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The London School of Economics and Political Science The London School of Economics and Political Science Civilian Control of the Military in Portugal and Spain: a Policy Instruments Approach José Javier Olivas Osuna A thesis submitted to the Department of Government of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, March 2012 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work. e copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. is thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of words. Abstract Despite their economic, political and cultural similarities, Portugal and Spain experienced dif- ferent trajectories of civil-military relations during the twentieth century. After having handed power over to a civilian dictator, Salazar, the Portuguese military eventually caused the down- fall of his authoritarian Estado Novo regime and led the transition to democracy. In contrast, in Spain the military, which had helped Franco to defeat the Republic in remained loyal to the dictatorship’s principles and, after his death, obstructed the democratisation process. is research sheds light on these different patterns by comparing the policy instruments that governments used to control the military throughout Portuguese and Spanish dictatorships and transitions to democracy. First, it applies Christopher Hood’s () ‘’ (nodality, authority, treasure and organisation) framework for the study of tools of government in order to identify trajectories and establish comparisons across time and countries. ese tools can be considered as the institutions that structure the relationship between the governments and the military. is thesis documents that the tools used in both counties differed consider- ably and evolved over time and that only from onwards a process of convergence can be observed. Second, this thesis contrasts two types of neo-institutional explanations for the evolution of tool choice and civil-military relations. One based on historical junctures and path-dependence (historical causes) and the other on the continuous impact of environmental factors (constant causes). is research demonstrates that both approaches are largely inter- twined and to a great extent become complementary and necessary to capture complexity in tool choice. In sum, this thesis shows that dialogue and exchange between different ana- lytical approaches contributes to a deeper understanding of multifaceted social phenomena. e utilisation of public policy analytical frameworks, such as the scheme and neo- institutionalism, provides a new angle on the evolution of civil-military relations in Portugal and Spain. For Mariana Acknowledgements ere are many people that have contributed to this thesis. It is difficult to find words to express my gratitude to Martin Lodge for his detailed and un- failing support; his supervision, guidance, and demands for rigor have provided a constructive source of challenge throughout these years. His supervisorial wizardry made this process as painless as it could be; Martin does not need sticks and carrots — I cannot imagine a better supervisor. I am also indebted to José Antonio Olmeda for his extremely helpful feedback and guidance on Spanish civil-military relations. He and Salvador Parrado were incredibly hospitable during my time in Madrid. Stefan Bauchowitz has my gratitude for his excellent suggestions and editorial support. Rafael Vázquez and, my advisor, Jonathan Hopkin I owe much for their very useful comments and practical advice in the later stages of this project. Pedro Aires de Oliveira, I am thankful to, for his help concerning Portuguese history; as well as Vassilis Paipais and Anar Ahmadov for the clarifications and long discussions on theory and methodology. Next, I want to express my gratitude to Sebastian Balfour, Max Hänska, Johannes Wolff, Mariana Escobar, Javier Gómez, Juan Antonio Serrano, Nuria Fernández, Sensi Pérez, Amir Khnifess, Ninfa Fuentes, Trent Maul, Mike Seiferling, Ashikur Rahman, Fabrizio Scrollini, Ignazio de Ferrari, Lila Caballero, Ursula Durand, Susana Carvalho, Justin Gest, Ken Dubin, Matthew Whiting, Eric Woods, Jessica Tarlov, Ting Luo, Julio González, Kathleen Henehan, James Wong, Marta Wojciechowska, Pon Souvannaseng, Maria Kyriakidou, Roberto Orsi, Maria Brock, Eduardo Martins, Michael O’Keeffe, Ola Onuch, Fredrik Sjoberg, Alejandro Ribó, Antoine Kerfant, Diana Ávila and all my other friends and colleagues from and . e discussions, laughs, trips and other moments we shared will remain as the best memories from these years. e thesis would not have been possible without the financial support of Fundación Ramón Areces, Fundación Caja Madrid, Abbey/Santander Travel Research Fund, University of London Central Research Fund, LSE Postgraduate Research Scholarships and Becas Talentia of the Andalusian Regional Government. is thesis is dedicated to my wife Mariana, whose love, patience and support have been fundamental all these years. It is also thanks to Mariana that during the last few months of my thesis I had an extra source of joy and motivation; my daughter Victoria. Lastly, I wish to thank my parents, Mari and José; my brother, Santiago; his wife, Esther, my aunt, Isabel, and my grandmother Adela. Despite the distance I always had very present their love and care. All the people above have made this long journey much more meaningful and enjoyable. Contents I OBJECTIVES AND CHOICES 21 1 Civil-military relations and methodological considerations 23 . Introduction . . Why civil-military relations? . . Why a ‘tool’ or ‘policy instrument approach’? . . Research questions and claims . . Methodology . .. Comparative historical analysis . .. Case Selection . .. Sources . . esis plan . 2 Analytical framework 43 . Introduction . . Comparative framework . .. Developing a tools perspective: a revised NATO framework . .. Why the NATO framework? . . Explaining change in tool choice: history and context . .. Historical legacies and path-dependence . .. Environmental factors . . Summary . II PORTUGAL 61 3 History of contemporary civil-military relations in Portugal 63 . Introduction . . Estado Novo . .. Salazar and the inception of Estado Novo . .. e political institutional setting . .. e Estado Novo and the foreign powers . .. NATO membership . .. Attitudes and views of the military . .. Caetano and the downfall of the Estado Novo . . Transition and democracy . C .. Provisional governments (–) . .. Constitutional governments (–) . . Summary . 4 The Estado Novo’s tools of government 85 . Introduction . . Organisation . .. Coercive organisation . .. Non-coercive organisation . .. Conclusion . . Nodality . .. Information effectors . .. Information detectors . .. Conclusion . . Authority . .. Rewards and incentives . .. Sanctions and constraints . .. Conclusion . . Treasure . .. Evolution of military budgets . .. Staff expenditure . .. Equipment Expenditure . .. Conclusion . . Summary . 5 Tools of government in the Portuguese transition to democracy 113 . Introduction . . Organisation . .. Coercive organisation . .. Non-coercive organisation . .. Conclusion . . Nodality . .. Information effectors . .. Information detectors . .. Conclusion . . Authority . .. Rewards and incentives . .. Sanctions and constraints . .. Conclusion . . Treasure . .. Evolution of military budgets . .. Staff expenditure . .. Equipment expenditure . .. Conclusion . . Summary . C III SPAIN 147 6 History of contemporary civil-military relations in Spain 149 . Introduction . . Franco’s regime . .. e Civil War and the Second World War . .. Insulation of the regime . .. e Francoist political institutional setting . .. e role of the military in Franco’s regime . .. Military subordination . .. e final years of the regime . . Transition and Democracy . .. Suárez’s governments . .. Anti-government plots . .. e First socialist government . . Summary . 7 Francoist tools of government 169 . Introduction . . Organisation . .. Coercive organisation . .. Non-coercive organisation . .. Conclusion . . Nodality . .. Information effectors . .. Information detectors . .. Conclusion . ..
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