BOX OFFICE BACK ISSUES: HISTORICIZING THE LIMINAL SUPERHERO FILMS, 1989–2008 by ZACHARY ROMAN A DISSERTATION Presented to the School of Journalism and Communication and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2020 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Zachary Roman Title: Box Office Back Issues: Historicizing the Liminal Superhero Films, 1989–2008 This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the School of Journalism and Communication by: Peter Alilunas Chairperson Janet Wasko Core Member Erin Hanna Core Member Benjamin Saunders Institutional Representative and Kate Mondloch Interim Vice-Provost and Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded December 2020 ii © 2020 Zachary Roman iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Zachary Roman Doctor of Philosophy School of Journalism and Communication December 2020 Title: Box Office Back Issues: Historicizing the Liminal Superhero Films, 1989–2008 Although the superhero film became a dominant force in Hollywood early in the 21st century, the formation of the superhero genre can be attributed to a relatively small temporal window beginning in 1989 and ending in 2008. This dissertation argues that a specific group of superhero films that I call the liminal superhero films (LSF) collectively served as the industrial body that organized and created a fully formed superhero genre. The LSF codified the superhero genre, but that was only possible due to several industrial elements at play before they arrived. An increasing industrial appetite for blockbusters coming out of the 1970s, the rise of proprietary intellectual property after the corporate conglomeration that occurred at the end of the 20th century, and finally, the ability of the LSF to mitigate risk (both real and perceived) all led to this cinematic confluence. The LSF streamlined the superhero genre through a mechanism I characterize as “generic pruning.” This is a process that indexes the modes, tropes, and production decisions that came to form the genre through years of formal, representational, and narrative trials. Although many LSF were critically panned, the experimentation that occurred in the liminal era aided Hollywood by informing it about the types of superhero films that would be produced and replicated, while also inculcating audiences as to the normed contours around a superhero film genre that had previously been illegible. iv CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Zachary Roman GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University of Oregon, Eugene The Pennsylvania State University DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor of Philosophy, Media Studies and Communication, 2020, University of Oregon Master of Education, Curriculum and Instruction, 2012, The Pennsylvania State University Master of Arts, Media Studies, 2011, The Pennsylvania State University Bachelor of Arts, Film and Video, 2004, The Pennsylvania State University AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Cinema Studies Media Industry Studies PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Secondary English Teacher, Bakersfield High School, Bakersfield, CA, 2012– 2015 GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Membership in the George S. Turnbull chapter of Kappa Tau Alpha, University of Oregon, 2020 Columbia Scholarship Award, University of Oregon, 2015–2019 v PUBLICATIONS: Roman, Zak. “Mad Men’s Midcentury Modern Times.” The Legacy of Mad Men: Cultural History, Intermediality, and American Television, edited by Karen McNally, et al. Palgrave, 2020. Roman, Zak and Ryan Lizardi “ ‘If She Be Worthy’: The Illusion of Change in American Superhero Comics.” Inks: The Journal of the Comics Studies Society, 2(1), 2018, pp. 18–37. Kiley, Aleah and Zak Roman. “ ‘AKA Occasionally I Give a Damn’: Mirrored Archetypes and Gender Power in Jessica Jones.” Jessica Jones, Scarred Superhero: Essays on Gender, Trauma and Addiction in the Netflix Series, edited by Tim Rayborn and Abigail Keyes. McFarland & Company, Inc., 2018. Roman, Zachary and Matthew P. McAllister. “The Brand and The Bold: Synergy and Sidekicks in Licensed-based Children’s Television.” Global Media Journal, 12(20) [special issue on “The State of Media Conglomeration: Synergy, Power, Resistance”], 2012, pp. 1-15. vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My deepest gratitude to my dissertation committee: Dr. Janet Wasko, Dr. Erin Hanna, Dr. Ben Saunders, and my chair, Dr. Peter Alilunas. The collective richness of your guidance helped shape the contours of this work and was always valued. Dr. Alilunas is a generous advisor who continually aided in “making it strange” regarding challenging my own conceptions of how media histories can be approached, made meaningful, and articulated. Thank you for your excellent mentorship in making this dissertation possible. I would also like to acknowledge my colleague Phil Duncan for his genuine friendship and encouragement throughout my time at the University of Oregon. Several people from the Penn State community also assisted me in this journey. Dr. Matthew McAllister, Barbara Bird, Dr. Jeanne Hall, and Dr. Ryan Lizardi were all instrumental in my considering that pursuing this degree was even possible. I offer my sincere gratitude to each. Finally, to my parents, Christine and Alan, thank you for being among the most supportive, understanding, and loving people I know. I am truly lucky to be your son. vii For Cynthia: take me with you, always viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 The Liminal Superhero Films ................................................................................. 6 Literature Review .................................................................................................... 9 Methods ................................................................................................................... 28 Overview of Chapters ............................................................................................ 32 II. CHAPTER I: SEEDING THE SUPERHERO FILM: THE PRE-HISTORY OF THE LIMINAL SUPERHERO FILMS ...................................................................... 42 Early Superhero TV and Stylistic Evolution ....................................................... 49 The Melodramatic Monster: The Incredible Hulk ................................................ 54 Goofy Meets Gallant: The Greatest American Hero ............................................ 57 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 62 III. CHAPTER II: INDIES, RIOT GRRRLS, AND ANIMATION: EXPERIMENTATION & THE LIMINAL SUPERHERO FILMS .......................... 65 Tinkering With Tone: The Mask .......................................................................... 66 Super-Toon............................................................................................................ 71 Indy Superheroes & Riot Grrrl Politics in the Liminal Superhero Films: Tank Girl.............................................................................................................. 75 Embracing Comic Book Roots ............................................................................. 78 “More Screwball and More Wacky” .................................................................... 81 “This is for the Post-Punk Warrior Feminists” .................................................... 84 ix Chapter Page Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 90 IV. CHAPTER III: HIP HOP & HYBRIDIZATON: THE NEW JACK SUPERHEROES OF THE LIMINAL SUPERHERO FILMS ................................... 94 The Influence of the “Class of ’91” ...................................................................... 101 A Prescient 30 Seconds ......................................................................................... 114 Comedy and Social Issues in the Liminal Superhero Films: The Meteor Man ..... 118 Developmental Frustration and Unexpected Fortune: Blade ................................ 125 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 131 V. CHAPTER IV: SUPERSTAR SUPERHEROES AND GENERIC STABILIZATION ....................................................................................................... 134 Separating From the Source: X-Men .................................................................... 140 Tonal Chaos, Legal Battles, and Post-9/11 Politics: Spider-Man ......................... 151 9/11-as-Ghostwriter .............................................................................................. 166 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 170 VI. CONCLUSION: LEAVING LIMINALITY......................................................... 174 The Fruits of Generic Pruning .............................................................................. 176 The Superhero Film Post-Generic Codification .................................................... 179 The Superhero Film and Postmodern Inevitability ............................................... 188 Deadpool 2 and the Burden of Back “Issues” ...................................................... 192 x Chapter Page APPENDIX: