop Rubber Company, Alkali and Chemical Corporation of India, J.K.Steel and THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Hindustan National Glass Manufacturing Company, Tribeni Tissues, Angus Works (manufacturing railway wagon components, road roller, cranes, etc.), to name a few, have been set up mainly within the municipal areas of Konnagar, Rishra, Serampore, Baidyabati, Champdani, Gourhati, Bhadreswar, Chandannagar, Hooghly, Chinsura and Bansberia.

REASONS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRIES IN THE STUDY AREA:  The Kolkata port joins this industrial region with the major international ports of the world.  Waterways of Hooghly River create good transport facilities for import and export.  Power which is essential for the development of industry abundantly supplied by WBPDCL, DVC and CESC  Raw materials like jute, chemicals, bamboos, electrical parts are supplied abundantly.  The highways (NH2, NH6, Delhi road and several state high ways), broad-gauge railway facilities and Hooghly River creates Good transport facilities.  British founded many industries in here, and Kolkata was the capital of India up to 1911.  The national and multinational company wants to invest here since past.  The local national and international demand of output products of this region is very much high.  As the region is highly populated, there is no problem to get skilled and non- skilled labour for the industrial development.

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PRESENT MAJOR LARGE SCALE INDUSTRIES IN THE STUDY AREA: There are several industries in the region. Followings are major large scale industries in the study area. JUTE INDUSTRY First jute industry was established in Rishra in 1859. There are several jute industries in Baidyabati, Bhadreswar, Srerampore, Bansberia, ENGINEERING INDUSTRY Hindmotor (HML) is one of the major engenieering industry in Hooghly as well as west Bengal, motor vehicles (ambassadors) are manufactured from here. COTTON TEXTILE INDUSTRY The first cotton textile industry was established in Ghusuri in 1818 in India, there are major cotton textile industries in Srerampore, Rishra. PAPER INDUSTRY The first paper industry was established in Srerampore in 1840 by William Kerry. Tribeni tissue private limited manufactures high quality paper. CHEMICAL INDUSTRY There are chemical industries in Rishra, Konnagar, RUBBER INDUSTRY The Dunlop rubber factory, which is situated in Hooghly Sahagunge, was the biggest rubber industry in India. But now this industry has some problems to produce products. THERMAL POWER STATION Bandel thermal power station (BTPS), which is located in Tribeni, is one of the major large scale industries in the area. TABLE 2: MAJOR MEDIUM SCALE INDUSTRIES IN THE STUDY AREA: SL.NO. NAME OF INDUSTRIES LOCATION ITEMS OF PRODUCTION 1 Kessoram Rayon Kuntighat Rayon

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 2 Tribeni tissue Tribeni Paper 3 Window glass Tribeni Glass products 4 Eastern paper mill Tribeni Paper 5 J.K. steel Rishra Iron & steel 6 Nelco chemicals Rishra Vegetables oils 7 ICI India limited Rishra Rubber based chemicals 8 Jaya Shree textile & industries Rishra Textile goods 9. Indian rayon & industries Rishra Textile & synthetic wool 10 SWIL Ltd. Uttarpara Copper & copper alloy wire 11 Ravi timber & allied Products dankuni Plywood 12 Star battery Dankuni Battery 13 Nezone tubes limited Dankuni Steel tube 14 Anmol Biscuits‟ Dankuni Biscuits 15 R.S.Ispat pvt.ltd. Dankuni Hot rolled steel products 16 Angus works Baidyabati Railway wagon components 17 Pulver ash ltd. Bandel Fly ash brick 18 Adhunik steel pvt.ltd. Sreerampore Alloy steel

Source: Directorate of Industries, Hooghly, 2009

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TABLE 3 : MAJOR MICRO AND SMALL SCALE ENTERPRISES IN THE STUDY AREA:

Name of No. Fixed Capital Labour Type of Industries The Block Msses (In Rs. Lakh) (No.) Employed Ceramic Products, Fire Extinguishing, Transformer, Plywood, PVC Pipes, . Serampore- 550 6700 4200 Transmission Belt, Bakery, P.V. Foam, EET Uttarpara Bottle, Textiles Printing, Casting, Lime, alloy Steel, Forging, Handicraft Product. M.S. Tube, Metal Casting, Nitrous Oxide, Steel, Fabrication, FRP Product, Lead Ingot Chanditala-II 360 6800 2217 Inorganic Acid,Coalter Product, Rolling Mill, Ceramic Product, Surgical Goods, R.M.G. 3403 P.V.C Pipe, Sports Gear, Sugar Confectionery, poles, plastic product, Battery, Chinsurah- 391 6600 3403 Automobile Repairing, P.C.C Brick, Hume Mogra Pipe, Card Poles, Board Box, Papad, Biscuit, Soft Toys, R.M.G Source: Directorate of Industries, Hooghly, 2009 From this brief historical review of the industrial development of the district it is evident thatthe district has a long tradition of developing all kinds of industries (large, medium and small) there remains an imbalance 'between the narrow riparian strip along the Bhagirathi from Tribeni to Uttarpara and the rest of the district; while the former bristles with modern factories, the industrial progress elsewhere is indicated, at best, by cold storages and rice mill. But, presently the situation in the district has changed remarkably and become conducive to further development. INDEX OF ACTUAL INDUSTRIALIZATION IN HOOGHLY :

The block level indices and rankings have been computedTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER through the same technique of clubbing (that is, using principal component analysis followed by UNDP method of index construction) of four indicators relating to the actual state of industrialization in the district. These selected indicators are a) Proportion of household industry workers to total workers, b) Employment in Micro and Small Scale Enterprises (MSSE), c) Total production of units covered by KVIB (Khadi and Village Industries Board), and d) Average productivity in handloom industries. TABLE 4 :I NDEX OF ACTUAL INDUSTRIALIZATION IN HOOGHLY DISTRICT:

Proportion Total Average of household No. of industrial productivity Index of Actual Block industry employment production Rank in handloom industrialization workers to total in MSSE in K.V.I (In Lakh Rs.) workers (In Crore Rs.) Serampore- 0.045 3037 4.02 5.200 1691.18 1 Uttarpara Chanditala II 0.098 2117 0.11 108.970 1243.79 2 Chinsurah- 0.033 1902 10.61 2.300 438.96 8 Mogra Source: Statistical Handbook, Hooghly, BAE & S, Govt. Of W.B, 2006 From the following table it is clearly understand that Serampore-Uttarpara is the most industrialized block of Hooghly district. The degree of industrialization varies widely over the blocks of the district. In terms of index of actual industrialization Chanditala –II ranks 2nd and Chinsurah-mogra block 8th

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POTENTIAL INDUSTRIALIZATION: INDUSTRIAL INFRASTRUCTURE: To capture the block-wise state of potential industrialization in the study area three indicators of industrial infrastructure are selected, namely, a) Road density b) Railway connectivity c) Electricity coverage.

TABLE 5: ROAD NET-WORK AND RAILWAY CONNECTIVITY OF THE BLOCKS IN HOOGHLY DISTRICT:

Name of the block Railway connectivity*

Chinsurah-mogra 1.00

Serampore-uttarpara 1.00

Chanditala-II 0.333

Note : * Reciprocal of the distance (in km.) of block headquarters from nearest rail station is computed to represent higher value for better railway connectivity. Source : District Statistical Handbook, Hooghly, 2006

TABLE 6 : ELECTRICITY COVERAGE OF DIFFERENT BLOCKS IN THE STUDY AREA No. of Mouzas Proportion of No. of Mouzas Name of The Block Electrified Electrified Mouzas THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 2001 2001 2005 2001 2005 CHINSURAH- MOGRA 56 51 57 0.91 1.00 SERAMPORE- UTTARPARA 19 19 19 1.00 1.00 CHANDITALA-II 36 36 36 1.00 1.00 Source : Statistical Handbook, Hooghly; BAE & S, Govt. Of W.B, 2006.

TABLE 7: INDEX OF POTENTIAL INDUSTRIALIZATION IN HOOGHLY DISTRICT Weighted Proportion Percentage Proportion Index of of Mouzas of Road of Population Rail-Road BLOCK Potential Rank electrified Length to served by Connectivity Industrializa 2005 Total Area bank tion CHINSURAH-MOGRA 1 2.54 0.07 1 1.25 1 SERAMPORE 1 1.72 0.09 1.00 1.06 2 UTTARPARA CHANDITALA - II 1 1.32 0.13 0.33 0.87 4

Source: District Statistical Handbook, Hooghly, 2006 In terms of potential index of industrialization Chinsurash-Mogra block occupies the top position in the district followed by Serampur-Uttarpara, Chanditala II (4th)

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Fig. 3. Industrialisation of Hooghly District

Source: District Statistical Handbook, Hooghly, 2006

PROBLEMS OF THE INDUSTRIES IN THE STUDY AREA: 1. Industrial growth of the study area has slowed down as compared to the other region. There are several reason for the sluggish growth- 2. The raw materials especially jute are not sufficiently supplied in the industries of the study area. 3. Alarming rate of silting of Hooghly River is a very serious problem. The depth of Kolkata port is not suitable for big ship as the depth of water in the channel from bay head to Kolkata docks is not greater than 9.2metres, which is essential for big ocean ship to come in. 4. There are high values of land of the study area, so there are several problems for further expansion of the existing THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER industries or foundation of new industries. 5. As the population density is very high in this region so the pressure upon the land is very much high and creates problem for the industrial growths. 6. This region of the Hooghly district is characterized by very high fertile soil. So there are also a conflict between agricultural land development and industrial development. 7. Labour- owner conflict always creates problem for sustainable industrial growth in this region. 8. The problem of old machineries, which are not able to produce sufficient output products. 9. Limited development of transport and communication facilities creates the problems of locational disadvantages and inaccessibility. 10. Absence of technical skills acts as a major inhibiting factor for the industrial development. 11. Inadequate marketing facilities make the manufacturing less profit full. 12. Stiff competition with the manufacturers of neighboring states.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE STUDY AREA: During the study period we have tried to find out some suggestion for the development of the industrial region. Firstly, the development of the transport and communication facilities is essentials for the developments of the study area. Secondly, to stop the siltation problem in Hooghly River, the dredging system must be introduced, though it is very costly and is not a permanent solution to save Kolkata port. Thirdly, if the Govt. Policy will be modified, then many national and multinational companies will feel interest to invest here. CONCLUSION : Industrial sector in Hooghly district needs immediate attention. There is an urgent need to stimulate the agricultural productivity that creates rural demands of agricultural products and agricultural equipment‟s. A carefully design strategy of industrial development, both large and small stimulate the progress of industrial development of the districts as whole.

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REFERENCES:  Census of India (2001): District Statistical Handbook-Hugli, Government of India  Census of India (2011): Provisional Population Tables, West Bengal, Government of India.  Chattapadhya, Anish: Arthanoitik Bhugol O Sampad Shastrer Porichoya  Directorate of Industries, Hooghly, 2009  District Statistical Handbook, Hooghly, 2006  Gershuny, Jonathan.I and Miles, Ian (1983) The New Service Economy, the Transformation of Employment in Industrial Societies, Francis Printer, London.  Moneer Alam (1985): Forecasting occupational structure in a developing economy: A case study of India, Concept Publishing, New Delhi  Nagaraj,R.(2011):Industrial Policy and Performance since 1980  P. Balakrishnan(ed.) Economic reforms and Growth in India: Essays from Economic and Political weekly, Orient Blackswan, New Delhi,pp.223-244.  Rostow,W.W,(1971):The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, London.  State Domestic Product and District Domestic Product of West Bengal.2004-2012Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics. Website-www.msmedikolkata.gov.in  THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

“Survey of Avian Diversity In Selected Area (Kudal And Kankavli Taluka) Of Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra State, India”

Nanasaheb P. Kamble - Asst. Prof. Department of Zoology, Sant Rawool Maharaj Mahavidyalaya, Kudal. Dist. Sindhudurg. 416520. Bhagyashri K. Parab, Manish M. Joil, Janvi P. Keluskar - Students, Department of Zoology, Sant Rawool Maharaj Mahavidyalaya, Kudal. Dist. Sindhudurg. 416520.

ABSTRACT : This study deals with observations of avifauna of some parts of Kudal and Kankavli Taluka of Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra. Survey was carried out during October 2017 to February 2018. Total of 134 species of birds under 51 families among which 6 species are near threatened were recorded during the study period. Key wards: Sindhdurg, Avian Diversity. Survey INTRODUCTION Population of birds is sensitive indicator of pollution in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem. Despite an abundance of avifauna in India various species are under threat due to poaching, loss of nesting habitat and effect of chemicals used in both agriculture and urban practices. Random destruction of natural habitat are the main factor responsible for narrow down in avian foraging and their nesting sites. As the avian diversity is an important component of forest ecosystem from that birds are plays major role as pollinators, consumers, dispersers of plant seed and predator of insects also. Number of factors are known to study the bird behaviour like habit and habitat, nesting sites and material use for nest building, resting, foraging, roosting, courtship, feeding, parental care and their migration. Among which THE KOKAN we GEOGRAPHER were focused on nesting, feeding and migration pattern because nesting shows both nesting and habitat of that bird while feeding shows which tree or plant they prefer for feeding. Migration pattern denotes seasonal migration, resident migration and resident species. The present study emphasized on to find out bird occurrence and to create the awareness for their conservation in our selected study area from Kudal and Kankavli Taluka‟s of the Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. Of course it is a need of the day to conserve the avifauna of Sindhudurg district. Birds are essential animal group of the ecosystem to maintain a trophic level. So detail study on avifauna and their habitat is important to protect them. Therefore measures have been taken in this present study to survey the avifauna of Sindhudurg Coast. MATERIALS AND METHODS The method used in this survey study was mainly visual method (Javed and Kaul, 2002), Line Transect Method and point and count method as per selected sites for observing and studying birds. We used Binocular (8×40) for locating and counting birds. In addition, we also used Canon 760D camera (with 150-600 mm telephoto lens) and Nikon D3400 (with 70-300mm lens) for identification of species. Identification of birds carried out by using Standard field guides, the guides used were Birds of India (Bikram Grewal) and Pakshikosh (Maruti Chitampalli). This survey study was conducted for the duration of three seasons, Post Monsoon, winter and summer. Selected areas for the survey were only on the basis of availability of water body and/or dense vegetation and these site was visited at morning 6.00 am to 8.00 am and evening 4.00 pm to 6.00 pm. Birds that are observe during study period were grouped in accordance with classification as follows: • Resident (R): Birds indigenous and residing in the area throughout the study period. • Resident-Migrant (RM): The birds which migrates locally in the region. • Seasonal Migrant: The birds which arrive in the study area from other region. Along with this we classified the birds according with their count that they are observed in region under study. • Common (C): Frequently seen solitary or in groups. • Uncommon (UC): Observe in relatively lower number • Rare (R): Observed very rarely. And presented under observations and results.

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OBSERVATIONS OF RESULTS List of birds observed in Kudal and Kankavli during the study period from October 2017 to February 2018. Sr. FAMILY COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME No. Black Kite Milvus migrans Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus Crested Serpent Eagle Spilornis cheela 1 Accipitridae Oriental Honey-buzzard Spilornis cheela Shikra Accipiter badius White-eyed Buzzard Butastur teesa 2 Aegithinidae Common Iora Aegithina tiphia 3 Alaudidae Crested Lark Galerida cristata Common Kingfisher Galerida cristata 4 Alcedinidae Oriental Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx erithaca Cotton Pygmy-goose Nettapus coromandelianus Eurasian wigeon Anas Penelope Anatidae 5 Gargany Anas querquendela

Indian Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha Nothern Pintail Anas acuta 6 Anhingidae Oriental Darter Anhinga melanogaster Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Grey Heron Area cinerea Indian Pond Heron Areola gratuity 7 Ardeidae Little Egret Egretta garzetta Median Egret Ardea intermedia THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Great-pied Hornbill Buceros bicornis 8 Bucerotidae Malbar Grey Hornbill Ocyceros griseus Malbar pied Hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus Black-headed Cuckooshrike Coracina melanopteta 9 Campephagidae Orange Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus 10 Centropodidae Southern Caucal Centropus sinensis 11 Cerylidae Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis Black winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius 12 Charadridae Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus Yellow-wattled Lapwing Vanellus malabaricus 13 Chloropsidae Golden fronted Leafbird Chloropsis aurifrons Black Stork Ciconia nigra 14 Ciconidae Asian Openbill Stork Anastomus oscitans Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus Ashy Prinia Prinia socialis 15 Cisticolidae Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius Plain Prinia Prinia inornata Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica Grey-fronted Green Pigeon Treron affinis Oriental turtle dove Streptopelia orientalis 16 Columbnidae Rock Pigeon Columba livia Spotted Dove Spilopelia chinensis Yellow-Footed Green Pigeon Treron phoenicoptera

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Sr. FAMILY COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME No. 17 Coracidae Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis House Crow Corvus splendens 18 Corvidae Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagbunda Blue-faced Malkoha Phaenicophaeus viridirostris 19 Cuculidae Grey-bellied Cuckoo Cacomendis passerines Western Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus 20 Dendrocygnidae Lesser whistling Duck Dendrocygna javanica Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus 21 Dicruridae Greater Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus White-bellied Drongo Dicrurus caerulescens Black-throated Munia Lonchura kelaarti 22 Estrilidae Scaly-breasted Munia Lonchura punctulata White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata Stork-billed Kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis 23 Halcyonidae White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis Red-rumped Swallow Cecropis daurica 24 Hirundinidae Wire-tailed Swallow Hirundo smithii Bronze-winged Jacana Metopidius indicus 25 Jacanidae Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus 26 Lanidae Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus 27 Laridae River Tern Sterna aurantia THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Brown-headed Barbet Megalaima zeylanica 28 Megalaimidae Coppersmith Barbet Psilopogon haemacephalus White-cheeked Barbet Psilopogon viridis Blue-bearded Bee-eater Nyctyornis athertoni Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus 29 Mropidae Chestnut-headed Bee-eater Merops leschenaultia Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis Black-naped Monarch Hypothymis azurea 30 Monarchidae Indian Paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradise Long-billed Pipit Anthus similis 31 Motacilidae Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis White-browed Wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica Common Stonechat Saxicola torquatus Indian Robin Copsychus fulicatus Oriental Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis 32 Muscicapidae Pied Bush Chat Saxicola caprata Tickell's Blue Flycatcher Cyornis tickelliae Verditier Flycatcher Eumyias thalassinus White-rumped Shama Copsychus malabaricus Crimson backed Sunbird Leptocoma minima Purple-rumped Sunbird Leptocoma zeylonica 33 Nectarnidae Purple Sunbird Cinnyris asiaticus Vigors's Sunbird Aethopyga vigorsii

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Sr. FAMILY COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME No. Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus 34 Oriolidae Indian Golden Oriole Oriolus kundoo 35 Passeridae House Sparrow Passer domesticus Indian Cormorant Phalacrocorax fuscicollis 36 Phalocrocoracidae Little Cormorant Microcarbo niger Gallus sonneratii Pavo cristatus 37 Phasianidae Perdicula asiatica Galloperdix spadicea 38 Picidae Dinopium benghalense 38 Picidae Micropternus brachyurus 39 Ploceidae Ploceus philippinus 40 Podicipedidae Tachybaptus ruficollis Psittacula cyanocephala 41 Psittacidae Psittacula krameri Pycnonotus cafer 42 Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus jocosus Pycnonotus luteolus Fulica atra 43 Rallidae Porphyrio poliocephalus Amaurornis phoenicurus 44 Rhipiduridae Rhipidura albogularis Actitis hypoleucos Tringa tetanus 45 Scolopasidae THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Tringa ochropus Tringa glareola 46 Strigidae Glaucidium Radiatum Sturnia malabarica 47 Sturnidae Acridotheres fuscus Pastor roseus 48 Timaliidae Alcippe poioicephala Throughout the study period 134 species of birds were recorded belonging to 51 families from Kudal and Kankavli Taluka, Sindhudurg District, Maharashta. Out of a total 134 species, 41 were Aquatic, 75 were Arboreal and 18 were Terrestrial birds. Family Ardeidae, Accipitridae, Columbidae, Muscicapidae, Timalidae showed the maximum number of species and Aegithinidae, Alaudidae, Anhingidae, Centropodidae, Cerylidae, Chloropsidae, Coracidae, Dendrocygnidae, Laridae, Passeridae, Strigidae, Threskiornithidae, Upupidae family showed minimum number of species. Based on IUCN 2014 Red List Category, 128 species were Fig. 1 : Distribution of Birds in Habitat Least Concern while 6 species was found to be Near Threatened viz. Malabar Pied Hornbill, Malbar Great pied Hornbill, Black Stork, River Tern, Oriental Darter, and Black-headed Ibis. Maximum number of species were found in Arboreal (56%) habitat followed by Aquatic (30%) and Terrestrial (14%) (Fig.1). Species such as Little Cormorant, Yellow Wagtail, White-breasted Water-hen, and Indian Pond Heron were observed continuously during study period near each aquatic habitat. Maximum number of birds was observed during the post monsoon season on fruiting trees. Extensive deforestation, Habitat destruction and burn for plantations the major threats observed in the study area. In the present study crows were observed more abundant than other birds in both Kudal and Kankavli Taluka which

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may be due to the increased anthropogenic activities. Migratory birds were observed only in the winter season. Increasing household development by cutting forest cover resulting in destruction of habitats for different species. Day to day increase in urbanization, construction of houses and shops, dumping wastes in stream observed in Kudal Taluka. These increasing developmental activities and disturbances may affects on avifaunal diversity in future. In our study area we observed 6 bird species which are put under near-threatened category by IUCN. A near- threatened species is a species which has been categorized as "Near Threatened" (NT) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as that may be considered threatened with extinction in the near future, although it does not currently qualify for the threatened status. The Near threatned birds are 1.Oriental darter belonging to Anhingidae family. 2. River tern belonging to Laridae family. 3. Great pied Hornbill belonging to Bucerotidae family. 4. Malabar Grey Hornbill belonging to family Bucerotidae. 5. Black headed ibis belonging to family Threskiornithidae. 6. Black stork belonging to family Ciconidae. Major declining reasons of birds are: Habitat destruction, hunting and poaching, pollution, destruction of breeding ground Discussion : The study revealed that Kudal and Kankavli Taluka harbours rich bird diversity. Comparing the availability of 440 species according to avibase-Bird checklist of the world in Sindhudurg, and we recorded 134 bird species from Kudal and Kankavli Taluka, has about 30% of avian diversity observed during the study. Similar observations were made by (Chavan Nilesh S., 2015) at Shreewardhan Taluka of Raigad district. Higher diversity of birds was found in arboreal habitat as compare to aquatic and terrestrial habitat. It is due to more diversity of plants which give more choice for food preference of the bird species as well as nesting and breeding place. For an ecosystem, birds are an essential component which tells about environment of the particular place that acts as ecological indicator. Almost all the threats seen nowadays are due to human interventions, the main threats to birds in Kudal and Kankavali area recently cutting down of a large number of trees along roadsides for road expansion work which disturbed the corridor due to this smaller birds and hopping birds have to cross a wide gap to cross which can make the populations isolated also the huge trees along side of the road used as nesting and resting were cut down so the bird population found shift. The removal of larger trees along the roadside has significantly affects the nesting of birds. Same observations were made (Johnson Varkey et.al. 2014). The environment also influenced the birds recent storm caused changing of feeding grounds for the egrets due to changesTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER in natural rain pattern and are human disturbance viz., high grazing pressure, poaching, and hunting. (Mayura Khot, 2016). If the river is conserved, not only the bio-diversity will be conserved but also the door for other better earning opportunities like development of bird watching, hiking area to the urban tourists, park establishment etc. can be created. (Md.Muzammel Hossain2015). CONCLUSION : The study revealed that Kudal and Kankavli Taluka harbours rich bird diversity. (Sindhudurg total bird species earlier record (440), while present study recorded 134 bird species from Kudal and Kankavli Taluka only and has about 30% of avian diversity). Despite of rich Avian Diversity in the study area intensity of threats is more critical to conserve the bird species. Present study is a short term study but it is necessary to conduct long term study to understanding resident, migratory and endemic status of avian diversity BIBLIOGRAPHY : 1) Chavan Nilesh S., 2015. (Survey of Avifauna of Shriwardhan, district-Raigad MS, India .Research Journal of Recent Sciences vol. 4ISC-2014, 110-119( . 2) Johnson Varkey & et.al., 2014. (Threats to the existing diversity of Avifauna of Gogte salt plant, Mumbai Suburb). 3) Mayura Khot, 26 June 2016. (A checklist of Avifauna from malgoan-Bagayat and towns of Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra, India .Journal of Threatened Taxa, www.threatened taxa.org .8909-8918). 4) Md. Muzammel Hossain and Mohammad Abdul Baki, 2015. (Present status of preliminary survey on avifauna diversity and distribution in the most polluted river Buriganga, Dhaka, Bangladesh .Internal journal of pure and applied Zoology .Vol-3, issue 1, pp :59-69.) 5) Pakshi Panthalitle :Kiran Purandre (Jyotsna Publication ISBN No .978-81-7925-368-7) 6) Pakshikosh :Maruti Chitampalli Publishing Date :Feb .2014 (ISBN No .978-93-82824-15-2 7) Panhalyache Pakshivaibhav Field Guide Book (Forest Department, Kolhapur). 8) Pritesh Ghadigaonkar and A. Pandirkar, Dec. 2017. (Assessment of diversity and threats of avifauna in an around Sonavade village, Kalsuli Dist. Sindhudurg Maharashtra, India) 9) Standard field guide Birds of India: Bikram Grewal 10) http//:sindhudurg.nic.in

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

„A Geographical Perspective Of Spatio –Temporal Trend In Sex Ratio A Study Of Palghar District: 1981-2011‟

Mr. Shridhar Sagun Pednekar, Department Of Geography, University Of Mumbai

ABSTRACT In this paper present study reveals the tehsil wise sex ratio of Palghar district during 1981-2011. This district curved out from old Thane district dated on 1st Auguest 2014. It has studied on the basis census of 1981-2011. There are several factor responsible for against the girl child such as preference for son, low status of women, social and financial security associated with sons, socio-cultural practices like violence against women. Introduction: Sex ratio is one of the important determinants of demographic factors in the study of Population Geography. Population Geography is one of the branches of Human Geography that has acquired significance with introduction of quantitative approach in Physical and Human Geography. Sex ratio is influenced by both natural and cultural factors with time in a region. The study of sex ratio is of utmost importance as it forms the two wheels of a chariot depicting its progress. The status of a country or a society is therefore better understood by the prevailing sex ratio. The study of sex composition of population is fundamental in all demographic analysis that plays a vital role in determining the incidence of marriages, reproduction and mortality. Sex Ratio also helps in reflecting the condition of society and is useful for regional analysis. The variation in sex ratio to a large extent is determined by three factors: namely sex ratio at birth, differentials in mortality rate in two sexes and sex selective migration.

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Selection of the Study Area: Palghar District is a district in northern part of Maharashtra State in Western India. On 1st August 2014, the state Government of Maharashtra announced the formation of the 36th district of Maharashtra, with a new Palghar district carved out from the old Thane district. It is comprised of 8 Tahsils namely; Palghar, Vada, Vikramgad, Jawhar, Mokhada, Dahanu, Talasari and Vasai. According to the 2011 census, the Tahsils now comprising Palghar district had a total population of 2,990,116 with an urban population of 1,435,210 i.e. 48% living in urbanised area of the district. The district is bounded by Thane and Nashik district on the east and northeast; Valsad district of Gujarat State and Union Territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the North; Arabian Sea forms its western boundary and Dahisar forms its southern boundary.

Objectives of the Study: 1) To study the spatio-temporal trend in sex ratio of Palghar district. 2) To study the impact of transport on sex ratio in Palghar district. 3) To examine the role of sonography centres on sex ratio in Palghar district. 4) To suggest measures for promoting healthy sex ratio in the study area.

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Data Collection and Research Methodology: The decadal data from secondary sources will be taken from district census handbook from 1981-2011. The data will be analysed by applying simple statistical techniques and suitable Cartographic applications will be used to reveal the spatial variation of the phenomena under study in the study region. The findings will be interpreted to arrive at conclusions and suggest measures for the Subject under study is for further progress in the region. Relevant references and methods will be adopted and quoted in the present work. Palghar District: Tahsil-Wise Spatio- Temporal Trend in Sex Ratio (1981-2011)

1981 1991

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2001 2011

Palghar and Vasai Tahsil have recorded consistency very low sex ratio from the year 1981-2011. There is probably because it has historical significance and is well known for better connectivity administrative, educational and medical functions it has therefore probably lead to concentration of male population and it has resulted in very low sex ratio in period study. In case of Vada Tahsil the liberalization policy 1980 if the government and development of MIDC area attracted concentration of industry in Vada located relatively centrally on western and central line, attracted industrial concentration and so do male emigrant further resulting in drastic change in sex ratio of the Tahsil has observed in the year 1981 Vada Tahsil had a high sex ratio that fell down in low sex ratio in 1991 and further to very low sex ratio in the year 2001 and 2011 which is birth noting. TAHSIL WISE SEX RATIO OF PALGHAR DISTRICT (1981-2011) Sr. Name of 1981 1991 2001 2011 No. Tehsil 1 Vasai 935 922 880 883 2 Palghar 932 928 878 907 3 Dahanu 975 971 994 1015 4 Talasari 1039 999 1010 1026 5 Vada 981 955 911 939 6 Vikramgad __ __ 1033 1009 7 Jawhar 1005 1000 1002 1022 8 Mokhada 980 980 975 1002

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Table 1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF TAHSIL WISE TREND IN SEX RATIO OF PALGHAR DISTRICT

S.N. Year 1981 1991 2001 2011 Class-group and category of S.R 1 >1000 Very High Talasari Talasari Talasari Jawhar _ Jawhar Jawhar Vikramgad Vikramgad Dahanu Mokhada 2 981-1000 High Vada Talasari Dahanu _ Jawhar 3 961-980 Moderate rate Dahanu Dahanu _ Mokhada Mokhada Mokhada 4 941-960 Low _ Vada _ _ 5 < 940 Very Low Vasai Palghar Vasai Palghar Vasai Vada Vasai Palghar Vada Palghar

Factors Influencing Sex Ratio in Palghar District:

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In many countries, however, the sex ratio deviates from these norms because of the tradition of son preference. Son preference is most prevalent in an arc of countries from East Asia through South Asia to the Middle East and North Africa. Sons are largely preferred in Hindu community as (i) they have a higher wage-earning capacity, especially in agrarian economies where physical labor is required (ii) they continue the family line „vansh‟; and (iii) they are generally recipients of inheritance „varsahakka‟. (iv)It is considered that the last rites should be performed by son to get mukti from this birth i.e. „moksha‟. Girls are often considered an economic burden because of the dowry system; after marriage they typically become members of the husband's family, ceasing to have responsibility for their parents in illness and old age. Road transport is well developed in all the Tahsils of Palghar District. Tahsils with access to rail and road transport has recorded low to very low sex ratio as these are the areas of largely immigrant male working population resulting in low/very low sex ratios in the Tahsils of Palghar, Vasai and of recent Vada an exception. Rail network has developed in Palghar District. Mumbai is in vicinity to head quarter of Palghar District at a distance of approximately 60-70 km. Easy commuting by cheap and efficient public rail transport to Mumbai metropolis and relatively cheap accommodation and food in the district head quarter and Tahsil of Vasai has resulted in concentration of immigrant male working population that causes lower sex ratio. 1) Employment: Vasai and Vada Tahsil have industry area therefore people come to this area for job and once they get job and settle down, then they bring their families so population has increased rapidly in this area and influencing on sex ratio. 2) Physiographic Element: Jawhar, Mokhada, Talasari and some northern part of Vikramgad Tahsil of Palghar District have hill region and elevation near 400m shown, therefore slopes are more in this areas so people could not conserve

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the water for many purposes like agriculture has not developed in this area, industries has not developed because of high elevation therefore people are migrated from rural to urban developed areas. 3) Agriculture: Some area of Mokhada, jawhar and Vikramgad Tahsil of Palghar District have uneven physiographic elements means somewhere high elevation, scarcity of water, thin soil layer and infertile soil factors are responsible for less cultivation areas therefore probably male population is largely migrating urban areas in neighbouring tahsils. 4) Composition of population: It is generally observed that areas with higher proportion of schedule tribe population are associated with higher sex ratio area while areas with higher proportion of urban population are associated with lower sex ratio. 5) Availability of civic amenities: Urban areas have good civic amenities than rural areas. In case of water supply, electricity, playgrounds, roads, public libraries, toilets, bus services and postal and courier services has developed in areas like Palghar,Vasai and Dahanu therefore People attracted toward urban areas and influencing on sex ratio of Tahsil in study region. 6) Sonography centres: With advancement in science and technology sonography technique is available in the field of medical science to detect the growth of baby in a mother womb it is a useful mechanism that helps to identify the abnormality in the baby during the growth period. If there also help to identify gender of baby which has projected a grade threat in preventing the birth of female babies by getting them aborted. This is probably because of the socio cultural taboos and economic burden which has influence the sex ratio to decline in many areas. Hence this particular aspect of present of sonography centres in the district was to consider for analysis however due to paucity of time the candidate has been able to identify but probably many centre in area which need to be consider. Findings: 1) Tahsil with hilly region arriving high sex ratio while coastal Tahsil with plain area are dominated by lower sex ratio has resulted in the migration of male worker to neighboring Tahsil Palghar, Vada and Vasai resulting in uneven distribution of sex ratio in the study region. 2) Vasai and Vada have industrial area so are more developed, therefore male population have migrated and settled in these areas influencing lower sex ratio of these Tahsils. 3) Sex specific abortion-feticides due to sonography centers needs to be taken due care to prevent declining sex ratio.

4) Jawhar Tahsil is the only exception in the district thatTHE KOKANhas GEOGRAPHER a relatively more balanced sex ratio all throughout the period under study. Conclusion: 1) Sex selective out migration especially male for employment purpose from agriculturally less developed Tahsil towards the agriculturally developed and urbanized Tahsils leads to sex ratio is increasing sex ratio in rural dominated areas and decreasing sex ratio in urban areas. It is observed that the proportion of female workers and migrants affecting on the imbalance in rural urban sex ratio of the study area. 2) Infant mortality rate has changed in Dahanu Tahsil because of more facilities as provided in that area for pregnant women and small child due to this reason Dahanu Tahsil sex ratio increased in 2001 and 2011. 3) The presence of sonography centre in Vasai, Palghar probably also may have contributed toward low sex ratio in the Tahsil of besides since this Tahsil relatively urbanized and so relatively high in living cost may have resulted in restricting the birth of female child. Recommendations: 1) The government should promote higher technical educational facilities in the rural areas. This will help in returning male working population who would be acquired technical education during their school this technically skilled labor of the area of Tahsil can be used to work in cottage and small scale industries. It will therefore enable provide better employment as well as prevent emigration of male worker this will promote more balanced sex ratio in the region. 2) Giving incentives to parents who have only girl child. 3) Creating awareness about the protection of women from domestic violence. (Domestic violence - Act, 2005). 4) Urban expansion and loss of agricultural land should be considered. 5) Socialization of women from early childhood to consider themselves equal to men. Acknowledgement: I am grateful to Associate prof. Dr.Savitsmita Vilasrao Chawan of Department of Geography, Mumbai University for her kind guidance and support.

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References: 1) Arnold, F., S. Kishor and T.K. Roy, 2002. Sex-selective abortions in India. Populat. Dev. Rev., 28: 759-785. DOI: 10.1111/j.1728-4457.2002.00759.x 2) Census of India Maharashtra district Handbook- 1981, 1991, 2001, 2011 3) Chavan Savitsmita V and Kuberkar Vibhavari (2016): „Prospects and Challenges‟ of Palghar District in Maharashtra,‟ Unpublished paper presented at XI DGSI INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHY CONFERENCE ON “Geospatial solutions to Urban and Regional Issues”, Organized by Department of Geography, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, Sept 27 to 29th 2016. 4) Gatade, D.G and Gharge, R.R (2012): “Spatio-Temporal Pattern of sex ratio in Kolhapur District, A Geographical Analysis” in Golden Research Thought, vol.3. May 2012 pp. 1-4. 5) Gujar Santosh V. (2016): “SPATIO–TEMPORAL CHANGES IN SEX-RATIO OF WESTERN MAHARASHTRA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SOLAPUR DISTRICT” a PhD thesis submitted to Solapur University, Solapur, September 2016 6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/palghar 7) Larsen, U., W. Chung and M. Das Gupta, 1998. Fertility and son preference in Korea. Populat. Stud., 52: 317-325. DOI: 10.1080/0032472031000150496 8) Pednekar H. M. and K. Sita (1980): „Spatial Patterns of Sex Ratio in South Konkan (Maharashtra) 1951-1971‟, Population geography, Vol. VI, Pp.130-142.

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Spatio- Temporal Analysis Of Social Crimes In Haryana

Kavita Saini, Assistant Professor of Geography, D.N. College, Hisar Sunil Kumar, Research Scholar, Department of Geography, K.U. Kurukshetra

Abstract : This paper is comparative study of the social crime in Haryana between 1991, 2001 and 2011. Crime is a worldwide problem. The term crime does not in modern times, have any simple and universally accepted definition, but one definition is that a crime also called an offence or a criminal offence, is an act harmful not only to some individual, but also to the community or the society. Crime is a problem around the world and represents a significant negative externality to the quality of life in a society. This requires an understanding of the actual and overall level of crime across India. Our paper provides a complete understanding of the various indicators of violent crime and the determinants of these crimes in Haryana using district level data for three census years, namely, 1991, 2001 and 2011. This paper examines the spatio-temporal pattern and growth rate of crimes in Haryana and inter-districts disparities in overall crimes. This study is primarily based on the secondary sources and data were collected from the Statistical Department‟ of Haryana. The data has been analyzed using simple statistical techniques such as mean, standard deviation, composite index, growth rate. Keywords - Crime, qualities, society, violent, harmful INTRODUCTION : Crime is a social phenomenon. The term crime does not in modern times, have any simple and universally accepted definition, but one definition is that a crime also THE calledKOKAN GEOGRAPHER an offence or a criminal offence, is an act harmful not only to some individual, but also to the community or the society. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law. As recent work has been focused on the crime, it varies from society to society, country to country and also time to time in the same society. So it is difficult to give a universal definition of crime (Konch, 2013). Crime has been presented in all ages and all societies. In the past as well as in the present day in societies there have been always a good number of crime cases found like murder, theft, kidnapping, robbery, cheating etc. It varies only in degree and form. No society can be completely exempt from it. OBJECTIVES : 1. To examine the spatial pattern and growth rate of crimes in Haryana. 2. To examine the inter district disparities in overall crimes. Fig-1 Study Area

DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY: This study is based on secondary source of data. The data related to the crimes (murder, dacoity, burglary, theft, robbery, kidnapping, roiting and others). It has been collected from Statistical Abstract of Haryana published by Govt. of Haryana for the period of 1991, 2001 and 2011.The data has been analyzed using simple statistical techniques such as mean, standard deviation, composite index, growth rate. It has been calculated per lakh population. To see the overall pattern of crime over the time has been used Composite Index. The Formula has been used :

Where Z= Composite Score; X=variable; X=Average and S=Standard Deviation. For showing the temporal change in crime the compound growth rate formula has been used. RESULT AND DISCUSSION :

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Murder: The unlawful killing of another human being without justification or excuse is called murder. The study (Figure 2) shows that the districts like Yamuna Nagar and Mahendergarh and Gurgaon are much less in number of cases of below 20 per 100000 adult persons. Sonipat and Rohtak have 40-60 murder per 100000 adult persons. The remaining districts lie in 20-40 murder in 1991. In 2001, no one district lies in below 20 and above 80 murder incidents. Only one district Rohtak have 60-80 murder cases per 100000 adult persons and all Haryana besides Panipat, Sonipat, Jhajjar lies in 20-40 murder incident per 100000 adult population. During the period of 2011, no one district lies in below 20 and only one district Rohtak have above 80 murder incident per 100000 persons. Sirsa, Fathebad, Panchkula, Kurukshetra, Kaithal, Faridabad, Mewat have 20-40 murder incidents per 100000 persons. The remaining districts have in average murder cases. Fig - 2 Dacoity : Where five or more persons had committed or attempted to commit a robber, it is called Dacoity .The figure 3 shows that Haryana was found under safe zone in 1991. All Haryana besides Sirsa lies with below 3 dacoity per 100000 adult persons. During the period of 2001, only one district Panipat have above 12 dacoity and Fathebad, Yamuna Nagar,

Karnal,THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER Sonipat, Jajjar districts have 3-6 dacoity incident per 100000 adult population. In 2011, dacoity incident have increasing. Only two district Jind, Sonipat lies in below 3 and Mahendergarh and Rewari have much more number of incidents per 100000 person while Panipat, Rohtak, Jajjar have have 9-12 incidents. Fig – 3 Fig - 4 Burglary: The criminal offence of breaking and entering a building illegally for the purpose of committing a crime. The figure 4 shows that all Haryana lies in below 100 and 100- 200 burglary incidents per 100000 adult persons. Those districts that were along with NCR have 100-200 burglary while the western part of Haryana has below 100. In 2001, the cases have increasing. But no one district has above 400 burglaries. Yamuna Nagar, Jind, Bhiwani, Mahendergarh, Rewari have much number of incidents below 100 burglary and Panchkula, Rohtak have 100-200 incidents with per 100000 adult population. Only one district Ambala have 300-400 incident. The remaining districts lie with 200-300 incidents with per 100000 people. In 2011, the incidents of burglary have much increasing. Only two districts Mewat and Palwal have less number of burglary incidents below 100 while Ambala and Gurgaon have more number of incidents above 400 per 100000 persons. The remaining district have average burglary incident. Level of Crimes:

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With the help of composite index we see the overall crimes over time. In 1991, Only two districts Kaithal, Mahendergarh have much lesser crimes and identify safe districts. Jind and Bhiwani are also lies in safe districts and have low level of crimes. Gurgaon, Hisar, Yamuna Nagar, Karnal, Rewari have moderate level of crimes. Rohtak is identifying very high level of crimes. In 2001, Kaithal, Jind, Bhiwani, and Mahendergarh have very low level of crimes whereas Ambala, Rohtak, Panipat have very high level of crimes. Other districts are lies in low, moderate and high level. In 2011, Fatehabad, Kaithal, Jind, Karnal,Sirsa are much less in crime cases and lies in very low level. On the other hand Rewari, Panipat, Rohtak, Gurgaon districts are much more in crimes and lies in very high level. Other districts are lies in Fig - 5 between very low and very high categories. Thus we find the study is that Kaithal, Jind have much less in number of crime cases throughout the years and Rohtak, Panipat have much more number of crime cases throughout the year. Growth Pattern of Crime: In 1991-2001, we find that Fathebad, Hisar districts are increases very less rate of below 1 percent. Most of the districts of Haryana like Sirsa, Ambala, Panchkula, Karnal, Panipat, Sonipat, Rohtak, Jhajjar, Bhiwani, Mahendergarh, Rewari, Mewat with the ratio of

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHERobserved cases of increase 1-3 percent. But in Kurukshetra and Kaithal have more increases growth rate above 5 percent. In the period of 2001-2011, overall Haryana have much increases in the crime growth rate. The highly increases in the growth rate districts are Bhiwani, Mahendergarh, Rewari, Jind, Rohtak, Panipat, Gurgaon, Mewat Include above 5 percent. 3-5 percent increases growth rate districts are Sirsa, Hisar, Ambala, Yamuna Nagar, Kaithal, Kaithal, Karnal, Sonipat, Jhajjar. During the period 1991-2011, the growth rate in medium level. Only one district Karnal lies in below 1 percent of growth rate. Sirsa, Yamuna Nagar, kaithal have same situation with the growth rate of 3-5 percent. Most of districts are like Fathebad, Hisar etc. increases the growth rate of 1-3 % Fig – 6 No one districts lies in higher increases growth rate. CONCLUSION : The crime pattern of Haryana has been entirely different throughout the years. The growth rate of crimes is increasing. The result present here the districts who along with NCR namely Sonipat, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Faridabad have much number of crimes. Because of these districts have highly urban population and high number of industries. It means the direct correlation between urbanization and crimes. Kaithal and jind districts have much less in number of crimes. The study helps to identify the worst crime districts and safe districts and also the pattern of crimes. Haryana record more crimes in murder, dacoity, theft, robbery etc. and these crimes are gradually increases. Crime is not the result of any single factor or combination of factors, it makes no sense to seek to control crime by any single strategy or set of strategies. A mix of strategies will always be appropriate. Thus districts of Haryana are required to be taken proper care of, so to reduce the number of crime cases. REFERENCES :

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1. Gupta , J. 2014. Caste, Culture and Khap: No Honour, Only Killings. International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Literature, 2 (7): 39-48. 2. Seema, 2013. A Geographical Study of Crimes against women in Haryana- A case study of Bahadurgarh district. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Research, 1 (3): 106-110. 3. Labanca, N. 2007. Colonial rule, colonial repression and war crimes in the Italian colonies. Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 9(3): 300-313. 4. Tayal, D. K., Jain, A., Arora, S., Agarwal, S., Gupta, T., Tyagi, N. 2013. Crime detection and criminal identification in India using data mining techniques. Springer-Verlag London, 30: 117-127. 5. Lohray, U. B. 2013. Criminalization of acid crimes and implementing the law in the South East Asian subcontinent. Commonwealth Law Bulletin, 39(4):619-630. 6. Raju, S. 2013. Honour Killing – Crime against Mankind. Journal of Humanities And Social Science, 10(3): 01-04. 7. Choo, K. K. R., Amosun, P. A., and Ige, A. O. 2013. Impact of a participatory cyber crime prevention programme on secondary school students‟ attainment in crime prevention concepts in civic education and social studies. Springer Science+Business Media New York, 20:505–518. 8. Mamgain, R., P. 2014. Social exclusion, discrimination and atrocities on scheduled castes in India: The worrying spots and future challenges. Journal of Economic & Social Development, 10(1).17-30

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

jktLFkku esa i;ZVu % ,d fo'ys"k.kkRed v/;;u

Dr. Abhay Krishna Singh Asst. Professor, Deptt. of Geography, Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, University, Ranchi (Jharkhand). lkjka”k % i;ZVu dk i;kZoj.k ls xgjk lEcU/k gSA cfYd dbZ vFkksZa esa i;kZoj.k gh i;ZVu dks xfr ,oa fn”kk iznku djrk gSA i;ZVu dk ,d egRoiw.kZ i{k gSa tks fd bls izksRlkgu nsus okyksa ds chp bl vo/kkj.kk dk fodkl gksuk vko”;d gS fd i;ZVu okrkoj.k ij ,oa i;kZoj.k dh n`f’V ls ,d lqjf{kr xfrfof/k gksA 1997 bZ- esa rS;kj dh xbZ i;ZVu uhfr ds izi= esa dgk x;k Fkk fd vUrjkZ’Vªh; i;ZVd dqN pqus gq, dsUnzks vkSj LFkyksa rd ,d fo”ks’k ekSle esa gh vf/kd igqapsA ftlds ifj.kkeLo:i ogka lqfo/kkvksadh deh gks xbZ vkSj i;kZoj.k ij Hkh ftlesa izfrdqy izHkko iM+kA jktLFkku ,d fo”kky jkT; gS rFkk blesa i;ZVu lalk/kuksa dh Hkjekj gSA ftlesa HkkSfrd LFky ls ysdj lkaLd`frd okrkoj.k dh Hkwfedk Hkh egRoiw.kZ gSA pkgs ,sfrgkfld LFky gks ;k /kkfeZd LFky ;k vusdksa dyk ;k laLd`fr] esys mRlo] R;ksagkj] yksdxhr] yksdu`R; gj {ks= esa jktLFkku i;ZVu dks vkdf’kZr djrk gS vkSj jktLFkku esa i;ZVu dh vusd laHkokuk,a gSA fQj Hkh fdlh uk fdlh dkj.k ;s ;g i;kZoj.k dks izHkkfor djrk gSA okLro esa ns[kk tk;s arks fcxM+rk i;kZoj.k i;ZVu cfYd vkokxeu fodkl esa ,d cM+h ck/kk gSA c<+rk i;ZVu Hkh i;kZoj.k ds fy,

,d [krjk gSA vr% nksuks xfrfof/k;ksa ds e/; lketL;THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER fcBkuk vfr vko”;d gSA izLrqr v/;;u f}fr;d vkadM+ks ij vk/kkfjr gSA o’kZ 2013 esa fons”kh i;ZVu ;kf=;ksa dh la[;k esa Hkkjr ds izFke jkT; esa egkjk’Vª dk uke gSA ftlesa 20-80 izfr”kr fons”kh i;ZVd vk, vkSj jktLFkku dk 5 oka LFkku gSA ftlesa 1437162 i;ZVd ftudk izfr”kr 72 gS] jkT; esa vk;sA bl izdkj jkT; esa i;ZVd dh n”kk vPNh gSaA Vwfjte] gSfjVst Vsªu Keywords : - yksdxhr] yksdu`R;] gLrdyk] f”kYidyk] ekSleh v/;;u dh fof/k ra= %& (Methodology) izLrqr “kks/k izi= esa voyksdukRed vuqHkoukRed ,oa fo”s’kys’k.kkRed fof/k;ksa dk iz;ksx djrs gq; fofHkUu fo)kuksa }kjk izLrqr jktLFkku esa i;ZVu dk i;kZoj.k ,oa lkaLd`frd i;kZoj.k ij D;k izHkko gS o i;ZVu ds izdkj rFkk lq>koksa dh lfe{kk fo”ys’k.kksijkar fd;k x;k gS rFkk ;g izi= f}fr;d vkadkM+ks ij vk/kkfjr gSA v/;;u dk mn~ns”; %& izLrqr v/;;u dk izeq[k mn~ns”; jkTkLFkku esa i;ZVu dk i;kZoj.k ij izHkko ,oa fofHkUu i;ZVdksa ds vkxeu ls mRiUu leL;kvksa dk ijh{k.k djuk gS rFkk blds vk/kkj ij v/;;u {ks= esa i;ZVdksa dh D;k fLFkfr gS ,oa bldk lkekftd ,oa lkaLd`frd okrkoj.k ij D;k izHkko iM+rk gSA bldks tkapuk gSA ifjp; (Introduction) :- jkTkLFkku dks i;ZVu ds {ks= esa u dsoy ns”k esa vfirq fo”o i;ZVu ekufp= ij izeq[k :i ls LFkku feyk gqvk gSA jkT; dks lfn;ksa ls blds xkSjoiw.kZ bfrgkl ds dkj.k tkuk tkrk jgk gS

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rFkk i;ZVu m|ksx fo”o esa lcls cM+s m|ksx ds :i esa mHkjk gSA Hkkjr esa jkTkLFkku dks lcls fo”kky jkT; dk ntkZ izkIr gksus ds dkj.k gha ugha ;g vius HkkSxkSfyd] lkekftd ,oa lkaLd`frd okrkoj.k ds dkj.k Hkh igpkuk tkrk gSA jkTkLFkku jkT; gekjs ns”k ds mrjh&if”peh Hkkx esa fLFkr ,d vuqie izkUr gSA blds mrj esa iatkc] nf{k.k esa xqtjkr gSA if”pe esa ikfdLrku rFkk iwoZ esa e/;izns”k ,oa mÙkj izns”k gSA mÙkj&iwoZ esa gfj;k.kk 0,oa dsUnz 0“kkflr fnYyh jkT; gS rFkk0 nf{k.k iwoZ0 esa e/;izns”k gsA HkkSxksfyd n`f’V ls jktLFkku 23 3 ls 30 12 mÙkjh vka{kk”kks rFkk 69 30 ls 78 1 iwohZ ns”kkUrj ds e/; es fLFkr gSA 23½0mÙkjh vk{kka”k js[kk ;k odZ js[kk jkT; ds nf{k.k esa Mwaxjiqj ckalokM+k ftyksa esa ls gksdj xqtjrh gSA tyok;q dh n`f’V ls bldk vf/kdka”k Hkkx miks’.k ;k f”krks’.kdfVcU/k es fLFkr gSA if”pe Hkkx “kq’d] e/; if”pe Hkkx ,oa e/; iwohZ Hkkx v)Z “kq’d tyok;q ,oa iwohZ & nf{k.kh ds leku gSA iwohZ Hkkx esa ue tyok;q ik;h tkrh gSA vkd`fr fo’ke dks.k prqHkqZt ds (Rhomubs) jkT; dh yEckbZ mrj ls nf{k.k rd 826 fd-eh rFkk iwoZ ls if”pe 869 fd-eh gSA bldh LFkyh; lhek;sa 5]920 fd-eh gSA jkT; dk {ks=Qy 342]239 oxZ fd-eh gSA tks Hkkjr ds dqy {ks=Qy dk 10-74 izfr”kr gSA tc dh jkT; dh tula[;k ns”k dh ek= 5-5 izfr”kr ds yxHkx gSA jkT; esa orZeku esa 7 laHkkx ,oa 33 ftys 5 uxjfuxe gSA i;ZVu ds izdkj %& i;ZVu ds fodkl ds lkFk&lkFk i;ZVu ds vusd izdkj gks x;s gSaA tks i;ZVdksa ds Hkze.k ds mn~ns”; ij fuHkZj djrk gSA tSls bdks VwfjTe] leqnz rVh; i;ZVu] oU; tho i;ZVu] rhFkZ ;k=k i;ZVu] xzkeh.k i;ZVu] QkeZ i;ZVu] VªkbZcy VwfjTe] lkgfld i;ZVu] Hkkjrh; gLrf”kYi ,oa i;ZVu] jktLFkkuh R;kSagkj] eSys] mRlo] lEcU/kh i;ZVu] jkT; ds /kkfeZd i;ZVu dsUnz ekSleh VwfjTe] lewg i;ZVu] gkbZos i;ZVu] jkT; dh gSfjVst Vsªu VwfjTe] izkd`frd i;ZVu {ks=] esfMdy THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER i;ZVu] vkfn vusd i;ZVu ds izdkjksa }kjk ifjHkkf’kr fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj mUgh izdkjksa dk lkekftd ,oa lkaLd`frd i;ZVu ds lkFk&lkFk i;kZoj.k ij Hkh izHkko gksrk gSA i;ZVu dh n`f’V ls jktLFkku dks 10 i;ZVd lfdZVksa ¼e.My {ks=ksa½ esa ckaVk x;k gsA 1- t;iqj & vkesj 2- vyoj & flyh”ksM lfjLdk 3- Hkjriqj & Mhax&/kksyiqj 4- j.kFkEcksj Vksad 5- gkMkssrh {ks= ¼dksVk&cqanh >kykokM+½ ¼6½ esjokM+k ¼vtesj&iq’dj eaMy ukxksj½ ¼7½ “ks[kkoVh {ks= ¼8½ e: lfdZV {ks= ¼chdkusj &tSlyesj &ckM+esj] tks/kiqj ¼9½ ekÅ.V vkcq j.kdiqj ¼10½ esokM+ {ks= mn;iqj&dqEHkyx<+&ukFk}kjk& fprksM+&t;lEkUn & Mwaxjiqj½ i;ZVu dh n`f’V ls jktLFkku jkT; dk uke vxz.kh gSA jktLFkku dks lfn;ksa ls mlds fdys o egy] dyk ,oa laLd`fr] EkSys o R;kSagkj] /kkfeZd LFkyksa] izkd`frd lkSUnz;Z] i”kq&i{kh vH;kj.k ,oa ,sfrgkfld LFkyksa ds dkj.k ns”k&fons”k esa ljkgk tkrk gSA jkT; esa i;ZVu foHkkx o’kZ 1956 ls ,d LorU= foHkkx ds :i esa fp= la[;k % 1-1

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dk;Zjr gSA {ksf=; Lrj ij jkT; ds pkj laHkkxksa Øe”k% mn;iqj] tks/kiqj] vtesj ,oa dksVk esa {ks=h; i;ZVu dk;kZy; ,oa jkT; ds izeq[k i;ZVd LFkyksa ij i;ZVd Lokxr@lwpuk dsUnz lapkfyr fd;s tk jgs gSaA jkT; dh i;ZVu uhfr 27&09&2001 dks tkjh dh xbZ FkhA i;ZVu uhfr dk cgqvk;keh mn~ns”; jkT; esa miyC/k le`) i;ZVu lalk/kuksa dk vf/kdre mi;ksx dj vf/kdkf/kd jkstxkj ds volj miyc/k djkuk gSA jkT; dh fofo/k gLrdykvksa ,oa f”kYi dykvksa ds fy;s cktkj miyC/k djkuk gSA jkT; dh le`) tSfod] izkd`frd ,sfrgkfld ,oa lkaLd`frd fojklr dk oSKkfud rjhdksa ls izcU/ku dj lajf{kr djuk gS vkSj jkT; ds lkaLd`frd] vkfFkZd fodkl esa i;ZVu m|ksx dk ;ksxnku lqfuf”pr djrs gq;s bls tu m|ksx ds :i esa LFkkfir ,oa fodflr djuk gSA i;ZVu vkxeu o’kZ 2014 esa 330-76 yk[k Lons”kh ,oa 15-26 yk[k fons”kh i;ZVd jktLFkku Hkze.k gsrq vk;s] o’kZ 2014 esa jkT; esa fons”kh i;ZVdksa ds vkxeu esa 6-15 izfr”kr dh o`f) gqbZ Fkh vkSj Lons”kh i;ZVdksa ds vkxeu esa 9-17 izfr”kr dh o`f) gqbZ Fkh vkSj Lons”kh i;ZVdksa ds vkxeu esa 9-03 izfr”kr dh o`f) gqbZ gSA Hkkjr esa vk;s fons”kh i;ZVdksa ds vkxeu esa jkT; esa vk;s fons”khi;ZVdksa ds vkxeu dk fgLlk 20-44 izfr”kr gSA lkj.kh la[;k % 1-1

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

72 | P a g e THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 19 lkj.kh la[;k % 1-3

 izxfr izfrosnu 2014&15] Vwfjte foHkkx] jktLFkkuA lkj.kh la[;k % 1-2

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

 izxfr izfrosnu 2014&15] Vwfjte foHkkx] jktLFkkuA

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jktLFkku i;ZVu foHkkx

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER lkj.kh la[;k % 1-3

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jkT; esa i;ZVu foHkkx }kjk dsUnzh; izofrZr ;kstukUrxZr o’kZ 2013&14 esa 10 uohu ifj;kstuk,a] i;ZVu ea=ky;] Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk fnukad 04&03&2014 dks Lohd`fr nh xbZA ftldh Lohd`fr jk”kh :- 5174-67 yk[k gSA o’kZ 2014 esa tuojh ls fnlEcj 2014 esa ns”kh i;ZVdksa dh la[;k esa 9-17 izfr”kr vkSj fons”kh i;ZVdksa dh la[;k esa 6-15 izfr”kr dh o`f) gqbZ gS vkSj blh izdkj o’kZ 2013 esa fons”kh i;ZVd ;kf=;ksa dh la[;k esa Hkkjr esa izFke LFkku ij egkjk’Vª dk uke gSA ftlesa 20-80 izfr”kr fons”kh i;ZVd vk;s vkSj mlesa jktLFkku dk 5 oka LFkku gSA ftlesa 1437162 i;ZVd ftudk izfr”kr 7-2 izfr”kr gSA jkT; esa vk;s ns”k ds ldy ?kjsyq mRikn esa i;ZVu {ks= dk izR;{k ;ksxnku 3-7 izfr”kr gSA tcfd dqy izR;{k ,oa vizR;{k ;ksxnku 6-8 izfr”kr gSA ns”k ds jkstxkj esa i;ZVu {ks= dk izR;{k ;ksxnku 4-4 izfr”kr gSA tcfd dqy izR;{k ,oa vizR;{k ;ksxnku 10-2 izfr”kr gSA lkj.kh la[;k % 1-4 lkj.kh la[;k % 1-5

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

 izxfr izfrosnu 2014&15] Vwfjte foHkkx] jktLFkkuA

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i;ZVu dk i;kZoj.k ij izHkko %& i;ZVu dk i;kZoj.k ls xgjk lEcU/k gS cfYd dbZ vFkksZa esa i;kZoj.k gh i;ZVu dks xfr ,oa fn”kk iznku djrk gSA o’kZ 1997 esa rS;kj dh xbZ fufr ds izi= esa dgk x;k Fkk fd vUrjkZ’Vªh; i;ZVd dqN pqus gq;s dsUnzks vkSj LFkyksa rd ,d fo”ks’k ekSle esa gh vf/kd igqaps] ftlds QyLo:i ogka lqfo/kkvksa dh deh gks xbZ vkSj i;kZoj.k ij izfrdwy izHkko iM+kA Hkkjr ds igkM+h {ks=] tks lSykfu;ksa dk ,d eq[; vkd’kZ.k gS ogka jkT; vukf/kd`r Hkw&dCts ,oa QSadh xbZ xUnfx;ksa ds dkj.k ,d u;h i;kZoj.k leL;k cM+h gksrh tk jgh gSA igkM+h {ks= esa fodkl ds uke ij cM+s cka/kks dk fuekZ.k ,oa o`{kksa dh dh va/kk/kq/k dVkbZ ls i;kZoj.k dh Hkkjh {kfr gks jgh gSA dPkjk&dqM+s djdV ,oa /kwy feV~Vh ds c<+ tkrk gSA Bhd mlh izdkj chdkusj esa dksyk;r >hy gSA tgka ij HkhTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER?kjsyq i;ZVdksa dh Hkkjh HkhM+ gksrh gS rks ;gka ds okrkoj.k dks {kfr igqaprh gS vkSj ogka dq+M+k djdV] ey] ty vkfn dh vf/kdrk dks iznq’k.k dh laHkkouk c<+ jgh gS vkSj mldk izHkko LokLF; ij Hkh iM+ jgk gS rFkk tho&tUrq] ouLifr;ksa vkfn dk fouk”k Hkh gks jgk gSA i;ZVu dk lkeftd ,oa lkaLd`frd n`”;Hkwfe ij izHkko %& i;ZVu ls i;ZVd ds ekufld vk/;kfRed ,oa “kkjhfjd vO;oksa dk fodkl gksrk gSaA i;ZVd ds ns”k] izns”k dk lkaLd`frd vknku&iznku i;ZVu ds {ks= ds fuokfl;ksa ls gksrk gSA HkkoukRed ,oa lkekftd rFkk lkaLd`frd lEcU/k etcwr gksrs gSaA blfy, i;ZVd gekjs lkaLd`frd osHko] dykRed /kjksgj rFkk uSlfxZd n”;ksZa ds j[k&j[kko dk Hkh lk/ku gSA dbZ ckj fons”kh lSykfu;ksa dk vkus ls i;ZVu {ks= dks rFkk ogka ds LFkkuh; fuokfl;ksa dks Hkh uqdlku igqap tkrk gSA dbZ ns”kksa esa laØfer fcekfj;ka QSyh gksrh gSA ftlds lkFk vusd i;ZVd ds “kjhj esa vusd ok;jl ,d ns”k ls nwljs ns”k esa vk tkrs gS rFkk mu i;ZVdksa ds lEidZ esa vkus ls LFkkfu; ukxfjdksa ds ml fcekjh ls laØfer gksus dk [krjk cuk jgrk gS rFkk dbZ ckj ,slk gqvk Hkh gSA fons”kh lSykfu;ksa dh laLd`fr vyx gksrh gSA ysfdu gekjs jkT; esa xkSjoiw.kZ bfrgkl dks ns[kdj ;g FkksM+k vthc yxrk gS fd fons”kh i;ZVdksa ds jgu&lgu] [kku&iku ,oa os”k&Hkw’kk ls lkaLd`frd okrkoj.k Hkh izHkkfor gksrk gSA fu’d"kZ ,oa lq>ko %& jkTkLFkku ,d fo”kky jkT; gksus ds lkFk&lkFk ,d vPNk i;ZVd LFky Hkh gSA ftlesa lkaLd`frd bfrgkfld /kjksgjksa ds lkFk&lkFk izkd`frd okrkoj.k ;qDr {ks= Hkh fo|eku gS rFkk ;gka dh yksd dyk;sa] yksdu`R;] yksdlaxhr] i;ZVdksa dks vkdf’kZr djrs gSaA fQj Hkh i;ZVdksa ds

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vkxeu dh xfr rst gksus ls izkd`frd okrkoj.k ,oa lkaLd`frd okrkoj.k dks Hkkjh {kfr gks jgh gSA vusd ns”kksa dh laLd`fr;ksa ds ;gka vkus ls lkaLd`frd okrkoj.k ij Hkh izfrdqy izHkko iM+ jgk gSA bu lc ds lkFk&lkFk ;gka vusd leL;k;sa Hkh gSaA jkT; esa ,sls izkphu xkao lH;rk,a fuokl djrh gSA tks vfr izkphu gS vkSj mudh vkSj ljdkj dk vHkh Hkh /;ku ugha gSA vxj mu izkphu gosfy;ksa ,o egyksa ij /;ku fn;k tk;s rks mudks gksVyksa ,o i;ZVdksa ds fy, [kksyk tk ldrk gSA okLro esa fdlh uk fdlh :i esa izkd`frd ,oa lkaLd`frd okrkoj.k dks i;ZVdksa dh vf/kdrk ls {kfr igqaprh gh gSA i;ZVu ,d jk’Vª dks izxfr iznku djrk gS ,oa lkFk&lkFk vk; o jkstxkj dh c<+ksrjh Hkh djrk gS ysfdu mldk nwljk igyq Hkh ns[kuk vko”;d gSA lq>ko ds rkSj ij i;ZVu dks c<+kok nsus ds fy, ;gh gS fd jkT; esa uohu i;ZVu uhfr cukbZ tk;s rFkk i;ZVdkas dh lqfo/kkvksasa gsrq lkfgR; dh O;oLFkk Hkh dh tkos rFkk lHkh i;ZVu dsUnzks dk ekufp=ksa lfgr o.kZu djds nwjh fn”kk vkfn iqLrdksa dk foekspu Hkh fd;k tk;sA LFkkuh; yksxksa dks tkx:d djds mUgs i;ZVu dks c<+kok nsus ,oa i;kZoj.k dks lqjf{kr j[kus ds fy, izksRlkfgr fd;k tk;sA oSls jkT; esa i;ZVu fodkl dh xfr rst gS vkSj vusd vk;kstu Hkh blds fy;s fd;s x;s gaS rkfd i;ZVu dks c<+kok fey ldsA fQj Hkh blesa deh ekStwn gS vkSj vf/kd laHkkouk Hkh ekStwn gks rkfd i;ZVu m|ksxksa dk fodkl laHko gks ldsA lUnHkZ lwfp %  flag txchj 2012 i;ZVu ,oa i;kZoj.k T;ksfr] bUVj izkbftt] tokgj uxj] fnYyhA  “kekZ ,oa ,p],l “kekZ] ,e-,y] jktLFkku dk Hkwxksy] iap”khy izdk”ku] t;iqjA  “kekZ ,l-ds ,oa flag vkj-ih ¼2004½ i;ZVu Hkwxksy] usgk ifCyds”ku cjsyh ;wihA  oekZ lat; dqekj 1998 i;ZVu ,oa i;ZVu mRiknTHE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER r{kf”kYkk izdk”ku ]ubZ fnYyhA  jksfculu ,p-, 1999 T;ksxzkQh vkWQ VwfjTe Iys ekmFk esdMksukYM ,.M,soUlA  HkkfV;k ,s-ds 1986 VwfjTe MsoyiesaV fizflaiy ,.M izksfVl ubZ fnYyhA fjiksZVl % izxfr izfrosnu 2014&15] i;ZVu foHkkx] jktLFkku izxfr izfrosnu] 2013&14] i;ZVu foHkkx] jktLFkkuA fo”ks’k ys[k % “kadj fxfj”k 2014] Hkkjr esa i;ZVu] ea=ky; lwpuk i=A

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

lgk;d izk/;kid Hkwxksy] 'kk- usg: LukrdksÙkj egkfo|ky;] cq<+kj] ftyk& ’kgMksy ¼e-iz-½ izkLrkfod % i`Foh] czgk.M esa ,d ek= ,slk xzg gS] tgkW ij fofHkUu izdkj ds tho&tUrqvksa ,oa ouLifr;ksa ds fy, vuqdwy n’kk,W ik;h tkrh gSaA tSo fofo/krk esa fdlh {ks= fo’ks"k ds mifLFkr tSo leqnk; dh lexzrk dks lekfgr fd;k tkrk gSA blds varxZr fdlh {ks= fo’ks"k esa ik;h tkuh tkus okyh leLr ouLifr;kW ,oa tho&tUrq rFkk lw{e tho vkrs gSaA ;s lHkh ?kVd /kjkry ds tSfod lalk/ku gSaA ftudh ikfjfLFkfrdh larqyu esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk gksrh gSA ;s i`Foh ds thou dk vk/kkj gSA tho&tUrqvksa dh bl izd`fr ds vk/kkj ij tSo fofo/krk dks eq[; :i ls 3 oxksZ esa foHkkftr fd;k x;k gSA tks bl i`Foh ij ikfjfLFkfrdh; ra=ksa dh j{kk ds fy, t:jh gSA 1- vkuqokaf’kd tSo fofo/krk 2- tkrh; tSo fofo/krk 3- ikfjfLFkfrdh; tSo fofo/krk Hkkjr fo’o ds 18 cM+s fofo/krk izkIr ns’kksa esa ls ,d gS vkSj ;gkW tSo fofo/krk dh n`f"V ls nks le`) dsUnz gSa] iwohZ fgeky; vkSj if’peh ?kkVA Hkkjr esa oSKkfud :i ls of.kZr 1]25]000 ls vf/kd iztkfr;ksa vkSj 4]00]000 ls vf/kd vof.kZr iztkfr;kW ik;h tkrh gSaA Hkkjrh; miegk}hi esa ikfjfLFkfrdh;THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER n’kkvksa esa vlk/kkj.k fofo/krk ns[kus dks feyrh gSA ltho oLrqvksa dh ml fo’kky fofo/krk esa mÙkj esa ÅWps&ÅWps ioZr J`a[kyk,W rks nf{k.k] nf{k.k&iwoZ rFkk nf{k.k&if’pe esa xgjs lkxj gSaA vjkoyh ds izkphure ioZr Ja`[kyk ls ysdj uohu xaxk dh ?kkVh gSA if’pe esa Fkkj e:LFky dh Hkh"k.k xehZ gS rks iwoZ esa nynyh lqUnjou gSA tho&tUrq o isM+&ikS/ks tks tyok;q] HkkSxksfyd vkSj e`nk foKku dkjdksa ds vafre mRikn gksrs gS os Hkkjrh; {ks= esa fofo/krk dks n’kkZrs gSA 'kks/k dk mn~ns’; %& izLrqr 'kks/k dk izeq[k mn~ns’; gS fd tSo fofo/krk gkzl ds dkj.k ,oa laj{k.k dk v/;;u djuk rFkk tSo fofo/krk ds laca/k esa leLr yksxksa dks tkx:d djuk rkfd fofHkUu izdkj ds tho&tUrq ,oa ouLifr;ksa dks foyqIr gksus ls cpk;k tk ldsA D;ksafd ;s leLr tSo txr ds izk.kh] ouLifr;kW ,d&nwljs ij vkfJr gSA 'kks/k dh v/;;u fof/k %& izLrqr 'kks/k izca/k iw.kZr% O;fDrxr Hkze.k ij vk/kkfjr gSA tSo fofo/krk ds v/;;u ds fy, izkFkfed ,oa f}rh;d vkWdM+ksa dks iz;ksx esa yk;k x;k gSA f}rh;d vkWdM+s i=&i= if=dk,W] U;wt isij ,oa iqLrdksa dk lgkjk fy;k x;k gSA izkFkfed vkWdM+ksa dk laxzg.k izkd`frd LFkkuksa esa tkdj voyksdu] lk{kkRdkj ,oa iz’ukoyh rFkk vuqlwph fof/k;ksa ds }kjk fd;k x;k gSA tSo fofo/krk dk gkzl %& fo’o dk izR;sd tho izR;{k ;k vizR;{k :i ls ikfjfLFkfrdh dks cuk;s j[kus ds fy, ftEesnkj gSA buesa ls fdlh ds Hkh u"V gksus ij ikfjfLFkfrdh larqyu n`"izHkkfor gks ldrk gSA iztkfr;ksa dk foyqIr gksuk tSo fofo/krk dh izeq[k leL;k gSA tc Hkh dksbZ iztkfr lekIr gksrh gS] rks ,d J`a[kyk VwVrh gSA tSo fofo/krk ij ekuoh; xfrfof/k;ksa dk izfrdwy izHkko

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c<+rk tk jgk gS] rFkk lEiksf"kr fodkl ds ftl nj ls ge ekuo i;kZoj.k dks cnyus esa yxs gq, gSa] muls lEiksf"kr vkfFkZd fodkl vkSj thou dh xq.koÙkk dks vR;f/kd [krjk mRiUu gks x;k gSA tSfod lalk/kuksa vkSj mudh fofo/krk dks u"V gksus ls gekjs Hkkstu dh vkiwfrZ bZ/ku] vkS"kf/k vkSj ÅtkZ ds L=ksr rFkk euksjatu vkSj i;ZVu ds voljksa ij ladV vkrk gS rFkk ty ds izHkko] Hkwfe vijnu vof’k"Vksa ds vo’kks"k.k] ty ds 'kqf)dj.k vkSj dkcZu ,oa iks"kd rRoksa ds pØ.k tSls vko’;d ikfjfLFkfrdh; dk;Z ckf/kr gksrs gSA tSo fofo/krk gkzl ¼u"V½ gksus ds dkj.k %& tSo fofo/krk gkzl gksus ds HkkSxksfyd] vkfFkZd] laLFkkxr ,oa izzkS|ksfxdh dkjd fuEu gSaA 1- c<+rh tula[;k vkSj vkfFkZd fodkl ds dkj.k tSfod lalk/kuksa dh c<+rh ekWxA 2- tu psruk ,oa tkx:drk dh dehA 3- tSo fofo/krk ds lgh ewY; dh igpku djus esa vkfFkZd cktkjksa dh foQyrkA 4- tSfod lalk/kuksa ds vR;f/kd mi;ksx dks fu;af=r djus esa ljdkj dh foQyrkA 5- uxjhdj.k esa o`f)] lEifÙk ds vf/kdkjksa esa ifjorZuA mijksDr dkj.k fuEu :i esa n`f"Vxkspj gksrs gSA 1- vf/koklksaa dk u"V gksuk] foHkkftr gksuk] fo?kfVr gksukA 2- izkd`frd vf/koklksa esa vU; izdkj ds mi;ksxksa ds fy, ifjorZu gksukA 3- oU; lalk/kuksa dk vR;f/kd nksguA 4- e`nk ty vkSj okrkoj.k dk iznwf"kr gksukA 5- Hkwe.Myh; rkiuA 6- ckW/kksa dk fuekZ.kA THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 7- oU; izkf.k;ksa dk f’kdkjA 8- dhVuk’kd nokvksa dk mi;ksxA 9- ouksa dh dVkbZA ikni iztkfr;ksa ds yqIr izk; gksus ds dkj.k %& 1- okl&LFkkuksa ¼Habitat½ ds u"V gksus ds dkj.k 2- iSFkkykftdy ¼Pathological½ dkjdksa ds dkj.k 3- tSoh; dkjdksa ¼Biotic factors½ ds dkj.k 4- ikfjfLFkfrdh LFkkukiUu ¼Ecological subsitute½ ds dkj.k 5- okrkoj.kh; dkjdksa ¼Envirunmental factors½ ds dkj.k 6- vR;f/kd ek=k esa jklk;fud inkFkksZ ,oa IykfLVd dk mi;ksxA tSo fofo/krk dk laj{k.k %& tSo fofo/krk dk laj{k.k ls rkRi;Z gS] tSo fofo/krk dk izca/ku] ifjj{k.k ,oa iqu% iwoZ fLFkfr dks izkIr djukA rkfd orZeku ih<+h }kjk lEiksf"kr fodkl fd;k tk lds rFkk Hkkoh ihf<+;ksa dh vko’;drk ,oa vkdka{kkvksa dks iwjk djus gsrq laHkkouk cuh jgsaA i;kZoj.k esa larqyu cuk, j[kus ds fy, tSo fofo/krk dk laj{k.k djuk vko’;d gSA tSo fofo/krk ds varxZr tho&tUrqvksa ,oa ouLifr;ksa dh fofHkUu iztkfr;kW ik;h tkrh gSA ftl {ks= esa ftruh vf/kd tSo fofo/krk dh fofHkUu iztkfr;kW gkasxh] ogkW dk ikfjfLFkfrdh; larqyu mruk gh vf/kd vPNk jgsxkA tSo fofo/krk esa deh vk tkus ls i;kZoj.k esa ifjorZu gksrk gS] vkSj blls ikfjfLFkfrdh; larqyu fcxM+rk gSA tSo fofo/krk ds laj{k.k dh izeq[k fof/k;kW %& tSo fofo/krk ds laj{k.k dh nks izeq[k fof/k;kW gS &

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1- Lovkoklh; laj{k.k ¼In-situ conservation½ %& tSo fofo/krk dks mlds izkd`frd i;kZoj.k esa lajf{kr djuk Lovkoklh; laj{k.k dgk tkrk gSA vr% bl izdkj ds laj{k.k ds fy, izkd`frd ouksa] pkjkxkgksa] eSnkuksa] ufn;ksa] >hyksa vkfn dk Hkh laj{k.k vko’;d gksrk gSA blds fy, bu izkd`frd vkokl LFkkuksa dks fuf"k) {ks= ¼Prohibited area½ ?kksf"kr dj fn;k tkrk gSA fu"ks/k dh lhek ds vuqlkj bu {ks=ksa dks rhu izdkjksa esa ckaVk x;k gSA tks fuEufyf[kr gSA  jk"Vªh; m|ku ¼National Parks½  vH;kj.; ¼Sanctuaries½  tho e.My vkjf{kr {ks= ¼Biosphere reserves½ 2- d`f=e vkoklh; laj{k.k ¼Ex-Situ conservation½ %& oU; thoksa o ouLifr;ksa dks izkd`frd vkokl ls LFkkukarfjr djds ekuo fufeZr d`f=e vkoklksa esa laj{k.k fn;k tkrk gS] rks ;g d`f=e vkoklh; laj{k.k dgykrk gSA blds mnkgj.k gS oU; thoksa ds fy, fpfM+;k?kj o thu cSad rFkk ouLifr;ksa ds fy, d`f=e xzhu gkml ;k ikni m|ku vkfn dk fodkl fd;k tkrk gSA tSo fofo/krk laj{k.k ds fy, fo’o Lrj ij fd;s tk jgs iz;kl %& tSo fofo/krk laj{k.k ekuo vfLrRo ds fy, vfr vko’;d gSA D;ksafd tSo fofo/krk ls gh ekuo ds fy, Hkkstu] bZa/ku] diM+k] ydM+h] vkS"kf/k;kW vkfn dh vko’;drkvksa dh iwfrZ gksrh gSA blds vfrfjDr tSo fofo/krk laj{k.k ls i;kZoj.k ,oa ikfjfLFkfrdh larqyu csgrj jgrk gSA rFkk lw[kk] ck<+ vkfn leL;kvksa ij fu;a=.k fd;k tk ldrk gSA vr% tSo fofo/krk laj{k.k dh egrh vko’;drk gSA tSo fofo/krk laj{k.k ds iz;kl LFkkuh; ,oa izknsf’kd Lrjksa ij lu~ 1950 ls fd;s tk jgs gSa] ijUrq oU; thoksa dh la[;k rFkk tSo fofo/krk ds laj{k.k dk izFke fo’oLrjh; iz;kl lu~ 1992 esa izFke i`Foh lEesyu ds le; fd;k x;k FkkA ftls fj;ks lEesyu Hkh dgrs gSA la;qDr jk"Vª ds rRok/kku esa czkthy ds fj;ksMhtusjks uxj esa 14 fnlEcj lu~ 1992 esa vk;kstu fd;k x;kA bl lEesyu esa 178 ns’kksa ds izfrfuf/k;ksa us Hkkx fy;kA bl lEesyu ds fuEu izeq[k y{; FksA 1- i`Foh ,oa blds i;kZoj.k dh j{kkA THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 2- ikfjfLFkfrdh; larqyu dk vuqj{k.kA 3- tSo fofo/krk dks le`) cukukA 4- ladVkiUu iztkfr;ksa ds laj{k.k ds iz;klA 5- iztkfr;ksa dks yqIr gksus ls cpkus ds fy, mfpr ;kstuk,W ,oa izca/kuA 6- izR;sd ns’k ds oU; thoksa ds vkokl dks fpfUgr dj mudh lqj{kk dk lqfuf’pr djukA 7- iztkfr;ksa ds iyus&c<+us rFkk fodflr gkssus ds LFkku lqjf{kr o lajf{kr djukA Hkkjr }kjk tSo fofo/krk ds laj{k.k gsrq fd;s tk jgs iz;kl %& Lora=rk izkfIr ds mijkar fodflr vkS|ksxhdj.k vkSj uxjhdj.k ds QyLo:i ouksa dh v/kk/kqU/k dVkbZ] voS/k f’kdkj ,oa oU; thoksa dh [kky] lhax] gfM~M;kW vkfn dh vUrZjk"Vªh; O;kikj esa o`f) ds dkj.k izkphudky ls 'kkar Hkkjr dh ikfjfLFkfrdh; cqjh rjg izHkkfor gqbZ gSA tSo fofo/krk ij eMjkrk ladV Hkkjr esa Hkh ns[kk tk ldrk gSA gky ds o"kksZ esa dqN izeq[k ?kVuk,W gqbZ gSA tSls jktLFkku esa dkys e`xksa dk f’kdkj] tqykbZ lu~ 2000 esa mM+hlk ds uanu vH;kj.; esa chekjh ds dkj.k 13 ck?kksa dh ekSr blh nkSjku fxfj m|ku ¼xqtjkr½ esa 5 flagksa dh ekSr] rFkk mÙkjk[k.M jkT; ds fte dkcsZV jk"Vªh; m|ku ds vUnj vk/ks ntZu gkfFk;ksa dk f’kdkj] e-iz- ds ckW/kox<+ jk"Vªh; m|ku esa dbZ o"kksZa ls ck/kksa dh ekSr gks jgh gSA ;s lc ?kVuk,W bl ckr dh |ksrd gSa fd Hkkjr esa Hkh ou] oU;tho ,oa tSo fofo/krk ij xaHkhj ladV eaMjk jgs gSA bl ladV dks Vkyus gsrq Hkkjr ljdkj us tSo fofo/krk ds laj{k.k gsrq vusd dne mBk, gSaA loZizFke izkd`frd lhekvksa ds Hkhrj fofHkUu izdkj dh iztkfr;ksa dks cpkus] mUgsa lajf{kr vkSj foLrkfjr djus ds fy, oU;tho lqj{kk vf/kfu;e 1972 ikfjr fd;kA ftlds varxZr jk"Vªh; i’kq fogkj LFkkfir fd;s rFkk tho eaMy vkjf{kr {ks= ?kksf"kr fd;sA

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lu~ 1952 esa ,d oU; tho cksMZ xfBr fd;k x;k ftlus i’kq&if{k;ksa rFkk isM+&ikS/kksa ds u"V gksus ls cpkus ds fy, egRoiw.kZ lq>ko fn;sA blds lkFk gh cksMZ us yqIr gks jgsA oU; thoksa dh lwph Hkh izLrqr dh ftlds vk/kkj ij oU; thoksa dh lqj{kk gsrq Hkkjr esa jk"Vªh; m|kuksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;kA Hkkjr ljdkj ds }kjk 1992 esa jk"Vªh; tSo fofo/krk laj{k.k ij fo’ks"k /;ku fn;k x;kA tho cSadksa ds ek/;e ls tSo fofo/krk laj{k.k dks c<+kok %& dqN foyqIr gksrh iztkfr;ksa ds laj{k.k ds fy, Hkkjr esa fofHkUu tho cSad LFkkfir fd;s x;s] rkfd mu iztkfr;ksa ds cps gq, thoksa ls d`f=e fof/k ls mUufr’khy o jksx izfrjks/kh thoksa vkSj ikS/kksa dh iztkfr;ksa dks mRiUu fd;k tk ldsA Hkkjr esa Hkkjrh; d`f"k vuqla/kku ifj"kn~ ¼ICAR½ us ikndksa] tUrqvksa vkfFkZd :i ls egRoiw.kZ eNyh vkSj lw{e vo;oksa ds LFkkuh; laj{k.k ds fy, pkj jk"Vªh; C;wjksa dh LFkkiuk dh gS tks fuEu gSA 1- jk"Vªh; iknd tho lalk/ku C;wjks ¼,u-ch-ih-th-vkj-½ 2- jk"Vªh; i’kqtho lalk/ku C;wjks ¼,u-ch-,-th-vkj-½ 3- jk"Vªh; eRL; tho lalk/ku C;wjks ¼,u-oh-,Q-th-vkj-½ oU;thoksa dk laj{k.k ¼Conservation of wildlife½ %& oU; izkf.k;ksa dh iztkfr;kW lekIr u gks tk,W] blfy, budk laj{k.k djuk vfrvko’;d gSA oU; izk.kh laj{k.k fuEu rRoksa ij fuHkZj gSA 1- oU; thoksa dh x.kuk %& oU; thoksa dh laLFkk dk le;≤ ij vuqeku yxkuk vko’;d gS blls izca/ku esa lgk;rk feyrh gSA ftl xfr ls oU; thoksa dk gkzl gks jgk gSA muds f’kdkj ij izfrca/k yxk nsuk pkfg,A 2- fu;af=r f’kdkj %& oU; thoksa dk f’kdkj fu;af=r O;oLFkk ds varxZr fd;k tkuk pkfg,A 3- d `f=e iz;klksa ls thoksa dh la[;k esa o`f) %& ftu THE{ks=ksa KOKAN GEOGRAPHER esa tho&tUrqvksa dk vHkko gks ogkW nwljs izns’k ls thoksa dks NksM+ nsuk pkfg,A 4- ijHkf{k;ksa dk fu;a=.k %& ijHk{kh thoksa dk ijh{k.k fd;k tkuk pkfg,A vfoosdiw.kZ fu.kZ; ds v/khu lHkh ijHkf{k;ksa dks ugha ekjuk pkfg,] D;ksafd buesa ls dqN gkfudkjd dhV iraxksa dks [kkdj lgk;rk djrs gSA 5- lqj{kk %& oU; thoksa dh lqj{kk ds fy, i;kZIr O;oLFkk dh tkuh pkfg,A fo’o ds fofHkUu Hkkxksa esa thoksa dks 'kj.k nsus ds fy, ,d fuf’pr LFkku LFkkfir djuk pkfg,A jk"Vªh; m|ku ,oa vH;kj.; bl n`f"V ls egRoiw.kZ gSA 6- Hkkstu esa lq/kkj %& dHkh&dHkh oU; thoksa dks i;kZIr ek=k esa :fpiw.kZ vkgkj ugha fey ikrk gSA vr% O;oLFkk bl izdkj dh tkuk pkfg, fd oU; thoksa dks izR;sd _rq esa Hkkstu dk vHkko u gksA 7- tyiwfrZ %& tyh; thoksa ds fy, ty dh iwfrZ dk izca/k gksuk pkfg,A oU; thoksa ds fy, ty dh deh ugha gksuk pkfg,A 8- vkPNknu %& ouksa dh Hkwfe dks fdlh dk;Z gsrq mi;ksx esa ykus ls iwoZ ;g /;ku j[kuk pkfg, fd oU; thoksa ds vkokl ;k vkJ; LFky dgha u"V rks ugha gks jgs gSaA 9- oU;&tho vuqla/kku %& oU; thoksa dks laj{k.k gsrq i;kZIr oSKkfud vuqla/kku fd;s tkus pkfg,A

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Hkkjr esa oU; tho laj{k.k vf/kfu;e Hkkjr ljdkj us lu~ 1972 esa oU;&tho laj{k.k vf/kfu;e ikfjr fd;k gSA ftlesa 5 vuqlwph gSA izR;sd vuqlwph esa thoksa dh iztkfr;ksa dh la[;k rFkk mudk f’kdkj djus okyksa ds fy, dkjkokl rFkk tqekZus dk izko/kku j[kk x;k gSA bl izdkj oU;&izkf.k;ksa dh foyqIr gks jgh iztkfr;ksa ds cpko ds fy, oU; tho laj{k.k vf/kfu;e dh /kkjk 35 ds varxZr jk"Vªh; m|ku ,oa /kkjk 18 ds varxZr vH;kj.;ksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k x;k gSA ;s m|ku rFkk ou fogkj ns’k ds izR;sd jkT; ,oa ftys esa cuk;s x;s gSaA thoksa dks cpkus ds mn~ns’; ls fo’o oU; izk.kh dks"k dh lgk;rk ls ck?k cpkvksa ifj;kstuk LFkkfir dh x;h gSA blds vfrfjDr vU; foyqIr gksrs oU; thoksa ds laj{k.k dk iz;kl fd;k tk jgk gSA lu~ 1967 esa oU; tho dks"k dh ,d 'kk[kk dh Hkkjr esa LFkkiuk dh x;h gSA ftldh lgk;rk ls enzkl esa liZ m|ku fodflr fd;k x;k gSA Hkjriqj dk ?kuk i{kh fcgkj if{k;ksa dk 'kj.k LFky gSA vyfQu] phrk] uhyxk;] gkFkh ds laj{k.k gsrq fo’ks"k iz;kl fd;s tk jgs gSA izR;sd o"kZ 1 vDVwcj ls 8 vDVwcj rd oU; izk.kh lIrkg euk;k tkrk gSA oU; tho laj{k.k ifj;kstuk,W %& oU; tho laj{k.k ds fy, Hkkjr ljdkj }kjk fuEu fyf[kr ifj;kstuk,W lapkfyr gSA 1- izkstsDV gkaxqy %& bl ifj;kstuk dh 'kq:vkr 1970 esa dh x;h gSA 2- fxfjflag ifj;kstuk %& xqtjkr ljdkj us bl ifj;kstuk dh 'kq:vkr lu~ 1972 esa dsUnz ljdkj dh lgk;rk ls dh FkhA 3- ck?k ifj;kstuk %& ck?kksa ds laj{k.k gsrq 1 vizSy 1973 ls dkcsZV&jk"Vªh; m|ku ls ck?k ifj;kstuk dh 'kq:vkr dh x;h gSA 4- ØksdksMkby iztuu ifj;kstuk %& la;qDr jk"Vª ifj;kstuk dk;ZØe dh lgk;rk ls dsUnz ljdkj us bl ifj;kstuk dh 'kq:vkr lu~ 1975 esa mM+hlk jkT; ls gqbZ gSA 5- czks ,Vayj fgj.k ifj;kstuk %& czks ,Vayj fgj.k vFkok ef.kiqj Fkkfeu ifj;kstuk dh 'kq:vkr 1977 esa dh x;h gSA THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 6- gkFkh ifj;kstuk %&lu~ 1992 esa >kj[k.M ds flag Hkwfe ftys ls xtkRek uke dh ifj;kstuk 'kq: dh x;h ftls gkFkh ifj;kstuk dgk tkrk gSA 7- yky iakMk ifj;kstuk %& fgeky; {ks= esa yky ikaMk dks laj{k.k ds fy, bl ifj;kstuk dh 'kq:vkr 1996 esa dh x;h FkhA 8- fgeky; dLrwjh ifj;kstuk %& bl ifj;kstuk dh 'kq:vkr dsnkjukFk vH;kj.; esa dh x;h gSA tSo fofo/krk dk egRo %& tSo fofo/krk ds egRo ij ;fn fopkj fd;k tk, rks izd`fr dh lajpuk ds vuqdwy izR;sd tho&tUrq izR;{k ;k vizR;{k :i ls ,d&nwljs ij vkfJr gSa] ;fn buesa ls fdlh ,d dk Hkh gkzl gksrk gS rks mldk izHkko lEiw.kZ i;kZoj.k ij iM+rk gSA bldh u dsoy fpfdRlk m|ksx] d`f"k {ks=ksa esa mYys[kuh; Hkwfedk gSA ijUrq tyok;q ifjorZu rFkk LFkkf;Ro esa Hkh bldk fu.kkZ;d ;ksxnku gksrk gSA Hkwfe dh moZjrk dks cuk, j[kuk] tykiwfrZ dks larqfyr j[kuk] dpjs dks fu;af=r j[kuk vkfn tSo fofo/krk ls gh laHko gSA izkd`frd lkSan;Zrk dks cuk;s j[kuk ,oa lgQlyh i)fr esa dbZ Qlyksa dks ,d lkFk mRikfnr djus esa Hkwfe ds iks"kd rRoksa esa fujarj o`f) blls gh izHkkfor gksrh gSA fu"d"kZ %& bl izdkj fu"d"kZ :i esa ge ns[krs gSa fd Hkkjr esa ftl izdkj ls tSo fofo/krk gkzl ij fu;a=.k ds fy, tks iz;kl fd;s tk jgs gS mlds vk/kkj ij ge dg ldrs gSa fd Hkkjr esa tSo fofo/krk laj{k.k vkSj tSo fofo/krk nksuksa dk Hkfo"; mTtoy fn[k jgk gS] vkSj Hkfo"; esa Hkkjr tSo fofo/krk ds ekeys esa lEiUu ns’k gksxkA gekjh tSo fofo/krk dk u"V gksuk lcls vf/kd fparktud i;kZoj.kh; eqn~nksa esa ls ,d gSA izd`fr ds lHkh la?kVd vkil esa ca/ks gq, rFkk ,d&nwljs ij fuHkZj gSA ,d Hkh tho ;k ouLifr ds u"V gksus ls lEiw.kZ tSo fofo/krk ladV ij vk tkrk gSA vr% tSo fofo/krk dks

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lajf{kr djus ds fy, gesa vf/kd ls vf/kd jk"Vªh; m|kuksa ,oa vH;kj.;ksa dh LFkkiuk djuk iM+sxk] lkFk gh lkFk isM+&ikS/kksa dks fodflr djus ds fy, lkekftd okfudh ds ek/;e ls o`{kkjksi.k djuk pkfg,A lekt esa tho tUrqvksa ,oa isM+&ikS/kksa ds izfr lkekftd 'kS{kf.kd ,oa uSfrd uSfrRoksa dk fuoZgu djuk pkfg,A vr% le; ij leqfpr dne mBkdj gLrk{ksi ugha djus ls gekjs i;kZoj.k dk tks Lo:i gS og cuk ugha jgsxkA vr% ;g vfuok;Z gks x;k gS fd Lo&vkoklh; laj{k.k vkSj d`f=e vkoklh; n`f"Vdks.k viukrs gq, tSo fofo/krk dks lajf{kr djus okys ;Fkk laHko iz;kl fd;s tkus pkfg, rkfd gekjh Hkkoh ih<+h Hkh thou ds lkSan;Z vkSj tSo fofo/krk dk vkuan mBk ldsA blfy, Hkkjr ds izR;sd O;fDr dk drZO; curk gSA fd izkd`frd lkSan;Zrk dk laj{k.k djsa rHkh ekuo thou lq[ke; ,oa dY;k.ke; jgsxkA vFkkZr Hkorq lCc eaxyeA lanHkZ xzaFk lwph %& 1- MkW- lfoUnz flag & i;kZoj.k ,oa ikfjfLFkfrdh Hkwxksy 2- MkW- ch-,y- rsyh & ist ua- 68 ls 77 i;kZoj.k v/;;u 3- MkW- ih-,l- usxh & ikfjfLFkfrdh fodkl ,oa i;kZoj.k Hkwxksy 4- ijh{kk eaFku & i;kZoj.k ,oa ikfjfLFkfrdh 5- MkW- ,l-ds- vks>k & ikfjfLFkfrdh ,oa i;kZoj.k ist ua- & 97 ls 114 6- foKku izxfr & ekfld if=dk ist ua- 3 lh-,l-vkbZ-vkj- izdk’ku 7- Hkwxksy vkSj vki & 5 flrEcj & vDVwcj 2004 ist ua- 5&6 8- MkW- ,l- vf[kys’k & i;kZoj.k laj{k.k

THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 19, June-July 2018 ISSN 2277 – 4858

Factors Influence on the Distribution of Settlement in Sindhudurg District

Dr. R. B. Patil - Head, Dept. of Geography, Arts &(MS) Commerce College Phondaghat, Tal. Kankavli, Sindhudurg Dr. B. A. Survase - Head, Dept. of Economics, Arts & Commerce College Phondaghat, Tal. Kankavli, Sindhudurg

Introduction:- The distribution of population on the surface of the earth is uneven, mostly physical economic social factors are affected the uneven distribution of population similarly distribution of population in Sindhudurg District is unevenly because different factors are affected the distribution of population. This study is most important to Geographer as well as Government for the purpose of different types of planning. The Study Region :- The study region which lies between 150 37‟ North to 160 40‟North latitude and 730 19‟ East to 740 13‟ East longitude it covers area about 5207 sq.km. The Sindhudurg district lies in the south part of the Maharashtra state along the sea coast which extends north-south direction about 121km. (Fig.1) There are 8 main Talukas in the study area like Dodamarg, Sawantwadi, Kudal, , Malvan, Kankavli, Devgad, Vaibhavwadi. The location of 08 Talukas are different from each other for example:Vengurla, Malvan, Devgad are located coastal area &Dodamarg, Sawantwadi, Kankavli, Vaibhavwadi located the east of Sahyadri Ranges the height of the regions is various from sea level up to 1300m. Data Collection :- The entire work is based on the secondary data, the data and information is taken from the following sources: 1) The District Gazetteer of Sindhudurg District. THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER 2) The District Census Handbook of SindhudurgDistrict ,2001. 3) Besides this the information regarding the work were taken from various records & journals. Methodology :- The maps & the diagrams will be prepared from various data and their interpretation support to the present study. Objectives :- 1) To study the relationship between settlement distribution & physiography. 2) To study the relationship between the Drainage density & settlements. 3) To study the relationship between Rainfall Distribution & settlements. Factor Influences on the Distribution of Settlement In Sindhudurg District :- Physiography: The physiography of the study region has been divided into following three categories. 1) The Sahyadrian Hill Region (Height above 300m.) 2) The Middle Belt of the Hill Region or Valati (Height 100m. to 300m.) 3) Coastal Belt region or Khalati (Height Below 100m.) 1) The Sahyadrian Hill Region (Height above 300m.) The eastern part of the study region which is covered by Sahyadrian Hill Ranges. The height of this region is above 300m. from the sea level, covers an area about 13.08% of the total and accounts for 102 settlements. This is the part of Sahyadrian hill ranges covered by dense forest. So, the land under cultivation is very low. Therefore, the density of population is also very low in this region.(Table No. I & Fig. No. 2) 2) The Middle Belt Of The Hill Region Or Valati (Height 100 To 300m.) The foot hill region of the Sahyadri and scattered hill ranges in the central part of the study region which covers an area about 37.00% of the total having height 100m to 300m. above sea level. In this region land under agriculture is found more, transportation network have developed there for the number of settlements are found more i.e. 163.

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3) Coastal Belt Region Or Khalati(Height Below 100m) The western part of the study region and some part of the various river basins covered by coastal belt. The height of this region is below 100m. from sea level. Covers an area about 49.81% of the total and account for 478 settlement. In this area the land under cultivation is found more, fertile soil, irrigation facilities and development of road network gives rise to more economic development as compared to other study region, hence there are more number of settlements.It is observed that the physiography and the distribution of settlements in the study region have a positive co- relationship because, the hilly region covers less area and less number of settlements. The region which is extended along the coastal line covers more area and more number of settlements. Table No. II gives clear idea about physiography and distribution of settlement in the study region. Table No.I Sindhudurg District Height From Sea Level, Area Covered, No. Of Settlement And Their Percentage Area covered in No. of Sr. No. Height in Mtrs. % to Total % to Total sq.km. Settlement 01 Below 100 2593.75 49.81 478 64.33

02 100-300 1932.37 37.11 163 21.94

03 Above – 300 680.88 13.08 102 13.73

Total Sindhudurg 52.7 100 743 100

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THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER

Drainage Density And Distribution Of Settlement: Human settlements are always attracted by rivers and streams in any region where more number of rural settlements are found in this areas the drainage density is also found high. To study the distribution of settlement in relation to drainage density for the study region, the study region has been divided into five categories of drainage density (Table No. II & Fig. No.3) Table No. II Sindhudurg District The Drainage Density, Area Covered And No. Of Settlement And Their Percentage Sr. Drainage Density per Area Covered No. of % to Total % to Total No. 100sq.km. in Sq.Km. Settlement 01 Below 25km 41.00 00.79 14 1.88 02 25 to 50km 175.00 03.36 30 4.05 03 50 to 75km 2186.00 41.98 32.3 43.47 04 75 to 100 2599.50 49.92 349 46.97 05 Above 100km 205.50 03.95 027 3.63 Total Sindhudurg District 5207 100 743 100 It is observed that very few coastal part of Devgad and Malvan has found drainage density below 25km per100sq.km. covers an area about 0.79% of the total and accounts for 1.88% of the total settlement. The Western coastal part of Devgad, Malvan and Vengurlataluka and few southern part of Sawantwaditaluka have drainage density between 25km. to 50km per100sq.km. covers an area about 3.36% of the total which accounts for 4.05% of the total settlement in the study region. The South Central part and North Western part of the study region where the drainage density is found between 50 to 75km per 100sq.km. covers an area about 41.98% of the total and accounts for 43.47% of the total settlement. The drainage density between 75 to 100 km per100sq.km.observed in Central and Eastern part of the study

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region which covers an area about 49.92% of the total and accounts for 46.97% of the total settlements. A very few part of the South Eastern part of the study region where the drainage density is found above 100 km. per 100 sq. km. covers an area about 3.95% of the total and accounts for 3.63% of the total settlements. It is also observed that where the drainage density is found between 50 to 100km. per 100 sq.km covers an area about 91.9% of the total and account for 90.44% of the total settlements. Table No. II and Fig. No.3 gives clear idea about drainage density and distribution of settlements in the study region. Distribution Of Rainfall And Settlements :- In the study region the rainfall increases from West to East. On the Eastern side it is above 4500mm while, on the Western sides it is less than 2000 mm. A very different type of relationship between rainfall distribution and settlements have been observed. The rainfall of the study region has been grouped into seven categories and the isopleth map has been drawn for showing comparative picture of distribution of rain fall and settlements (Table No. III and Fig. No.4) Table No. III Sindhudurg District Rainfall Distributio Categories, Area Covered And No. Of Settlement And Their Percentage Sr. Category of Rainfall Area Covered in No. of % to Total % to Total No. (mm) Sq.Km. Settlement 01 Below 2000 209 4.01 38 5.11 02 2000 to 2500 326 6.26 57 7.67 03 2500 to 3000 401 7.70 91 12.25 04 3000 to 3500 2028 38.95 279 37.55 05 3500 to 4000 1223 23.49 158 21.27 06 4000 to 4500 569 10.94 59 7.94 07 Above 4500 451 8.65 61 8.21 Total Sindhudurg District 5207 100 743 100 THE KOKAN GEOGRAPHER It is observed that in the Western part of the study region where the rain fall is found less than 3000mm covers an area about 17.97% of the total and accounts for 25.03% of the total settlement.This area is extend along the coastal line in the North-South direction where more number of settlements are found. The Central part and North-Eastern part of the study region where the rainfall is found between 3000 to 4000mm covers an area about 62.44% of the total and accounts for 58.82% of the total settlement of the study region. The East Central part and South-East part of the study region where the rainfall is observed above 4000mm covers an area about 19.59% of the total and accounts for 16.15% of the total settlement. It is observed that where the rainfall is found high the number of settlements are found less while the rainfall which is observed below 3000mm covers less area and more number of settlements in the study region (Table No. III and Fig. No.4) Conclusion :- There are various factors which affects on the distribution of settlement natural, socio-economic factors, physiography, drainage, rainfall, agriculture, irrigation, transportation and communication are the important factors. The physiography and the distribution of settlements in the study region have a positive co-relationship. Human settlements are always attracted by rivers and streams in any region where more number of rural settlements are found in this areas the drainage density is also found high. It is also observed that where the drainage density is found between 50 to 100km. per 100 sq.km covers an area about 91.9% of the total and account for 90.44% of the total settlements. In the study region the rainfall increases from West to East. It is observed that where the rainfall is found high the number of settlements are found less while the rainfall which is observed below 3000mm covers less area and more number of settlements in the study region. References :- 1) Dixit R.S. (1988), Spatial Organisation of Market Centres, P. P. 14 2) Srivastava, V.K. And Srivastava, H.O., (1979), Distributional Pattern And Classification of Market Centres In The Saryupar Plain, The Deccan Geographer, XV,1. 3) Thakur S.A. (2003) A Geographical Study of Market Centers in Sindhudurg District. Unpublished Ph. D.Thesis.

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