Aristotle and the Classical Paradigm of Wisdom

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Costanzo J* Research Article Conception Seminary College, United States Volume 4 Issue 3 Received Date: June 07, 2021 *Corresponding author: Jason Costanzo, Conception Seminary College, 3514 Bel nor Drive Published Date: July 09, 2021 Saint Joseph, MO 64506, United States, Tel: 16313716565; Email: [email protected] DOI: 10.23880/phij-16000191

Abstract

considered. The sage is one who is deemed wise in his or her performances. But what is ‘wise’ about such performances? The The essay examines the ancient Greek origin of philosophy relative to the concept of wisdom. The nature of the sage is first Socratic denial of sage status is considered in reference to this. Socrates concludes that he is not wise as the gods are wise, but that he is wise insofar as he knows that he is not wise. The apparent contradiction is resolved through the distinction between

human (finite) and divine (infinite) wisdom. The latter notion is further examined in the works of Aristotle who articulates the “classical paradigm” of philosophy in pursuit of infinite wisdom. The attributes of infinite wisdom are identified, and the example. essay concludes with a discussion of the sagely performance of infinite wisdom, Aristotle himself serving as the representative Keywords:

Wisdom; Classical Paradigm; Aristotle The Sage as Wise Performer Many other memorable stories are recorded in this work of which I could speak, but it is not the point of this Lives of the essay to examine such stories here. Instead, I should like to Eminent Philosophers will no doubt recall the many timeless focus on one particular story, found at the very beginning of storiesAnyone that he familiar tells of with the DiogenesGreek philosophers Laertius’ of ancient to the most remarkable claim of all. In response to purported in a wine jar (pithos Diogenes’ account. There, the reader will find what amounts times. We hear of Diogenes (the1 There Cynic) is alsowho Zeno lived ofand Citium, slept who following a shipwreck), his natural in which way he of is life said inspiring to have the lost awe his theories These regarding authors the originforget ofthat philosophy the achievements (likely floating which ofpersonal even Alexander fortune, thereafterthe Great. entered a bookstore and read around duringthey attribute his time), toDiogenes the barbarians states the following:belong to the a copy of Xenophon’s Memorabilia. Inspired by the account Greeks, with whom not merely philosophy but the of the life of Socrates, he inquired of the bookseller whether human race itself began.3

that Crates was passing by, and the bookseller pointed to Taken from a contemporary perspective, where him.anyone2 With in Athensthat, Stoicism was like was this born. philosopher. It so happened examples of philosophy can be seen blossoming among the

the larger Eurasian continent, such a view must no doubt be ancient cultures spanning the Americas, Northern Africa, and 1 DL, 6.2.31. Diogenes Laertius. Lives of Eminent Philosophers, transl. R.D. Hicks (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972). 2 DL, 7.1.2. 3 DL, 1.prol.3.

Aristotle and the Classical Paradigm of Wisdom Philos Int J 2 Philosophy International Journal taken as an instance of cultural bias. Certainly human beings “Speech is the mirror of action”.18 Of Chilon, Diogenes notes from all cultures and times will have raised philosophical that he offered marital advice, wrote songs, and interestingly, questions about the purpose of life and meaning of existence. that “He was a man of few words (brachylogos 19 Of course, at a very early stage, such practitioners would )”. were instead called ‘wise ones’ or ‘sages’ (sophoi of the sages given by Diogenes is of mere dilettantes who, notionsnot have are been found called among philosophers. other ancient Among cultures, the Greeks, such they as akinAlthough to Hippias interesting, of Elis, wove it may their be objectedown garments. that the20 accountFurther the Chinese shengren,4 the Hindu rishi,5 the Egyptian). Similar rekh,6 inspection, however, reveals an underlying unity. Classicist apkallu,7 and so on. The reputed number of descriptions of the sages seen in Diogenes and other the Akkadian seven. Plato, for example, lists Richard P. Martin, for example, argues that the various seventhe (most sages renowned) in the Protagoras sages has, alsoincluding been of Thales, some historicalPittacus, distinct headings, viz., that of poet, political servant, and Bias,significance, Solon, Cleobulus, as it tends Mison, to be Chilo.8 Diogenes cites a slightly performer.historical accounts21 can in fact be classified under three different list.9 Seven sages are also cited among other ancient The sages are performers who enact wise accomplishments traditions. The third notion is in fact the most significant. 22 Their role But who are the sages? Still more, what is a sage? For an bothas renowned in word performers (wise utterances, is likewise proverbs) intertwined and with in deed the answer to these questions, we might turn again to the account (miraculouskinds of social feats, actors clever that demonstrations,they engage with. etc.). For this reason, the sages are often seen in the literature interacting with described as an astronomer,10 kings, emperors, and other persons of high social-standing.23 thegiven immortality by Diogenes of theLaertius. soul”, 11Take as providing Thales for “excellent example. advice He is on political matters”,12 as holding as beingthat “water the “first is the to universalmaintain tyrant Peisistratos, following an omen, to avoid rearing a son primary substance”,13 and so on.14 For another example, ofIn his Herodotus, own.24 for example, Chilon advises the Athenian Solon is noted both for his wise utterances and, in particular, Croesus became the very words that would later save the 15 aided Alternatively, the wise counsel of Solon to King the city in its war against Megara,16 and in an act emblematic the Persian Emperor Cyrus.25 ofpolitical Plato’s sagacity. philosopher-king, He provided refused the Athenians an offer with to rule laws, as tyrant King from the funeral pyre following defeat at the hands of of that city.17 Wise sayings are also attributed to him, such as

Although Martin’s classification is no doubt justified by theample same textual time, evidence,however, it a cannot difficulty be said yet remains.that such Theattributes sages differentiateare poets, political the sage servants, as performers and principally, from otherperformers. types Atof 4 Rina Maria Camus (2013) The Wiseman and the Sage: Metaphysics as Wisdom in Aristotle and the Neo-Confucian Scholl of Principle. Frontiers of performers, such as lyrical poets, orators, despots, not to Philosophy in China 8(1): 121. mention sophists. What then distinguishes the performance 5 Mahatma Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism (Ahmedabad: Nevajivan of the sage qua sage? Publishing House, 1987), p. xiii. 6 Théophile Obenga, Egypt: Ancient History of African Philosophy. in A Companion to African Philosophy, ed. by Kwasi Wiredu (Blackwell Publishing, 2004), p. 33. To answer this, we might consider first the nature 7 Erica Reiner, The Etiological Myth of the Seven Sages. Orientalia, 30:1 (1961): 1. John M. Cooper and D.S. Hutchinson, Plato: Complete Works (Indianapolis: 18 D.L., 1.3.58. Cf., Plato, Hippias Major, 282d6-e8. 8 Plato, Protagoras, 343ab. All translations for Plato’s texts are based upon 19 D.L., 1.4.72.

Hackett Publishing Company, 1997). 20 9 DL, 1.1.13. For a discussion of the issues surrounding the ancient 21 Richard Martin, “The Seven Sages as Performers of Wisdom,” in Cultural identification of the sages, see Alden Mosshammer, The Epoch of the Seven Poetics in Archaic Greece: Cult, Performance, Politics, ed. by Carol Dougherty Sages. California Studies in Classical Antiquity 9 (1976), 165-180. & Leslie Kurke (Oxford University Press, 1998): 112. See also, Richard Martin, “Seven Sages,” in The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, ed. by Roger 10 DL, 1.2.23. wbeah30425S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine, & Sabine R. Huebner (John Wiley & Sons, 2017). DOI: 10.1002/9781444338386. 11 DL, 1.2.24. Martin, The Seven Sages as Performers of Wisdom. p. 117. 12 DL, 1.2.25. Martin, The Seven Sages as Performers of Wisdom. p. 116. 22 13 DL, 1.2.27. 23 14 For a more complete account, see D. R. Dicks, “Thales,” The Classical Quarterly 9:2 (1959), 294-309. 24 Herodotus, Histories, 1.59. See also Richmond Lattimore, “The Wise thought,Adviser in viz., Herodotus,” the tragic warnerClassical and Philology the practical 34:1(1939), adviser 24-35. or counselor. In particular, 15 D.L., 1.3.45 & 1.3.61. Lattimore identifies (pp. 24-25) two kinds of advisors within ancient 16 D.L., 1.3.46. 17 D.L., 1.3.49. 25 Herodotus, Histories, 1.29-32 & 1.86.

diverse according to its kind. viewsof a performance the performance. itself. In A matters performance of social is aevaluation, type of social it is There is, however, a further and perhaps overlooked generallyinteraction those between who (a)view one the who performance, performs and in the(b) onesense who of attribute of the sage. This is seen in the consistent emphasis the spectator and audience, who provide an evaluation (i.e., upon their use of wise sayings, aphorisms, and similar forms

If we furthermore take the predicate ‘wise’ as constituting aright value or predicate wrong) of that the arisesquality within of what a social has been context performed. (akin to inof the brief Protagoras utterances.. There We see Socrates this both complains in Diogenes that the Laertius great sophist’s(as above speechesnoted) as are well simply as in Plato’stoo lengthy account to remember.of the sages28 that it is precisely the spectators and audience who judge This complaint is followed up by a short encomium on that‘good’, the ‘right’, performance ‘pleasing’, is ‘attractive’,wise, so that and the so performer on), then itis followsin turn evaluated as wise. In such evaluations, the type of spectator utterances, which are noted for laconic brevity (brachylogia is no less relevant, as Martin suggests. That a friend or family tisthe Lakonike) virtue of.29 the But Lacaedamonians, why the emphasis andhere? in Why particular, should Plato their member should seek one’s advice is a different matter than that a renowned politician, king, or emperor should do so. In this, we see why the social status of the spectator is relevant (through the mouth of Socrates) direct the reader’s attention to the historical account of the sages. The advice of the sage to suchI note a seemingly that the insignificant scholarly literature matter? surrounding this is regal advice. But regal advice is a potential indication of issue is generally undecided, some holding that Socrates wise advice, since it deals with the highest matters pertinent is speaking ironically, opposing such maxims to the long- winded speeches of Protagoras. Others take a different One who bestows regal advice, especially where such direction.30 Suspending judgment on the particulars of to civil society and the just (or unjust) exercise of power. the debate, I focus instead on the relevance of the laconic counselor. utterance itself. Following historical testimonies, some advice proves fruitful, will in general be identified as a wise 147 maxims were purportedly inscribed on the Temple at From the above it follows that the sage is not just a Delphi.31 wise performer, but in particular one whose performance is from the well-known “know thyself” (gnothi seauton deemed “nothing Thesein excess” maxims (meden (some agan of which Plato cites) ranged circular. The wise performance is deemed wise. But precisely such as “consult the wise” (sophois chro ) to what is wisewise. about The problem, such performances? however, is that the definition is (philosophos ginou ), as well as other maxims maxims is generally unknown, later ) andsources, “seek includingwisdom” To answer this question, I return to Diogenes and ). Although the historical origin of these32 consider precisely the mishmash of skills that he associates The reference does not, however, appear altogether amiss, with the sages. For example, in the ancient world, Thales was asDiognes Plato tooLaertius, links theattribute maxims the to sayings the sages, to the noting seven that sages. they, renowned for having predicted an eclipse that brought to his Delphic temple.”33 28, 585 BCE.26 Taken in isolation, the accomplishment is no “dedicated these as the first-fruits of their lore to Apollo in doubta halt astounding,a battle between particularly the Medes during and this the early Lydians stage. on But May it is not the only accomplishment that Diogenes lists of Thales. To the contrary, Thales is also described as an accomplished Regardless of their specific origin, that such maxims metaphysician, politician, poet, and so on. Here Martin’s three should be attributed to the sages,moral is maxims doubtless, which significant. is to say, attributes come to the fore. The accomplishments of Thales short,The above pithy sayings sayings (as that well serve as asthe general other reputed rules of examples)conduct.34 were remarkable, but also manifold in character. Similar may in general be classified as points may be made for the other sages. Far from being mere dilettantes, the sages are more accurately described as 28 Plato, Protagoras, 334cd. For a summary of the larger discussion, see Christopher Moore, are remarkable and excellent 29 Plato, Protagoras, 343b20. polymaths and Renaissance types whose accomplishments “Spartan Philosophy and Sage Wisdom in Plato’s Protagoras,” Epoché, 20:2 analogy may be drawn to the ancient heroes of Greek 30 mythology, as Odysseus, who is described (virtuous) by in Homer character. as a man An of manifold skill (polymetis polytropos 27 (2016), 281-305. Delfim F. Leão, “The Seven Sages and Plato,” Il quinto So too the sagely exhibition of wisdom is manifold and secolo. Studi etc. Passignano s (2010), 403-414. ) and divers ways ( ). 31 For the list of the maxims, see Stobaeus, Anth., 3.1.173. Protagoras, 343ab. 32 DL, 9.11.71 Herodotus, Histories, 1.73-74. 33 Plato, Homer, Iliad, 21:355; Odyssey, 1:1. 34 For a classification of the types of maxims or proverbs that occur in 26 early Greek thought, see Emanuele Lelle, Toward a Classification of Greek 27 Proverbs. Paremia 16 (2007), 139-148.

Such maxims function as ethical imperatives: Do this. Don’t that “there was no man wiser”.39 The ambiguity of the answer, do that.35 This highlights the fact that they are not to be however, would eventually fall upon the ears of Socrates who, taken as items of dispute, but rather as moral directives believing himself to have no certain knowledge, wondered at such perplexing news. In the attempt to refute the oracle, the context of Socrates’ distaste for long speeches and his philosophy at least in concept, may be said to have thereafter remarksto be reflected regarding upon his and own put tendency into practice. toward Whenforgetfulness, seen in begun.40 the laconic utterance inevitably leads us back to Plato’s theory of recollection (anamnesis 36 Simply stated, as the discussion If we accept the veracity of these claims, if only in virtue of of this theory lies beyond this essay, the key connection can be found in the relationship). between the laconic utterance something peculiar. Neither Pythagoras nor Socrates are archai willingtheir historical to claim significance the epithet for ‘wise’. philosophy, Given the then ambiguity, we discover the oracle’s response might be read as the suggestion not that Theseand later views articulations indicate that of a first fundamental principles portion ( of) the found truth in no one is wiser than Socrates, inasmuch as he indefatigably isthe in works some ofsense both already Plato (viz., known the Ideas)to us. Theand sageslater Aristotle. likewise denies this (and the Pythia would have perhaps been aware exemplify such knowledge by their utterances. For this no one is wise. Taken from this reason, they are called ‘wise’. perspective, the transitional era may in part be understood in termsof this of fact), the growingbut rather awareness, that among the Greeks, precisely Socrates and the Denial of Sage Status of their ignorance.41

humble denial is not altogether accurate. To the contrary, a the caseAlthough that thecertain account fundamental remains featuresincomplete. of wisdom The question may be caseStill, may abe difficulty made that remains. to some The extent, difficulty both Pythagoras is that such and a ofidentified what is inwise the inearly such accounts performances of the sages, had yet, it is I nonetheless contend, to Socrates were wise, or at least, were deemed wise by the local Greek population.42 History likewise attests to this fact. necessary that the concept of philosophy should itself be articulated.be reflectively Indeed, considered. one of For the such fundamental a consideration, contentions it was Clouds of this essay, is that the two concepts, viz., wisdom and nonethelessAlthough competing been a presentaccounts historical of Socrates phenomenon. were in circulation In the philosophy, at least in their historical origination, are very (e.g., Aristophanes’ ), his status as a sage must have That the oracle should recognize Socrates among all others too the other. individualsfirst place, thereas wisest, is the points pronouncement to the fact of that the hisoracle status itself. as much correlative concepts. As the one concept developed, so wise would have already been in high regard at the time of the pronouncement.43 There is furthermore the high social philosophy reveals why this is the case. Two particular standing of the oracle, inasmuch as this plays an essential eventsReflection stand out upon in the the historical Greek origin literature: of the First, concept it was of part in the already discussed designation of sage-status. apparently Pythagoras who coined the term ‘philosophy’, it as well as other sources.37 Pythagoras (6th theKings pronouncements and emperors consultof the sagethe oracle, are often who ambiguous, in turn, claims the haveseems, preferred out of piety. the titleThe ofstory ‘lover is related of wisdom’ in Diogenes (philosophos Laertius that Socrates is wisest among the Athenians. Of course, the more common epithet ‘wise one’ or ‘sage’ BCE) (sophos is said to the reason that: “no man is wise, but God alone”.38 Second,) to There are in fact competing theories regarding Socrates’ interpretation there is the example of Socrates, whose story serves as a), kind for 39 Plato, Apology, 21a. of the oracle’s pronouncement, and the supposed “divine mission” that of parallel to that of Pythagoras. These events are related in 40 Plato’s Apology. Chaerephon, a loyal friend and follower, is reported to have asked the oracle at Delphi if any man were follows from this. See, e.g., Thomas C. Brickhouse & Nicholas D. Smith, “The Origin of Socrates’ Mission,” Journal of the History of Ideas 44:4 (1983), wiser than Socrates. Her response, usually ambiguous, was 657-666. Robert Metcalf, “The Philosophical Rhetoric of Socrates’ Mission,” Philosophy & Rhetoric 37:2 (2004), 143-166. Daniel W. Graham, “Socrates’ Mission,” BYU Studies Quarterly 55:4 (2016), 141-159. 41 Which often accompanies perplexity and the search for knowledge. that I have acquired this reputation on account of nothing else than a sort of42 Socrates wisdom. What indicates kind of this wisdom fact in is his this? defense: Just that “The which fact isis, perhapsmen of Athens,human 35 Or more specifically: One ought to do this. One ought not to do that. There is some debate regarding the purported date in which these 36 See, e.g., Plato’s Meno, 80d, as well as the Phaedo, 72e-78b. wisdom.” (Plato, Apology, 20d) 37 Anton-Hermann Chroust suggests that Heracleitus is in fact the earliest would43 put Socrates at about 44 years old. See, Daniel W. Graham and Justin identifiable source for the use of the concept of philosophy. See, Anton- Barney,events took “On place.the Date A recent of Chaerephon’s account identifies Visit tothe Delphi,” year at Phoenix426 BCE, 70:3/4 which Hermann Chroust, “Philosophy: Its Essence and Meaning in the Ancient World,” The Philosophical Review 56:1 (1947), p. 25. 38 DL, 1.prol.12. (2016), 274-289.

Costanzo J. Aristotle and the Classical Paradigm of Wisdom. Philos Int J 2021, 4(3): 000191. Copyright© Costanzo J. 5 Philosophy International Journal catastrophic misinterpretation of Croesus serving as but consideration, I at last thought of a method of trying one example.44 Yet even if the oracle’s pronouncement was the question. I reflected that if I could only find a intended ambiguously, the public elevation that would man wiser than myself, then I might go to the god have resulted from such testimony would have likely been with a refutation in my hand.47 social consciousness of the Greeks of the time. sufficient to elevate Socrates to the status of a sage within the example, the following two statements: The second point is that the very act of denying sage- (1) SocratesNotice the is logicalwise. nature of the difficulty here. Take, for status is in many ways indicative of sage-status. We might (2) Socrates is not wise. compare such a denial to the sophist who not only accepts 45 Not only does The god asserts that Socrates is wisest among the such an act appear arrogant, but it is also impious, as if one thewould label, equate but oneself also derives equal to profit the gods. from In it. contradistinction, Hence, a wise person insofar as wise, will deny the label of ‘sage’ for Athenians, and the god does not lie (as he himself testifies). the very reason that, as Pythagoras earlier stated, the gods (1) must be true. Contrariwise, Socrates asserts alone—or most eminently—are wise. Thisthat heat isleast not seems wise (viz., to be I havethe way no wisdom,in which smallSocrates or great). reads theAssuming oracle’s then pronouncement. that (2) is also For true, he statesa contradiction that he sought results. to Still more, the denial of sage status appears as an act refute the oracle. But this can only mean that he sees some emblematic of the sages of old. This story, which is very similar to the account of Socrates, can again be found in Diogenes himself and what the god deems to be the case. Following contradiction between what he knows (or believes) about Socrates eventually comes to the conclusion that the god has Laertius. Apparently, a dispute arose among a number of spokencross-examination truly. Whereas of others the renowned profess to citizens know, when of Athens, in fact askedIonian the youths oracle regarding of Delphi, a whosacrificial responded: tripod discovered by a they do not know, of himself he states that: “I neither know fisherman.Who Unable shall topossess decide the what tripod? to do Thus with replies the object, they nor think that I know.”48 46 In other words, his knowing that he is not wise UponApollo: hearing “Whosoever this, the youths is most decided wise.” to give the tripod to Thales. But Thales refused to accept the gift, and instead pronouncement that he is wise: gave it to Solon, who in turn gave it back to Delphi. In a 1.serves as a sufficient condition for confirming the oracle’s display of both humility and piety, no sage was thus willing than another who falsely believes that they are wise. to accept the gift. 2. SocratesAnyone who knows knows that that he is they not are wise. not wise, must be wiser 3. Therefore, Socrates must be wiser than another who falsely believes that they are wise. 4. Therefore, Socrates must be wise.49 knownAs Delphic a final maxim point, “know the Socratic thyself” denial(gnothi ofseauton sage-status exhibits also self-awareness, this being reflective of the well- But with this conclusion, we are led straight back to the Delphic oracle pronounces that Socrates is wise, Socrates). Self- our earlier problem. How can Socrates be both wise and inknowledge contrast contends is likewise that key he to is not the wise: Socratic denial. Although When I heard the answer, I said to myself, What can the god mean? and what is the interpretation of this Socratessimultaneously is both notwise wise? and not To wise, resolve which this is difficulty, a contradiction. we do riddle? for I know that I have no wisdom, small or well to consider once again the above statements (1) and (2). great. What can he mean when he says that I am not intended in the same way and sense? What if their relativeBut what sense if the is insteadtwo predicates analogical? (wise) From in sucheach a sentence perspective, are

the wisest of men? And yet he is a god and cannot contradiction would be resolved. lie; that would be against his nature. After a long Socrates could be both wise (1) and not wise (2), and the Herodotus, Histories 1.53.

44 or45 In if my his exhortations defense, Socrates had been denies paid, that there he iswould a sophist have precisely been some on thesense basis in that:of the but fact now, that as he you does will not perceive, own his not poverty, even the “And impudence had I gained of my anything, accusers 47 Plato, Apology, 21bc. dares to say that I have ever exacted or sought pay of anyone; they have no The inference from 3 to 4 follows from the fact that being wiser than 48 Plato, Apology, 21d. another implies that one must have at least a minimal amount of wisdom. In like49 fashion, if x > y, and if y is 0, then it is false to contend that x is 0. For the witness of that. And I have a witness of the truth of what I say; my poverty is assertion to be true, x must be some number greater than 0. a sufficient witness.” (Plato, Apology, 31bc) 46 DL, 1.28.

What then is meant by ‘wise’ in each sense? The above as it were, explicit treatment. In the Republic, for example, considerations quickly reveal the answer. Thales and Chilon Plato’s concept of the philosopher-king serves in a way as refuse the gift of the tripod. Pythagoras refuses the label the culmination of the ancient ideal of the all-wise and just of ‘wise one’, suggesting that only the gods are wise. For a ruler.53 parallel example, in the fragments of Heraclitus we read that, “The wisest man is an ape compared to God.”50 In like fashion, Socrates contends that: of a higher, divine-like wisdom, can be seen in the cave For on each occasion those who are present think I allegory,Alternatively, where the the good concept (agathon of philosophy as the pursuit am wise in the matters in which I confute someone of the prisoner’s ascent.54 Symposium, else; but the fact is, gentlemen, it is likely that the god an analogy is drawn between Eros,) servesan intermediate as the pinnacle being is really wise and by his oracle means this: “Human (daimon Alternatively, in the penia wisdom is of little or no value.”51 plenty (poros 55 ) who is the daughter of poverty ( ) and From the above examples, we see that the two predicates (metaxu ). Akin to the philosopher as one who seeks56 ‘wise’ differ in sense according as they are predicated of that which transcends finitude, so Eros is caught between either the human being or of the gods. Socrates is wise as a ) finitude and the longing for the eternal and divine. Although other examples of the pursuit of infinite wisdom 52 The contradiction is may no doubt be identified in the works of Plato, it is the thushuman resolved. being is wise (finite wisdom), but he is not wise as accountFor ofexample, Aristotle in that Book is of VI chief of interestthe Nicomachean in what follows. Ethics, the gods are wise (infinite wisdom). Still, the story does not end here. The Socratic recognition of ignorance, as I see it, represented also a major shift in early theAristotle combination discusses of theinsight intellectual (nous virtues, includingepisteme the Greek thought. From the pronouncement of the oracle to the wisdomnature of ( sophia wisdom (chapters 7-8). He suggests first that as subsequent trial and execution of Socrates, philosophy as a knowledge”.57 He further distinguishes) and prudence science ( (phronesis), distinct pursuit originates. The pursuit is likewise articulated from wisdom proper) must ( be,sophia “the 58most Whereas finished the of former the forms deals of precisely in relation to the above distinction. Philosophy with action and what is of advantage to the human being, the) originates in the recognition of human ignorance coupled latter offers no such advantage). other than the knowledge with the pursuit of something more, indeed, something derived from it’s exercise, noting in particular, that, “they divine. Hence, Pythagoras does not end with—I am not wise (sophos philosophos fashion, Socrates). To thedenies contrary, that he the is denial wise, isand followed following by thehis elenchicaffirmation—I efforts, am philosophy a lover ofas wisdomthe pursuit ( of infinite ).wisdom, In like 53 For a larger discussion see, C.D.C Reeve, Philosopher-Kings: The Argument of Plato’s Republic (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, is born. 2006); also, Darrell Dobbs, “Plato’s Paragon of Human Excellence: Socratic Philosopher and Civic Guardian,” The Journal of Politics 65:4 (2003), 1062- suggests,1082. Interestingly, philosophers according ought tonot Chroust, to be kings, Aristotle but inrather fact objectedadvisors toto Plato’s kings. Aristotle and the Classical Paradigm concept of the philosopher-ruler for the reason that, as Aristotle purportedly

See, Anton-Hermann Chroust, “Aristotle’s Criticism of Plato’s “Philosopher implicit in early Greek thought, and although Socrates King”,” Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, Neue Folge, 111:1 (1968), 16-22. wouldAlthough be instrumental the concept in helping of infinite to elucidate wisdom the difference was long 54 Plato, Republic, 514a-520a. This is further confirmed by Socrates who Plato, Symposium, 203be. For further discussion of the link between earlier (508e) states that he cannot define the good but only the form of it. Eros and philosophy, see Mark Holowchak, “Wisdom, Wine, and Wonder- 55 between finite and infinite wisdom, it is not until Plato, and 427. later Aristotle, that the notion would receive more direct and, Lust in Plato’s Symposium,” Philosophy and Literature 27:2 (2003), 415- rd for example, William Desmond, Being and the Between (NY: State University 56 I am thinking here of Desmond’s concept of the between (metaxu). See, 50 See fragment (98, 99) of John Burnet’s Early Greek Philosophers, 3 Edition (London, A&C Black, 1920), p. 103. of New York Press, 1995). Brickhouse and Smith arrive at a similar conclusion. See, especially 51 Apology, 23a. 57 Aristotle, E.N., 1141a16-19. All translations for Aristotle’s texts are from Chapter 2 of, Thomas C. Brickhouse and Nicholas D. Smith, Plato’s Socrates 52 Johnathan Barnes, The Complete Works of Aristotle, Vol 2, ed. by Jonathan Barnes (Princeton University Press, 1984). For a general discussion of (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996). A competing account can be seen in Aristotle’s account of Wisdom in the Nicomachean Ethics, see, Chapter 9 of Carlo Natali, The Wisdom of Aristotle (NY: SUNY Press, 2001). foundChristopher in, Gerasimos King, “Wisdom, Santas, Moderation, “The Socratic and Paradoxes”, Elenchus in ThePlato’s Philosophical “Apology”,” and ‘theoretical’ wisdom for the reason that the characterization tends to Metaphilosophy 39:3 (2008), 345-362. Other significant accounts can be 58 (1141a25-30). I avoid the traditional division between ‘practical’ W. Graham, Studies in Greek Philosophy, Vol. 2: Socrates, Plato, and their or well-being. I therefore translate the Greek in a more literal sense, using Review 73:2 (1964), 147-164; also Chapter 1 of, Gregory Vlastos and Daniel ‘prudence’over-intellectualize for phronesis the latter and ‘wisdom’ kind, which for sophia.Aristotle also links to happiness

Tradition, ed. by Daniel W. Graham (Princeton University Press, 1996).

Costanzo J. Aristotle and the Classical Paradigm of Wisdom. Philos Int J 2021, 4(3): 000191. Copyright© Costanzo J. 7 Philosophy International Journal know things that are remarkable (peritta contrast to the connected experience (empeiria (thaumasta chalepa daimonia versus the human being,65 and also, between those who live useless (achresta ), admirable according to experience and the particular (kath’) of hekaston animals they seek.”59), difficult ( ), and divine ( ), but in contrast with those who live according to art (techne ); viz., because it is not human goods that the universal (katholou 66 ) In Book X, chapters 7-8, the account of wisdom is the master-craftsman (architekton ) and brought into alignment with the highest happiness or well- to the individual of experience.). Again, Whereasas the manual the former laborer know is to being (eudaimonia the why (dioti aition ), so the wise person is (theoria 60 Contemplation is further described as the most latter do not, and act as if blindly and by habit (ethos 67 I call excellent (kratiste ) through the synechestate activity of contemplation this last illustration,) and causethe analogy ( of) for the which knowledge-architect they work, the: (atryton). hediste autarkes ). and leisurely (scholastikon), continuous ( 61 He) or later enduring links the manual laborers ‘blindly’ work, so too the knowledge- contemplation), pleasant to the ( chief ),activity self-sufficient of the gods, ( 62 and), architectAs the architect discerns provides and provides the blueprint the principles according and to causeswhich ) of activities. that serve as assumptions for which the other sciences points out the limitations inherent in the human pursuit of ‘blindly’ labor. following this, in a significant passage which I quote in full, But such a life would be too high for man; for it is infinite wisdom:not in so far as he is man that he will live so, but in wisdom. His account there likewise serves as a kind of so far as something divine is present in him; and by synthesisIn chapter of various 2, Aristotle points cited examines in the the above nature passages of infinite and so much as this is superior to our composite nature is its activity superior to that which is the exercise of the other kind of virtue. If reason is divine, then, in wisdomtexts. I call according this account to the the three “classical attributes paradigm” of the of domain, infinite comparison with man, the life according to it is divine dominion,wisdom. It andis the dignity paradigm of wisdom. of philosophy68 In what as pursuing follows, infinite I offer in comparison with human life. But we must not a description of each attribute, providing textual evidence follow those who advise us, being men, to think of where relevant. human things, and, being mortal, of mortal things, but must, so far as we can, make ourselves immortal, First, there is the domain of wisdom. This attribute and strain every nerve to live in accordance with corresponds to the seemingly disparate but quite manifold the best thing in us; for even if it be small in bulk, much more does it in power and worth surpass Here, such skills are brought beneath a grand synthesis, everything.63 skills of the sages earlier reported in Diogenes Laertius.

(thatepistasthai is called panta ‘wisdom’. Aristotle states 69 that The the statement domain is, of infinite wisdom is such that the sage will, “know all things MetaphysicsFurther elucidations of the nature of infinite wisdom are ), as far as possible”. provided in the first two64 chapters of Book I (Alpha) of the the attributes of the sage. of wisdom in the Metaphysics, see Seth Bernardete, “On Wisdom and a general account, with specificof the axiological emphasis structureplaced upon of knowledge. analysis of 65 Aristotle, Met., 980b25-27. For a discussion of Aristotle’s account He suggests that although knowledgeIn chapter 1, begins Aristotle with initiates experience with Philosophy: The First Two Chapters of Aristotle’s “Metaphysics” A,” The and the particular, it is nonetheless completed in rational Review of Metaphysics 32:2 (1978), 205-215. 66 Aristotle, Met., 981a15-18. as analogies are drawn, viz., between the disconnected in 67 Aristotle, Met., 981a31-981b9. insight and the universal. A number of comparisons as well too the classical paradigm. See, especially, Thomas Machula, “Theology as 68 As Aristotle’s works are appropriated in later medieval thought, so

Wisdom: Renaissance and Modern Scholastic Commentaries on Aquinas,” 59 Aristotle, E.N., 1141b3-8. American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly 93:2 (2019), 211-225. Machula explicitly identifies (p. 213) the threefold paradigm (as here discussed) 60 Aristotle, E.N., 1177a12-19. appropriatedcentral to issues through identified the guise among of Theology. the later For an commentators account of the of difference Thomas 61 Aristotle, E.N., 1177a20-1177b25. Aquinas. I note that in medieval thought, the classical paradigm is in fact

62 Aristotle, E.N., 1178b22-25. between the account of wisdom as understood in Aristotle and alternatively 63 Aristotle, E.N., 1177b26-1178a3. Aquinas, see Edmond Eh, “Wisdom in Aristotle and Aquinas: From the account of metaphysics as precisely the science of wisdom, I here omit Metaphysics to Mysticism,” Existenz 12:2 (2017), 19-24. Further distinctions discussion64 Although of this the issue. account Indeed, of wisdom to enter in into the Metaphysicsthe complexities is classically of this problem tied to Platonismregarding thecan differencebe seen in betweenHeather M.the Erb, Aristotelian “The Varieties account of Wisdom of wisdom and andthe early medieval accounts (e.g., Augustine and Boethius) relative also to Neo- metaphysics,would draw us theology, into larger and thehistorical specialized issues sciences. regarding Such the a discussion(often disputed) I here Consolation of Philosophy,” Logos: A Journal of Catholic Thought and Culture setunity aside of as Aristotle’s a separate text, inquiry. not to mention the interconnections between 15:23 (2012), 161-189. 69 Aristotle, Met., 982a9.

without any practical or utilitarian purpose (ou chreseos 76 knowledge does not imply that the sage will know also all thehowever, particulars immediately (kath’ hekaston qualified by the addition70 To the thatcontrary, such the earlier discussion of Socratic ignorance (“I know that). I the sage seeks to acquire a knowledge of the starting points In this, a link may be drawn between Aristotle’s account and ) of things. ignorance that the search for wisdom commences. Finally, on the basis of such starting points, to that extent, the sage do not know”). It is in ignorance as well as perplexity at such thereforeof knowledge indirectly (see below). examines As allall otherthings. knowledge Sage-knowledge advances is the dignity of wisdom, which is that one who pursues such therefore generalist in nature, and likewise takes the form of wisdomAristotle is draws free in an the essential highest analogy degree andthat sense: serves to highlight a scientia universalis. Evidently then we do not seek it for the sake of any other advantage; but as the man is free, we say, Second, there is the dominion of wisdom. Here the who exists for his own sake and not for another’s, so we pursue this as the only free science, for it alone runners begin at the starting line, and advance round the exists for its own sake.77 wise utterances of the sages find their place. In a race, the as the starting line. In like fashion, knowledge proceeds from The second point regards the dignity of the kinds of startingtrack to thepoints, finish and line, advances which is back incidentally towards the such same starting place points.71 This expresses the nature of wisdom as proceeding telos archai aitiai explanationobjects that such wisdom as the examines. good (to Amongagathon the78 starting points notablyof knowledge, characterizes there are in included the Nicomachean the final causes Ethics ( as that) of (fromsophia and72 to In first this principlessense, wisdom ( encompasses) and causes what ( might), of which all things naturally desire.79 ), which Aristotle whichbe taken Aristotle as the axioms notes, of “the all that knowledge which can of be which known. is wisdom Within not only the object of natural desire, but also divine matters, a formally)”. deductive system, for example, axioms serve including the divine itself (o theos Again, wisdom examines as the basic starting points or assumptions from which all the dignity of wisdom arises as an inquiry into certain kinds ). In these two examples, principles and causes examined by the sage serve as the the aim of all human desire, and second, as the most splendid startingother conclusions points or axiomsare drawn. governing In analogous the several fashion, ancillary the first or of objects that stand highest among all other things, first, as specialized sciences. From this perspective, such wisdom and the wise become also instructive of the other disciplines. and marvelous object(s) of contemplation. but must order”.73 Here the analogy of the knowledge- beingFinally, rather Aristotle the possession notes that, of, in“either the end, god such alone…or heights God of architectAristotle thuscomes notes again that, into “the play: wise Whereas man must wisdom not be labors ordered for aboveinfinite all wisdom others”. may80 well lie beyond our finite capacities, its own sake, the other sciences labor for the sake of wisdom. wisdom is beyond us, does not imply that the human being In consequence, wisdom is the most authoritative science, cannot aspire to some Of course,approximation that the toperfection it. To the of contrary, infinite 74 we ought to seek such wisdom, and in doing so, may even this Third,serving there as a furtheris the qualificationdignity of wisdom. of dominion. Two points are achieveThe some Performance degree of excellence of Infinite (virtue) Wisdom in its pursuit. and the free exercise of inquiry. Echoing earlier remarks inhere the identified. Nicomachean The firstEthics involves regarding the linkboth between the inutility wisdom of

“desirable on its own account and for the sake of knowing”.75 Between the finite and the infinite stands an infinite Wisdomwisdom is as further well as disassociated leisure, Aristotle from productive states that science wisdom ( ou is gap. If the human being, as finite, pursues a wisdom that is poieteki infinite, then there seems to be no possibility of transcending thaumasantes the gap between the two. In comparison to the infinite, any order to) escape for the from reason ignorance that the ( earliestten agnoian philosophers (i.e., positive finite number is next to nothing (e.g., n/∞ = 0, where the sages) inquired out of wonder ( ) and in n is a finite number). Nevertheless, a finite number differs ), and so too, 76 Aristotle, Met., 982b11-12; 20-22. 77 Aristotle, Met., 982b24-27. 70 Aristotle, Met., 982a10. 78 Aristotle, Met., 982b5-7. 71 Aristotle, E.N., 1095a30-35. 79 Aristotle, E.N., 1094a1-3. http://dx.doi. 72 Aristotle, Met., 982a6. 80 org/10.3998/ergo.12405314.0007.004Aristotle, Met., 983a10. See also Bryan C. Reece, “Aristotle on 982b5-6. 73 Aristotle, Met., 982a19. Divine and Human Contemplation,” Ergo 7:4 (2020). DOI: . Also, Chapter 3 of C.D.C. Reeve, 74 Aristotle, Met., Action, Contemplation, and Happiness: An Essay on Aristotle (Harvard 75 Aristotle, Met., 982a15-16. University Press, 2012).

a multitude of generations for almost two millennia.82 even if the human attainment of wisdom is next to nothing infrom comparison zero in being with a thepositive divine, finite in itself,quantity. there In likeis a fashion,certain Ptolemaic universe nonetheless had a predictive value that excellence in one who achieves such gains. It is in this way Although fundamentally incomplete, the Aristotelian- advances.83 virtue (arete would serve as the backbone for later modern scientific that we might consider the pursuit of infinite wisdom as a Still more, it was Aristotle who, if not being the ) whose excellence may to some extent be finitely system,first biologist, indeed, was the at very least concept the first of to such lay down a system the theoreticaloriginated achievementachieved. Of course,is also thean achievementfinite individual relative who toachieves the pursuit such inrigors his analyses of that science. of the Henature developed of categorical the first sameness classification and excellence, as already noted, does so finitely. But as the finite difference.84 of the infinite, it is also an achievement that to some extent detailed collections His many and researchers analyses of conducteddiverse species at the spanning Lyceum transcends finitude. are likewise still with us: Long scientific inquiries thatPosterior show Analytics seen—aA simple coffee analogy mug, a will cell helpphone, to explainspectacles, my meaninga book. These here. plant to animal kingdom. It was Aristotle (e.g., the Looking around in the room, a number of objects can be in.85 He bequeathed) who further upon conferred civilization upon a formalwestern structure civilization for the objects in my mind, alter their colors, count them— the first paradigm of what a science is and ought to consist four.objects But lay what within is truly the range spectacular of my finite in all senses.of this isI can the reorder human divisionunderstanding of the causality.sciences, Heand developed so on. He the likewise first formal developed rules aof system logic, the of firstethics, philosophy politics, ofaesthetics, science, thepoetics, first rhetoric, rigorous capacity to immediately leap beyond the limits of finitude. dialectics, metaphysics—and all of this at the initial dawning At one moment, I am reflecting upon a finite set of objects in of western intellectual thought. objects,the room. ceaseless At another space, moment, absolute my mind nothingness, can lay hold ofeternity, grand permanency,abstractions, and infinite perfection. numbers, With absurdthe ancients, and contradictorywe might say, To conclude, two points may be drawn from the above inthat such in such thoughts, reflections the humanthe mind mind becomes in some like untosense its extends object. observations. First, although Aristotle’s intellectual capacities If this is the case (if only metaphorically), then it follows that reached into the ability to fix his mind upon specialized forms of research (as instanced in his scientific works), he beyondEarlier the inlimits the Nicomacheanof finitude. Ethics more,was far he more was than a generalist a specialist. who Akin sought to the to pre-Socraticsynthesize human sages, to intellectual virtue.81 Intellectual virtue itself is a type of he was a generalist of the highest refinement (domain). Still excellence. So the philosopher who pursues,, Aristotle and links alternatively wisdom knowledge from the ground up (dominion), reaching out to wisdom, must inevitably exhibit such wisdom. But as such withthe divine the sciences (dignity), of andhis time.in a wayHis wasthat awas science averse and to yetmere it attains a certain degree of excellence in the pursuit of infinite wasflights far of more fancy, than but science.sought instead It was ato philosophy remain ever in consonantpursuit of a philosopher qua sage is admittedly finite, to that extent, the exhibition of wisdom must itself be both finite and yet infinite wisdom. extending beyond finitude, insofar as it involvesmonumental a reaching. out into infinitude. For this reason, such an exhibition, which Second, the achievements of Aristotle were cultural monumentallies between sage the . finite and the infinite, I call achievements. Aristotle was the fruit, his predecessors the Alternatively, the sage who exhibits such wisdom, I call a compelled to ask, have there ever been such sages? If so, then 82 For an account of these early developments, see, G.E.R. Lloyd, Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle (London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1974). whatRecognizing would the at performances least the possibility of such ofmonumental such a sage, sages one be? is implicitly present within the natural sciences. See, e.g., Edward Feser, 83 Indeed, the scientific contributions of Aristotle are still very much

Aristotle’s Revenge: The Metaphysical Foundations of Physical and A possible response is now available to us. Aristotle’s account Biological Science (Neunkirchen-Seelscheid: Editiones Scholasticae, 2019). asof wisdoman historical serves example precisely of asone the who paradigm exhibits of wisdom infinite 84 See, e.g., Eleni Voultsiadou, et al., “Aristotle’s scientificSee, contributionse.g., Mariska wisdom. In particular, Aristotle himself may be produced to the classification, nomenclature and distribution of marine organisms,” Mediterranean Marine Science 18:3 (2017): 468-478. monumentally. Consider the following: It was Aristotle who Leunissan, Explanation and Teleology in Aristotle’s Science of Nature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). first synthesized the scattered thoughts of his predecessors, putting together an early scientific vision that would inform of85 An Nature: interesting Philosophy application of Science and of the Aristotelianism Philosophy of in Nature the modelingin Synthesis of modern scientific concepts can be seen in William A. Wallace, The Modelling

81 Aristotle, E.N., 1103a1-5. (The Catholic University Press, 1996).

giants—Plato, Socrates, the pre-Socratic sages, Egyptian from physics to biology to logic to metaphysics to aesthetics seed and soil. Aristotle stood upon the shoulders of other tofields ethics of inquiry,to political but science. again, in So a even multitude Dante of recognized such fields— his far above and beyond them. The time was ripe for wisdom, achievements in the Divine Comedy: and Persian influences, and so on. Yet he likewise strode When I had lifted up my brows a little, The Master I beheld of those who know, seeand aAristotle creative wasgenius among that theboth greatest uncovered intellectual and systematized fruits that Sit with his philosophic family.86 flowered forth from the Golden Age of Greece. In his work we achievements, but a multitude of achievements; and we see suchthe ancient achievements worldview. not inIn oneAristotle, or two we or seeeven not three one distinctor two htm86 . Dante, Inferno, 4.130-132, translated by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Retrieved from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1001/1001-h/1001-h.

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