Visions Origins of Christianity Visions Origins Of

New Survey Results: PROFILES OF THE GODLESS

Celebrating Reason and Humanity August/September 2009 Vol. 29 No. 5

the thics of e COVER Neurochemical eNhaNcemeNt James J. Hughes Mark Walker Ronald A. Lindsay David Koepsell

VISIONS AND THE PAUL KURTZ ORIGINS WENDY KAMINER OF OF CHRISTIANITY NAT HENTOFF Mary80% 1.5 K. BWR MatossianPD A/S 08 SHADIA B. DRURY

09 JAMES A. HAUGHT

7725274 74957 Published by the Council for Secular Humanism We are committed to the application of reason and it for future generations, and to avoid inflicting need- science to the understanding of the universe and to the less solving suffering on other species. of human problems. We believe in enjoying life here and now and in We deplore efforts to denigrate human intelligence, developing our creative talents to their fullest. to seek to explain the world in supernatural terms, We believe in the cultivation of moral excellence. and to look outside nature for salvation. We respect the right to privacy. Mature adults should We believe that scientific discovery and technology be allowed to fulfill their aspirations, to express their can contribute to the betterment of human life. sexual We believe in an open and pluralistic society and that preferences, to exercise reproductive freedom, to have democracy is the best guarantee of protecting human access to comprehensive and informed health-care, rights from authoritarian elites and repressive majori- and to die with dignity. ties. We believe in the common moral decencies: altruism, We are committed to the principle of the integrity, honesty, truthfulness, responsibility. Humanist separation of church and state. ethics is amenable to critical, rational guidance. There are normative standards that we discover together. We cultivate the arts of negotiation and compromise Moral principles are as a means of resolving differences and achieving tested by their consequences. mutual understanding. We are deeply concerned with the moral education with securing justice and fairness We are concerned of our children. We want to nourish reason and com- in society and with eliminating discrimination passion. and intolerance. We are engaged by the arts no less than by the sci- We believe in supporting the disadvantaged and the ences. handicapped so that they will be able to help them- selves. We are citizens of the universe and are excited by discoveries still to be made in the cosmos. We attempt to transcend divisive parochial loyalties based We are skeptical of untested claims to knowledge, on race, religion, gender, nationality, creed, class, sexual and we are open to novel ideas and seek new orientation, or ethnicity and strive to work together for departures in our thinking. the common good of humanity. We affirm humanism as a realistic alternative to We want to protect and enhance the earth, to pre- theologies of despair and ideologies of violence and as serve a source of rich per­sonal significance and genuine satis-

For a parchment copy of this page, suitable for framing, please send $4.95 to FREE INQUIRY, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, New York 14226-0664 Editorials Features 4 The Future of Secular Humanism in America August/September 2009 Vol. 29, No. 4 Plus: ISSN 0272-0701 Does the Universe The Ethics of Have Meaning? Neurochemical Enhancement Paul Kurtz 26 Designer Moods: The Ethics of Neurochemical Op-Ed Enhancement 14 Two Cheers for David Koepsell Same-Sex Marriage 28 Social Pressures Tom Flynn for Technological

16 Mood Management The Holocaust, James J. Hughes Rwanda—Never, Ever Again! 33 The Case for Nat Hentoff Happy-People Pills Mark Alan Walker 18 Torture at the Polls Wendy Kaminer 37 The Uncharted Moral 20 A French Revelation, Landscape of Designer Personalities or The Burning Bush Ronald A. Lindsay James A. Haught

21 Without Free Will 41 Profiles of the Godless Tibor Machan Results from a Survey of the Nonreligious 22 Against Grand Luke W. Galen Narratives, Part 2 Shadia B. Drury 46 Visions and the Origins of Christianity 24 Thank You, Mary K. Matossian Science Fiction Katrina Voss Reviews Departments 58 Living Without God: New Directions 63 God Is Back: How the Global 9 Letters for Atheists, Agnostics, Secularists, Revival of Faith Is Changing the and the Undecided 13 World Leading Questions by John Micklethwait Living Well without by Ronald Aronson and Adrian Wooldridge God: A Conversation with Jeff Noonan Matt Marshall Eric Maisel 60 Quantum Gods 64 Helix 52 Church-State Update by Eric Brown Edd Doerr by Victor J. Stenger Stuart Jordan Tom Flynn 54 Living Without Religion 65 The Other Preacher in 61 Worst Instincts: Cowardice, Conformity, Atheist Bus Ads Turn Lynchburg: My Life Across and the ACLU Heads in Canada and Town from Jerry Falwell by Wendy Kaminer Worldwide by John Killinger Justin Trottier Tom Flynn Edd Doerr 62 Pessimism to Realistic Hope: 56 Faith and Reason 65 Holy Hullabaloos: A Road Trip A Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment Sublime Naturalism to the Battlegrounds of the Lawrence Rifkin Program for Depression and Self- Esteem Church-State Wars by Jay Wexler Poem by Tony Picchioni Edd Doerr By J.D. Schraffenberger Mary Ann Barnhart 53 In the Beginning 62 Write These Laws on Your Children: Inside the World of Conservative Christian Homeschooling by Robert Kunzman Edd Doerr FI Editorial Staff Editor in Chief EDITORIALS Paul Kurtz Editor PAUL KURTZ Thomas W. Flynn Associate Editors Norm R. Allen Jr., Nathan Bupp, D.J. Grothe, John R. Shook Managing Editor Andrea Szalanski Columnists Arthur Caplan, Richard Dawkins, Shadia B. Drury, Nat Hentoff, Christopher Hitchens, Wendy Kaminer, Tibor R. Machan, Peter Singer, Katrina Voss Senior Editors Bill Cooke, Richard Dawkins, Martin Gardner, James A. Haught, Jim Herrick, Gerald A. Larue, Ronald A. Lindsay, Taslima Nasrin Contributing Editors Jo Ann Boydston, Roy P. Fairfield, Charles Faulkner, Levi Fragell, Adolf Grünbaum, Marvin Kohl, Thelma Lavine, Lee Nisbet, J.J.C. Smart, The Future of Secular Svetozar Stojanovi´c, Thomas Szasz Ethics Editor Elliot D. Cohen Humanism in America Literary Editor David Park Musella Assistant Editors Donna Danford, Julia Lavarnway ext year will be the thirtieth anniversary of the founding Permissions Editor of the Council for Secular Humanism and the launching Julia Lavarnway of Free Inquiry magazine. At that time, secular human- Art Director ism was the bête-noire of the Religious Right. We were Christopher S. Fix Naccused of dominating American life—the courts, public education, Production Paul E. Loynes Sr. the universities, foundations, and the media. Our accusers claimed that secular humanism was a “religion” and that it was being taught in the schools and colleges, hence violating the First Amendment. I Council for Secular Humanism myself came under heavy attack from Tim LaHaye and other funda- Chair Emeritus mentalist preachers such as Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson. What Paul Kurtz patent nonsense! I insisted that we were secular, not religious. The Chair battle against secularism came to a head with the election of Ronald Richard K. Schroeder Board of Directors Reagan to office, and the attacks continued unremittingly. Kendrick Frazier, David Henehan, Dan Kelleher, Jonathan Kurtz, Paul Kurtz, Edward Tabash Emeriti: Jan Loeb Eisler, Joseph Levee, Lee Nisbet Executive Director Thomas W. Flynn “I recount the history of our movement Director, Campus and Community Programs (CFI) because . . . new readers . . . may not know D.J. Grothe what an uphill battle it has been to build Director, African Americans for Humanism these institutions.” Norm R. Allen Jr. Vice President of Planning and Development (CFI) Sherry Rook Vice President of Communications (CFI) Nathan Bupp Assistant Communications Director (CFI) Our first decade and a half was devoted to responding to these Henry Huber intemperate charges, and Free Inquiry devoted many issues to Director of Libraries (CFI) Timothy Binga examining the claim that America was a Christian or Judeo- Database Manager (CFI) Christian nation with its ideals rooted in the Bible. We insisted that Jacalyn Mohr we were secular humanists to distinguish us from the avowedly Staff religious humanists, although some of my best friends are religious Pat Beauchamp, Lauren Becker, Cheryl Catania, humanists, and surely none are dangerous to America! Eric Chinchón, Thomas Donnelly, Aek Eisenhauer, Roe Giambrone, Debbie Goddard, Leah Gordon, Whitney Kemp, Sandra Kujawa, Sandy Lesniak, We pointed out that it was the Enlightenment that inspired so Corey Neil, Lisa Nolan, Paul Paulin, Anthony Santa Lucia, Dan Riley, John Sullivan, Vance Vigrass Paul Kurtz is chair emeritus of the Center for Inquiry, the Executive Director Emeritus Council for Secu­lar Humanism, and the Com­mittee for Jean Millholland Skeptical Inquiry. He is the editor in chief of Free Inquiry.

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 4 many of the Founding Fathers (Jefferson, Madison, Franklin), of the Council for Secular Humanism, CSI, and the Center for and we defended the civic virtues of democracy: tolerance, the Inquiry, a position that I held since our founding. right to dissent, the need for the negotiation of differences, Accordingly, I wish to point out the direct relevance of and the importance of using reason and science to solve our secular humanism today. This is especially the case with the problems. emergence of the so-called new atheism, based upon well- Over the years, Free Inquiry evolved into a movement as known authors, many whom contribute to Free Inquiry. The we began to establish at first secular humanist groups, and new atheists have had a significant impact, for they brought then in cooperation with the Skeptical Inquirer, published by CSICOP (now the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry), we launched in 1991 the Center for Inquiry and began to establish Centers and Communities­ in North America and worldwide. “The core value of secular humanism is By then we had expanded our agenda and declared our com- mitment to science, reason, and free inquiry in every area of the realization and enhancement of human interest, particularly secularism and humanist ethics. human The Center for Inquiry/Transnational also began to focus on planetary humanism. We were by then the largest freethought, fulfillment, a renaissance ideal of ethi- scientific rationalist, and secular humanist organization in cal good where human enlightenment the history of the United States (and possibly the world). We attracted outstanding intellectuals, philosophers, and scien- comes first.” tists to our causes: Carl Sagan, Isaac Asimov, Betty Freidan, Mario Bunge, Francis Crick, E.O. Wilson, Richard Dawkins, Steve Allen, Barbara Wooten,­ Daniel Dennett, Ann Druyan, Vern and Bonnie Bull­ough, and many more. the atheist position to new public attention. I should paren- I recount the history of our movement because our pub- thetically add that I founded Prometheus Books in 1969—forty lications constantly bring in new readers, many of whom years ago—virtually before anyone else had been publishing may not know what an uphill battle it has been to build these books on atheism, secular humanism, and skepticism. institutions. But more pointedly, today we have reached a What is important about secular humanism today is its critical new junction; for I have been replaced as chairman positive outlook; its effort is not simply to examine critically

What Is the Center for Inquiry/Transnational?

The Center for Inquiry (CFI) is a ularism are global. The Center for The long-range goal of the Center transnational organization committed Inquiry is concerned with the well-be- for Inquiry movement is to contrib- to scientific rationalism and secular ing of humanity as a whole and with ute to a New Enlightenment, whose humanism. More specifically, the prin- the preservation of the environment. two­fold purpose is (1) to develop an ciples to which CFI is devoted are: (1) CFI is (1) a think tank engaged appreciation for reason and critical the use of the scientific method wher- in research and education. The sub- thinking, and (2) to create a new ever possible in testing truth claims, jects it explores include, but are not secular and humanist morality inde- including the cultivation of critical limited to, the critical examination pendent of supernatural religion, in thinking and reason; (2) a cosmic per- of the paranormal and religion. The which the highest ethical values pre- spective derived primarily from the Center’s­ research focuses on natural- vail. This goal applies not only to soci- sciences—a nonreductive, naturalis- ism (as exemplified by the Naturalism ety at large but within the Centers for tic, cosmic outlook in which the theory Research Project). CFI has attracted Inquiry that CFI has helped to create. of evolution plays a key role; (3) a and will continue to attract leading The humanist and skeptical move- nontheistic worldview (agnostic, athe- scientists, scholars, and intellectuals. ment as promoted and supported by istic, skeptical, and critical of religious (2) CFI also engages in outreach to CFI aims to be positive and con- claims), though it should be stressed people far and wide, in part by estab- structive, not negative or destructive. that CFI is not an atheist organization lishing CFI Centers and Communities It seeks to fulfill the best of which as such; (4) values and norms rooted in North America and affiliates world- human beings are capable: the good in humanistic ethics; (5) socio-political wide and by influencing the media. life here and now and a concern for principles based on democracy and Of special importance is the fact that individual human freedom and cre- secularism, the latter including the CFI has transnational programs and ativity, and also the expression of separation of church and state and the affiliates. CFI publishes many maga- empathy, altruism, and social justice. secularization of values; and (6) plan- zines and journals. Its flagship mag- etary humanism, reflecting the degree azines are Skeptical Inquirer and —Paul Kurtz to which science, humanism, and sec- Free Inquiry. (Adopted by the Board of Directors.)

5 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 the claims of religion but to provide affirmative alternatives to FREE INQUIRY (ISSN 0272-0701) is published bimonthly by the Council for Secular Humanism, a nonprofit educational both theism and individualistic libertarianism. The latter encour- corporation, P.O. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664. Phone ages each person to do “his or her own thing” in a hollow pursuit (716) 636-7571. Fax (716) 636-1733. Copyright ©2009 by of self-interest. I have encouraged individual autonomy in a free the Council for Secular Humanism. All rights reserved. society, but in my view we need at the same time to raise the level No part of this periodical may be reproduced without permission of the publisher. Periodicals postage paid at of taste and appreciation of each individual, widen and deepen the Buffalo, N.Y., and at additional mailing offices. 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free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 6 Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalis. Only Homo sapiens has Does the Universe Have Meaning? endured in spite of hazardous adversities. That our species has managed to survive thus far is due to luck and human The root question for secular humanists is the existential one: pluck. The evidence indicates that Homo sapiens emigrated what is the meaning of existence? This is the primordial from Africa about fifty to sixty thousand years ago, eventually question that humans have pondered in every age. populating the entire globe. The special coping mechanism that Viewing the panoramic splendor of the night sky, one can- we possess that other species do not is creative intelligence; not help but be stunned by its magnificence and overcome by that is, our capacity for inspiration and discovery, the ability to awe. This most likely was true for prehistoric men and women invent tools and to marshal ingenuity, and the resolve to perse- peering at the moon and stars, whether from a mountain- vere in spite of formidable obstacles. top, a desert oasis, a rainforest, or the frozen tundra of the We have as a species conquered virtually the entire planet. North. Similarly for the undoubted astonishment of the rising We began as food gatherers and hunters, forging weapons for sun every day, the bearer of warmth and giver of life. What the chase; we developed agriculture and settled in villages does the universe mean to us? This question is all the more and towns; we were able to build shelters and weave clothing, intriguing today, given the power of the Hubble Telescope and we learned to etch drawings on the walls of caves, the to peer into the far reaches of the universe beyond our own first glimmerings of art. Human evolution, however, is both galaxy. Viewing the brilliant photographs taken by NASA of biological and cultural. With the invention of language, we the heavenly bodies thousands or millions of light-years away were able to communicate with each other and to transmit the is a source of wonderment. The immensity of the universe (or knowledge learned to future generations. We developed the multiverse) is breathtaking. The mystery of the cosmic scene technical arts and sciences, medicines for healing, and social perplexes the theist and spiritualist no less than it does the institutions to soothe and protect the suffering heart. secular humanist and atheist. Human beings have always faced challenges and conflicts in daily life. They have had to labor by the sweat of their brows in order to survive. The struggle to persist is especially pressing when humans face thirst or hunger, danger or con- “The universe is hardly a system of per- flict, disease or death. fect order or a product of intelligent My favorite book of the Old Testa­ment is that of Job, where we read: design; There was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job; and rather than being ‘fine tuned,’ that man was perfect and upright, and one that feared God, and eschewed evil. And there were born to him seven sons and it is more likely ‘out of tune.’” three daughters.... [Job 1: 1-2]

Man that is born of a woman is of few days, and full of trouble. . . . He cometh forth like a flower, and is cut down: he fleeth also as a shadow, and continueth not. [Job 14: 1–2] Does the universe have any special meaning for humankind? Job is unable to resolve the problem of evil. He cannot That is doubtful, for the human prospect is always at risk. fathom the transient character of human existence or the sor- There is no guarantee that the social institutions that we have row and tears that are so often experienced. After recounting developed will persist unscathed into the unending future. We these terrible travails, he finds solace in God. have created systems of morality and law to govern ourselves, This theistic response is not possible for secular humanists and we contrived the sciences to understand nature and tech- today, for science has discovered that the universe is amena- nologies to cope with problematic situations. ble to scientific explanations and that regularities can be The human species exists on a minor planet on the edge of discovered in nature. Although nature exhibits order, it is not the Milky Way. Our galaxy has an estimated 400 billion stars, a perfect system; indeed, the universe is in constant change countless planets, and enormous clouds of gas. The spiral arms and flux. We witness huge nova explosions in outer space of the Milky Way extend some 50,000 light-years, revolve every and the birth and death of stars. Our own planet is constantly 220 million years, and speed through space at 400,000 kilome- changing—there are volcanoes, earthquakes, forest fires, ters per hour heading toward our nearest galaxy, Andromeda, floods, and periods of global glaciation and warming. The bio- with which it appears to be on a collision course. There are sphere vividly demonstrates the emergence and extinction of billions of additional galaxies overladen with stars. Can it be species. It is estimated by Jerry A. Coyne that 99 percent of that all this was designed with the human species in mind? What all species that have ever existed are now extinct—not only presumption! It is sheer anthropomorphic fantasy to fabricate a has there been the dramatic disappearance of the dinosaurs, god in the image of man who will provide salvation in a mythic saber-toothed tigers, and mammoths but also countless spe- heaven. The god postulate is a delusion, says Richard Dawkins. cies unknown and unsung.1 The universe is hardly a system The question that follows is, how shall we live? That is the over- of perfect order or a product of intelligent design; rather than riding existential quandary that every person and culture faces. being “fine tuned,” it is more likely “out of tune.” We need to create meanings for ourselves, and that is the task The evolution of the human species by means of natu- of scientific secular humanism. ral selection has been an especially tortuous process; for In the modern world, we have been able to explain natural other Homo species have become ex­tinct—Homo habilis, events and reduce deprivation and danger. The universe is

7 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 neither good nor evil. For the secular humanist, the universe ament. It is exemplified by the Athenian phi­los­opher standing has no hidden purpose or design. We have some control— in the Acropolis deliberating about justice in the city-state. within limits—over what will ensue. And in spite of adversity It is seen in the structure of the medieval town, built upon a and tragic events, humans are still capable of achieving some rural economy, feudalism, and a Christian cultural backdrop. modicum of significance and happiness on their own terms in It is experienced by the Samurai warrior in the context of shared experience with others. Japanese culture, in the hopes and dreams of the Incas of Thus we create our own meanings.2 The meaning of life is Peru, by the native Watusi tribes in Africa, and in the Hindu not to be found in secret formulas discovered by ancient proph- and Muslim cultures of India and southern Asia. And it is ets or gurus who withdraw from living to seek quiet release. exemplified anew in the modern postindustrial technological Life has no meaning per se; it does, however, present us with urban civilizations of the present-day world, which give us innumerable opportunities, which we can either squander new cultural materials and new opportunities for adventure. and retreat from in fear or seize with exuberance. These can Human beings have found their meanings within the con- be discovered by anyone and everyone who has an inborn zest text of a historical-cultural experience and in how they live and participate within it. Life had meaning for them and their fellow human beings; only the content differed—the form and function are similar. Human beings have lived their lives “We need to create meanings for our- under a variety of cultural conditions. They have found life inspiring and meaningful, a source of optimism and euphoria. selves, It can be a source of joy and a wonder to behold but, only if we and that is the task of scientific resolve to live fully—and to realize all of the goods of which we are capable. secular humanism.” Notes 1. Jerry A. Coyne, Why Evolution Is True (New York: Viking, 2009). 2. The following includes some excerpts from my book, for living. They are found within life itself, as it reaches out to Affirmations: Joyful and Creative Exuberance (Amherst, N.Y.: Pro­ create new conditions for experience. me­theus Books, 2004). The so-called secret of life is an open scenario that can be deciphered by anyone. It is found in the experiences of living: in the delights of a fine banquet, the strenuous exertion of hard work, the poignant melodies of a symphony, the appre- ciation of an altruistic deed, the excitement of an embrace of Leadership Changes someone you love, the elegance of a mathematical proof, the invigorating adventure of a mountain climb, the satisfaction of Announced by the Council for quiet relaxation, the lusty singing of an anthem,­ the vigorous cheering in a sports contest, the reading of a delicate sonnet, Secular Humanism the joys of parenthood, the pleasure of friendship, the quiet The Council for Secular Humanism has announced that gratification of serving our fellow human beings—in all these in support of a two-year succession plan, Dr. Paul Kurtz, activities and more. its visionary leader and founder, will become chair It is in the present moment of experience as it is brought emeritus. Dr. Kurtz also becomes chair emeritus of the to fruition, as well as in the memories of past experiences Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, publisher of Skeptical and the expectations of future ones, that the richness of life Inquirer magazine, and of a supporting organization, is realized. The meaning of life is that it can be found to be the Center for Inquiry. He will continue as a voting good and beautiful and exciting in its own terms for our- member of their boards of directors for the balance of selves, our loved ones, and other sentient beings. It is found his terms ending in 2013. He continues as editor in chief in the satisfaction intrinsic to creative activities, wisdom, and of Free Inquiry. righteousness. One doesn’t need more than that, and we hope Dr. Ronald A. Lindsay remains chief executive officer that one will not settle for less. and president of the three corporations. Board member The meaning of life is intimately tied up with our plans Richard K. Schroeder has been named chair of the three and projects, the goals we set for ourselves, our dreams, and boards, and board member Jonathan Kurtz has been the successful achievement of them. We create our own con- named to the new position of vice chair of the three scious meanings; we invest the cultural and natural worlds boards. with our own interpretations. We discover, impose upon, and The Board reaffirmed the goals of the organizations. add to nature. From this point forward, the Board will take a more direct Meaning is found in the lives of the ancient Egyptians, in role in overseeing their policies and overall direction. their culture built around Isis and Osiris and the pyramids, or in the ruminations of the ancient­ prophets of the Old Test­

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 8 LETTERS

but at the same time seem to have lost More on Morality their moral compass. Get Real! Jason Gordon for the Nonreligious Re Derek C. Araujo’s “2009 Templeton Seattle, Washington Award Goes for Proving . . . Um, What?” Below is just a smattering of the huge FI, June/July 2009): looking for God avalanche of mail that I have received­ in the higgledy-piggledy and inexpli- regarding the need to develop per- I don’t think I have encountered individu- cable actions of subatomic particles sonal morality for unbelievers, the al nonbelievers who lack moral integrity­ would seem to be a project more to be most I have ever received or a partic- (your examples of Pol Pot and Joe Stalin pitied than praised. To do a “transcon- ular subject (see “Personal Morality” in the wider world are valid). However, ceptualization” of un­certainty at the by Paul Kurtz, FI, April/May 2009). I it is clear that believers have a very miniscale to a theological maxim of the am organizing a research­ project on poor opinion of us because our image is grand scale is, I suspect, an accomplish- “Science and Human Values,” which overshadowed by our rejection of their ment that outdoes the cold-fusion-in-a- will focus at first on personal moral- beloved­ creator and our failure to do tub feat. I suggest that the Templeton­ ity. If you are interested in partici- people, for evidence to hang their God pating, please e-mail me at PaulKurtz much about the poor and op­pressed. Alan Davis hat on, study the folklore of ghosts. It’s @aol.com or write to me at: Prof. Paul a far leap from a scary apparition to an Hampstead, North Carolina Kurtz, Pro­metheus­ Books, 59 John omnipotent and omniscient creator, but Glenn Drive, Amherst, NY 14228. hey, it’s an entry into the spirit world, —Paul Kurtz a very entertaining one. There are, I’m I am a psychiatrist with an interest in sure, more phenomena that there can be the philosophy of the mind. The follow- I wish to congratulate you on the fine theistic explanations for, say, indepen- editorial “Personal Morality.” It extend­ - ing should be considered in researching dent sightings of ghosts at many loca- ed a line of thought that I have had for this subject: tions such as the London Underground many years on the separation of personal 1. the evolutionary dimension of ethi- than can ever be reasoned from weirdly morality from religious belief and the con- cal/moral reasoning in humans, the behaving points that are too tiny for nection to people of atheist inclinations. precursors in animal and primate even the angels to dance upon. Having been inculcated at an early age be­haviors and social structure, and Jerry Bronk into Christian­ beliefs, I observed­ firsthand the positive evolutionary influence of San Francisco, California the distinction between those beliefs­ and altruism as well as selfishness; the way many ardent Christians behaved 2. the link between emotional and cogni- toward each other. I realized over time tive reasoning in forming value judg- that there were “good” people regardless What’s Wrong of their religious beliefs and that personal ments; and morality should be considered as a sepa- 3. learning morality from an early age: with Faith-Based rate issue. the alternative education of world Doug Dewar citizenship, multiculturalism, global Funding? Kingsport, Tennessee concerns—including concern for the While I most certainly agree with the planet and nature, curricula for a articles in the June/July 2009 issue twenty-first century. (“What’s Wrong with Faith-Based Fund­ I was quite moved by the recent editorial Numan Gharaibeh, MD ing?”) regarding government funding titled “Personal Morality.” Your cause is Brookfield, Connecticut just and much needed. I would like to add, however, that the call for personal moral- ity has to be based on more than dry rea- The theme of uncoupling morality from son. It needs to connect to the individual’s religion has long been an interest of conscience, what Enlight­ enment­ thinkers mine, and I have never been able to referred to as Nature’s law. People need understand the assertion that atheists more instruction teaching them what is must be immoral since they have no right and what is wrong. They need to feel belief in god to keep them behaving eth- it as well. They need to be drawn into it. ically. Morality that is contingent upon D. Joseph Jacques Chester, Connecticut authority or a desire to assure one’s passage to heaven seems to me to be of a lower order than what you have iden- I struggle with the same dilemma and tified as “autonomous” morality. see too many examples of people who Hugh Rosen have used reason to reject superstition Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

9 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 ATTENTION READERS: You Have the Power to Help G row!

e’ve all seen the headlines. Today’s fiscal crisis has hit print media hard. Book publishers are W retrenching. ­General-interest magazines are failing in record numbers. The newspaper industry looks like a killing field. Fortunately, special-interest magazines like FREE INQUIRY have been spared the worst pain. Because FREE INQUIRY’s most readers stay loyal from year to year, and thanks to prudent promotional efforts, circulation remains stable. We don’t want to remain stable. We want to help FREE INQUIRY grow. Yes, even now. (Marketing experts say downturns are actually prime time to increase market share by using novel methods.) We’re inviting readers to take action, one on one. No one knows better than our readers what FREE INQUIRY offers. Now you can do your part to ensure that this remarkable magazine survives— and grows—even in these turbulent times. Here’s how. 1. Recruit your relatives, friends, and colleagues to subscribe. How many people do you know who are friendly to humanist ideals, but do not subscribe? Urge them to join with- us! (Share the card facing page 58, or direct people to our Web site www.secularhuman ism.myshopify.com/products/free-inquiry-subscription for a special introductory rate!)

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“There are just a few publications that serve as lighthouses in a dark, foggy ocean, — Richard Dawkins and of these my favorite in all the English-speaking world is FREE INQUIRY.” FREE INQUIRY’s future is in your hands. Please get involved. Make a difference. Paul Kurtz FounderHelp and FREE Editor in INQUIRY grow Tom today!Flynn Editor Chief for the so-called Faith-Based Initiative, en or possibly eliminate many social institutions should certainly understand I was extremely disappointed that every programs. Many people objected but to why “grand narratives” can guide people single writer felt the necessity to include­ no avail. LBJ had set the precedent of away by supplanting reality with myth. the oldest and worst point that could informally involving religion in politics. On that point, her essay stands on solid possibly be made against it in their Hence, the Religious Right was born. ground. However, it takes a great leap to list of reasons. This reason is not only People have a right to vote their construe from that that all human exis- foolish but also, once admitted as legit- conscience, be it theological or secu- tence is merely “a tale told by an idiot imate, can even be dangerous. Like the lar. However,­ failing to clearly separate signifying nothing” and thus summarily proverbial double-edge sword, it cuts affairs of state from affairs of religion is dismiss any and all attempts to find some both ways. a gross error for which we will pay dear- meaningful patterns in it. And what is this reason? Simply the ly. I have a feeling that President Obama Mill was in many ways a product of idea that a taxpayer has the right to is setting a precedent that will eventual- his time, no doubt. But Drury does him expect that the government will use, or ly lead to another right-wing upheaval. a grave injustice by characterizing his refrain from using, his or her money in John L. Indo masterwork On Liberty as merely a accordance with the taxpayer’s personal Houston, Texas pretext for an autocratic “white man’s preferences. Such a thing is manifestly burden.” Does she deny that human lib- impossible, simply on a practical level. erty is a worthwhile guiding principle for The government cannot, and should not society or that the overall trend of history have to, consult each taxpaying citizen Hopes for (however halting) has been toward its in order to be sure that every person’s Secularization increase?­ To acknowledge these things money will go only toward things that is hardly to assert that history is moving the individual person supports. Any gov- toward some grand climax, much less to I very much enjoyed Tom Flynn’s op-ed endorse coercive social engineering. ernment that seriously attempted such piece “Secularization Renewed” in the a thing would be hopelessly hamstrung. And while I would be the last per- June/July 2009 issue. I sincerely hope As for the danger of using this dou- son to defend imperialism, Western or he’s right in the part beginning “Now ble-edged sword to argue against a sec- otherwise, to say that World War II has ularist having to watch his tax money here’s the reason for my guarded opti- been mustered as a justifying pretext go to further a religious institution’s mism.” I live in (two to one Republican) for same is not to say that it was not a interests, consider what happens when south-central Pennsylvania, the area that fight against totalitarianism. Does she everyone else chooses to use the same Candidate Obama referred to as “cling- imagine that secular humanist princi- argument. An anti-abortionist would be ing to their guns and religion” (and you ples would prosper in a world limited to correct to say that he doesn’t want his should have heard the uproar over that), the kind of nihilism she describes, one tax money to help pay for abortions. A so it’s very hard for me to share his opti- in which “pagan sobriety” is dominant peace activist would rightfully say that mism. After all, I keep remembering that and totalitarian forms of imperialism he doesn’t want his taxes to fund a war. Thomas Jefferson expected Unitarianism are left unopposed? A Catholic might properly object that his to sweep the country by 1850. Drury obviously has future install- ments coming on her second and third taxes helped pay for a sinful method of Burr Loomis chosen whipping-boys, but if she intends contraception. If it’s valid for one, then Chambersburgh, Pennsylvania it’s valid for the other, even though their to claim evolutionary theory asserts interests might be directly op­posed. some sort of grand goal, then she misun- Therefore,­ if it’s valid for everyone, then derstands Darwin even more profoundly it’s valid for no one. We secular human- Taking Issue than she does Mill. As for communism, it ists shouldn’t use such specious reason- is perhaps more guilty of the ideological ing to support our positions. with Drury sins she has in mind, but that’s not to say Kevin L. Schaefer Marx didn’t offer a penetrating critique New Bern, North Carolina Shadia B. Drury has written some enlight- of the economic injustices of his day or ening and provocative essays in the past, that he’s responsible for what later dem- but her piece “Against Grand Narratives, agogues did in his name. People need a sense of purpose in Former President Lyndon B. Johnson did Part 1” in Free Inquiry’s June/July issue life, as any psychologist can confirm. not formally purpose “faith-based initia- was another matter entirely, insulting But purpose does not necessarily mean tives,” as President Barack Obama now the intelligence of her readers by con- does. However, he did make a thoroughly flating and oversimplifying three pivotal- superstition or delusion. And the fact that demagogical appeal to liberal Protestant ly important ways of understanding the some people feel this need more urgently denominations to support his social pro- world. than others, and thus will inevitably be grams. Needless to say, he was in many It is indeed interesting that Mill’s predisposed to cling fervently to a single ways successful. No one objected. On Liberty, Darwin’s On the Origin of belief system as the answer to all ques- Twenty years later, former President Species­ , and Marx’s Critique were all tions, does not in itself discredit those Ronald Reagan did the same thing, published in 1859. However, that coinci- who offer sincere intellectual attempts except this time he appealed to ultra- dence hardly means that they all suffer to interpret the phenomena they observe conservative denominations to weak- from identical flaws. in the world around them. Humanism is Anyone skeptical of religion and its itself just such an attempt . . . and those

11 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 who use it as a framework through which There is, however, another kind “Pornography­ translates as ‘the graphic to ap­proach the thinkers she decries, of nihilism that is not born out of depiction of whores’ [i.e., sexual slaves] finding what is of value in their work despair but out of a love of truth and developed in a society that is viciously without deifying it, do a far greater ser- the willingness to accept the fact that male supremacist. . . . Feminists are often vice than those like Drury who merely the world was not designed to suit asked whether pornography causes rape. seek to tear them down. human beings. On the contrary, the The fact is that rape and prostitution Chris Miller world is indifferent to all the things caused and continue to cause pornogra- Chicago, Illinois that human beings hold dear—justice, phy.” kindness, honesty, and love. Storms, Women and men do not have equal Shadia B. Drury responds: tsunamis, earthquakes, tornadoes, rights, not in our country, not in any other plagues, and epidemics kill the young country I can think of (see “My Struggle with the old, the good with the wicked, I am indeed a nihilist in the sense that for Equality” by Taslima Nasrin in the and the kind with the cruel. The his- I don’t believe that human history same issue). I have never heard of a tory of the monotheistic religions has has any goal or overarching purpose. person of any walk of life, philosophy, It is the story of the triumphs and fail- been a monumental effort to reconcile humanity with the cold indifference or political affiliation argue that women ures of individuals and groups. There and men have achieved social, sexual, is certainly more to John Stuart Mill of nature by supposing that there is a God who cares about the fate of or economic equality. than his imperialistic proclivities. I Pornography as a cultural system of share his love for freedom as much human beings, takes an interest in male supremacy is not proved untrue as does Mr. Miller. But unlike Mill or human affairs, and is determined to because some adult female porn stars Miller, I don’t believe that history is a right the injustices of the world by march of freedom (however halting). punishing the wicked and rewarding claim they love their jobs. “[T]he main Freedom­ will always have triumphs the righteous. In rejecting this com- premise of pornography is that women and setbacks, but there is no reason forting myth, we nihilists need not be want to be forced, hurt, and cruelly for considering the triumphs a sig- driven to despair, terrorism, or indif- used” (A. Dworkin). So much impas- nificant aspect of the trajectory of ference. Albert Camus set the example sioned and heart-wrenching writing has history and the setbacks as merely when he said that “the absurd,” by been published on the damage por- temporary. It is just as logical to see which he meant the cold indiffer- nography does to women, no one with the triumphs as only temporary. ence of nature to what matters most a conscience can remain unmoved. I All this is not to say that there are to human beings, should bring us am overwhelmed by the challenge to no patterns or trends in human his- closer to­gether in a feeling of univer- introduce Voss to the immense field of tory. Civilizations will always rise sal human solidarity. Camus rightly writing on why pornography is linked to rejected the despair of Dostoevsky. He and fall; people will always want to the subjugation of women. also rejected Nietzsche’s effort to turn avenge injustices; priests will always Renee Cooperman the absurd into a god and a model for prey on people’s fears and gullibility; Prescott, Arizona and freedom will flourish at cer- human conduct. tain times and places and then will In short, I stand guilty of nihil­ ism, but not of indifference to life or be extinguished for an unpredictable Katrina Voss responds: length of time. So, there are indeed its joys. It is important not to confuse recurring patterns in history, but the absence of meaning in life with its presumed worthlessness. Just because In her letter, Ms. Cooperman asks they do not give history meaning, me to read Dworkin. As a gradu- purpose, or goals beyond the plurali- life has no overarching meaning or purpose, it is not worthless. The joyful ate of a feminist all-women’s college ty of purposes and goals of particular (Agnes Scott), I am quite familiar individuals or groups. nihilist is not indifferent to the things that give life worth—truth, justice, with Dworkin’s arguments against I am not just a nihilist about human porn­ography; in fact, I had them history; I am also a nihilist about freedom, love, music, art, dancing, and more. rather shoved down my throat in human life. Unfortunately, ni­hilism the famously humorless manner of has been misunderstood in the age of elitist, suburban, white feminism. biblical religions. It has been associat- Per­haps it was for this reason that ed with despair and even terrorism— Porn in the U.S.A. I rebelled and posed for Playboy in because nihilism has been confused April 1991 in the “Women of the For the most part, I agree with Katrina with indifference to life itself. That Women’s Colleges” issue. (For those Voss’s characterization of the people who dark or negative nihilism was defined who want to look it up, my name then by the likes of Dostoevsky; it was a disapprove of recreational genomics (“On was Kathleen Voss, not Katrina Voss, product of the despair felt by people the Policing of Genetic Porn,” FI, June/ the latter being a more pronounceable who had lost their religious bearings July 2009). However, her decision to use version I adopted when I began to and thought that since God is dead, porn­ography to make her case is not going broadcast in Spanish.) all is permitted. These dark nihilists to slide with me. If I wasn’t already suspecting that believed that without God there is no The arguments against pornogra- modern feminism was in trouble, foundation for morality, life is worth- phy are not “passé.” I’d like to beg the fallout from my humble, half- less, and that one may as well indulge Voss to read Andrea Dworkin’s Letters page photo clarified just how low the in terrorism and the arbitrary killing from a War Zone essay “Pornography movement had sunk. I lost friends of the innocent. and Male Supremacy.” Dworkin writes: (Continued on p. 66)

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 12 LEADING QUESTIONS

Eric Maisel, PhD, is the author of more than thirty works of fiction and nonfiction. His nonfiction titles include Coaching the Artist Living Well Within, Fearless Creating, The Van Gogh Blues, The Creativity Book, Performance Anxiety, Ten Zen Seconds, A Writer’s San Francisco, and A Writer’s Paris. A columnist without God for Art Calendar magazine, Maisel is a cre- ativity coach and creativity coach trainer A Conversation who presents keynote addresses and work- shops nationally and internationally. His with Eric Maisel new book is The Atheist’s Way: Living Well Without Gods.

Free Inquiry: Your book is like an atheist’s self-help book. Eric Maisel: That’s fair. Many books have come out over the last few years that do a good job of taking religion to task, and I more wanted to speak to the many millions ists as having a cultural tradition, but you days, ceremonies, and rituals—churches of atheists who don’t always find it easy to encourage atheists to see themselves as offer this. They’re not just about theology live as an atheist. So, yes, it is really a self- part of this grand tradition—many of the and worship but about community, a cho- help book for atheists. Also, between the biggest names in history were atheists and sen family where people love one anoth- lines, I try to make the argument for believ- you derive inspiration from that. er, celebrate the passages of life together. ers to help them move in the direction of Maisel: I do. But there are two senses of Does being an atheist mean that you must atheism. the word tradition. We don’t have tradi- give all of that up? FI: Some atheists embrace a sort of pes- tion in the sense of holidays like Christmas Maisel: Yes. And it is a sad thing. It is simism—there is no God, the universe is or Easter or other ceremonies that seem to one of the big problems for atheists. Here cold and without hope—but in your book, work on an emotional level. And atheists where I live, in the retirement community you present a positive worldview derived are divided about whether we need that of Rossmoor in California, we have an from atheism and argue that atheism gives kind of tradition or not. The sense of tradi- active atheist group. But we realized we people more advantages than religious tion that I’m inspired by is just the longev- needed to just socialize and be “church- belief. How can this be if you don’t have ity of atheism as an idea. So many of the like” and not just meet for lectures on the hope of life after death or that there is a best and the brightest of every era have atheism and philosophy. Most of us can father-god who has our well-being in mind? embraced atheism; atheism goes back recognize that there is something lacking Maisel: I think that both groups are thousands of years. In the book, I survey in atheism as a movement with respect faced with exactly the same problem, to this social component. This is one of namely, the problem of making mean- the reasons it is so difficult for believ- ing in life and keeping that meaning ers to make the journey from belief to afloat. Religious believers tend to set- “. . . losing one’s home unbelief; losing one’s home church is the tle this problem with their belief system, church is the number-one number-one loss when one loses his or although I don’t think they do a seamless her religion. This is one of the biggest job of it. I think one proof of that is how loss when one loses his or impediments to atheism becoming a real many anti-depressants are sold in our her religion.” movement, the community that religion so-to-speak Chris­tian nation. So a lot of provides people that atheism doesn’t nec- believers are suffering and not able actu- essarily provide. ally to keep meaning afloat. For atheists, FI: Many of the ways that you’re that is their main problem—they under- a number of atheists from the Greek and describing atheism seems to describe the stand that the universe is indifferent and Roman and Islamic eras of between 500 secular humanist worldview to me. To call that they are obliged to make meaning b.c.e. to around 500 c.e., and it is amazing myself an atheist just tells you what I don’t in life, but this is a daily and hourly task, how they speak to the issues exactly the believe in, but to call myself a secular and it gets tiring. So I tried in the book to way our contemporary atheists do—they humanist tells you what I do believe in, explain that this is our task as atheists, and expose religion and they believe religion which is much of this meaning-making though it is a task that requires courage, is used by rulers to subjugate people—so stuff you talk about. So why isn’t your it is also a beautiful opportunity to make we have this long tradition that if we, as book called The Secular Humanist’s Way? exactly the meaning we intend to make atheists, do plug into, will find very satis- Maisel: That is a good question. It could and to create our own lives. fying and liberating. have been called that, or The Existential FI: Most people wouldn’t think of athe- FI: The other sense of tradition—holi- Way, The Naturalist’s Way, The Freethinker’s

13 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 OP-ED

TOM FLYNN

baggage: from time immemorial to as re­cently as our great-grandparents’ time, matrimony amounted to the bride’s Two Cheers for father transferring property rights in his daughter to the groom. It locked women into relationships in which they couldn’t own property and couldn’t vote—where Same-Sex Marriage they essentially existed only as legal shadows of their husbands. Yes, those days are gone. But matrimony carries their taint in a way that civil union, a wholly new institution, does not. Further, he setback at California’s Su­preme Court is only a bump Tin the road. When same-sex marriage becomes legal in Iowa, you “When same-sex mar- know the train has left the station. So riage becomes legal in irresistible has the momentum become that I predict that within a year, two Iowa, at most, same-sex marriage will be you know the train legal nationwide. That’s a change that seemed unthinkable a decade ago. But has left the station.” there’s a downside (as I predicted in an op-ed titled “Mixed Blessings” way back in December 2003/January 2004’s FI). Here’s one secular humanist whose cel- as a de novo creation under law, civil ebration of gay marriage’s impending union would be utterly secular, free of victory will be tempered by a recogni- any historical attachment to the church­ tion of what all of us, gay and straight, finally succeed in getting some kind of es. Finally, civil union offers at least the lost along the way. civil union firmly recognized in the law. possibility of expanding the range of Make no mistake, there’s much to Same-sex marriage was out of the ques- relationship types the law would recog- cheer for in the prospect that same- tion, something that would happen only nize and privilege: “couples” with more sex marriage will soon be legal. A after pigs fly. No, the old game plan than two members, open or communal deep-seated social prohibition rooted aimed at establishing a new alternative arrangements,­ perhaps combinations of in religion will have been overthrown. institution for recognizing committed persons not linked by romantic rela- A group that was formerly among the relationships, what became known as tionships. (If two platonic friends opt to most discriminated-against in America “civil union.” Civil union would one day share a household long-term, why on will have chalked up an immense gain in provide the benefits opposite-sex couples earth shouldn’t one be able to visit the human rights. Okay, that’s two cheers. realized through matrimony: community other in the hospital, inherit from the Call me a curmudgeon if you must, but I property, clear custody of children, the other, and so on?) regret that along the road to this great right to inherit, access in hospital, access For all of these and other reasons, victory an even larger human-rights to health insurance, and so on. some social-change activists wanted gain affecting even more potential ben- There were pluses and minuses to nothing to do with traditional matrimony. eficiaries got cast aside. this approach. On the minus side, civil (For a sample, check out the Altern­­ What am I driving at? Well, consider union would never be marriage. Same- atives to Marriage Project at atmp.org.) the scenario most social-change advo- sex couples would always have to settle We (for I am one of them) were waiting cates probably expected to unfold as of, for what some would regard as “sec- hungrily for the day when same-sex civil say, ten years ago. Inside and outside of ond-class nuptials.” On the plus side, unions became legal—so that we could the GLBT (Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and well, civil union would never be mar- sue to have the same privilege extended Transgender) community, most activists­ riage. Matrimony, after all, is a bas- to opposite-sex couples. We wanted alter- circa-1999 anticipated something like tard—strike that, a hybrid—institution, natives to marriage, too. Of course, when this: some bright day, maybe twenty-five rooted partly­ in the law and partly in attained that would represent a human- years in the future, GLBT activists would the churches. And it carries unsavory rights advance even larger than same-

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 14 OP-ED

sex marriage because it would benefit all persons regardless of sexual orientation. And yet today, that’s the scenario freethought that will come about when pigs fly. Why? history as you’ve Six or seven years ago, the GLBT com- never seen it … in munity realized that gay marriage might person or online! be an attainable goal. In short order, the old strategy of seeking to create robust civil unions was cast aside to pursue this glittering new hope. Now the GLBT movement is on the cusp of victory, an attainment that should never be under- estimated. It will be a great step toward fulfilling America’s historic promise of fairness and equality. But let’s never forget that it came at a price. As the twenty-first century turned, the GLBT movement—arguably the most-power- ful, best-organized, best-funded social change movement then operating in America—stopped being an opponent DRESDEN, NEW YORK of traditional matrimony. In­stead of (off State Route 14 between Geneva and Watkins Glen) applying its impressive muscle to creat- America’s only freethought museum adds rare display items ing an alternative to this hoary, unsec- plus a new visitor orientation video, produced in High Definition ular, historically sexist, and needlessly restrictive institution, the movement Virtual Ingersoll Museum Online at instead opted to perpetuate it. If the www.rgimuseum.org! status quo could be expanded to include Can’t make it to Dresden? Visit online! View every room. Click display items same-sex couples too, the GLBT com- to learn their history. Experience the new video in YouTube HQ, more than munity would withdraw its challenge double the resolution of conventional streaming video. to matrimony’s monopoly on the legal recognition of committed relationships. Hit the Trail Online at Those of us who eagerly awaited a www.freethought-trail.org ! legally robust alternative institution are the losers. The GLBT movement was West-central New York State (the area within about 80 miles of the Ingersoll the only constituency on today’s hori- Museum) was a nineteenth-century hotbed of radical social reform: free- zon with the power to force that sort of thought • abolition • women’s rights • birth control • anarchism reform. In all likelihood, no strong and and more. Almost fifty marked and unmarked historic sites, from the study legal alternative to marriage will be where Mark Twain wrote his best-loved novels to the print shop where free- achieved during our lifetimes. thinking journalist Obadiah Dogberry debunked the Book of Mormon—before it Oh well, it was too late for me anyway. was published! Pique your curiosity . . . or plan your trip! Several years ago my live-in life partner Site includes full navigational aids. and I gave up and tied the knot for a venal Also visit the updated museum Web site: www.secularhumanism.org/inger- but very pragmatic reason: yes, health soll insurance. I’m happy to report that matri- mony did nothing to ruin our relationship. (Eternal vigilance and all that.) But how I MUSEUM HOURS: wish we could have been among the first SatURDAY andROBERT SunDAY noon GREEN–5 p.m., INGERSOLL plaintiffs to sue for civil unions for Memorial Day Weekend through Halloween straight couples! Freethought History from the Council for Secular Humanism Portions funded by a grant from the James Hervey Johnson Charitable Tom Flynn is the editor of Free In­quiry and the executive director of

15 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 OP-ED

NAT HENTOFF

what they could to provide food and med- ical care to the survivors—I was some- what heartened by a December 2005 The Holocaust, Washington Post article by then-sen- ators Barack Obama and Sam Brown­ back. They warned that if President Bush did nothing more than say he Rwanda—Never, would not countenance genocide “on my watch”: “An already grim situation is likely to spiral out of control. . . . When the history of this tragedy is written, Ever Again! nobody will remember how many times officials visited the region or how much humanitarian aid was delivered. They n 1938, I was bar mitzvahed and will only remember the death toll.” also learned about Kristellnacht I was reminded of the tragedy in I(the “Night of Glass”) in Berlin—the Rwanda, when President Bill Clinton prelude to the Final Solution. As the ordered the State Department and oth- Holocaust went on, I had a person- ers in his administration not to use the al extra-parochial interest in Hitler’s term genocide as it was going on, lest ex­termination of the Jews because I was growing up in Boston, then the most anti-Semitic city in the country. “In the American press, A Jewish kid on the street, outside the ghetto after dark, could be punished for Darfur hardly ever being a “Christ-killer.” I lost some teeth makes the front pages, that way. Listening continually to CBS’s Will­ or much else.” iam Shirer reporting from Berlin, I asked my parents, “How long is nobody again involving the Janjaweed, with reg- going to do anything?” My mother told ular Sudanese army forces and attack he’d have to do something about it. me of being a child in the old country in helicopters killing black Muslim villag- At long last, on March 4, 2009, the a Russian ghetto, when her mother— ers. The soldiers burned down their International Criminal Court in The hearing “The Cossacks are coming!”— villages, occasionally throwing infants Hague issued an arrest warrant for put her into the oven to save her from into the flames. The rapes, of course, General al-Bashir on charges of crimes the pogrom. Fortunately, it was not lit. continued. against humanity: murder, extermina- Shaking their heads, my parents had The first world leader to call this tion, forcible transfer (of civilian popula- no answer to my question and were lower-case holocaust “genocide” tions), torture, and rape. Surely, Ba­shir, not surprised when Hitler’s ovens were was George W. Bush. As is its cus- in fear of being arrested if he traveled used for another purpose. tom, the United Nations was useless. to the many member countries of the Partly because of my mother’s story At the Secur­ ­ity Council, China—with ICC, would be a pariah in the world and about the Cossacks riding into the ever-growing oil and other business forced to drop his plans for a “final solu- shtetl, I have for the past twelve years interests in Sudan—blocked any mean- tion” in Darfur. But Bashir continues to been reporting about the genocide in ingful sanctions. There could be no be welcomed in Arab nations and has Sudan directed by Africa’s Hitler, Pres­ armed intervention because the U.N. nothing of consequence to fear from the ident Omar Hassan al-Bashir. First, in forbids such disrespect for the auton- United Nations. the South, Bashir’s Arab Janjaweed omy of its members. There were, of However, he did react to the arrest regularly engaged in mass rapes and course, toothless resolutions passed by warrants by banishing from his nation murders of black Christians and ani- the General Assembly and even the thirteen of the key international human- mists. They also enslaved some of the Security Council that Bashir agreed to itarian organizations that have been survivors and sent them north to per- and then ignored. keeping the black Muslim survivors alive. manent labor. As the corpses piled up—while inter- Indeed, he was delighted to get rid of Then came the genocide in Darfur, national humanitarian organizations did Doctors Without Borders and the others

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because they could no longer be direct Paris, it reports—and quotes from other [and] those taking place in Darfur.’” He witnesses to his government’s crimes. reliable news services—the doomsday had previously described the latter geno- As I write this, the U.N. humanitari- record in Darfur.) cide as a “stain on our souls.” an agencies—who now can do nothing In the American press, Darfur hardly In April, Hussein Abu Sharati, spokes­­ but care—estimate that of the 2.7 mil- ever makes the front pages, or much man for a network of leaders of the lion black Muslims driven from their else inside. A chilling illustration was a refugee camps, wrote to Obama: “Mr. villages to refugee camps, more than a one-paragraph story at the very bottom President, we need quick and immediate million will soon have hardly any access of page 8 of April 28’s New York Times multilateral or unilateral intervention to clean water, food, or medical care. quoting the U.N.’s senior representa- to save use from imminent death—the During an October 7, 2008, presiden- tive to Darfur, Rodolphe Adada, who unconditional return of the international tial debate, then-Senator Obama pledged refused “to characterize the conflict humanitarian organizations expelled­ by “to help mobilize the international com- as a continuing genocide,” adding that the regime. . . . [Their expulsion] is the munity and lead” to impose a no-fly zone “though the United Nations was con- regime’s final goal and the deadly blow over Sudan, grounding Bashir’s mur- cerned about the dangers posed by to accelerate our death by slow motion derous attack helicopters—and to make Sudan’s decision to expel aid groups through starvation, malnutrition and sure that Congress provides logistical from Darfur, ‘the solution relies on the diseases.” So far as I know, Mr. Sharati support to the impotent U.N.–African government’” (emphasis added). has yet to receive an answer. Union­ peace-keeping mission that has no Anybody remember Neville Cham­ Some years from now, at a memorial peace to keep. berlain?­ for the Darfur dead, some U.S. president Especially passionate about this On April 19, 2009, President Obama will be swearing: “Never again!” ongoing genocide was Joe Biden, who spoke in Washington at the U.S. Holo­ urged sending NATO forces into Darfur. caust Memorial Museum Annual Day of But as vice president, the voluble Mr. Remembrance Ceremony. The theme of Nat Hentoff is a United Media syn- Biden has not shown what his com- the year was “Never Again: What You dicated columnist, a senior fellow at mander in chief called “the force of Do Matters.” the Cato Institute, and the author of, urgency” that he displayed in pushing And what did President Obama say? among other books, Living the Bill of for his own election. From the April 25, 2009, Sudan Tribune: Rights (University of California Press, All that President Obama has done “[he] mourned the loss of many lives 1999) and The War on the Bill of Rights so far on his watch is to send special during the Nazi Holocaust, and noted his and the Gathering Resistance (Seven envoys to Sudan. One, Scott Gration, commitment to ‘prevent and end atroci- Stories Press, 2004). His forthcoming arrived, “with my hands open,” assuring ties like those that took place in Rwanda the Bashir regime that “I love Sudan.” book, At the Jazz Band Ball: Sixty Years He hoped Sudan would “respond­ with a hand of friendship.” Even more ineffectual has been a subsequent special envoy, Senator John Kerry, chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. He promised such “concessions” to the genocidal regime as removing it from the State Depart­ ment list of state sponsors of terrorism. Kerry, utterly ignoring Bashir’s perfect record of breaking every single pledge he’s made, actually said, as reported in the April 18, 2009, Sudan Tribune: “Special envoy Gration has succeeded in negotiating a strong agreement with the government with many positive ele- ments to address the ongoing human- itarian crisis in Darfur.” (The Sudan Tribune Web site [sudantribune.com] is an invaluable daily source of news and analysis on this holocaust. Based in

17 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 OP-ED

WENDY KAMINER

false claims magnifying the effectiveness of the so-called enhanced­ interrogation techniques like water boarding. . . . There was no actionable intelligence gained from using enhanced interrogation tech- niques on Abu Zu­baydah­ that wasn’t, or couldn’t have been, gained from regular Torture at the Polls tactics. In addition, I saw that using these alternative methods on other terrorists backfired on more than a few occasions— all of which are still classified. . . . Defend­ ers of these techniques have claimed t’s hard to know if we should charac- that they got Abu Zubaydah to give up terize as good or bad news a recent­ information leading to the capture of IPew Forum survey suggesting that Ramzi bin al-Shibh, a top aide to Khalid public opinion is fairly evenly split over Shaikh Mohammed, and Mr. Padilla. This the legitimacy of torture. Support for tor- is false.” ture was disproportionately low among people who do not attend religious ser- vices (which may reflect their political affiliations rather than any particular godless morality), but overall, nearly half the respondents to Pew’s survey opined “It’s hard to know if we that the torture of suspected terrorists should characterize as is often or sometimes justified. About the same proportion said that torture is good or bad news a rarely or never justified. Whether this recent Pew Forum sur- is evidence of the strength or weakness will perish within hours unless he talks. of our moral in­stincts, it tells us little But this atypical Hollywood scenario vey suggesting that pub- or nothing about our understanding of was not the one confronted by agents lic opinion is fairly evenly torture and its use by the Bush adminis- or contractors who tortured post–9/11 tration post–September 11, 2001. terror suspects under color of law. After split over the legitimacy Here’s the question posed by Pew: all, if the good guys are certain that their of torture.” “Torture to gain important information prisoner knows the whereabouts of a from suspected terrorists is justified . . . ticking bomb and would reveal it under [check one response] Often; Sometimes; torture, they would probably not wait Rarely; Never; Don’t Know.” The ques- for the Justice Department to draft and tion incorporates two unsubstantiated finalize lengthy legal memoranda before and highly debatable assumptions: that employing their arsenal of “enhanced­ But while some will believe Soufan important information may, in fact, be interrogation techniques.” (Of course, and have confidence that he is reporting gained by torturing people and that peo- interrogators might torture first and the facts, others will put their faith in the ple imprisoned on suspicion of terror- obtain legal justifications for torture encomiums to torture offered by Dick ism are, in fact, terrorists who harbor later, greatly increasing their legal Cheney (who seems hopeful that a mur- important information about pending or liability; the possibility that they did derous attack will occur while Obama is future attacks. In other words, the Pew so post–9/11 is one more subject for an in office, not engaging in torture). What survey reflects the highly misleading inquiry.) are the facts about torture, and do they and highly popular “ticking bomb” sce- In any case, there is strong evidence matter when people reflexively believe nario: the good guys have in their cus- that torturing terror suspects did not what they hear from political allies or tody a really bad guy (his guilt may not produce the life-saving information that idols? Even if some blue-ribbon truth have been proven in court, but the good advocates of torture claim it did. On April commission were established to investi- guys have every reason to be certain of 23, 2009, in a New York Times op-ed gate post–9/11 abuses, its findings would it), and he knows the whereabouts of a piece, former Federal Bureau of Inves­ likely be dismissed by people who found ticking bomb or a kidnapped child who tigation agent Ali Soufan de­nounced “the them politically unpalatable or impossi-

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 18 OP-ED

ble to reconcile with deeply held beliefs. important information that would not (Prosecu­ tions­ of people who authorized have been elicited otherwise, public sen- or practiced torture, which seem highly timent could turn against it. (Atti­tudes We invite you unlikely, would be even more readily toward torture will inevitably reflect to become an dismissed as witch hunts.) conventional wisdom about its effec- I don’t mean to diminish the impor- tiveness, not its morality.) If a major- tance of uncovering unpleasant truths ity doesn’t turn against torture, it will ASSOCIATE surely be embraced again, with at least tacit public approval, as openly as it was MEMBER embraced­ by the Bush administration. As an ASSOCIATE MEMBER of the Revelations about “enhanced inter- Council for Secular Humanism, you “Dick Cheney . . . seems rogations” and debates about justifica- will receive four issues a year of the hopeful that a murder- tion are not new; they date back to Secular Humanist Bulletin. Bush’s first term in office, and, as I The entertaining and provocative ous attack will occur recall, they posed no significant barrier Bulletin keeps you up-to-date on humanist news, issues, and activities to his reelection. But they do complicate while and provides a forum for members to efforts by his successor to forge an share ideas and plans. Obama is in office, anti-torture consensus. The elected offi- Other benefits you will receive as an not engaging in torture.” cials who advocated it, the lawyers who Associate Member include: provided cover for it, and the agents who practiced it are not the only people A 10% DISCOUNT ON: who need protection from condemna- • Registration fees tions of torture. Prior public knowledge for conferences and seminars about the use of torture and holding that the government was engaging in • Registration fees for Center people accountable for it. I don’t mean torture provides one more reason for for Inquiry Institute courses to suggest that investigations of torture continuing public approval of it. • Audiotapes and videotapes will have either no or only marginal • A select range of humanist effects on public opinion. If a generally Wendy Kaminer is a lawyer and and freethought books credible fact-finder reports that torture social critic. Her latest book is Worst • Secular humanist T-shirts did not help keep us safe by eliciting Instincts: Cowardice, Conformity,­ and and other merchandise

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19 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 OP-ED

JAMES A. HAUGHT

apocalyptic fervor may have held sway within the walls of the White House.” Fortunately,­ online commentary sites are A French Revelation, spreading the news, filling the press void. The French revelation jibes with other known aspects of Bush’s re­nowned evan- gelical certitude. For example, a few or The Burning Bush months after his phone call to Chirac, Bush attended a 2003 summit in Egypt. The Palestinian foreign minister later ncredibly, President George W. Bush said the American president told him he told French President Jacques Chirac was “on a mission from God” to defeat Iin early 2003 that Iraq must be invad­ - Iraq. At that time, the White House called ed to thwart Gog and Magog, the Bible’s this claim “absurd.” satanic agents of the Apocalypse. Recently, GQ magazine revealed that Honest. This isn’t a joke. The presi- former Defense Secretary Donald Rums­ dent of the United States, in a top-secret feld attached warlike Bible verses and phone call to a major European ally, Iraq battle photos to war reports he asked for French troops to join Amer­ hand-delivered to Bush. One declared: ican soldiers in attacking Iraq as a “Put on the full armor of God, so that mission from God. when the day of evil comes, you may be Now out of office, Chirac recounts that able to stand your ground.” the American leader appealed to their It’s awkward to say openly, but “common faith” (Christianity) and told came down from God out of heaven, and now-departed President Bush is a reli- him: “Gog and Magog are at work in the devoured them.” gious crackpot, an ex-drunk of small Middle East. . . . The biblical prophecies In 2007, Dr. Romer recounted Bush’s intellect who “got saved.” He never should are being fulfilled. . . . This confrontation strange behavior in Lausanne Univers­ have been entrusted with the power to is willed by God, who wants to use this ity’s review, Allez Savoir. A French- start wars. conflict to erase his people’s enemies language Swiss newspaper, Le Matin For six years, Americans really hav- before a New Age begins.” Dimanche, printed a sarcastic account en’t known why he launched the unneces- This bizarre episode occurred while titled: “When President George W. Bush sary Iraq attack. Official pretexts turned the White House was assembling its Saw the Prophesies of the Bible Coming out to be baseless. Iraq had no weapons of “coalition of the willing” to unleash the to Pass.” France’s La Liberte likewise mass destruction after all, and wasn’t in Iraq invasion. Chirac says he was bog- spoofed it under the headline “A Small league with terrorists, as the White House gled by Bush’s call and “wondered how Scoop on Bush, Chirac, God, Gog and alleged. Collapse of his asserted reasons someone could be so superficial and Magog.” But other news media missed led to speculation about hidden motives: Was the invasion loosed to gain control of fanatical in their beliefs.” the amazing report. Iraq’s oil—or to protect Israel—or to com- After the 2003 call, the puzzled Subsequently, ex-President Chirac plete Bush’s father’s vendetta against the French leader didn’t comply with Bush’s confirmed the nutty event in a long inter- late dictator Saddam Hussein? Nobody request. Instead, his staff asked Thomas view with French journalist Jean-Claude ever found an answer. Romer, a theologian at the University of Maurice, who tells the tale in his new Now, added to the other suspicions, Lausanne, to analyze the weird appeal. book, Si Vous le Répétez, Je Démentirai comes the goofy possibility that Dr. Romer explained that the Old Testa­ (If You Repeat it, I Will Deny), released ab­struse, supernatural, idiotic, laugh- ment book of Ezekiel contains two chap- in March by the publisher Plon. able Bible prophecies were a factor. ters (38 and 39) in which God rages Oddly, mainstream media are ignor- This casts an ominous pall over the against Gog and Magog, sinister and ing this alarming revelation that Bush needless war that has killed more than mysterious forces menacing Israel. Jeho­ may have been half-cracked when he four thousand young Americans and vah vows to smite them savagely, to started his Iraq war. My own paper, The cost U.S. taxpayers perhaps $1 trillion. “turn thee back, and put hooks into thy Charleston Gazette in West Virginia, is jaws,” and slaughter them ruthlessly. In the only U.S. newspaper to report it so the New Testament, the mystical book far. Canada’s Toronto Star recounted of Revelation envisions Gog and Magog the story, calling it a “stranger-than-fic- James A. Haught is the editor of the gathering nations for battle, “and fire tion disclosure . . . which suggests that Charleston Gazette (West Virginia)

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TIBOR MACHAN

not help but believe as they do; the same is true for Darwinians. Everyone has the beliefs he or she must have, as the Without Free Will unstoppable chain of causal connections has made it necessary. Qué sera, sera! But this, of course, means that the very belief in (or disbelief in) free will (or determinism) itself amounts to something that just happens to people. ots of important people in the Arguing is pointless and no more pro- sciences and philosophy say that ducing of truth (or falsehood) than the free will—the human capacity to squawking of a parrot or the noise of a L tape recorder. think and do either this or do that—is a myth, a delusion. Some go so far as to Of course, all of this could be as I say, but none could know it because recommend revamping the legal system knowledge itself requires freedom of and our ideas of ethics or morality so judgment, a capacity to re­search and that concepts of guilt, innocence, re­ think about issues without prejudice, sponsibility, and so forth can be aban- without being driven to reach some doned. No one is guilty of anything, they given conclusion. hold, since no one could have done any- As near as I can figure, being without thing other than what he or she did. This free will makes no sense because giving is just one notion that follows from the up all the things one must in order to denial of free will in human life. What jettison free will is nonsensical. But that are some others? idea of truth—the independent, objective may not be a decisive enough argument Regret is out; so is pride. Apologies identification of reality by an unpreju­ - in support of free will. What would be? are pointless since no one could have diced mind—is also dead without free Among other things that would have acted better than she or he did. Certainly­ will. You affirm free will? No matter, you to be dealt with in constructing an incon- no one can be blamed for anything. Or had to do it, just as, if you were to deny testable defense of free will would be to praised. Just as it makes no sense to it, that too had to happen. The issue of explain why so many serious folks can so blame the weather for being unpleasant, easily come to believe that tossing free even horrible, or to praise it for being will makes sense, despite all of what fol- great, so none of the awful stuff that “As near as I can figure, lows from doing so. What might be amiss people do can be blamed on them. All being without free will with their framework, with how they go just happens as it must. That means, about considering this matter? also, that editorials that congratulate makes no sense because Getting to the bottom of this topic some and those that chide others are giving up all the things will require a great deal besides simply equally nonsensical, gobbledygook, if listing all the unsavory things that we there’s no free will. Forget about admi- one must in order to jet- would have to do in order to get by with- ration, too, for no deed is a function of tison free will is nonsen- out free will. Still, considering what life individual good judgment and effort. It’s would be like without free will, this is a like nice flowers that simply grow as sical.” good starting point for seriously consid- they, too, must. Artists must do their art, ering the matter. 21 murderers must do their murders. No which view is right cannot arise either, Tibor R. Machan holds the R.C. Hoiles alternative to any of it is possible, just as since when anyone claims that one is the way a river runs is how it must run. Chair in Business Ethics and Free right and the other isn’t or vice versa— Most difficult to swallow, though, is Enterprise at Chapman University’s that, too, has to happen as it does. that none of what I am saying or writing Argyros School of Business and Eco­ Juries also must come up with the here—or anything anyone else has said nomics. He is also a research fellow verdicts that they do—they have no free- or written or is saying or writing or ever at the Hoover Institution at Stanford­ dom in their deliberations. Scientists, will say or write—is any more true or University. too must believe as they do, as must false than is the noise made by ocean science’s detractors. Creationists can- waves. This follows because the very

21 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 OP-ED

SHADIA B. DRURY

Instead of attributing to history a grand plan, fascism attributes to nature an intention to which the ideologues are Against Grand privy. The Nazis were certainly a party of nature—rural, agricultural, and volkish. But it does not follow, as is so generally assumed, that the Nazis were social Narratives, Part 2 Darwinists who believed in the “surviv- al of the fittest”—a phrase coined by the British evolutionist Her­bert Spencer (1820–1903). In fact, social Darwinism was largely an American phenomenon, associated with such champions of capi- talism as Yale University­ professor Wil­ liam Graham Sumner­ (1840–1910). Like n the first part of this essay (Free Spencer, Sumner argued that capitalism Inquiry June/July 2009), I argued that Ithe three main ideologies involved in World War II—liberalism, communism, and fascism—were secular grand nar- “In my view, it is a mis- ratives modeled on the so-called great take to regard commu- religions. I focused on the concept of a grand narrative and on liberalism nism and and how its progressive conception of liberalism as antithetical history as moving toward freedom has contributed to its imperialistic instincts. grand narratives. They In the second part of this essay, I will are both products of the focus on communism and fascism. In my view, it is a mistake to regard same communism and liberalism as anti- tradition of thought.” thetical grand narratives. They are which humanity will transcend scarcity, both products of the same tradition of a necessary prelude to the revolution that thought. They share the same faith in would allow the exploited working class- history as a progressive march toward es to inherit the earth. Indus­trialized is the best economic system because its freedom. Where they disagree is on the Europe would lead, and the rest of the competitiveness mimics the harsh con- nature of the freedom toward which world would eventually catch up. ditions of nature in which survival is an history is progressing. For Marx and However, Lenin was not willing to sit achievement. In capitalism, as in nature, his followers, the trouble with liberal- around and wait for history to take its those who succeed are the fittest and the ism is that it fails to understand liberty. course, especially since Russia was not best. Moreover, those who are successful The liberty of individuals is not some an industrial country in 1917 and was deserve to succeed because they have ab­straction acquired in a void; it can therefore on history’s back burner. He acquired the capitalist virtues that make only be acquired within a cooperative was determined to fast-track the his- success possible—honesty, sobriety, fru- community in which individuals have torical process in the direction that he gality, and hard work. Social Darwinism the opportunity to cultivate their talents knew it was already going. Nor was Mao continues to fuel the neoconservative and abilities free from the exploitation, Zedong any more patient when it came ideology of the Republican Party; it is competitiveness, and insecurity of cap- to launching the Chinese revolution. In and has always been not only a descrip- italist society. Marx did not regard his other words, impatient humanity is just tion of the workings of capitalist society denunciation of liberalism as a matter as unwilling to wait for the verdict of but a moral justification of the capital- of taste or personal opinion but rather history as it was unwilling to wait for the ist order, including its gross inequalities. as the verdict of history. For Marx, capi- salvation of God. Communism is a clas- Social Darwinism valorizes success talism was bound to self-destruct once it sic grand narrative insofar as it regards in the urban jungle. When the Nazis accomplished its historical task—name- history as having a grand plan that is looked around, they noticed that all ly, to create the industrial means by not totally dependent on human actions. those who were successful—liberals,

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 22 OP-ED

cap­italists, and communists—were at for so long been restrained. “Schluss was that there shall be no other gods home in the modern, urban, industrial, jetzt! Wählt Hitler!” (End it now! Vote before him. The one true God cannot be and cosmopolitan world. But this new Hitler!)­ Supposedly, the blond beast mixed with other gods without losing world was anathema to them. They had been held captive by Jews, bankers, his singular status and hence his identi- longed for the quiet serenity of the coun- industrialists, and communists. It was ty. All grand narratives inherit the aver- tryside. They abhorred the industrial- not clear how Jews could be simulta- sion of the God of the Old Testament ism that was at the heart of both capi- neously bankers and communists, but to diversity and plurality. All of them talism and communism. After all, Marx logic did not matter. The point was to follow the God of the Old Testament in had denounced the “idiocy of rural life.” make the Jews paradigmatic of every- aspiring to global oneness or hegemony. In contrast to liberals, communists, thing the Nazis hated about moder­ ­nity. Like Judaism, Christianity, and and social Darwinists, the Nazis were Needless to say, it was a successful Islam, then, liberalism, communism, and not champions of reason or progress. emotional campaign. And the Nazis fascism are singular, “totalizing,” and They were anti-Enlightenment roman- proved that they were willing to fight to “hegemonic”—as the postmodernists tics. They wanted to return to the the death for what they believed nature rightly point out. Plurality and diversity wholesome simplicity of rural life, to intended—the ascendancy of the supe- are anathema to all grand narratives. the security and stability of nature. But They all claim to seek peace, but it is a Darwin dealt a fatal blow to the con- peace in which they emerge triumphant soling stability of nature. He revealed over all humanity at the end of histo- that nature was a product of a dynamic ry—it is peace only on their terms. What evolutionary process, no more static or this means is that devotees of any grand stable than history itself. But with the narrative are inclined to fight until they help of Nietzsche, the Nazis managed subdue everyone and get their own way. to transform Darwinism to suit their That’s not seeking peace but the reverse. purposes. In truth, the Nazi agenda was It is a recipe for perpetual war, violence, not a matter of tinkering with social and conflict. Darwinism­ but of inverting it in a way We must beware of the dangers of that has gone largely unnoticed. faith in an inevitable destiny—it fires In contrast to the social Darwinists, the human imagination and inspires the Nazis rejected the valorization of atrocities in an effort to satisfy the success. With Nietzsche as their guide, longing for the unattainable summit. they surmised that those who are suc- Worst of all, it allows human beings to cessful in this world were not intended by absolve themselves of responsibility for nature to succeed. Nietzsche portrayed their actions by imagining that they are nature as static. It was made up of the pawns in the grand scheme of God, his- strong and the weak, the superior and tory, or nature. In this way, conscience the inferior, the master and the slave. is silenced in the face of imperialism, By nature, the superior is intended to indiscriminate slaughter, and genocide. rule over the inferior, the strong over So, it is time to abandon the puerility the weak. And that is exactly the way Hitler’s campaign poster, “End it now! Vote of grand narratives. It is time to accept things were in the dawn of human his- the fact that civilizations will always tory. With their collective strength and rior race, namely themselves. rise and fall. It is time to embrace a their wily machinations, the weak have In conclusion, liberalism, commu- genuine plurality and stop insisting on managed to shackle the strong. On this nism, and fascism were three grand our own global dominance. It is time to view, Christianity and democracy were narratives that played significant roles reclaim the maturity of the pagans and two of the greatest scams ever invent- in the conflicts of World War II. At the affirm life—even if it is an endless cycle ed. They have turned the world upside heart of all grand narratives lies not with no purpose beyond itself. It is time down. The Aryan race, as represented by only a lust for mastery but also for one- to transcend the childish longing to be Nietzsche’s “blond beast,” lies chained ness, which is closely connected to puri- rescued, delivered, or saved. in the dark while the dark and surly ty—racial, ideological, and religious. races have triumphed. As Hitler’s cam- This quest for puritanical oneness was Shadia B. Drury is Canada Research paign poster indicates (see illustration), rooted in the granddaddy of all grand Chair in Social Justice at the Uni­ the Nazis intended to liberate the blond narratives: the jealous God of the Old versity of Regina in Canada. Her beast from the chains by which he has Testament, whose first commandment newest book is Aquinas and Modernity

23 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 OP-ED

KATRINA VOSS

more fashionable, and return-to-Eden Lud­dism (instead of just better science) is most often presented as the logical Thank You, savior. At times, even unapologetically Christian­­ preachiness seeps into the sci- ence-gone-bad cautionary tale. In televi- sion’s Terminator: The Sarah Connor Science Fiction Chronicles­ , biblical references have become so woven into the plot that one wonders whether Mel Gibson appointed­ the writing team. During the course of the second season, we learn that the hree years ago, I wrote an essay terminators’ greatest vice is not their for Free Inquiry titled “Thank inability to empathize but their godless- TYou, Science” (February/March ness. A hunky and heroic FBI agent (the 2006). I thanked science for orthodon- transcendent Richard T. Jones) suggests tia that straightened my crooked teeth that the wayward robots learn the Ten and for antibiotics, without which I Commandments,­ and in a later scene would have died of pylenophritis at he teaches a murderous terminator that thirty-three. On behalf of womankind generally, I thanked science for reliable birth control. This scientific innovation “In television’s has done more to liberate women than Terminator: all the words feminists have ever spo- ken, written, or contributed to bumper The Sarah Connor stickers. (Well-behaved scientists rare- Chronicles, biblical ly make history either.) Now, I’d like to thank science fiction. references have become After all, science is almost always sci- alas, a few years later, the virus mutates ence fiction first, beginning as a twin- into a lethal strain that wipes out 90 so woven into the kle in a scientist’s eye, long before its percent of humanity. (The accountable plot that one wonders embryonic condition is even acknowl- doctor’s name is Krippen, perhaps a wink edged, long before it becomes “real” to those familiar with the murderous Dr. whether Mel Gibson science. And that is not such a grand Crippen of 1910.) And who can forget The appointed the writing observation. Once conceived, tempting Day After Tomorrow, one of Yahoo!’s scientific ideas do not remain orphans “Top 10 Scientifically Inaccurate­ Mov­ team.” for long. Most people know this, and ies”? In this indulgent “climate porn,” many have even come to fear this. The over a few hours Mother Nature smites dilemma is mythical, perhaps an inte- us Earth-raping humans with devastat- gral part of our species’ persona. The ing meteorological consequences that apple looks tasty, but could it be dead- in real life would require centuries to human life is sacred because God created ly? Once there is no turning back, might unfold. The theme, recurring more and it. Again, the message is clear: see what we wish we had contented ourselves more in science-fiction movies, is famil- happens when you try to “play God,” you with safer, blander fruit? iar and clearly reproving: leave well vain scientists? Lately, science-fiction movies seem enough alone! If you do something in Whether religious or secular, such to be echoing this fear. They might once order to improve the human condition, Faustian paranoia stalls science. It have planted and watered the seeds of you will inadvertently make the situa- recasts science fiction as a sort of mod- fanciful ideas, but they are now telling tion worse, you myopic meddler! ern passion play, insofar as its purpose us not to pick the apples at all. In the To be fair, good storytelling requires is to vilify a selected target and then film version of Richard Matheson’s I Am conflict. Of course something has to go reenergize the audience. It leads us to Legend (2007), a brilliant doctor cures wrong. Traditionally, what goes wrong believe that whenever a risk is identi- cancer by introducing an engineered in science fiction is the result of pol- fied (and there will always be risks, in measles virus into the population. But itics. But dystopia-by-science is now science and in life) we should err on the

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 24 OP-ED

side of caution—that is, inaction. It also to admit this) is Demolition Man. This So, to my original expression of grat- represents two converse variations of the 1993 social satire depicts an antiseptic, itude, an addendum: Thank you, science same fallacy: anthropomorphizing—real- politically correct world in which the foul- fiction—science fiction, that is, that ly deifying—nature. On the one hand, we mouthed are fined for using curse words, makes science cool. Thank you for tend to overestimate nature’s kindness: aggressive men are reprogrammed to extolling­ the virtues—not exploiting the she will take care of us; we must only be knit, and fornicators have only virtual fears—of Promethean progress. And, patient. Sam Harris exposes this seduc- sex (thus avoiding the unpleasantness of whenever possible, thank you for inspir- tive version of the naturalistic fallacy fluids). Here, science is not the enemy; ing real-life scientists to make fiction a in his short essay, “Mother Nature Is neo-prudery is. Like­wise, 2006’s Idio­ positive reality. Not Our Friend.”* On the other hand, cracy blames stupidity and laziness, not if nature is not benevolent but rather a science, for the future’s failings. Science *This essay was Sam Harris’s answer to the fickle and domineering bitch, we must fiction certainly can be pro-science. It Edge Foundation’s World Question for 2008, “What have you changed your mind about?” avoid pissing her off. In this incarnation, can even be funny. she hates intruders; she punishes those It is all too easy to criticize scientific Katrina Voss worked for ten years as who mess with her design. lust from the balustrade of the twen- a bilingual broadcast meteorologist ty-first century. Like spoiled children, “. . . science is almost we can enjoy the fruits of our ancestors’ at The Weather Channel Latin Amer­ always science fiction labors—all the while sourly blaming sci- ica and AccuWeather. She is now a ence and technology for everything from research associate in the department first, beginning as a twin- restless leg syndrome to species extinc- of anthropology at The Pennsylvania­ kle in a scientist’s tion. But had scientists left well enough State University. She is collaborating alone, many of us would not have seen with her husband, a geneticist, on a sci- eye long before its our third birthdays, much less our thir- ence-education video project, as well as embryonic ty-third. a book about race and genetic ancestry. condition is even acknowledged, long before it becomes ‘real’ science.”

Of course, nature doesn’t “punish” tinkering anymore than she “rewards” passivity. Nature doesn’t care in any human sense of the word. Trying to change nature does not represent the greatest arrogance. Real hubris is the belief that nature cares about you, has intentions for you, or disapproves of your actions in the first place. We are simply not that important. Paradox­ ically, contemporary science fiction would benefit from a bit more humility on the one hand and a bit less self-dep- recation on the other. But all is not lost. One underappreci- ated sub-genre wastes no time chiding its own protagonist. Unlike their morose counterparts, comedic science-fiction movies are less concerned with “be care- ful what science you wish for” melodra- ma. My favorite (I have been warned not

25 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 The Ethics of Neurochemical Enhancement David Koepsell

or more than fifteen years now— mental illnesses—but there’s no ques- of debate in the psychiatric communi- essentially since Peter D. Kra­mer’s tion that the medical science of depres- ty among those who would alter the FListening to Prozac helped a gen- sion and happiness is improving. current Diagnostic and Statistical eration overcome much of the stigma The treatment of mental illness is Manual (DSM) diagnostic criteria, which associated with one of the most common an undeniable beneficiary of the scien- are often categorical, and replace or health problems in the United States— tific method and its application to neu- improve upon those methods by adding antidepressant use has grown steadily. rochemistry. While a complete under- criteria that accommodate a continuum Even while the drug war placed many standing of the brain is a long way off, or spectrum of symptoms. This of course so-called recreational drugs off-lim- we are beginning to connect genetics, rekindles that old debate raised by peo- its to those inclined to self-medicate, epigenetics (which studies the role of the ple like Thomas Szasz, who argues that alcohol has remained the most widely environment), and mental states—learn- there is no such empirical thing as mental abused drug, with tobacco a close second. ing through brain imaging and a growing illness and that we are all just points Moreover, obesity, alcohol, and tobacco scientific understanding of neurochemis- on a seamless spectrum of neurological kill many times more people each year try just how we develop certain mental functioning. than all illicit chemicals combined. One disabilities and disorders, or at least the But there are bright spots in the sci- apparent positive result of the prohibition brain chemistry behind them. Treatments­ ence even if there are no easy solutions regime in the United States has been are likewise improving. Early attempts to to these metaphysical problems. Even the increased scientific focus on mental control depression through drugs like while rates of diagnosed and treated health and mental disease as mechanis- lithium are becoming focused more on depression have risen significantly in the tic medical issues that can be resolved the specific neurochemical pathways that United States, rates of depression-relat- largely with chemicals. Serious attention seem to be involved with clinical states of ed suicide have fallen. Despite the highly is being paid to the development of better mental depression. Treatments­ for other publicized incidents of suicide among prescription drugs targeted to the most mental disorders and diseases, including those prescribed antidepressants, overall common mental-health problems. complicated illnesses like schizophrenia, rates of suicide among the diagnosed are The new antidepressants are less are also improving. But all of this medical down. This seems to indicate that the like blunderbusses and a bit more like knowledge and awareness raises some treatments are working. There is some rifles, better targeting the specific difficult ethical and social issues. indication that antidepressants elevate brain chemistry that can lead to clinical Mental diseases and disorders often the mood of the severely depressed sig- depression. We might argue at length fall along spectra, providing no easy, nificantly enough to carry out their sui- about the environmental, social, and bright lines between, for instance, simple cidal plans, but more often than not, the other factors leading to clinical depres- depression that might not require med- chemicals, when used in conjunction with sion—or debate the merits of counsel- ical treatment or chemical intervention other therapies, seem to work. ing, talk therapy, and other treatments and clinical depression that requires Of course, there are still huge gaps in to help patients deal with debilitating swift treatment. There is a fair amount our knowledge. Are there more clinically

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 26 depressed people than we think, or are suming you will control your behaviors in there fewer? Has the ease of treatment society) you should be just as free to take through chemicals encouraged overpre- the rage pill as you should be to take a scription of drugs, or has the dwindling happy pill. There is nothing sacred about stigma of mental illness finally encour- any particular mood. If you produce your aged the truly sick to seek treatment? best work when weepy and you haven’t Why are there so many depressed people any time to come by your angst through in the United States? There is another more traditional ap­proaches, then a pill question lingering behind this phenome- is a better option than getting entangled non: why shouldn’t people be able to alter in another failed love affair. Besides, with their moods as they see fit? Why treat the a bottle of happy pills nearby, you can ancient desire to engage in mind-altering always come back out of it! behaviors as though it were a matter only What ethical implications are involved­ for medical professionals? If we were in this scenario? Are we truly entitled to invent a “happy pill” tomorrow that to alter our moods at whim if and when could elevate moods with precision, why the science allows us to? Or are there shouldn’t anyone who wishes to take it be other, more basic values that trump our allowed to do so, setting aside all issues individual rights to self-determination? A of clinical or medical consequences? few years ago, Free Inquiry tackled sci-fi Many people see nightmarish echoes scenarios and near-future possibilities of Brave New World behind such a of altering human bodies (“Upgrading possibility. But what makes this kind of Humanity,” June/July 2004). “Trans­­ future necessarily dystopian? What’s so humanism” is the overarching name for special or precious about our natural the movement that is attempting to over- mental states that we are proscribed by come the notion that there is some sort governments to maintain them only in of basic human nature and that therefore certain conditions? Why may we alter we cannot simply alter ourselves at will. them only at the whim of a government In many ways, the modern science of that has deemed drugs like alcohol, neurochemistry combined with psychi- tobacco, and sugar as needing less reg- atry, as practiced every day by millions ulation than other, less-deadly pharma- who are lifting their moods through legal ceuticals? chemistry (with the help and blessing of Some “neuro-conservatives” argue the medical establishment), is at the fore- that happiness must be strived for and front of transhumanism. It is an accep- achieved only through an understand- tance of the scientific facts behind the ing of religious truths or philosophical chemistry of our moods and a recognition methods—maybe through meditation, lit- that they are not necessarily deserved erature, art, or the life “well-lived.” They but rather often suffered. We have a right argue that happiness is a reward for good to change this much of our natures, to be works or hard work and that by reducing sure. But are we entitled to more? it to its chemical components we some- The following articles consider this how cheapen it. The great new popular and tackle some of the issues involved in “science of happiness” wave of literature the ongoing attempt to define our neuro- and philosophy promises to help liberate chemical states as part of an alterable us from our slumbers, but all of this takes continuum over which we have power. work. What if we don’t have time in our The sixties’ ironic old call for “better liv- busy lives to wrestle with our intellects, ing through chemistry” may truly be pos- read books, learn philosophies, or even sible as we finally hone in on better tech- just meditate for an hour a day? And nologies with which we can seek and what if the same neurochemical state adopt designer moods. The question for can be achieved in the near future with a debate remains: should we? pill? Why wouldn’t we choose that? Why shouldn’t we be free to choose that if we David Koepsell, a former executive want? director of the Council for Secular And why stop at happiness? Neuro- Humanism, is assistant professor of libertarians would argue that we ought philosophy at the Delft University to be free to alter our moods in any way of Technology (faculty of Technology, we please. If there’s an anger pill and you Policy, and Management) in the want to work up a good rage, then (pre- Nether­lands.

27 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 Social Pressures for Technological Mood Management James J. Hughes

hat’s wrong with society wanting us to be happy and researchers have proposed that drugs like oxytocin and MDMA friendly? The concern that America was becoming a could be used to enhance marital bonding. W “Prozac nation” popping happy pills was premature, One of the most common concerns about such powerful given the emerging evidence that suppression of clinical trial mood-control technologies is that various agencies of society data had inflated the reported efficacy of SSRIs (selective will coerce individuals into using them to induce inauthentic serotonin reuptake inhibitors) like Prozac. Nonetheless, our moods with pernicious results. The alleged plucky individ- growing understanding of the neurobiology of mood and uals of our present age will then supposedly be replaced by our expanding number of neurotechnologies—psychoactive brainwashed zombies who happily tolerate abuse and worship chemicals, tissue engineering, gene therapy, and implanted authority. This picture discounts the possibility that social devices—mean that we will increasingly be able to control pressures to adjust mood may have positive effects both on our moods. The first beneficiaries of our growing capacities society and on individual lives. This is in fact a likely result if for mood control have been people suffering from depression, the kinds of emotions that society rewards support a flourish- anxiety, and other disorders. But gradually these tools will ing personality and the ability to contemplate new life goals make it possible for people who are not “mentally ill” to be and achieve them. In this article, I will examine some of the routinely happier, calmer, more patient, and more productive. likely positive effects of social pressure to adjust mood, as well Two examples of drugs that appear to offer such rewards as some of the potential negative scenarios. are oxytocin and MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphet- amine, or “ecstasy”). Oxytocin is a hormone that induces Mood Manipulation feelings of trust and bonding released during romance, love- First, it is important to remember that neither our capacity making, childbirth, and breast-feeding. Its use is now being to manipulate our own moods nor social pressures to induce explored to overcome social phobia (shyness) and to facilitate moods are new. Humans have been manipulating one anoth- the social integration of people with autism. MDMA is another er’s moods since the emergence of human culture, and our drug whose users report feeling more love and compassion. more recent capacities for technological mood-manipulation are Among other effects, MDMA stimulates the release of oxytocin. continuous with a long history of social mood-manipulation. Clinical research is now being conducted on MDMA as a treat- Religious ritual, dancing, music, storytelling, uniforms, art, and ment for anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder, and some architecture are all intended to shape affect—sometimes toward

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 28 happiness, social solidarity, joy, and awe and sometimes toward “emotion work” that people do with family and friends, such darker emotions such as anger and fear. as evincing interest in another person, apologizing after an We are under pressure to conform our emotional displays argument, and showing affection. with the demands of each situation or else face social sanc- Many who work in the sociology of emotions adopt Hochs­ tions from friends, family, and employers. We all learn to have, child’s stance that long-term psychological risks and stresses or at least appear to have, the appropriate emotions for social result from the pressure to manage one’s emotions, to adjust situations. Em­otional nonconformity, such as laughing at a one’s mood to remain simultaneously emotionally detached funeral or angry resentment at a celebration, is sanctioned. while appearing helpful, pleasant, and engaged. For instance, One classic study of the pressure to manage emotions is organizational psychologist Dieter Zapf recently found that Arlie Hochschild’s 1983 study of airline stewardesses (as flight telephone marketers forced to remain pleasant on the job and attendants were then called), The Managed Heart. Hochs­ endure customer insults suffered more long-term stress than child describes the stress of the emotion management stew- those given permission to respond to angry people in kind.

“. . . social pressures to adjust mood may have positive effects both on society and on individual lives. This is . . . likely . . . if the kinds of emotions that society rewards sup- port a flourishing personality and the ability to contemplate new life goals and achieve them.”

ardesses were required to do to remain constantly cheerful In this context, the prospect of mood management drugs and bright in the close confines of the plane. She notes three or devices could be seen as possibly intensifying our alien- characteristic adaptations that stewardesses made to meet ation from our “authentic” feelings. But what if our capacity the expectation that they always be happy, each with its own to induce mood actually makes us feel authentically happy downside. Some stewardesses identified with the always-hap- through and through? py role and attempted to adapt their inner life to the external smile. Hochschild suggested that this mode leads to burnout. Happiness Set-point Some were aware of the gap between their inner mood and and Positive Affect Feedback Loops their performance and felt guilt that they were unable to be Like the sociology of emotions, the field of positive psychology as cheerful as expected. Still others were comfortable with the and the study of comparative “subjective well-being” have fact that their cheerfulness was just an act, but this led to a grown rapidly in the last two decades. One commonplace sense of alienation from the job. observation in the “hedonic studies” field now is the idea that This kind of “emotional labor,” and the problem of training about half of the variation between people in our day-to-day caring and service professionals to be emotionally detached subjective happiness is determined at birth by our genetics enough to avoid burnout but not so detached that they become and neurochemistry, while the other half is amenable to pos- alienated or ineffective, has been widely studied in profession- itive and negative influence from upbringing, social circum- als as diverse as adventure guides, morticians, and detectives. stance, life events, and relationships. This initial brain setting The idea has also been extended to an examination of the is called the “happiness set-point,” and it places a strong

29 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 constraint on how much we can modify mood with talk thera- Given this developing model of the role of personality in py, new friends, or a different lifestyle. Whether you win the determining happiness, perhaps we can refine the question lottery or your house burns down, you will drift back to your from “Would it be a good thing for groups to pressure individ- happiness set-point in a couple of months. uals to change their brains to be happier?” to “Would it be a The problem of the relative inflexibility of subjective well-be- good thing for groups to pressure individuals to change their ing is compounded by the feedback loop that ensures that peo- brains to be more open, conscientious, extroverted, friendly, ple who are generally congenitally happier will also have more and less neurotic and thereby also to be happier?” Whatever of the life experiences that increase the variable environmental the genetic and neurochemical bases of our happiness and parts of life that affect happiness. Happier people are more suc- personality set-points turn out to be, we will increasingly cessful in achieving social, work, and life goals. Happier people be able to control or permanently adjust them. Given all the are more likely to get and stay married, have more friends, personal, group, and social benefits that will accrue from this belong to more groups, and volunteer. Happier people are more ability to adjust mood to better fit social expectations, what highly rated by their supervisors, and they make more money. might be some of the risks? Numerous studies suggest that happier people are also health- ier and live longer. Conversely, marriage, friends, wealth, suc- Risks cess at work, and health all make people happier. Disentangling Inauthenticity and self-sacrifice. One objection to this the chicken and egg is difficult, but essentially the capacity for benign model of social pressure on mood management would happiness is unequally distributed at birth and is then penal- be that even if a person using mood management felt gener- ized or rewarded by society throughout our lives. ous, patient, and happy when taking care of a screaming child, The happiness set-point is not the only part of our person- angry customer, or dying friend, there might still be some level ality that is determined at birth. Many psychologists believe of deeper awareness of the inauthenticity of these surface that personality is determined and characterized by five feelings. This concern assumes that there is an authentic underlying factors: openness, conscientiousness, extrover- observer and emoter deep within the brain that is separable

“Humans have been manipulating one another’s moods since the emergence of human culture, and our more recent capacities for technological mood manipulation are continuous with a long history of social mood manipulation.”

sion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Each personality factor from the part of the brain feeling happy, an illusion that many is also substantially determined at birth, with twin studies of us experience. We may feel detachment from our emotions, suggesting that the heritability of these five factors ranges ob­serving ourselves feeling them but with the sense that there from 40 to 60 percent. is a part of us above them. But this detached observer is dis- These factors are correlated both with many kinds of social passionate, not an authentic self roiling with anger, hatred, performance and with mood and happiness. High neuroticism or craving. There is no inauthenticity because the division is and low agreeableness are correlated with unhappy rela- between a feeler and an observer, not two conflicting feelers. tionships, conflict, abuse, and divorce. High extroversion is For instance, people who suffer from depression may have correlated with making friends and having a happy marriage, a sense of an internal observer that notes the depression and while high conscientiousness and agreeableness is correlated then notes improved mood from treatment (or from the manic with satisfaction in dating. Performance at work is correlated phases of bipolar disorder). But this observer does not expe- with high conscientiousness, agreeableness, extroversion, rience happiness ­despite the improvement of treated depres- openness, and low neuroticism. Extroversion and agreeable- sion. Whatever emotional state we have, natural or induced, is ness predict volunteering in the community and becoming the only authentic emotion we feel in that moment. leaders of community organizations. Extroversion, conscien- Perhaps, however, the disturbing inauthenticity of our tiousness, and agreeableness apparently predict health and feelings might surface if the mood management is not a con- longevity. tinuous therapy. We might use mood management to react The five factors are in turn related to happiness or subjec- serenely to a challenging day at work and then be disgusted tive well-being. Neuroticism is negatively related, and extrover- when the therapy has worn off in the evening and we regret sion and conscientiousness are positively related to happiness. not having reacted with more anger or force. The gap between Some research suggests that an individual’s happiness set- our normative expectations for our behavior and the behavior point can be accounted for by his or her personality set-points. that we exhibit under mood management will vary. Some peo-

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 30 ple will appreciate that when medicated, they are able to keep are managing their mood would be more effective at self-asser- their temper with family and coworkers, while others will con- tion and organized resistance. Happier people are in fact more sider their medicated behavior abnormal and inauthentic and assertive than sad people; the depressed have the least capac- harmful to their interests, authority, and social status. The ity for self-assertion. An ability to suppress anger and remain latter group may find the social pressures to apply mood man- patient generally makes people more effective in self-assertion agement alienating and may then choose to live with the con- and control. Agreeableness and extroversion increase the sequences of noncompliance with social expectations. Walker size of a person’s social network and enhance one’s ability to makes this point in his essay defending “bio-happiness”: mobilize social networks. The mood-enhanced would be more . . . proponents of bio-happiness would do well to concede to effective calling the police on an abuser or in organizing a con- the critics that artificially creating happiness will not lead to sciousness-raising group, labor union, or political party. authentic happiness for all. For if we understand “authentic” However, precisely because mood management is likely as meaning “in accordance with the values, goals and beliefs of the person,” then it is clear that for some authentic happiness to increase citizen and worker empowerment, we cannot means living within whatever constraints one’s genome dic- therefore discount the possibility of therapies designed only tates. . . . [But] even if we allow that technology introduces an to give their users satisfaction in the performance of their artificial happiness, at least in some cases there is good reason allotted tasks, no matter how boring or degrading, without to suppose that the resulting happiness is authentic, and so in this sense, the happiness is real. empowering side-effects. Although this is partly what Aldous Huxley implied about the totalitarian purpose of the drug Inappropriate tolerance for the intolerable. Depending on soma in Brave New World, let us call this a “Sisyphus drug” which aspects of mood and personality are managed, and after Jonathan Glover’s thought experiment in What Sort of how, there is the possibility that mood control could encourage People Should There Be? Glover asks what would be wrong harmful self-abnegation and toleration of the intolerable. But with a therapy that allowed Sisyphus to be delighted with his chemical patience does not imply any less ability to recognize pointless, endless punishment of rolling a stone up a hill. The and redress bad situations. Even the normally happiest or slave could be made happiest as a slave, and the abused wife most agreeable or extroverted people can recognize and resist could be made to delight in subordination and humiliation. illegitimate authority. Exercising anger management does not Even more troubling for the prediction of a generally make one enjoy being yelled at at work or disrespected by benign social pressure to engineer mood and personality in one’s children. the direction of engagement and flourishing is the observa- On the contrary, there are reasons to think that people who tion that there will still likely be groups in the future from

31 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 which society can expect no benefit, such as the structurally to be more unfulfilled with greater motivations to consume. unemployed and the isolated disabled. The mood-management On the contrary, mood manipulation is likely to reduce dys- pressures in their cases might be only to encourage complete functional attempts to find happiness in material possessions. passivity, happy or not. These two prospects, the Sisyphus drug and the use of Conclusions mood management to enforce passive cooperation among There are risks in a future in which individuals voluntarily those at the margins, underline the need for a goal of a flour- manipulate their own moods and personality to adapt to the ishing personality to govern public policy in general and the expectations of family, friends, and employers. One serious regulation of neurotechnologies in particular. Even if the main risk is that we may learn how to improve mood by giving peo- tendency of pressures to conform mood to social expectations ple great satisfaction with boring or abusive situations. People will be beneficial for individuals and society, there will always may turn to these kinds of mood enhancers because they be a need for critical democratic scrutiny of whether the represent a path of least resistance compared to the effort to

“But what if our capacity to induce mood actually makes us feel authentically happy through and through?”

technologies are encouraging engagement, dynamism, and actually change their situation. In fact, people already do this assertion or passivity and stasis. by adapting their expectations to their situations. One of the Side effects, addiction, and health risks. Another risk is ironies of hedonic research is that the citizens of some nations, that the side effects of the mood-management therapies might such as Nigeria, are on average relatively happy but only be unknown, and people would feel pressured to employ the because they have such low expectations. We need constant therapies regardless of their harmful consequences. One likely vigilance, debate, and scrutiny to ensure that neurotechnolo- side-effect is that any therapy that boosts mood is likely to be gies are not being used to adapt people to circumstances that powerfully habit-forming. The therapy might have long-term should be changed, thereby restricting human flourishing. effects on neurotransmitter function the way that amphet- On the whole, however, it seems likely that social pressures amines and opioids do, so that mood falls below the original will encourage us to use neurotechnology to be nicer, less shy, baseline after the drug is removed. This is not in itself a prob- less neurotic, less self-absorbed, more patient and temperate, lem so long as the therapy, like caffeine, is inexpensive, widely and generally happier. Contrary to the worries of the Rousseauian accessible, and has no other negative side-effect or health skeptics that civilization requires the subordination of our true, risk. However if the habit-forming mood modifier poses a risk untamed nature, that we will be miserable so long as our inner to health or impairs decision-making like alcohol, regulatory noble savage is in chains, civilization in fact has a powerful incen- scrutiny would have to be greater. tive to encourage our happiness and the flourishing personality. Turning up greed, aggression, hatred. A final concern The main risks we need to be concerned about with mood man- about social pressure for mood management concerns the agement technologies are whether they have been well-studied institutions that might have reason to encourage greed, aggres- and are safe, inexpensive, and widely available. sion, and hatred. Advertising is a form of social pressure that seeks to inspire feelings of inadequacy, greed, and envy. James J. Hughes is associate director of Institutional The military and sports teams would like to tap and channel Research and Planning and a visiting lecturer in Public aggression. Churches have occasion to inspire fear and awe. Policy at Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut. He But all of these counterexamples are limited and temporary is also executive director of the Institute for Ethics and compared to the contrary pressures to encourage positive Emerging Technologies and the associate editor of the moods and a flourishing personality. More important to the Journal of Evolution and Technology. military and sports than aggression in the field are capaci- ties for emotional self-regulation, diligence, and teamwork. Churches generally are more concerned with encouraging temperance, agreeableness, and group solidarity than fear of damnation. Advertisers may use the latest and most subtle forms of mood manipulation to encourage acquisitiveness and brand-bonding, but it is unlikely that consumers would acqui- esce to pressure to permanently change their brain chemistry

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 32 The Case for Happy-People Pills Mark Alan Walker

ost of us think that if pharmacological agents can boost achievement? Most think the answer is our lives, and, as a the mood of the clinically dep­ressed, this is a very good result, we are better off renouncing pharmacological enhance- M result. But what should we think about the prospect of ment of our happiness. I will argue that we should pursue using pharmacological agents to boost the moods of those who pharmacological enhancement because, done right, it can lead exhibit no signs of depression? In other words, should society to both increased happiness and achievement. permit “designer” or “cosmetic” pharmacology to boost the moods of those who are “normally” happy? Two Roads to Pharmacological Enhancement of I submit that this question is very complicated, for any mea- Moods sured answer will have to engage this philosophical chestnut: Let us consider two roads to pharmacological enhancement. Which should we seek from life, happiness or achievement? One is familiar enough, and so we may describe it very brief- With a 2,500-year-old battle in the realm of ideas attached to ly. Huxley introduces happy pills (HP), or soma, as having this question, answering it will be no easy task. Hedonists of “All the advantages of Christianity and alcohol; none of their various stripes suggest that what is important for living well or defects.” Despite this jab at Christianity, throughout the novel the “good life” is happiness, where “happiness” is understood Huxley makes the most of the alcohol comparison, suggesting to be some sort of positive mental state, e.g., pleasure or upbeat that soma impairs cognitive functioning: ingesting a sufficient mood or emotion. Perfectionists are the noble opposition. The quantity induces a “hedonic haze” or “soma holiday.” Also like term perfectionism has a puritanical sound to it, but the under- alcohol, soma is said to relax and relieve social anxiety. There lying idea is plausible enough: the good life consists of success is, as Huxley repeatedly stresses, one crucial difference: soma or achievement in various domains of our lives—careers, mar- does not leave consumers with a hangover, and, indeed, in gen- riages, friendships, mental and physical states, and so on. eral soma does not have the negative health effects of alcohol. In When confronted with the choice between happiness and any event, anyone who has ever drunk copious amounts of alco- achievement, an obvious response is: Why shouldn’t we seek hol and woke the next morning without a hangover will have a both? Some philosophers (Aristotle, for one) do indeed combine reasonably good idea what it is like to take soma. both positive mental states and achievement in their account The road less traveled is to model pharmacological agents on of the good life. Such “combined accounts” must still face the “naturally” happy people. To see what is involved will require question: What if there is a tragic choice between happiness us to examine several key findings from the science of happi- and achievement? Nowhere is this choice put more dramat- ness. The first point is that individuals differ significantly in ically before us than in Aldous Huxley’s dystopia, Brave their average level of “happiness”—understood as preponder- New World. Readers will recall that “soma” is Huxley’s “happy pill.” There can be little doubt that the denizens of Brave New World experience much more frequent episodes of positive moods than we do. Yet, assessed in terms of achievement, the brave new world is sadly lacking: marriages and the commitments we associate with deep friendship are lacking, scien- tific inquiry is stifled, great works of art are absent from their lives, and so on. The novel is often used to frame the “Brave New World question”: which is preferable, our lives with more achievement and less happiness or the lives depicted in Brave New World with soma-in- duced happiness and much lower

33 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 ance of positive moods and emotions—as Figure 1 illustrates. causes achievement does not deny what common sense tells us: The research of psychologists and other social scientists that achievement can cause happiness. Of course a good job, reveals that relatively few of us are described as very unhap- good friends, and good health can cause us to be happy; the key py or “depressed”; likewise, very few of us are very happy or here is that being happy can also cause us to have a good job, “hyperthymic.” The vast majority of us fall somewhere between good friends, and good health. these two extremes,­ designated above as “normal” happiness. A third discovery critical for our case is that our genes For our purposes, the hyperthymic are of particular interest. have an enormous influence on happiness. The point is put A peek into their lives is provided by one Dr. Friedman, who quite dramatically by Lykken and Tellegen: “. . . the report- relates the story of a woman who came to see him after the ed well-being of one’s identical twin, either now or 10 years death of her husband. Despite losing her husband and her job, earlier, is a far better predictor of one’s self-rated happiness all within the year, the woman had not sought out Friedman than is one’s own educational achievement, income, or martial as a patient but for advice about her son, who was having a status.” In some ways, this is quite shocking, since we tend to difficult time coping with the loss of his father. Friedman found blame or praise people for their happiness as if it were some- himself intrigued by her buoyancy: “Despite crushing loss and thing that was completely under their control. So, people might stress, she was not at all depressed—sad, yes, but still upbeat. I say about “Unhappy Abby” that she can hardly be said to found myself stunned by her resilience. What accounted for her deserve happiness: “she never pursued a good career, she had ability to weather such sorrow with buoyant optimism?” a string of unsuccessful marriages, and she doesn’t have many When asked, she said: “All my life I’ve been happy for no close friends.” The findings from behavioral genetics suggest

“I will argue that we should pursue pharmacological­ enhancement because, done right, it can lead to both increased happiness and achievement.”

good reason. It’s just my nature, I guess.” that much of Abby’s happiness is not under her control, and, A second item of interest from the science of happiness is indeed, her genetic predisposition to the low end of the normal that the happier we are, the more likely we are to succeed in range for preponderance of positive moods may explain in a number of areas in life. Empirical research reveals that the part why she did not succeed in securing a good career, a good happier among us are more likely to secure job interviews and marriage, or in having many close friends. jobs, to be evaluated positively by supervisors, to exhibit supe- It is worth emphasizing that to say there is a genetic com- rior performance and productivity, to have higher incomes, to ponent to happiness is not to say that we cannot do anything develop more skills in an organization, and to exhibit more about our happiness through our own efforts—that would creativity. In our social lives, the happier individual is more be a form of a crude and outdated genetic determinism. One likely to have a greater quantity and quality of friendships, be way to understand this is to think how genetic and nongenetic involved in a successful marriage, and be inclined to exhibit influences affect our health. Suppose John, who has always pro-social behavior (that is, to help others). The happier are exercised and eaten healthy, dies of a stroke at the tender age also more likely to enjoy better mental and physical health. of thirty-five. The medical report reveals that John had a genetic Notice that the claims here are that scientific research sup- predisposition for stroke: his father and grandfather both died ports a causal connection, not simply a correlation. It would at a young age from the same condition. Obviously, it would be not be that surprising to find, for example, that those who wrong to blame John for not looking after himself. Likewise, it have more friends, better marriages, better health, better jobs, is not to say that his efforts to maintain his health, exercising and the like are happier. Here, common sense would say: “Of and eating right, were to no avail, since John might have died at course they are happier, look what they have: good jobs, good twenty-five if he ate nothing but cheeseburgers, chain-smoked health, lots of friends, and more!” But the causal claim says cigars, and drank heavily from his teen years onward. Both that (at least part) of the reason for their success is because genetic and nongenetic influences shape our health; so, too, do of their happiness, that is, their positive moods. One way to genetic and nongenetic influences shape our happiness. There understand this is to imagine ascertaining the happiness level is only so much we can do to promote our good health, and there of high-school students and then looking ten or twenty years is only so much we can do to promote our own happiness. For down the road to see which ones are the most successful in the rest, we are at the mercy of our genes. their professional and personal lives. The happiest among I want to apply the foregoing discoveries to support a high-school students are also those most likely to achieve. (This research program to create “Happy-People Pills” (HPP). The result holds, even controlling for such variables in achievement basic idea would be to put in pill form what the hyperthymic in high school as grade-point average.) To say that happiness already have in their genes (having won the genetic lottery for

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 34 happiness). I am not suggesting anything as naive as finding marijuana—a comparatively mild drug. Fortunately, there is “the happy gene.” The genetic predisposition for positive another line of argument, the “justice argument,” which is moods is likely to involve a number of genes that interact in potentially more powerful. complex ways. Nevertheless, by looking at the hyperthymic, In its most skeletal form, the justice argument says that if we would seek to discover which genes are correlated with we do not permit the creation and distribution of HPP, then we chronic positive moods and then work out how the genes actu- will commit a grave injustice. Since we ought not to commit ally contribute to happiness. Finally, we will need to figure out grave injustices, we ought to permit the creation and distri- how we can make a pharmaceutical agent that recreates the bution of HPP. The issue of justice arises in relation to the genetic predisposition for hyperthymia for those in the normal question of distribution of an extremely valuable resource: the range of happiness. neuro-chemistry associated with hyperthymia. This resource What I have just described is in all likelihood an enormous- is extremely valuable because, as we have said, it is causally ly complicated task, but grounds for optimism that it can be implicated in the pursuit of key elements in the good life: hap- done stems from current projects to cure a variety of mental piness and achievement. If the genes for positive moods could illnesses. It is known that there is a genetic predisposition be bought and sold on an open market, then no doubt they for schizophrenia, but the specific genes that contribute to would fetch a dizzyingly high price. A society with egalitarian its manifestation are still mostly unknown. As with HPP, it is leanings would want to redistribute some of the genes from the not enough to identity the relevant genes for schizophrenia. hyperthymic to the depressed; that is, we might imagine some Researchers must also understand how the associated genes sort of “gene tax” to redistribute genes. Of course, genes are contribute to the disease and create a pharmacological agent not sold or taxed in this manner, but if they could be, we would to combat their effects. The point here, of course, is not that have some very large questions of distributive justice on our “normal happiness” is a disease but rather that the same type hands. Should we allow the market to operate unfettered and of research program that is underway to treat mental diseases the rich to buy their happiness through the purchase of these could be used to create HPP. genes, or should we use some other principle of distribution? Thus, the appropriate response to the Brave New World In terms of distributive justice, the creation of HPP is a question is, I believe, to reject it: we need not decide between no-brainer, for it would increase the pool of this very valuable happiness and achievement if our goal is to create HPP. Huxley resource. It would allow us to distribute it to those not lucky offers us a false dilemma: the pharmacological enhancement enough to win the genetic lottery for hyperthymia without HPP offers is the prospect of increased happiness and having to take anything away from anyone. (I am assuming achievement. For the happiest among us now have genes that that, at least when the patents run out, HPP will be close to the contribute to both their happiness and achievement. HPP is price of present headache medicines, so no new insurmount- a pharmacological agent to recreate, in pill form, this same able problems of distributive justice will result from HPP in genetic advantage. the long run.) To deny the rest of us access to HPP is a grave form of injustice, for that would artificially limit the pool of Liberty and Justice There are, I believe, compelling moral arguments for permitting the development and distribution of HPP. The “liberty defense” is familiar from attempts to legalize marijuana, cocaine, and other drugs that are presently illegal. The argument starts with the liberal premise that state intervention into the lives of individuals is justified only to prevent direct harm to others. Marijuana and cocaine may physically or morally harm those who consume these drugs, but users do not directly harm oth- ers. Hence, the state is not justified in regulating the use of mar- ijuana and cocaine. According to this line of thought, present antidrug laws are perniciously paternalistic: the state in effect is saying that it knows better how citizens should live their lives than the citizens themselves. HPP can also be defended on the basis of the liberty argument: If I want to consume HPP, this is my business and not the state’s, unless there is reason to think that it will directly harm others. Since no one else is directly harmed, there is no reason for the state to intervene and make the production and distribution of HPP illegal. Despite the seemingly impeccable credentials of this argu- ment in liberal theory, one would be rightly worried about the prospects for HPP if this were the only argument available. After all, this line of argument has been promulgated for decades in the vain attempt to persuade legislators to legalize

35 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 this valuable resource. To restrict the pool of this valuable re­ in the form of policy choice.) So “real happiness” in this second source is to prohibit most of us from the opportunity for what sense resolves to a winning set of genes from the dumb roulette many (but not all) see as the best life: life with the happiness wheel, whereas consumers of HPP will have “unreal happi- and achievement of the hyperthymic. ness” because they must take in pill form what the hyperthymic received from that stochastic process known as “nature.” Objections It is sometimes argued that pharmacological enhancement If the argument from justice is to be thwarted, there will have will turn us into emotional zombies. As we have said, there to be some pretty strong countervailing moral reasons, given are different ways that we might pharmacologically enhance that HPP promises so much to so many. Let us look at a few ourselves, so we should be open to the possibility that this possibilities. The usual argument involving bad social conse- criticism may be apt for some pharmacological agents and quences, e.g., encouraging people not to work, to withdraw from not others. This in fact may well be the case for HPP, but our family and society, etc., that is usually leveled against legalizing model for HPP is the hyperthymic. Are they emotional zom- drugs like marijuana can easily be dismissed. We said that the bies? The main differentiating factor in the normal curve of hyperthymic tend to perform better in their careers, have more happiness mentioned above is not the range or intensity of the successful social and family lives, and have better health out- moods experienced but their preponderance. Someone in the comes. A world where more people succeed in their work, social normal range of happiness might experience a positive mood and family life, and are healthier can hardly be said to be an as intense as anyone in the hyperthymic range and a negative undesirable social consequence. Indeed, on the basis of social mood as intense as those in the depressed range. The key here consequences, HPP ought to be encouraged, not prohibited. is the ratio of positive moods to negative moods: while the It has been suggested that pharmacological enhancement of hyperthymic will experience negative moods, on average they happiness would encourage taking the “easy way out” and that will experience far more positive than negative moods as com- HPP will not provide “real happiness.” Two common responses pared with the normally happy. As researchers Diener and are that “It is my business if I want to take the easy, artificial Seligman note: “Members of the happiest group experienced way out” and that hearing aids, eyeglasses, and immunizations positive, but not ecstatic, feelings most of the time, and they are also artificial and encourage taking the easy way out. (The reported occasional negative moods. This suggests that very hard way out might involve learning sign language, using canes, happy people do have a functioning emotion system that can and more frequently becoming disabled or dying of disease.) react appropriately to life events.” The former takes us back to the liberty argument, and the latter, while correct, does not address the deeper point, which Unleash the Hounds of Corporate Profit is to ask what is meant by “real” here. Consider that no one What sort of government policy does the argument suggest? In “deserves” her or his genes. The hyperthymic won the genetic part, this will depend on one’s view about the role of government lottery and so have a huge leg up in the pursuit of what many in promoting the good life. If one takes the view that govern- of us perceive as the good life. At least some of their happiness ments should be involved—that governments should invest in and achievement is a result of their genes. So the happiness of programs that promote career development, good marriages, the hyperthymic is not “real” if we mean by this something like mental and physical health, and so on—then this suggests some “won by their hard efforts.” For example, if we discover that a argument for governments to invest in the development and student who obtained a college degree paid for others to write distribution of HPP, since it promises to do the same. However, his or her essays and exams, we might say that he or she is not such a strong conclusion is not necessary to maintain hope for really a graduate, not having earned the degree. In this sense, HPP. It would be sufficient that governments let it be known that the hyperthymic experience happiness that is equally as real or they would permit its development and distribution. Here corpo- unreal as that enjoyed by any consumers of HPP would be and rate interest will propel us forward: as we have said, the vast so cannot be the basis of the objection. majority of us are in the normal range of positive moods, which More plausibly, the objection might understand “real” as means there is a huge potential market for HPP. The big phar- “resulting from nature.” In this sense, it is true that the hyper- maceutical companies should salivate at this prospect. The thymic have real happiness—where we mean “as the result of conclusion of this line of thought is almost embarrassingly “too nature”—whereas consumers of HPP would not. But so what? good to be true”: the profit motive of pharmacological corpora- The fact that nature has dispensed genes for hyperthymia to tions could then serve the morally valuable end of imbuing our some does not change the fact that no one “deserves” their lives with greater happiness and achievement. genes. People without the genes for hyperthymia may be unlucky, but they are not undeserving. Genes are “dispensed” Mark Alan Walker was born in a small log cabin built through the stochastic process of natural selection: nature is on conceptual foundations of his own design. He is an but a big, dumb roulette wheel. To read more into the process assistant professor in the Philosophy Department at New of dispensation is to read some moral design into the work of Mexico State University, where he occupies the Richard nature. (True, some might think that there is a divine or moral L. Hedden Endowed Chair in Advanced Philosophical aspect to nature on the basis of some religious or metaphysical Studies. He serves on the editorial board of the Journal of doctrine. Whatever entitlement there is to such beliefs, I will Evolution and Technology and on the board of directors of assume it does not extend to imposing it on the general public the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies.

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 36 The Uncharted Moral Landscape of Designer Personalities Ronald A. Lindsay

ew moral issues attract as much attention from moral are a few decades away, at best, especially for complex traits philosophers these days as the ethics of human enhance- such as intelligence or a “happy” personality. These traits are Fment—of using pharmacological agents, genetic engi- not associated with any single gene. Moreover, if and when we neering, or biomedical implants to improve our memory, locate the genes associated with certain traits, it is not only intelligence, strength, endurance, agility, or personality. To that set of genes that we would have to modify but also the analyze the morality of enhancements, we must consider new genes located in other areas of the person’s genome that regu- technologies, review scientific developments, make predictions late the expression of the genes in question. Genes interact in about the future, entertain hypotheticals that border on sci- very complicated patterns with other genes. ence fiction, and ponder novel moral dilemmas. Contemplating However, biomedical implants and reliable pharmacological this compelling brew of fact, fantasy, and value certainly beats agents are much closer to fruition. Indeed, there is already rehashing old disputes about abortion, affirmative action, and widespread “off-label” use of certain drugs that can be used capital punishment. as cognitive enhancers. Drugs prescribed for those suffering In addition, offering one’s views on enhancements has from ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), such as this distinct advantage: since arguments about enhancements Ritalin and Adderall, are used by people without this disorder depend to a significant extent on what might happen, it is diffi- to improve their mental alertness and acuity. This illustrates cult for others to prove one’s moral position unsound. Armchair one major problem of trying to ban the production of enhance- moralizing has rarely been as much fun—or as speculative. ments. Enhancements often arise as by-products of efforts to

“. . . biomedical implants and reliable pharmacological agents are much closer to fruition. Indeed, there is already widespread ‘off-label’ use of certain drugs that can be used as cognitive enhancers.”

Nonetheless, despite substantial factual and moral uncer- develop therapies. Some people have a clear therapeutic need tainty, some relevant empirical claims and moral judgments for Ritalin and similar drugs, so prohibiting the production have a sufficiently solid, defensible basis that we can use to of such drugs because of their utility as cognitive enhancers assemble a rough moral guide to the development and use of would prevent many from achieving “normal” functioning. enhancements. I will provide this rough guide by listing a few Likewise,­ the pill that can restore an Alzheimer patient’s mem- key facts and moral principles and then focus on some specific ory can provide someone else with super-memory; the pill that issues relating to personality enhancement—which in my view alleviates one patient’s depression may provide someone else raise some more difficult questions, in part because our con- with a highly social, agreeable personality (think of Prozac). cepts of personality are themselves quite vague. In theory, we could limit the use of such drugs to those who have a diagnosed disorder. Yeah, right. The administrative Four Key Points About Enhancements and regulatory bureaucracy required to prevent the “off-la- 1. The availability of significant enhancements in coming bel” use of therapies would be staggering and would probably decades is highly probable. It would be exceedingly dif- entail serious abridgment of personal liberties. Urine tests for ficult and/or counterproductive to ban their production all would become a daily routine. and use. Both proponents and opponents have tended to In addition, banning enhancements would create a black overstate the proximity of enhancements, suggesting they are market, giving the wealthy greater access to enhancements just around the corner. Genetic enhancements, in particular, than others. Concern about inequity of access is one of the rea-

37 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 sons some oppose enhancements; yet banning enhancements would likely worsen disparities in access to them. Biomedical implants and genetic engineering would be eas- ier to regulate: you can’t buy a genetic engineering kit at your local drugstore and probably won’t able to until Manhattan disappears underwater. (Maybe you’ll be able to design gills for yourself.) But drugs can deliver most of what people want from enhancements, and, as indicated, banning their produc- tion and use would be inadvisable. 2. Enhancements are not intrinsically immoral or “unnatural.” As is true with some other issues in bioethics, the debate over the morality of enhancements has suffered from the instinctive reactions of many against any technology that is new and different. How many times have we heard the argu- ment that some new technology/procedure should be rejected because­ it is “unnatural” or would require us to “play God”? These objections are singularly uninformative. Indeed, saying that something is “unnatural” is simply a superficially more impressive way of saying “I don’t like this, but I can’t say why.” Scores of books and articles have been written about the supposed horror of human enhancements. But why are some people so horrified by enhancements? If we understand an enhancement as something that allows human beings to expand their capacities—that is, to enable them to function in ways that human beings in the past were not able to—then for most of our existence as a species we have been pursuing enhancements. Consider literacy, one of the most consequen- tial human cognitive enhancements ever achieved. Literacy has greatly increased our communicative capabilities as well as our ability to engage in complex planning. Enhancements are essentially a means of improving our- selves. And is there anything intrinsically wrong with self-im- provement or with helping others to improve their capacities? Doing so is not only permissible but in some cases arguably obligatory. Consider the education and training that people pursue for themselves and that they try to provide for their children. Don’t we normally regard education as a good thing? Now one might say at this point that the examples I have given are unlike pharmacological or genetic enhancements or biomedical implants because these newer technologies would affect our biological processes. But education and training also have biological consequences. Your teacher, the tape or CD you listen to, or the DVD that you watch all aim at bringing about changes in your brain, establishing new neurological pathways that ultimately will allow you to perform tasks that you could not previously perform. It has been shown that the brains of literate people are recognizably different than the brains of illiterate people. Education is not some mystical, supernatural process: just like an enhancing drug, education injects knowledge into your brain, simply through sensory inputs instead of through a pill! 3. Safety is a not a decisive objection to enhancements. Many who oppose enhancements argue that they are simply too risky, especially if we are considering neuroenhancers. We cannot guarantee their safety. Even if a drug has no immediate side- effects, harmful side-effects might appear ten or twenty years later. For example, a drug that improves your short-term

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 38 memory may have the result of eroding your capacity for long- macological agents that provide women with the power to pre- term memory. vent pregnancy. Moreover, they provide this power very quickly. We can never have absolute assurance about the safety of If that does not qualify as a biological enhancement, what does? any new technology. (Does use of cell phones increase the risk Having a reliable means to prevent pregnancy vastly of brain cancer?) But that shows precisely why the argument increased women’s capacity to control the direction of their from safety cannot be sufficient to block any new technology, lives and enabled them to accomplish much more than they enhancements included. If we implemented this precautionary would have been able to otherwise. It is not just a matter of principle consistently, we would never accept any new tech- sexual freedom. Look at law offices and corporate boardrooms nology. Of course, enhancements should be tested rigorously today and compare them with similar establishments in the to the extent possible before they are made widely available, 1950s. Some will attribute the near-total absence of women but the safety concern does not in principle provide a compel- in professional positions prior to the 1960s to sex discrimina- ling argument against enhancements. tion, but that is only part of the explanation. The attitude that 4. In determining the utility of enhancements, we should women were not suited to such positions was based partly on not only consider the benefits to the individual but also the concern that women could not reliably control whether the benefits to society. Enhancements have the potential for and when to have children. With birth-control pills, women transforming our world. Moreover, if enhancements are as no longer had to choose between a career and a relationship. robust and as efficacious as some predict, we must admit that Though individual women were the direct beneficiaries of the extent of the transformation they will usher in can be only the enhanced control over their bodies that oral contraceptives dimly perceived. Some regard this as a danger signal. They think provided, society as a whole also benefited from this enhance- enhancements may benefit the individual but that individual ment. The entry of women into careers previously closed to them benefits must be weighed against the public good, and they fear resulted in significant contributions of intellectual capital and that widespread use of enhancements will change our social provided a great boost to economic productivity. The example relations in unpredictable ways. If we cannot predict the effects of oral contraceptives shows that we can have an enhancement of introducing enhancements, then the default option is to ban that brings about far-reaching social and economic consequenc- them. es, as well as inducing changes in the behavior of millions, and To some extent, this is a reprise of the flawed safety objec- not only survive the experience but welcome its effects. tion noted above, except that it is not the safety of the individual that is of concern but the “health” of society. This objection has Happy Pills, Happy People, Happy Society? another noteworthy defect, however: as typically posed, the John Stuart Mill once notoriously observed that it is better to objection relies on an improper framing assumption that any be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. This observation benefit to individuals must be weighed against possible detri- captures one traditional objection to enhancements that would ment to society. But why assume that enhancements benefit “improve” the mood of people by making them “happier”: doing only the individual? If we think about other enhancements—the so might place them out of touch with reality and/or interfere development of literacy, the development of technology such with their ability or desire to engage in productive activity. as computers, and so forth—they have resulted in tremendous Numerous controlled substances make people feel better, but increases in productivity and well-being that benefited individu- they are rigorously controlled because they also have detrimen- als and society alike. Why should pharmacological, genetic, or tal effects, including causing users to focus on little more than implant enhancements be any different? obtaining additional supplies of the euphoria-inducing drug. If enlarging our ability to give shape and direction to our In recent years, however, some advocates of mood enhancers lives, to increase our productivity, and to accomplish our have argued that there is no necessary connection between pills objectives are good things, enhancements likely will change that make people happy and negative social effects. Quite the our way of life for the better. contrary, a causal connection is often claimed between happi- Moreover, multiple precedents indicate that our society ness and socially desirable consequences such as in­creased can absorb and deal with the tremendous changes that may productivity, better health, more satisfying social relationships, result from use of enhancements, and I’m not just referring to and the like. Some draw from this the conclusion that we should technological enhancements such as computers. Opponents encourage people to enhance their mood through the pharma- of enhancements rarely acknowledge that for some decades, cy—we will all benefit. We can all be Socrates satisfied. a pharmacological enhancement has been almost universally One can reliably infer from what I have stated already that available that caused a revolution in our social and economic I am not an opponent of enhancements in principle. But permit relations and has transformed the potential of half of humanity. me to note some skepticism about the purported benefits of Though many decried this enhancement when it was first intro- happy pills. duced and some still reject it as “unnatural,” nowadays most What is happiness, anyway? Studies of happiness are for hardly give it a second thought and regard its availability as the most part simply studies of self-reported subjective well-be- routine. I am referring, of course, to oral contraceptives. ing. As of now, we cannot measure happiness apart from Now some may question whether oral contraceptives qualify what people tell us about how they feel. (Possible advances in as a biological enhancement. Of course they do. They are phar- neurology may remove this limitation.) So in a typical study,

39 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 participants are asked to complete questionnaires or keep dia- all of us being both happy and productive relies on a false ries about their moods. Both the reliability and validity of such premise. Happiness and productivity may well be correlated methods is open to doubt. Minor differences in circumstances, but not because happiness leads to greater productivity. We including even the weather, affect self-reporting. Moreover, strive to be successful writers, activists, scholars, scientists, survey respondents are notoriously influenced by what they and so forth because we want to enjoy the rewards and sta- think they should say. Being happy is perceived as a good tus that come with success, and when we achieve relative thing; no one wants to be known as a “gloomy Gus.” So it is not success we are happy. Drug-induced happiness may provide really clear whether we are in a position to determine, outside us with a sense of contentment, but it may well be a sense of of exceptional cases, whether someone is happy or not. contentment divorced from productivity and achievement. Far Correlation or causation? As from leading to increased productivi- indicated, some studies about hap- ty, widespread use of happy pills may piness purport to show a causal link lead to decreased productivity. Why between being happy and being more work hard in our chosen endeavors productive, healthier, and so forth. But when we can lower our expectations it is unclear whether there is a causal and feel just as happy as the more relation here or, if so, in which direc- successful among us by taking a short tion the causation flows. For example, trip to the medicine cabinet? it would not be unreasonable to argue Conclusion that being healthy tends to make one happy, not the other way around. Or There is no good reason to oppose the a simple correlation—people who are development and use of enhance- happy also are often healthy—may not ments in principle. However, there establish that one condition causes are differences between enhance- ments for some capacities—vision, the other. Anyone attending humanist strength, endurance, memory, and conferences will notice a strong cor- various cognitive capacities—and relation between being white and over supposed enhancements for moods or forty and attending such conferences. personality traits. To begin, we do not Does that necessarily indicate that have a reliable means for measuring being white and over forty predisposes most moods or personality traits, cer- one to attend humanist conferences? tainly not by comparison with our I do not think so. Bottom line: we standards for measuring visual acui- need better evidence than has been ty, memory, and other capacities. produced so far to establish a caus- Second, we do not have a consensus al connection between­ happiness and on which personality traits are desirable. Outside of the New socially desirable consequences. Testament, meekness is not usually considered desirable, but The link between status and happiness. Those who push assertiveness and an unyielding will to triumph over one’s com- happy pills seem to think that we can all be shiny, happy people. petitors may not be desirable either—except in one’s lawyer or This treats happiness as an absolute rather than a relative state. military commander. Finally, the connection between possession But the data developed to date on happiness indicate that one’s of certain moods or personality traits, such as happiness, and sense of well-being is connected more reliably with one’s rela- the overall benefit to society is far from clear. We need far more tive productivity, health, and income as opposed to one’s abso- data—both empirical and normative—than we presently pos- lute level of these goods. It’s how we see ourselves in relation to sess before we can endorse widespread efforts to change our others that’s important for our sense of well-being. brain chemistry. We need a well-founded consensus on a desir- This should not be unexpected if our biology and social able design before we encourage designer personalities. dynamics materially resemble those of our primate cousins. Studies of monkeys, chimps, and apes show that high sero- Ronald A. Lindsay is president and CEO of the Center for tonin levels are connected with a high position within the Inquiry. He is also the author of Future Bioethics: Over­ group’s social hierarchy. High serotonin levels are correlated coming Taboos, Myths, and Dogmas (Prometheus 2008). No with self-esteem, confidence, and contentment. (Prozac, as is ingested neurological enhancements (other than caffeine) well-known, acts as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.) were used in the preparation of this article. What does this imply for the happiness pill project? Well, unlike the mythical children of Lake Wobegon who are all Further Reading above average, we cannot all enjoy high status. If happiness For a good, concise overview of happiness studies, see Andre van is linked to one’s relative position within society, then pro- Hoorn, A Short Introduction to Subjective Well-Being: Its Measure­ ment, Correlates and Policy Uses, available at http://www.oecd.org/­ moting a happiness pill on the grounds that it will lead to

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 40 Profiles of the Godless Results from a survey of the nonreligious Luke W. Galen

he nonreligious segment of the population is not only for the previously religious to report positive feelings of intel- increasing but is also increasingly visible in the public lectual autonomy, many reported negative interactions with Tsquare. Still, self-described religious believers constitute families or the loss of emotional or familial support. Other the vast majority of the American population, and so more surveys have similarly found that parental conflict is often attention has been paid by social scientists and survey re­ associated with the jettisoning of familial religion. In How We searchers to distinctions such as religious denomination (say, Believe: The Search for God in an Age of Science (1999), evangelicals vs. mainline) or political leanings than to charac- author Michael Shermer describes a survey conducted using teristics descriptive of a nonreligious orientation. This article the readership of Skeptic magazine as well as a sample drawn describes a survey that represents a departure from previous from the general public. One characteristic predictive of lower studies that have tended to use broad categories, often lump- religiosity (or at least lower fundamentalism) was the person- ing together the nonreligious into artificial groupings that are ality trait “Openness to experience,” which involves a high actually heterogeneous. need for cognition, intellectual engagement, and xenophilia When surveys are conducted of the general population, the (interest in new experiences). majority of which is religious, meaningful differences between distinct types of nonbelievers (say, secular humanist vs. athe- “One characteristic predictive of lower ist) have been neglected. Although commentators frequently speculate about distinctions among the godless, actual empir- religiosity (or at least lower funda- ical studies of populations sufficiently large to permit reliable mentalism) was the personality trait distinction between subtypes of nonreligious individuals are more difficult to come by. Given the stereotypical lens—if not ‘Openness to manifestly negative outlook—with which the nonreligious are experience,’ which involves a high need viewed, it is important to characterize the “varieties of non- religious experience” to determine who precisely constitutes for this growing demographic category. cognition, intellectual engagement, and In Hunsberger and Altemeyer’s Atheists: A Groundbreak­ ing Study of America’s Nonbelievers (2006), an exception xenophilia (interest in new experienc- to this dearth of research, a survey of several atheist groups es).” revealed that these active atheists tended to be highly edu- cated, older males. Most had childhoods with little parental emphasis placed on religion, but a quarter of the sample had experienced at least a moderately religious childhood. One Although results from these studies offer valuable insights controversial interpretation of the study pertained to the into characteristics associated with the varieties of nonbelief distinction between atheists and agnostics in regards to per- in God, the information gathered to this point has seldom sonality traits such as dogmatism. The results indicated that included data on nonbelievers’ social relationships and mental atheists saw themselves as being less likely to give up their well-being, much less any detailed breakdown of philosophical views in the future, and thus their outlook could be interpreted shadings. Regarding the latter, for example, the endorsement as being more rigid. However, in contrast to other samples of of philosophical beliefs (such as disbelief in God) can be com- religious believers surveyed, the nonreligious, atheist, and pared with the terms that nonbelievers use to label themselves agnostic were markedly less authoritarian and dogmatic. (such as atheist or humanist). Thus, there may be meaning- In Amazing Conversions: Why Some Abandon Faith and ful differences among those who choose such labels and those Others Turn to Religion (1997), a study also conducted by who may be de facto atheists and humanists but choose not to Altemeier and Hunsberger, the authors examined the path- label themselves as such. ways by which nonbelievers reached their philosophical and religious conclusions. For example, some previously religious Pilot Survey: Center for Inquiry/Michigan “apostates” experienced a mixture of costs and benefits as a and Local Churches result of their movement to irreligion. Although it was common A survey instrument was prepared to probe some of the dis-

41 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 tinctions among the nonreligious so frequently neglected in between the CFI/Michigan group and their churched counter- previous studies. In order to gather preliminary data and to parts. For example, reported life-satisfaction was well within test the survey instrument, a request soliciting participation the average range for both groups. One area of identifiable was sent to all subscribers of the Center For Inquiry/Michigan difference was that the churched participants perceived them- branch e-mail and group newsletter. For comparison purpos- selves as having a greater degree of social support from their es, we also approached two local churches that had sizable social network relative to the CFI/Michigan members. Our sur- memberships. This was done in order to provide some range vey included a standard measure of personality, the “Big Five” on survey instrument items such as belief in God as well as to scales as described by McCrae and Costa. Personality theorists support the testing of hypotheses regarding characteristics have identified five major dimensions of personality—ways in distinguishing between religious and nonreligious individuals which individuals differ from one another that lend themselves residing in the same community. The CFI/Michigan and church to measurement on linear scales, or continua. One of the more samples were similar in size (n = 333 and 325, respectively), familiar of these dimensions is extroversion versus introver- age, and income. However several demographic distinctions sion; however, this trait did not differ between the groups. The stood out. The CFI/Michigan members differed from their dimension that showed the greatest distinction between reli- churched counterparts by being predominantly male, more gious and nonreligious was the previously mentioned “Open­ highly educated, more likely to be never married or cohabiting ness to experience.” As was the case in Shermer’s survey, (although the “typical” CFI/Michigan member was married), nonreligious individuals reported being more intellectually ori- and had fewer children living at home. In regard to meta- ented and unconventional. Even controlling for the large differ- physical beliefs, not surprisingly, 95 percent of the church ences between religious and nonreligious individuals in regard group reported being absolutely certain that God existed, with to education, gender, marriage, and child-rearing, openness members distributed roughly equally among the self-labels still was the strongest predictor of both lower religious belief of “religious,” “spiritual,” and “theistic.” Beliefs were more and membership in CFI/Michigan as opposed to the churches. varied in the CFI/Michigan group. Although 48 percent were Another personality dimension that distinguished the reli- self-described atheists, the remainder was distributed among gious from the nonreligious was “agreeableness” (a quality of agnostics, humanists, spirituals, and “others” with the range being amiable or nonconfrontational as opposed to skeptical of belief certainty much wider as well. of others). The church sample was higher in agreeableness. The measures of mental well-being showed few differences Following the successful pilot study, it was determined that the

Fig. 1 Change in Self-Identification from Multiple to Single Labels.

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 42 survey instrument, with minimal modification, could be used labels—or the social, political, and pragmatic significance of, with a larger nonreligious sample. say, aligning with “humanism” as opposed to “atheism”—our survey allowed a purely empirical examination of those who The NRIS Survey choose various self-designations. Respondents were allowed In contrast to the goal of general population surveys (such to endorse multiple religious and philosophical views or labels as those conducted by Gallup or Harris), which is to obtain a (such as “spiritual,” “agnostic,” and “humanistic”), but they representative estimate of the proportion of individuals with- were also asked to choose the single term that best described in a population, the present study was designed to examine themselves. This self-identification term served as a basis characteristics within the nonreligious population (such as for categorization. Despite the option of selecting among a the social and personal qualities that characterize different dozen labels such as “deist” or “polytheist,” the overwhelming subgroups of nonreligious individuals). An e-mail request was majority of respondents were divided amongst four preferred sent to the membership of Center for Inquiry/Transnational. labels: 57 percent atheist, 24 percent humanist, 10 percent Some of the respondents referred the researchers to other agnostic, and 2 percent spiritual. nonreligious groups and individuals via a “snowball sampling” Interesting distinctions appear when examining the dif- method. A total of 5,831 individuals completed the entire online form. Eighty-three percent of our sample resided in the United States An additional 8 percent were from Canada; 2 “Even controlling for the large differenc- percent each were from the United Kingdom and Australia, es between religious and nonreligious and the remainder were from other countries. It must be stated at the outset that this sample is not nec- individuals in regard to education, gen- essarily representative of all nonreligious individuals; rather, der, marriage, it is likely to be skewed toward those who are actively involved in secular-related issues (such as readers of CFI-affiliated and child-rearing, openness still was the publications or members of national and local nonreligious strongest predictor of both lower reli- groups). However, the sample shows characteristics similar to most other surveys of the nonreligious in the literature. gious Among these characteristics, the demographic factor that belief and membership in CFI/Michigan most distinguished the nonreligious from the U.S. population as a whole was a high level of education. Forty-one percent as opposed to the churches.” of our respondents had a master’s, doctorate, or professional degree, and 31 percent reported earning more than $100,000 per year. Our sample was 74 percent male, 53 percent mar- ference between an inclusive selection (which is to say, when ried, with an average age of forty-eight years. Therefore, the respondents were allowed to select more than one label) demographic characteristics indicate a stable and educated versus when they were asked to set all others aside to choose sample characterized by high socio-economic status. the most descriptive single label. For example, although 9 Regarding religious background, the nonreligious have percent of the sample chose “spiritual” among multiple labels, been raised in a wide range of childhood environments. At when asked to pick a single self-identification, only 2 percent one end of this continuum, 15 percent reported having grown chose “spiritual.” This large proportional reduction indicates up in a household where religion was either mildly or not at that far fewer chose spiritual as their sole label than were will- all emphasized (only a small proportion reported that reli- ing to include it among other labels. The label “agnostic” was gion was actively discouraged); at the other end, 35 percent similarly “jettisoned” by a relatively high proportion of individ- reported being raised with a strong or very strong religious uals. In fact, many respondents appear to use “agnostic” and emphasis. Also relevant is that those from the latter, high-re- “atheist” interchangeably; among those who selected “agnos- ligiosity background were more likely (relative to those from tic” as one of their multiple labels, they evenly split between other religious backgrounds) to report that they have poorer “atheist” and “agnostic” when choosing a sole identification relationships with family. An interesting curvilinear effect label. It therefore appears that “agnostic” is used alongside involved age and childhood religion. Reports of growing up other labels but frequently discarded when push comes to with greater childhood religion were highest for the cohort shove. “Humanist” seems to be a popular secondary label and currently in their sixties (i.e., born 1938–1948), and lowest for contrasts in that regard to “atheist.” For example, around two- those currently in their twenties and those in their eighties. thirds of self-described humanists also consider themselves Thus, a greater proportion of those who lived their formative atheists; half of both atheists and agnostics also consider teen and young-adult years in the postwar 1950s reported themselves humanists. However, the “supplemental” nature of having a higher level of religion in their household at that humanism is evident in that, whereas two-thirds of the sample time, whereas the nonreligious who grew up either before included “humanist” among their multiple self-identifications, the post–World War II period or who were later “Generation only a quarter chose that as their sole label. X’ers” reported less religious childhoods. The nonreligious often debate distinctions such as between positive atheists (who actively deny the existence of God) and An Atheist by Any Other Name? negative atheists (who claim only that no evidence for God The Labeling Wars exists) or whether the latter should really be deemed a form Although numerous articles and columns in Free Inquiry of agnosticism. Our data suggest that, perhaps out of a wish to have explored the philosophical differences between belief avoid appearing as “dogmatic atheists,” many individuals actu-

43 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 ally use the terms agnostic and atheist interchangeably while becoming more common despite a shared de facto philosophical a large proportion are essentially de facto atheists. Contrast outlook with self-labeled humanists. the attrition from “spiritual,” “agnostic,” and “humanist” when reverting to a single label with the three-quarters who included What Does a Belief Label “atheist” as one of their multiple self-identifications; 57 percent Indicate about an Individual? of the latter retained “atheist” as their as sole label. In other Perhaps not surprisingly, self-labeling appears to coincide with words, those respondents who included “atheist” among other social identification; the philosophical views of self-labeled labels were most likely to end up retaining it when choosing atheists and humanists take a more central place in their lives one self-identification. Thus, atheist appears to be more of a (as measured by selection of the descriptive phrase “I am emo- “bridge-burning” term; those who define themselves as atheists tionally invested in my philosophical views”) than agnostics are less likely to shed that term or to dilute it with other labels. and spirituals. One demographic distinguishing characteristic This indicates that although humanist is one of many hats that of spirituals is sex composition. Even though women represent- nonreligious individuals wear, when push comes to shove most ed only a fourth of the total sample, they represented one-half of these individuals are “really” atheists. This raises the ques- of spirituals. Spirituals also reported having more close social tion: are there individuals who are for all metaphysical intents confidants. The number of both family and nonfamily confi- and purposes either atheists or agnostics but do not label dants reported by spirituals was higher than the other three themselves as such? What characteristics distinguish those belief labels. (The greater number of confidants of the spiritu- who otherwise metaphysically agree in unbelief but choose to als is not attributable to the higher proportion of women in that describe themselves differently? group; the analysis still displayed significant differences when limited to males-only.) However, spirituals reported lower Atheistic and Agnostic Deniers? satisfaction with their lives than those with other belief labels. A comparison of respondents’ chosen belief labels to their In regard to personality, the four main types of self-labeled responses on the philosophical-belief items allowed us to char- nonbelievers differed not in openness to experience (which acterize respondents who were de facto atheists or agnostics is more of a distinguishing characteristic between believers but did not so self-label. Participants who responded that they and the nonreligious) but on two other Big Five personality ranged from at least “not sure” to “absolutely sure” that God dimensions: the aforementioned agreeableness and neurot- did not exist and who also responded that they “did not believe icism (that is, negative emotionality). In personality terms, in anything beyond the physical world” were labeled as de facto spirituals are more agreeable than are humanists, who are atheists/agnostics. This designation was cross-referenced with in turn more agreeable than atheists and agnostics. However, their self-identification. Most of those who met de facto atheist/ spirituals also report more negative emotionality (i.e., are agnostic criteria but did not self-label as such (and who could less emotionally stable) than atheists and humanists, who be termed atheist/agnostic deniers) tended to use other labels are relatively more stable. Agreeableness does not reflect the such as “spiritual” or “humanist.” When these individuals were preference for social contact per se (as does extroversion), as compared to those who actually self-labeled as atheists/agnos- there were no significant differences among the belief labels in tics, several differences between these two groups emerged. sheer number of social contacts. However, the agreeableness The most salient distinction between the “admitters” and the differences may indicate a certain willingness among the spir- “deniers” was age. Those nonbelievers who chose to self-label ituals to try to “get along with” or trust others (as mentioned as “spiritual” and “humanist” were older (average of fifty-three above, they report having more close confidants) in contrast and fifty-one, respectively) than those choosing “agnostic” and to the atheists, who display relatively greater willingness to “atheist” (forty-nine and forty-seven, respectively). This would go against the social grain. One can debate whether or not seem to indicate a cohort effect, such that the term atheist is this confirms or disconfirms the “angry loner atheist” stereo- type. It must be emphasized that the average number of close Table 1. Major distinguishing characteristics as a function of primary personal contacts reported by all groups in the sample was self-label relatively high compared with other general population data. These personality findings appear to indicate that the atheists Self Identification: Spiritual Agnostic Atheist Humanist place less emphasis, relative to humanists and spirituals, on (n =117) (N = 608) (n = 3296) (n =1386) pleasing or trusting others. Variable One argument frequently made by social psychologist D.G. Myers, among others, using general population samples is % Male 48 72 75 73 that psychological and emotional well-being and life satisfac- Age 53 49 47 51 tion are higher in proportion to greater religious belief. The Strength of Group Medium Low High High problem with most research using such samples is that, due Identification to smaller numbers on the low end of the belief continuum, Belief Certainty Not Sure Somewhat Mostly Mostly the unsure or weakly religious (say, those reporting sporadic in No God church attendance or weak belief in God) are often obscured Number Non- High Moderate Moderate Moderate by, or lumped together with, the completely nonreligious. Family Confidants Similarly, lack of church attendance is often equated with Life Satisfaction Lower Moderate Moderate Moderate lack of religious belief, when in fact many believers do not Agreeableness Higher Lower Lower Moderate attend religious services (a factor likely to be linked to lower Emotional Stability Lower Lower Higher Higher mental health). This has often resulted in findings that appear to demonstrate a linear increase in psychological health with

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 44 increasing religiosity. This problem can be addressed by using uncertain of their beliefs showing more distress. more substantial numbers of complete nonbelievers in addi- More research remains to be done, for example regarding tion to those merely at the low end of the religious belief range. the factors that differentiate individuals who are raised in a The relationship between certainty of beliefs and emotion- religious context who remain religious versus those who al well-being in our nonbeliever sample was a mirror image become nonreligious. Those with high openness to experience of general population studies. In overwhelmingly religious and lower agreeableness may not be satisfied with “tradition” samples, certainty and confidence in one’s beliefs tends to be and may seek out experiences that further reinforce irreligious related to characteristics of emotional health and a sense of tendencies. A less agreeable, more individualistic style may purpose, whereas religious uncertainty and doubt often cor- lead one to assert confidently a disbelief in socially required relate with anxiety and depression. (See in particular Smith, spiritual platitudes, with a resulting trade-off between greater McCullough, and Poll; see also Hunsberger, Pancer, Pratt, emphasis on personal integrity but lower social acceptance. and Alisat.) When we distinguished strong varieties of non- Many nonreligious individuals with such personality traits like- belief, such as atheism, from weaker nonbelief, a curvilinear ly select life experiences throughout their educational and relationship emerged (see Shaver, Lenauer, and Sadd). Those social development that result in further skepticism and nonbelievers most confident in their nonbelief tended to be increased certainty of nonbelief. These various pathways to the most emotionally healthy, relative to the “fence sitters” irreligion will become increasingly relevant as the nonreligious who reported more negative emotions. Similarly, life satis- continue to grow as a proportion of the population. faction was lower among the spirituals relative to the other three belief labels. Therefore, having uncertainty regarding Acknowledgments one’s religious views appears to be associated with rela- Thanks to Jeff Seaver, executive director and chair of the Center tively greater emotional instability. Taken together with the for Inquiry/Michigan, for his help in this project. For more infor- personality findings, confident nonbelievers (and apparently mation on the study or specific findings, go to the Web site www. nrisstudy.org. confident religious believers) are better situated emotional- ly, although the lower agreeableness indicates that strong Further Reading nonbelievers appear to be somewhat less likely to acquiesce Altemeyer, R.A., and B.E. Hunsberger. Amazing Conversions: Why to or to trust others. These findings bring up interesting Some Abandon Faith and Others Turn to Religion. Amherst, questions regarding the relative value priorities individuals New York: Prometheus Books, 1997. may assign to personal belief certainty versus a need for Hunsberger, B.E., M. Pratt, and S.M. Pancer. “Religious Versus Non­ social acceptance. religious Socialization: Does Religious Background have Implica­ tions for Adjustment?” International Journal for the Psychology What Does This Indicate of Religion 11 (2001): 105–28. Canadian students with no religious background were not different in personal adjustment from those about the Nonreligious? with religious backgrounds. To summarize, relative to the religious or churched segment Hunsberger, B.E., S.M. Pancer, M. Pratt, and S. Alisat. “The Transition of the population, the nonreligious are distinguished both to University: Is Religion Related to Adjustment?” Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion 7(1996): 181–99. Religious demographically (more likely to be male, highly educated, doubts and questioning were associated with anxiety. never married or cohabiting) and by their personality (more Hunsberger, B.E., and R.A. Altemeyer. Atheists: A Groundbreaking open to new experience and intellectually oriented, less agree- Study of America’s Nonbelievers. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus­ able). Although overall life satisfaction and social contact Books, 2006. in our nonreligious sample was equivalent to the religious McCrae, R.R., and P.T. Costa. Personality in Adulthood. New York: The Guilford Press, 1990. comparison group, the latter perceived a higher level of social Myers, D.G. The Funds, Friends, and Faith of Happy People. Amer­ support, possibly provided by their religious organizations. ican Psychologist (2000): 55, 56–67. Among our large survey of the nonreligious, there was a range Shaver, P., M. Lenauer, and S. Sadd, “Religiousness, Conversion, and of philosophical beliefs: respondents included self-labeled Subjective Well-being: The ‘Healthy-minded’ Religion of Modern atheists, agnostics, humanists, and spirituals. The label “athe- American Women.” American Journal of Psychiatry 137(1980): 1563–1568. A curvilinear relationship was found between belief ist” appears to be becoming more common among younger and mental health. individuals, suggesting that fewer nonreligious young people Shermer, M. How We Believe: The Search for God in an Age of are choosing more tentative labels relative to older cohorts. Science. New York: Freeman, 1999. A survey of Skeptic magazine Finally, in contrast to many general population studies that readership found that, among other predictors, the nonreligious lump together those who are confident in their nonbelief with were characterized by higher education, familial conflict, and those who may be weakly religious, the present study allows openness to experience. Smith, T.B., M.E. McCullough, and J. Poll, “Religiousness and Depres­ the ability to distinguish degrees of nonbelief, yielding inter- sion: Evidence for a Main Effect and the Moderating Influence of esting results. Confident nonbelievers such as atheists were Stressful Life Events.” Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003): 614–36.­ more emotionally well-adjusted relative to tentative nonbeliev- A modest but significant relationship existed between religiosity ers; the latter, though, appear to place a greater emphasis on and lower depression, particularly when religion buffered stressful being agreeable to, and trusting of, others. The present study life events. indicates that the common assumption of greater religiosity relating to greater happiness and satisfaction is overly sim- Luke Galen is associate professor of psychology at Grand Valley State University in Allendale, Michigan. plistic. Many of the nonreligious, particularly those involved with an increasingly visible movement or community char- acterized by stronger varieties of nonbelief, are actually as well-adjusted and satisfied as the highly religious, with those

45 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 Visions and the Origins of Christianity Mary K. Matossian

n 2006, Ronald R. Griffiths and his Jesus, assumptions that may have been team at Johns Hopkins­ University wholly or partly incorrect. Moreover, the Idemonstrated in a double-blind exper- Jesus Seminarians did not take into con- iment that the hallucinogen psilocybin, sideration the physical environment in extracted from a kind of mushroom, which Jesus lived. could induce mystical experiences. They Another way to approach the Gospels, chose thirty-six participants who at least the one used here, is to take heed of the intermittently had participated in reli- scientific experiment described briefly gious and spiritual activities. All but in the first paragraph. It shows that one were college graduates. Two-thirds many people can have profound religious reported­ two months later that their experiences when under the influence psilocybin experience had been either of a hallucinogen. Hallucinogens can be the single most meaningful experience of extracted­ from plants and fungi. Could their lives or among the five most mean- these facts be of any use in understand- ingful experiences of their lives. ing the “weeds” in the Gospels? Could The above experiment started with a they lead to a more accurate reconstruc- cause (a hallucinogen) and reported its tion of the origins of Christianity? Let effects (a religious experience). It is more us see. difficult to start with effects and work Our analysis begins by exploring the successfully back to their causes. More­ possible causation of some of the visions over, the act of using concurrent facts reported in the Bible and probing the and constructing a single causal narra- thinking associated with them. It is based tive is risky in itself, often leading to the on the working assumption that religious production of a charming but mistaken experiences may be chemically induced. myth. Yet time and time again, scientists How can one decide whether a vision have discovered that paying attention to is chemically induced? Visions may be a discrepant fact is the key to the solution connected with sleep, produced con- of a problem. sciously by the imagination, or a result The four canonical Christian Gospels of mental illness. But the effects induced are like four gardens containing weeds. by a hallucinogen always have a marker: The weeds are discrepant facts and epi- at some point they involve characteris- sodes that the gardeners failed to uproot tic distortions in visual perceptions. or fully harmonize with their moral mes- Many hallucinogens, including the psy- sage. The Gospel writers treated them chedelics, cause mydriasis, the exessive as miraculous and used them as proof of dialation of the puplis even in bright envi- the divine nature of Jesus. But they had ronments. The subject feels overwhelmed nothing to do with the moral message of by light. Jesus. Generally speaking, hallucinogens One way to deal with such discrepan- often cause a bright light to appear in cies is to color-code the text to indicate the center of the visual field. They occa- the degree to which each passage is prob- sionally cause transient blindness and ably authentic, that is, as expressions of may cause auditory hallucinations and what Jesus “really” meant. This was the high anxiety as well. approach of the Jesus Seminar in 1995’s There are no statements in the Bible The Five Gospels: The Search for the to the effect that any individual ingested Authentic Words of Jesus. The authors a hallucinogen. But this silence is not identified discrepant material and col- strange; consider the Greek priestesses or-coded it as grey or black. Their judg- in ancient Eleusis who served a sacred ments were based on assumptions about drink, kykeon. The priestesses kept its

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 46 recipe secret for centuries. Scholars still argue about its sions of two thought patterns prevalent in Palestine in the time ingredients, but they generally agree that kykeon contained of Jesus. a hallucinogen. Those with a monopoly of knowledge about the preparation of a sacred compound possess an advantage Light as a Symbol over their competitors. Little wonder that such knowledge, like The use of light in general as a symbol of divinity is especially an old family recipe or a trade secret, does not appear in the prominent in John 1:3–9: Scripture record. What has come into being in him was life, and the life was light In the New Testament, the only sacred drink mentioned is of all people. The light shines in the darkness and the darkness wine, which Jesus and his disciples, like other Jews, drank. did not overcome it. There was a man sent from God whose But it is well known that a large dose of wine does not produce name was John. He came as a witness to testify to the light, spiritual experiences and lasting peace of mind but rather a so that all might believe through him. He himself was not the light, but he came to testify to the light. The true light, which headache. Perhaps on occasion Jesus and his disciples made enlightens everyone, was coming into the world. use of a more suitable drink, one that lifted their spirits instead of giving a nasty hangover. If so, how could it be detected? In John 8:12, Jesus says, “I am the light of the world. 1. The probable ingredients would have to be identified. Whoever follows me will not walk in darkness but will have 2. It would be necessary to show that the ingredients were the light of life.” The Book of Revelation begins with a passage available in first-century Palestine. blazing with light (Rev. 1:13–16): 3. It would be necessary to identify extraordinary experiences And in the midst of the lamp stands I saw one like the Son of of Jesus and his followers that might have been induced by Man, clothed with a long robe and with a golden sash around such a drink. Then it would be necessary to make a differential his chest. His head and his hair were white as white wool, white as snow; his eyes like a flame of fire, his feet like burnished diagnosis of these extraordinary experiences. bronze, refined as in a furnace . . . his face was like the sun shining with full force. Visual and Auditory Disturbances in the New Testament But light has not always been a symbol of goodness in the Middle East. Before the sixth century b.c.e., there was sun The episode of the transfiguration of Jesus is found in the worship in Egypt and elsewhere in the region, but light and books of Matthew, Mark, and Luke (Matt. 17:1–9; Mark 9:2; darkness carried no ethical association. They were seen as Luke 9:29). Jesus took three disciples, Peter, James, and John, complementary phenomena, not irreconcilable opposites. For with him to the top of a mountain. Matthew’s account is typical: in the Middle East, summers are much hotter and drier than in And he [Jesus] was transfigured before them and his face northwest Europe; the sun can be a killer. People often chose shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white. to travel at night across desert areas, welcoming the cooler air Suddenly there appeared to them Moses and Elijah talking with him. . . . Suddenly a bright cloud overshadowed them and and the brilliant starlight. There is usually no rain from late a voice said, “This is my Son, The Beloved, with him I am well spring to early fall in the lands around the Mediterranean Sea. pleased; listen to him.” When the disciples heard this they fell Here rain and clouds are welcomed more than abundant sun- to the ground and were overcome with fear. But Jesus came light. No wonder the chief male god in ancient Greece, Anatolia, and touched them saying, “Get up and do not be afraid.” And when they looked up, they saw no one except Jesus himself and the Levant was a thunder god, the bringer of rain. alone. As they were coming down the mountain Jesus ordered Only in about the sixth century b.c.e. did light begin to them, “Tell no one about the vision until the Son of Man has assume moral significance in Middle-Eastern thinking, with been raised from the dead.” light representing goodness and wisdom. The experience of Differential diagnosis: migraine headaches may produce Zarathrushtra (Zoroaster, Zardusht), whom some experts visual and auditory hallucinations. So may temporal lobe believe lived at this time, is a case in point. When Zarathrushtra epilepsy. However, it is improbable that three men would suf- was thirty years old, at the time of the spring solstice festival, fer the acute symptoms of such disorders simultaneously. A one traditional account says that he went to a river and waded hallucinogen could have produced the effects reported in the into the water until midstream. When he turned around to wade Gospels simultaneously in a group of individuals. back, he saw a divine being “in the shape of a man, fair, bright, A hallucinogen may also be suspected as a cause of the and radiant. . . . He wore a garment of silk . . . which was as vision of Paul of Tarsus (Acts 9:3–4). As Paul was approaching light itself.” The shining figure took Zarathrushtra to a group of Damascus: divine beings who gave off so much light that he could no longer see his shadow on the ground. suddenly a light from Heaven flashed around him. He fell to the This symbolic use of light for goodness would be logical ground and heard a voice saying to him, “Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?” For three days Paul was blinded. for those who have experienced brilliant light in connection with blissful feelings while in a trance. Ancient Zoroastrian Differential diagnosis: as suggested by Kenneth Dewhurst texts reveal that Zarathrushtra drank the sacred drink of the and his colleagues, Paul could have suffered an attack of ancient Persians, haoma, and scholars believe it was probably temporal lobe epilepsy. However, transient blindness has hallucinogenic. only been reported in cases of occipital lobe epilepsy (the Zoroaster taught that the chief god in his religion, Ohrmazd, brain’s vision center resides in the occipital lobe). Migraine lived in a place of “Endless Light.” This god created fire and head­aches may cause transient blindness but only in one eye. linked its brilliance to Endless Light. The Zoroastrians were However, all the effects reported by Paul could have been often called “fire worshippers,” but in fact for them fire was chemically induced. only a symbol of their chief god. There is other evidence for chemical inducement of mental Many centuries later, in 1652, George Fox, the founder of phenomena. The next two sections of this article are discus-

47 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 the Quakers, reported in his journal while at an inn near Pendle resemblances to the mental effects of LSD (lysergic acid dieth- Hill in northwest England: “Here the Lord opened unto me, and ylamide) on volunteers in the United States between 1952 and let me see a great people in white raiment by the river side, 1972. These similarities suggest that the hallucinations of hippies coming to the Lord.” This was typical of mentions of light as a and the “glory” in the Gospels might have had a similar origin. symbol of goodness that appeared in Fox’s diary between 1648 and 1658. I have argued elsewhere that the trembling and other Hallucinations and central nervous symptoms reported among Quakers between Recent Religious Experience 1647 and 1659 may have been caused by the unintended pres- The hallucinogen LSD-25 has the capacity to produce visual ence of ergot alkaloids in the rye bread in the diet of English and auditory hallucinations. It can induce apocalyptic visions. commoners. But long after 1659 and even today, Quakers use It can also induce mystical experiences. The chemical is light as a symbol to suggest the love of God and Jesus. derived from a group of natural chemicals found in ergot, a product of the fungus Claviceps purpurea or its relative, Early History of Apocalyptic Thinking Claviceps paspali. Tens, perhaps hundreds, of thousands of Apocalyptic thinking pervades the New Testament. It is con- Americans have ingested LSD, legally and illegally. cerned with the end of the world, the afterlife, the last judgment Reports of LSD experiences usually include visual distur- of the dead, a savior, and a new age. Apocalyptic beliefs were bances. Of his first LSD experience in the fall of 1961, Timothy important in the Christian message because they served to Leary wrote: “Tumbling and spinning, down the soft fibrous support the view that Jesus had the supernatural power of avenues to some central point which was just light, just light, prophecy and was the expected savior. But the end of the world but not just light: It was the Center of Life. A burning, dazzling, did not arrive on schedule (within a generation). This called into throbbing radiant core, pure pulsing exulting light.” Of an question the claim of early Christians that Jesus was a prophet experience during the winter of 1961 he reported: and savior. So the Gospel of Matthew (90–110 c.e.) attributed to The room was celes­­­­tial, glowing radiant illumination . . . light Jesus the saying that only the Father knew the actual date of the . . . light . . . light. . . . The people present were transfigured. . . . end of the world (Matt. 24:36). Luke suggested that the Kingdom Godlike creatures. . . . Gradually the brilliant illumination faded of Heaven had already arrived (Luke 11: 20, 17:20–21). back to the Three-D world and I sat up. Reborn, Renewed,­ Apocalyptic thinking was part of the climate of opinion Radiant with affection and reverence. among the Jews in the first century c.e. But the Jews had not Between 1956 and 1962, the physician Oscar Janiger re­ always believed in the end of the world and the coming of a searched the effects of LSD by prescribing it to a total of 930 Savior. Apocalyptic thinking entered Jewish thinking from adult volunteers. He selected only volunteers who showed no Near-Eastern, Greek, and especially Persian sources. sign of significant mental or physical illness. Then he provided Apocalyptic thinking focused not on religious traditions but them with a moderate dose of LSD in a secular, homelike envi- on the current and future work of supposed supernatural pow- ronment with the company of a responsible guide and observer. ers. At this time, the struggle between good and evil powers His volunteers typically reported visual hallucinations and was seen in the rise and fall of nations. The judgment of the frequently auditory hallucinations as well. Of the 930 volun- dead and their consignment to heaven or hell would occur on teers, 223, or one-fifth, had mystical or spiritual experiences. a single day. The forces of the good divine ruler would defeat A notable one was that of a woman who imagined herself mov- the forces of the evil spirit. ing up into “the light.” In the third century b.c.e., this historical apocalyptic think- Supernatural beings and supernatural events seen during ing appeared among the Jews, becoming a “cultural epidemic.” a religious experience seem undeniably real to the subject. It lasted until the early second century c.e. among Jews as well Some think they have experienced “ultimate reality.” Hence, as Christians. But why? The Roman Empire was prospering the hallucinatory experience can produce conviction, belief, in the first and second centuries c.e. Climatic conditions were and lasting faith in supernatural realities. favorable (see Figure 1); subject populations probably grew, It can be argued that by long spiritual training, individuals producing heightened tax revenues. In return, the Romans can learn to produce hallucinations and feelings of bliss without were delivering many important benefits to their subjects: the use of psychoactive chemicals. Such methods include sen- security from barbarian attacks, a flourishing agricultural sory deprivation, fasting, drumming, chanting, dancing, medita- economy, well-protected trade routes by land and sea, and a tion, yoga exercises, and the like. But the New Testament does uniform system of law and justice. In the time of Jesus, then, not report that the early Christians practiced such spiritual there was no particular political or social crisis to produce a exercises. Jesus told them stories and performed “miracles.” receptive audience for apocalyptic thinking. They went to hear him and followed him around. The Gospel Did apocalyptism result from Roman oppression of the reader is expected to believe that supernatural forces produced Jews? One could explain the decline of apocalyptism that the extraordinary experiences reported by these followers. way. After Jewish revolts against Rome failed in the first and If we suspect a hallucinogen of creating some of the visions early second centuries c.e., apocalyptic thinking died down. in the New Testament, then what might it be? Therein lies a Those who believed the apocalyptic prophesies may have been real mystery. disillusioned by the failure of Jewish rebels. But that does not explain the previous emergence of widespread Jewish apoca- The Missing Middle-Eastern Hallucinogen lyptic thinking in the relatively free and prosperous Hellenistic From the Neolithic era, people in the Middle East enjoyed the period. It does not explain its continuance during the centu- use of psychoactive substances including beer, wine, opium, ries of peak Roman prosperity and stability. and hashish. But it is widely believed that no useful halluci- Light symbolism and apocalyptic thinking bear remarkable nogenic plants grew in the Fertile Crescent. The datura plant

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 48 grew there, but it was so toxic that it could send the user on a However, Jesus lived in a time of favorable climatic condi- one-way trip to the spirit world. The other psychoactive sub- tions in Palestine: indeed, moisture was at a peak. Apocalyptic­ stances available do not qualify as hallucinogens. thinking began at the beginning of this moist period and died As for fungi, the usual climate in most of the Middle East out in the third century c.e., when the climate was drying out was often too dry to encourage their growth. In addition, the (see Figure 1). staple cereal crops of the Middle East, wheat and barley, were Furthermore, Galilee, the home of Jesus, has a higher not hospitable to the spores of the ergot fungus Claviceps rainfall (c. 900–1,200 millimeters per year) than the rest of purpurea, which rarely colonized any cereal except rye. As Palestine.­ Here one finds Mt. Meron, which at 3,955 feet is the far as is known, little rye was grown in the Middle East in the highest mountain in Palestine. The ergots of Claviceps paspali first century c.e. are more likely to appear in the mountains of Galilee than in In the search for the recipe for kykeon, investigators have any other place in Palestine. turned to possible ergot hosts other than cereals. In 1978, Shepherds living on the slopes of the mountains of Galilee Albert Hoffman, the Swiss chemist who discovered the effects may have known that in the spring the milk produced by their of LSD, proposed that hallucinogenic alkaloids might have flocks had “magical” power and may have told Jesus about it. become available when the fungus Claviceps paspali colo- This would explain the appearance of the shepherds in the nized a ubiquitous Mediterranean wild grass, Paspalium dis- birth story, with its well-known imagery of light (Luke 2:8–18): tichum, or some other wild grass. LSD can be produced from the shepherds were “keeping watch over their flocks by night. the ergot alkaloids produced by Claviceps paspali. (One of Then the Angel of the Lord stood before them, and the glory the products of Claviceps paspali, as well as other members of the Lord shown around them, and they were terrified.” of the genus Claviceps, is honeydew, a sweet liquid. When Here we find evidence of a possible drug-induced hallucina- honey is not available, honeydew can serve as a sweetener tion: brilliant light at night, a central focus of light, a feeling to offset the bitterness of natural alkaloids in a recipe.) All of fear shared by a whole group. Why did the vision come to told, however, the appearance of a natural hallucinogen has shepherds? Perhaps these shepherds had consumed the fresh not been suspected in the arid flatlands and hills of Palestine. spring-contaminated milk produced by their flocks. Perhaps

Fig.1. Dead Sea levels 2000 B.C.E. – 2000 C.E.. From Y. Enzel et al. 2003. “Lake Holocene Climates of the Near East Deduced from the Dead Sea Level Elevations and Modern Regional Winter Rainfall,” Quaternary Research 60(3): 263–273.

49 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 shepherds were the ones who told Jesus the secret. was the sacred plant known as soma and haoma to the ancient In addition, some Greeks may have known the secret recipe Indo-Europeans. The difficulty with this theory is that those who for kykeon. Jesus may have met Greeks familiar with the cult ingest extracts from this plant may attain calm elation but do not of Demeter in Eleusis in Sepphoris, a Greek trading center just hallucinate unless they take an almost toxic dose. five miles from Nazareth, about an hour’s walk. The religious importance of wild rue is that if combined Greek towns had a cosmopolitan population. The Persians, with a hallucinogen, it could greatly amplify the potency of who had taken the ritual drink haoma at least since the the latter. It has been reported that Syrian rue seeds used to Bronze Age and probably longer, may have been represented potentiate LSD can make it three or four times as potent. Was in Sepphoris by Zoroastrian priests, whom the Greeks called this the great secret of Eleusis: the combination of two drugs, “magi” (often translated as “wise men”). Those in Matthew in exact proportions, neither of which alone would have been 2:1–12 were “from the East.” This probably referred to Persia, able to produce a great psychological high? the home of Zoroastrianism. They may have been telling for- If this hypothesis is to have any relevance to Christianity, tunes by the stars, a common practice of such priests. Hillman then both ergot and wild rue would have had to be available in and others report that the magi used a drug when they wished Palestine in the first century c.e. to “call up the gods.” In the first century c.e., Dioscorides, a Greek botanist who We are told in the Gospel of Matthew that three magi lived in Cilicia (in southeastern Turkey just north of Syria), revered Jesus as a newborn baby. But perhaps the contact identified a bush that was already known in Iran, Egypt, and came later, when Jesus was an adult. Then the reported gifts Greece and had spread to the Levant. Dioscorides called it of the magi would have made better sense. The gold would Peganon agrion. Today it is known in Western botany as have served to buy food and clothing for Jesus and his disci- Peganum harmala or wild rue, Syrian rue, African rue, and ples as they went about preaching the gospel. The smoke of so on. The Arabs call it harmal; the Iranians call it esfand. frankincense resin is not merely pleasant: research in 2008 Dioscorides considered that wild rue was more effective but showed it psychoactive, relieving depression and anxiety. more dangerous medicine than common rue, a similar plant Myrrh, another fragrant resin, was an ingredient in oil used without psychoactive properties. to anoint a king. The herb rue (peganon) is mentioned once in the New So there were many possible people—shepherds, Greeks, and magi—who might have told Jesus the recipe for a hallu- cinogenic drink.

The Missing Middle-Eastern Potentiator But the solution to the mystery of the missing hallucinogen is not complete. Even if collectors at Eleusis had meadows full of colonized grasses, they might not have been able to find enough ergots to provide for thousands of celebrants. This would have depended on the spring rainfall, which varied from year to year. The solution may have been that the priestesses of Demeter and the magi knew of a potentiator, or booster, that could increase the strength of a hallucinogenic drink and the number of effective doses of it that could be prepared. The answer may be found in the recipe for the famous South American psychedelic drink ayahuasca. This drink has at least two psychoactive ingredients: harmaline, from the plant Banisteropsis caapi, and DMT, or dimethyltryptamine, from Psychotria viridis and other South American plants. Ayahuasca achieves its effect by the synergy of its two main ingredients. Harmaline is a beta-carboline indole alkaloid; taken alone it can serve as antidepressant, creating a state of calm elation. DMT is a hallucinogen. The beta-carbolines, by Fig. 2. Wild Rue (Peganum Harmala) inhibiting the output of monoamine oxidase, may increase the amount of serotonin at work in the synapses. Thus harmaline Testament in Luke 11:43. Jesus says, “But woe to you Pharisees! can potentiate the DMT. The two drugs taken simultaneously For you tithe mint and rue [peganon] and herbs of all kinds, are more potent than if taken at different times. and neglect justice and the love of God; it is those you ought So what could have been the potentiator of the natural to have practiced, without neglecting the others” (New Oxford ergot alkaloids in Greece and the Middle East? It could have Annotated Bible). Jesus did not disapprove of the tithing of mint been a drug known to the Greeks as moly (mentioned by and rue unless it caused neglect of justice and the love of God. Homer in The Odyssey) and to others as wild rue or Syrian From this context it seems that rue was considered a valuable rue. Wild rue contains harmaline, the same beta carboline as herb. Biblical scholars usually interpret peganon to mean com- the potentiating component in ayahuasca. mon rue, a questionable translation—especially when we consid- In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, wild rue plants may er that in this passage rue was paired specifically with mint. Mint have proliferated throughout the Middle East, especially along is a remedy for mild nausea. Common rue does not cause nausea; the camel caravan trails. David Flattery has argued that wild rue wild rue does cause mild nausea. Mint linked with rue may be a

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 50 pointer to the interpretation of Luke’s rue as wild rue. ences.” American Journal of Psychiatry 160 (2003): 1965–1969. Wild rue is a bright green perennial succulent plant, resis- Boyce, Mary, ed. and trans. Textual Sources for the Study of tant to drought (see Figure 2). Its stems form concentric fans, Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. Collins, John J., et al. eds. Encyclopedia of Apocalyptism Volume 1. with white flowers of radial symmetry growing at the tip of each New York: Continuum, 1998. stem. These flowers take the form of a pentacle, a magic symbol ———. 2005. “Apocalypse.“ Encyclopedia of Religion Volume 1: in Europe. It is the official symbol of the Wiccan religion today. 409–19. The fruit of wild rue forms and ripens in late summer or Dewhurst, Kenneth, and A.W. Beard, “Sudden Religious Conversion in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy.” British Journal of Psychiatry fall. Each golden trefoil-shaped seed pod contains about fifty 117(1970): 497–507. reddish-brown triangular seeds. The seeds and roots, when Dobkin de Rios, Marlene, and Oscar Janiga, LSD, Spirituality, and crushed in a hand mortar then boiled, yield the alkaloid har- the Creative Process. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street Press, 2003. maline. When the dried bush is burned it gives off a musky, Enzel, Y., et al. “Late Holocene Climates of the Near East Deduced pleasant fragrance. In the folk belief of Arabs and Iranians from Dead Sea Level Variations and Modern Regional Winter Rainfall.” Quaternary Research 60, no. 3 (2003): 263–73. today, the burning of the dried plant is thought to ward off Flattery, David. Haoma and Harmaline. Berkeley: University of Cali­ the effects of the Evil Eye. It is burned as incense at Persian fornia Press, 1989. weddings and other festive occasions, adding to the gaiety. Fox, George. Journal. 2 vols. Cambridge University Press, 1911. The seeds of wild rue are very bitter. Those ingesting them Funk, Robert, et al. eds. The Five Gospels. New York: Scribners, 1996. Goldreich, Zair. The Climate of Israel. New York: Kluwer Academic/ must find something sweet to offset their bitterness. Honey Plenum, 2003. was the principal sweetener in ancient times. (Perhaps not Greene, Mott T. Natural Knowledge in Pre-Classical Antiquity. surprisingly, the priestesses at Eleusis were beekeepers, Balti­more: Johns Hopkins, 1992. and the priestesses bore the name melissae, bees.) As noted Griffiths, R.R., et al. “Psilocybin Can Occasion Mystical Type above, the alternative sweetener when honey was unavailable Experiences Having Substantial and Sustained Personal Meaning and Spiritual Significance.” Psychopharmacology 187 (2006): was honeydew, a product of Claviceps. 268–83. The Christians could have harvested the seeds of wild rue Grof, Stanislav, M.D. Realms of the Human Unconscious; Observa­ in the fall, kept them in a dry place, and then combined them tions of LSD Research. New York: Viking, 1975. with ergots in the spring for Easter and Pentecost celebrations. Gunther, Robert T. The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1934. In addition, from wild rue a dark red/purple dye called Henderson, Leigh H., and William Glass. LSD: Still with Us after All “Turkey red” can be extracted and used in making oriental Those Years. New York:1994. carpets and fezzes. This color is similar to that in the sclerotia Hillman, D.C.A. The Chemical Muse: Drug Use and the Roots of of the fungus Claviceps purpurea. The coincidence may have Western Civilization. New York: St. Martins, 2008. led to experimentation with the two sources of red dye. Red Hofmann, Albert. In R. Wasson, R. Gordon, et al. Persephone’s Quest; Entheogens and the Origins of Religion. New Haven: Yale, 1986, wine can also be used as a dye, as anyone who has spilled it pp. 31–34. on a light carpet knows. A sacred drink made from ergot and Jacob, Irene, and Walter, eds. The Healing Past; Pharmaceuticals in wild rue would have had much the same red color and the the Biblical and Rabbinic World, Volume 7 of Studies in Ancient same dyeing property. Like wine, it too would have symbolized Medicine. Leiden: Brill, 1993. Jay. Mike. Blue Tide; The Search of Soma. Brooklyn: Autonomedia, blood and thus life itself. 1999. Leary, Timothy. High Priest. Berkeley: Ronin, 1968. Summary Lee, Martin A., and Bruce Shlain, . Acid Dreams; The CIA, LSD, and The evidence presented here suggests that some of the visions the Sixties Rebellion. New York: Grove Press, 1985. in the New Testament and the apocalyptic thinking associated Mahmoudian, Massoud, et al. “Toxicity of Peganum harmala,” Iran­ ian Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics 11, no. 1 (2002): with them may have been the result of the ingestion of a hallu- 1–4. cinogen. The main ingredients for this drink may have includ- Matossian, Mary. “Why the Quakers Quaked.” Quaker History 96, no. ed ergot alkaloids from Claviceps paspali, the seeds of wild 1 (2007): 36–51. rue (potentiators), and honeydew. They may have induced Nichols, David E. “Hallucinogens. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 101 (2)(2004):131–81. mystic experiences that stimulated apocalyptic thinking and Pahnke, W.N. “Psychedelic Drugs and Mystical Experience.” Inter­ the use of light as a symbol of goodness. national Psychiatry Clinics 5 (1969):149–62. Using this approach, it is possible to harmonize many dis- Rosen, Arlene Miller. Civilizing Climate. Social Responses to Cli­ crepant elements of the Gospel stories into a more meaningful mate Change in the Ancient Middle East. London: Altamira, 2007. whole. The “transfiguration” of Jesus, the sudden conversion Rudgley, Richard. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. New York: St. Martins-Griffin, 1988, pp. 24–30. of Paul, and the role of the shepherds and magi are no longer Schiff, P.L. “Ergot and Its Alkaloids.” American Journal of Pharma­ discrepant but serve to support a new and perhaps more plau- cological Education.” 70, no. 5 (2006): 98. sible explanation of the origins of Christianity. Stannard, Jerry. “The Plant Called Moly.” Herbs and Herbalism in the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Aldershot: Ashgate, UK, 1999. Further Reading Wasson, Gordon, Albert Hofmann, and Carl Ruck. The Road to Eleusis. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1978. Aaronson, Bernard and Humphrey Osmond, eds. Psychedelics. New Werblavsky, R.J. Zwi, and Julia Iwerson. “Light and Darkness.” In York: Anchor, 1970. Encyclopedia of Religion 2, Volume 8 (1987, 2005): 5450–5455. Alatrash, G., et al. “Rhabdomyolysis after Ingestion of Foxy, a Hallucinogen.” Mayo Clinic Proceedings 81, no. 4 (2006): 550–51. Arcamone, F., et al. “Production of Lysergic Acid Derivatives by a Strain of Claviceps paspali Stevens and Hall in Submerged Mary K. Matossian is a retired professor of history. She Cultures,” July 16, 1960, letter in Nature 187: 238–39. is the author of four books, including Poisons of the Past: Bannerjee, Neela. “Wiccans keep the Faith in Religion under Wraps.” Molds, Epidemics, and History (Yale University Press, 1989). New York Times, May 16, 2007. Borg, Jacqueline, et al. “The Serotonin System and Spiritual Experi­

51 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 CHURCH STATE UPDATE

Edd Doerr ‘Pro-life’ Terror Assassination the event for transparently theo-politi- Madison, the main architects of our prin- cal purposes, expressed disappointment ciple of separation of church and state, The terrorist assassination of Dr. George that Obama and his administration took opposed such government dabbling with Tiller in Wichita, Kansas, on May 31 no part in their game. Shirley Dobson religion. was not just a tragedy for the coura- objected to Obama’s recent remark that One conservative columnist jumped geous physician who was one of the very “Americans do not consider themselves into the controversy by noting that the few who provided rarely needed repro- a Christian nation.” She and other funda- preambles to all of the state constitutions ductive health-care procedures for many mentalists choose to ignore the secular contain references to a generic deity. It women. It was also a vicious attack on nature of our Constitution and our 1797 might be noted, however, that forty-eight the rights of women to appropriate med- treaty with Tripoli, ratified by the Senate of these preambles date from the days of ical care in problem pregnancies, a blow and very publicly approved by President slavery and later racial segregation and against women’s freedom of conscience, John Adams, which states, “The govern- from a time when the female portion of and an act of intimidation against health ment of the United States of America is our population was denied the right to providers who disagree with the patriar- not in any sense founded on the Chris­ vote. It should be remembered that our chal fundamentalist ideology that equates­ Constitution’s only references to religion embryos and early fetuses with persons. are the Article VI prohibition of religious “Shirley Dobson objected tests for public office and mandatory to Obama’s recent oaths of office. remark From Hither . . . that ‘Americans do not Congress has terminated the school-voucher plan that a Republican- consider themselves dominated Congress imposed on the a Christian nation.’” District of Columbia during Bush’s term. The divide is largely along party lines: Democrats against, Republicans for. tian Religion.” During the battle, I pointed out in the Brent Walker, the lawyer and minister Washington Post: “Millions of Amer­ who heads the Baptist Joint Com­mittee icans have rejected vouchers or their on Religious Liberty in Washing­ton, had variants in some twenty-five statewide this to say: “I have long contended that referendums by an average proportion Congress’s official designation and the of 2 to 1.” President’s predictable proclamation of a In the midst of the fight in Congress National Day of Prayer is misguided. It is over the D.C. school-voucher plan, the not government’s job to tell the American conservative Thomas B. Fordham Insti­ people what, where, or when to pray.” tute issued a report supporting vouch- He noted that presidents Jefferson and ers. As I pointed out in Education Photo via Photo via Dr. George Tiller (1941–2009)

A New Day for National Prayer President Barack Obama is to be com- mended for pulling back ap­preciably with regard to the annual National Day of Prayer, observed­ this year on May 7. He limited his activity to a low-key proclamation, as required by law. The National Day of Prayer was originated in 1952 by Congress as a manifestation of cold-war thinking. Unlike his immediate predecessor, who made a big deal of the event by inviting selected Christian and Jewish leaders to the White House East Room, Obama did nothing of the sort. Photo via Photo via Religious Right big-wheels James and James Dobson, founder and chairman emeritus of Focus on the Family, with his wife Shirley Dobson, chairman of the National Day of Prayer Task Force, speaks during a news conference at the conclusion of the National Day of Shirley Dobson, who have taken over Prayer event in the Cannon Caucus Room on Thursday, May 7, 2009.

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 52 Week on April 22, the report “offers 1929) in the 1980s. Efforts to block this over two thousand speeches and radio nothing new, but simply reiterates the controversial move in Congress failed. and television appearances. same tired old line: ‘Give us your money, A lawsuit charging that diplomatic rela- In the Beginning go away, and shut up.’” I pointed out tions with a church violate the First J.D. Schraffenberger Amendment and also constitute govern- that the report advises that “voucher Observe what has happened, laws and programs should take vows of ment preference for a single religion was what we’ve been up to ever since, silence regarding participation in reli- rejected by the Supreme Court for “lack what we’d like to believe. gious instruction or activities” and that of standing,” a device we overcame a “school inputs and operations (such few years later in the Second Circuit Observe the long unconstellated sky, things as teacher qualification, admis- (Isaac Asimov and Corliss Lamont were how it darkens at the edges, sions policies, and discipline proce- among the plaintiffs) in a challenge to like old scrolls, parallax. dures) ought not be further regulated by U.S. tax aid to faith-based schools in Observe the papering of all our greater government.” In other words, I conclud- other countries. Now the Obama admin- walls, ed, “Fordham wants taxpayers to blind- istration is in a bind over naming a new the bronchial, the aortal, ly fund private schools that practice envoy. For the last twenty-five years, the cerebral and pyloric, divisive forms of selectivity, discrimi- every U.S. envoy to the Holy See has our innocent faces painted gray nation, and indoctrination that would been Catholic, which seems to violate to suit the blurriness of such desires. not be permitted in public schools.” the Constitution’s ban on religious tests Observe where you are standing, The report’s main author, Chester Finn, for public office. According to former the risers, the mezzanine, the far bal- is the guy who told a school-voucher Holy See envoy Ray Flynn, the Holy conic haze. conference at Catholic University sev- See has already turned up its nose at What song will you sing? eral years ago (I was there) that he was at least three names of possible envoys. How cheap are the robes you wear? ashamed to be Jewish because most In March, the Food and Drug Admin­ Jewish organizations opposed school istration was ordered by New York Observe for a moment the moment’s vouchers. For­tunately, Rabbi David Federal District Judge Edward R. Kor­ passing out of our presence, man to make the Plan B “morning after” water to fog and the heat rising inside “Congress has terminat- contraceptive pill available without pre- us, ed the school-voucher scription to women as young as sev- falling onto, rising into, what remains. plan that a Republican- enteen. The Bush administration had Observe a word like rivulet, allowed Plan B only with a prescription how it suggests to us cause and effect, dominated Congress until 2006. the high and the low, something small, Former conservative Rep. Marilyn like us, meandering. imposed on the District Musgrove­ (R-Colo.) was named in March of Columbia during to head a new program to unseat pro- Observe the coiled creature choice members of Congress. sleeping in its place, Bush’s term.” the untamed legacy of spine, of breath, what this means. Saperstein was there to respond appro- . . . and Yon Observe, as though it were a dream, priately. Australia’s government continues to fund as though it were a tale, On March 25, Arizona’s Supreme faith-based and other private schools. the invention of the sky, Court ruled unconstitutional the state’s Although Australia’s constitution has a its arched back and speckled breast, small school-voucher plan. A week ear- church-state separation clause, the coun- its many mansions, lier, however, a state appeals court try’s supreme court declined­ to enforce the Cock and the Crux, up­held a business tax-credit scheme to it in response to a 1981 lawsuit I helped the Fox and the Fishes. aid private schools. originate. Our side lost 6 to1. Observe your hesitation, The Texas House voted 122 to 23 to Spain is trying to further liberalize the first inkling of doubt. ban any public funds from being used its abortion-rights law, but the Catholic How sudden it seems, how long it will for school vouchers. In March a voucher Church is opposing. last. bill was defeated in Georgia. Fundamentalists in the Netherlands Observe the fatal stroke, Milwaukee’s school-voucher plan, parliament are urging that creationism a coup de tête, graceless and fine. mistakenly upheld by the Wisconsin be taught in public schools along with Supreme Court in 1998, has been found evolution. Now imagine I have something by a study released in March to produce important to tell you. no major improvement over the city’s Edd Doerr, president of Americans for Imagine what that might be. public schools. More than 80 percent Religious Liberty and former presi- Imagine what that might be. of the city’s 120 voucher schools are dent of the American Humanist Asso­ faith-based. cia­tion, is the author of over four J.D. Schraffenberger is an assistant pro- fessor of English at the University of Ronald Reagan began formal U.S. thousand published books, sections Northern Iowa and the assistant editor of diplomatic relations with the Holy See of books, articles, columns, book and the North American Review. His book of (based in Vatican City, a microstate film reviews, translations, letters, poems, Saint Joe’s Passion, was recently inside Rome created by Mussolini in short stories, and poems. He has made published by Etruscan Press. His work

53 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 LIVING WITHOUT RELIGION

displays in government buildings. Some groups had an easier time than others. In Australia, the U.K. slogan was Atheist Bus Ads refused, as was “Atheism—Celebrate reason.” In Italy, the original slogan, “The Bad News Is God Doesn’t Exist. The Turn Heads in Good News Is You Don’t Need Him,” was deemed to “offend the moral, civic and religious convictions of the public.” The final accepted slogan was, “The Good Canada News Is There Are Millions of Atheists in Italy; The Excellent News Is They Believe In Freedom Of Expression.” Although we had no trouble in and Worldwide Toronto and Calgary, we did run into a roadblock in Canada’s largest mari- he atheist ad campaign on pub- on a religious ad on public transit. The time city, Halifax, Nova Scotia. Our ads, lic-transit buses in Canada was Web site warned unbelievers of a rather which adopted the U.K. slogan, were Tlaunched to raise much-needed gloomy future: “You will be condemned first refused because they had sparked discussion. It may have accomplished to everlasting separation from God and controversy. (How odd that successful that goal even before the first ad-bearing then you will spend all eternity in tor- advertising was deemed unacceptable, bus left its depot on February 15, 2009. ment in hell.” With an initial goal in whereas an ad that had gone unno- The campaign’s slogan was: “There’s October 2008 of raising a mere £5,500 ticed might have had no trouble gaining probably no god. Now stop worrying and (about US$8,000), the British Humanist approval.) The official policy was then, enjoy your life.” After over $45,000 was Associa­ tion,­ boosted by Richard Daw­ “All advertisements must meet accept- raised by the Freethought Association kins’s endorsement, has now raised over able community standards of good taste, of Canada, ads were placed on buses £140,000 for ads across Britain. Inde­ quality, and appearance. Furthermore,­ in the major cities of Toronto, Ottawa, pendent campaigns, most of which were the ads will not be considered discrim- and Calgary. An unrelated campaign by inspired by Britain’s, are now either run- inatory, or objectionable to any race the Humanists of Canada placed signs ning or are in development in the nations creed or moral standard.” proclaiming “You Can Be Good Without of Spain, the Netherlands, the United Across Canada, some media outlets God” in a major Toronto subway sta- States, Germany, Australia, Finland, went further, referring to our message as tion, while the Humanist Association of Switz­­erland, Croatia, and Canada. “fanatical.” (If only all fanatics showed Quebec placed French-language ads on Some have used different slogans. In such restraint in the certainty of their Montreal buses. the United States, campaigns that were position and then redirected people to appreciate this life on Earth.) When the Humanists of Canada were told that their ad—the modest and tame “You can be good without god.”—needed to be toned “Independent campaigns, most of which were inspired down, we were left wondering whether specific wording was really the issue. by Britain’s, are now either running or are in devel- The refusal to run our ads in certain key cities sparked two distinct contro- opment in the nations of Spain, the Netherlands, the versies. In certain cases, it was clear United States, Germany, Australia, Finland, Switzerland, that atheists were experiencing discrim- ination, which reinforced the conscious- Croatia, and Canada.” ness-raising goal of the campaign. This was certainly true in Halifax, where the Bus Stop Bible Studies, an association that places quotes from the Bible in pub- lic transit, had in previous years been The Canadian bus ad campaign is already in development prior to the given permission to put up religious part of an international and very suc- British launch bore slogans like “Why ads. When they asked to renew that cessful effort. Although a few smaller believe in a god? Just be good for good- agreement, they were denied and told campaigns were already underway, the ness’ sake” in Washington, D.C., while that if they were to be given permission, explosion’s real epicenter was London, “Don’t Believe in God? You’re not alone” atheists would have to be granted it, too. England, where British comedy writer found its way into Texas and Colorado. If our Human Rights Commissions were Ariane Sherine had had an unhappy Some have opted for other forms of not so busy hearing censorship cases experience after following the link placed advertising, such as billboards and even (such as against magazines that publish

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 54 “offensive” articles), they might have he fight continues, and while there example of public space for our ads. come to the defense of atheists’ right to Tprobably is no God, what is not in Your campaign is a sorry waste free expression. doubt is that everyone has an opinion on of money. Compare $45,000 in private Some cities in Canada have blanket the atheist bus-ad campaign. From the donations to the over $100 million being policies against running any ad that is moment the campaign was announced funded from all levels of government to religious, political, or ideological. This in the Globe and Mail on January 16, those registered charities in Canada that raises an entirely separate question the e-mail and phone calls started com- have no programs whatsoever other than about everyone’s right to free expres- ing in. They haven’t stopped because advancing religion. Our modest sum will sion, particularly in the public space, the press continues covering the story. have been well-used if as a dividend it which may be answered very soon. Public Press appearances have included every brings an often despised minority into the agencies such as transit commissions are national­ and most city newspapers, mainstream and allows a new voice to be bound by Canada’s Charter of Rights and repeated interviews on national news heard on important public policies. Freedoms. The Supreme Court of Canada channels like the CBC and CTV, and You’re polarizing the issue. The pub- is hearing an appeal from a case in a full-hour discussion on TV Ontario’s lic response has been overwhelmingly which a British Columbia transit author- flagship show The Agenda. Our spokes- positive, with many religious organiza- ity refused to run controversial political people have participated in more than tions joining the discussion. Rather than advertisements for the Canadian Fed­ two hundred interviews or publicized polarizing, we’re learning that there’s a eration of Students. Particularly ironic discussions. The blogosphere raised our spectrum of points of view among theists, is the fact that the Federation is working impact another order of magnitude. The just as among atheists. The United tirelessly to impede any student club that following summarizes the main critiques Church of Canada released a newspaper defends the pro-life position on abortion we’ve been receiving and some responses: ad with our slogan accompanied by a from doing much of anything on cam- You are merely engaging in attack slightly different one: “There probably is pus. Few people seem to understand the ads. Our goals are to educate and to a god. Now stop worrying and enjoy your concept of free speech or care to apply it raise consciousness. A surprising num- life.” Muslim Imam Syed Soharwardy, consistently. Some even fail to grasp its impor- tance at all. Dean Steacy, the senior hate-speech investigator for the Canad­ “Across Canada, some media outlets . . . [referred] to ian Human Rights Commission, once our message as ‘fanatical.’ (If only all fanatics showed responded to a question about the value of free speech by declaring: “Freedom such restraint in the of speech is an American concept, so I don’t give it any value.” certainty of their position and then redirected people But there are champions. One is Alex to Cullen, an Ottawa city councilor and chair of that city’s Transit Com­mittee. appreciate this life on Earth.)” When the ads were banned in Ottawa by a low-ranking official, Cullen appealed to the full committee, where his motion ber of people insist that we are specifi- based in Calgary, launched a “pro-god” tied in a 3 to 3 vote. Not giving up, cally targeting Christianity. It may be a campaign in which he sought to unite he appealed again, to the Ottawa City curious sign of a deep-seated insecurity believers to fund an ad stating “God cares Council, where on March 11, after some that an ad referring to God, and presum- for everyone . . . even for those who say tough debate and in front of groups of ably covering Allah, Brahmin, Thor, and He doesn’t exist!” But these responses children bussed in from local Christian the Flying Spaghetti Monster, would be have resulted­ in open and productive schools, the motion to overturn passed instantly seen as an attack on a single dialogue. For example, recently the 13 to 7. religion. Calgary Unitarian Church hosted a panel Possibly more significant than this Public transit is an inappropriate discussion with Soharwardy as well as a win was the circulation of a document vehicle to use to get your message Unitarian minister and the bus cam- Cullen had the City of Ottawa’s solici- across. Until recently, when debates on paign’s Calgary spokesperson Cliff tor prepare. The document argued that broad issues of ethics or public policy Erasmus, chair of the Centre for Inquiry a Canadian city challenged legally for took place in the public square, either Community of Calgary. These gestures refusing to run the ads would likely be in the pages of a newspaper or in gov- are representative of the overall positive found in violation of the Charter of Rights ernment committees, it would be routine reaction to the campaign. and Freedoms. This document is the sort to invite representatives of faith com- that should be hung in the office of every munities. According to recent surveys, Justin Trottier is acting executive direc- transit commission and public agency in 23 percent of Canadians are atheists or tor of the Centre for Inquiry/Ontario and the country, since it is a landmark victory agnostics. Atheism must quickly become chief spokesperson for the Canadian not only for atheists but for all those who a mainstream part of the public space, Atheist Bus Campaign. Visit www. value fundamental freedoms. and so we opted to use a very obvious atheistbus.ca.

55 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 FAITH AND REASON

ished, and to be unaware of this fact is to be as naively obtuse as the child who supposes that cows are no longer Sublime Naturalism necessary because we now get milk from supermarkets.­ Lawrence Rifkin As humanists, we try not to let our emotions dominate our cognitions. But emotions bounded by naturalistic cogni- tions are no less powerful and meaning- ful than the emotions of any worldview. Our naturalistic understandings form the song, but we can crank up the volume as loud as anybody. Though skeptical hile strolling on the boardwalk such connection. blood may course through our veins, we during a vacation in Wild­ This perceived link between awe can live our days with wonder and joy. W wood, New Jersey, my family and religious sentiment can be broken. was approached by a well-dressed man Natur­alistic encounters of profound Sublime Naturalism Defined with a charming smile who was carry- beauty and awe can stand on their own, To capture this emotional understand- ing a Bible. When he tried sharing his both as a clear conceptual category and ing and response to naturalism, I pro- beliefs about the glory of God, I just as experiences with deep emotional res- pose the term sublime naturalism. shook my head and walked on. But my onance. This essay focuses on the emo- Sublime naturalism is the expe- friendly wife, with our young children tional response to naturalism, its value, rience or expression of a profound at her side, struck up a conversation its expression, and its relationship to the emo­tional response toward natural- with him. Eventually, he realized that secular humanist worldview. ism or its manifestations. Naturalistic she was as rational and tough as she is manifestations consist of both nonhu- personable and delightful and that he Emotional Response to man and human phenomena, including was not going to win her over. It was Naturalism the human realm of ideas, creativity, then he reached deep and came up with A deep response to our naturalistic love, and beauty. what he obviously thought was his knock- world can be conveyed with powerful, The dictionary meaning of sublime down argument: “Look out there at the emotive language. Awe at the wonder includes the following: “of such excel- ocean. It’s magnificent! And the sky—so of life. The sheer beauty and mystery of lence, grandeur, or beauty as to inspire glorious! If you believe in this, then you existence. Being totally overwhelmed, great admiration or awe,” “majestic, believe in God.” for a brief moment, by the unfathomable supreme,”­ “to convert (something infe- This wasn’t the “argument from de­ vastness of the universe. rior) into something of higher worth.” sign,” it was the “argument from pro- For me, the insights usually come most Unlike the words religious (as in reli- found beauty.” And it is equally falla- forcefully when I learn about nature on gious humanism) or spiritual (as in cious. the grandest scale. But there are count- spiritual naturalism), sublime does not A short time later, I found myself less sources from which an emotional carry strong connotations to the super- deeply moved when I read the following response to naturalism can emerge.­ Quiet, natural or transcendent and therefore quotation by Charles Lyell from 1830: small moments gazing at your child. The is a more clear and accurate reflection “Although we are mere sojourners on shudder as you respond to magnificent of the naturalist position. In this way, the surface of the planet, chained to a music. Shock when we watch a seal sublime naturalism captures the distinc- mere point in space, enduring but for a abruptly snapped away from life by a tively naturalistic, human emphasis of moment in time, the human mind is not great white shark on Planet Earth. The secular humanism while adding depth only enabled to number worlds beyond magnificence of ocean and sky as seen and significance to our experiences. the unassisted ken of mortal eye, but to from a boardwalk. As discussed so far, sublime refers trace the events of indefinite ages . . . There is no need to assume a con- to positive emotions, but in certain and is not even withheld from penetrat- scious puppeteer or to imagine some branches of philosophy and art criti- ing into the dark secrets of the ocean, or otherworldly realm in order to under- cism, sublime also reflects profound the interior of the solid globe; free, like stand and convey such emotions in expressions of fear, terror, or the tragic. the spirit which the poet described as evocative, alluring, and clearly natural- The sublime need not be positive, par- animating the universe.” istic terms. The resplendent does not ticularly when one confronts a universe The proselytizer on the boardwalk entail the transcendent. Awe does not that as a whole is impersonal and indif- and the Lyell quotation lead to the ques- entail Yahweh. ferent to our desires. As Bertrand Russell tion: why do people so often follow emo- Nature is and always will be the wrote, “We see, surrounding the narrow tional expressions of awe at our natu- backdrop to all life. To paraphrase raft illumined by the flickering light of ralistic world with conclusions about, or Joseph Wood Krutch, our physical as human comradeship, the dark ocean on connotations to, the supernatural? There well as our emotional dependence on whose rolling waves we toss for a brief is no evidence, logic, or reason for any nature can be obscured but not abol- hour.”

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 56 We are the source of beauty, awe, and and avoids religious menus altogether. ists. I like the term inspiral very much, love, not some otherworldly realm. As The banquet is no less delicious. but thus far the word does not seem to David Eller writes (“Why Spirituality Is Experiences of sublime naturalism have caught on, at least as Pasquale Antihumanistic,” Free Inquiry, February/ can be triggered by music, sunsets, intended—when I looked up inspiral March 2004), what some call “spiritual” walks in the woods, gazing at a starry on Google six years after it was coined, experiences are human experiences: sky, sexual thrill, a birth, or a funer- all I found was the name of a condom. “the best, the strongest, the most pro- al. Naturalistic experiences of the sub- (Perhaps such was also the case with the found human experiences, but human lime—the grandeur of the universe, the ill-fated expressions “Trojan naturalism” nonetheless. They are not nonhuman, wonder of being alive, the mysteries of and “latex humanism.”) but rather ultra-human. We are richer by existence—fill us with awe, terror, or Humanists may or may not have sub- and for them; we impoverish ourselves profound emotion. lime naturalist experiences. They may when we credit these soaring feelings or may not desire such experiences. But and capacities not to ourselves but to Part of the Secular for those who do value such experiences realms nonhuman, unknown, and almost Humanist Family and expression, sublime naturalists are certainly unreal.” In this way, talk of the Sublime naturalism is offered as a welcome with warmth and open arms as spiritual perpetuates, in Eller’s power- descriptive category for the humanist part of the secular humanist family. Just ful words, “perhaps the most profound expression of awe. Secular humanists watch your language. betrayal humans have ever committed often bring the naturalistic worldview ulticolored xtravaganza against themselves.” and scientific methodology to bear on M E Certainly religious words can be issues that impact personal flourish- For those who value sublime experienc- evocative (sacred, holy, spirit, soul, ing and fulfillment. Sublime natural- es and expressions, sublime naturalism, divine, etc.), but so can the emotive ism suggests one way to reverse the as a part of humanism, offers both emo- force of secular prose. The grandest of direction and allow one of the affective tional depth and intellectual authen­ ­ ticity. Secular humanists should not yield passionate expressions of natural- “Secular humanists should not yield passionate expres- istic experiences—and should not yield the audience to which such emotions sions speak—to any other worldview. of naturalistic experiences—and should not yield the The vast, immense cosmos, the aston- ishing interrelated ecological web of life audience to which such emotions speak—to any other and nonlife, the deeply mysterious realm of the quantum—all emerge from com- worldview.” plex interactions of natural, physical phenomena. The mind-boggling world of human thought, love, joy, values, art, and emotions can be communicated in ways aspects of humanism to focus back culture—all emerge from staggeringly full of power and poetry but with clarity toward the cognitive understanding of complex interactions of natural, physical that entails no link between naturalistic naturalism. The emotional component phenomena. Human­ists can stand tall awe and a supernatural experience, doesn’t justify naturalism. But when for our convictions. Humanists can jus- whether expressed directly, by implica- different aspects of the humanist worl- tify our convictions. And we can convey tion, or through metaphor. dview reflect on one another, it makes our profound emotional response—our The danger in using religious words the cognitive encounter with natural- human re­sponse—to this magnificent, as metaphors for naturalistic experi- ism even more emotionally rewarding sublime, natural truth with clarity and ences is that these words might be and helps reinforce the worldview as a compelling beauty. interpreted not as metaphor but by coherent whole. We can open our emotions as well as their commonly and traditionally under- In a useful essay, Frank L. Pasquale our intellect to understanding natural- stood literal religious meaning. Joseph (“Religious Humanism and the Dangers ism, with all its implications. Once we Camp­bell said, “If you think that the of Semantic Distortion,” Free Inquiry, comprehend that there is no dualistic metaphor is itself the reference, it Fall 2002), suggests the phrase “inspiral supernatural transcendent realm, we would be like going to a restaurant, humanism” for naturalistic humanists are happy to live our lives dazzled by a asking for the menu, seeing beefsteak who “yearn for some nontranscendent natural, multicolored written there, and starting to eat the way of expressing a special sense or feel- extravaganza rather menu.” Un­fortunately, there are a lot ing they have when inspired by nature or than blinded by an imaginary eternal of menu-eaters out there, and, accord- existence.” “Sublime naturalism” is quite light. ing to some interpretations, rivers of similar, only my emphasis is to position blood have been shed throughout his- it as a part of secular humanism as Lawrence Rifkin, a physician and tory regarding which menu is “real.” compared to inspiral, which Pasquale writer, was the Grand Prize winner Humanists can continue to promote a offers as a descriptive way to subdivide of the 2008 Doctors’ Writing Contest worldview that uses language clearly different types of naturalistic human- sponsored­ by Medical Economics. His

57 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 REVIEWS

actual sources, and our bond with each Letting Go of God other need not be weakened” (p. 63). This secular conception of gratitude is foundational for the entire text. The Jeff Noonan general philosophical claim of the book derives from it. That central claim might Living Without God: New Directions for Atheists, Agnostics, Secularists be expressed as the principle that if humanity is alone in the universe, it need and the Undecided, by Ronald Aronson (Berkeley: Counterpoint, not be lonely for an absent parent-god 2008, ISBN 1593761600) 288 pp. Cloth $25.00. that ensures us that everything will be all right. Aronson is influenced on this point by Sartre and Camus. What is crit- ical is whether existentialism’s sense of aloneness can coherently ground a moti- vation to live well, not only for oneself but equally for others with whom one shares n Declining World Order, Richard God. In order to explain how we can be a neighborhood, a city, a country, and Falk claims that “only inclusivist thankful to be alive even though there is a world. I religion, with a sense of the sacred- no divine being to thank, Aronson asks Aronson makes the case that it can ness of every human being, can provide us to consider the contexts in which we in three central chapters concerning the political foundation in this glob- feel joy at being alive. We will always individual responsibility for the injus- al setting for a humane global gover- discover, he contends, a sense of con- tices of the world, for oneself, and for nance”(p. 159). Without intending to, nection to life-support systems that are availing oneself of the knowledge avail- Falk provides the critical foil against not our own work but the evolved result able for combating our problems. The which the philosophical and political of natural development or the collec- arguments developed in these chapters, importance of Ronald Aronson’s Living tive result of social cooperation. In our though articulated in terms accessible Without God can be appreciated. Falk’s gratitude for being alive, healthy, and to the nonspecialist, are still too com- claim expresses the pervasive political linked in mutually affirming chains of plex to be examined in precise detail. assumption of contemporary America social interaction, the self opens beyond I will focus on the essential principle that Aronson contests. Arguing syn- its egocentric self-enclosure to value the that Aronson defends: a proper under- thetically on experiential, philosophical, world of natural and social life upon standing of responsibility and its source and political grounds, Aronson provides which its individual life depends. and limits must be neither religious nor natural-scientific but grounded in the uniqueness of human beings. Religion cannot ground responsibility because, especially in its other-worldly forms (such as Judaism, Chris­tianity, “Aronson provides secular grounds for hope that and Islam), it attributes causal primacy humanity for the world to God. True, individuals might be held responsible before God as can solve the problems of injustice and inequality sinners, but they do not hold themselves that continue to plague us.” responsible as agents for contributing to the world as it is. Against Falk, therefore, Aronson contends that if an other-world deity exists, then our sense of respon- sibility for our world and ourselves is weakened. A strictly natural-scientific account secular grounds for hope that humanity Hence, the religious belief that only of humankind cannot do the job either. can solve the problems of injustice and a creator god can ground gratitude is If we argue in a reductionist way that inequality that continue to plague us. undermined by the simple act of paying humans are their material constituents, Aronson begins his argument by est­ attention to the real bonds of natural and the material constituents have no ablishing experientially that a life with- dependence and social interdependence meaning and value, then, consistently out God is not a life without meaning. that keep us alive. Aronson concludes interpreted, the natural sciences, even Here and throughout, Aronson develops that “an entirely secular way of giving the life sciences, have nothing to say rich examples from his own life that illus- thanks is possible and necessary. . . . In about our duty to ourselves and each trate the philosophical­ principles clear- stumbling to do so, we’ll notice . . . that other. Nature knows no oughts but only ly. His opening argument concerns the reverence for the forces beyond our- uncaring processes and probabilities. problem of gratitude in a world without selves . . . is no less deep for finding its The “larger” natural scientific argument,

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according to Aronson, concludes that “in even though it is not mechanically deter- ment, the source of hope is the reality of a universe governed by physical . . . pro- mined by them in its actions. As the knowledge about the natural and social cesses, human beings, as physical . . . are neurologist Terrence W. Deacon shows causes of human suffering and the partial no less determined than anything else by in The Symbolic Species­ , the evolution success that communities of resistance prior physical causes” (p. 97). of the human brain cannot be understood have had in overcoming them. Rather Aronson’s solution is to follow the apart from the role that linguistic sym- than despair, Aronson concludes with middle path first hewn by Sartre. The bolization has played. It was the develop- a defiant celebration of human under- solution focuses on the irreducibility of ment of language, according to Deacon, standing and struggle. We know how to human consciousness. Whatever the nat- that spurred the unique pattern of brain cure diseases and how to discover new ural-evolutionary history of humanity is, development in humans. Humans literally cures; we know that slavery, racism, sex- and whatever the material conditions of live their lives through the symbolizations ism, and homophobia are wrong because consciousness are, it is also a fact that our brains produce in different natural they worsen the life-conditions of other we are conscious, and thus everything and social environments. We are, there- human beings; we know that there are that we do as human beings we do not fore, a “symbolic species” that acts on sufficient resources to cure the social as a consequence of blind determinism but only after reflecting on the alterna- tives. Aronson does not, however, treat agents as isolated monads. Although everyone is responsible as agent for what he or she does, we are not respon- “. . . if humanity is alone in the universe, sible for the background conditions in which we act. Hence, there is a question it need not be lonely for an absent parent-god of greater and lesser responsibility—the that ensures us that everything will be all right.” more the material contexts of action support greater power of action, the more responsible people are, both for themselves and for others whose less propitious conditions of life make them proportionally less able to change their situation. Full individual responsibility thus ultimately depends upon a collective the basis of our socially and cognitively cancers of poverty and the meaningless project “to bring under our control as mediated interpretations. The socio-nat- routinization of life the ruling economy much of our world as possible. . .[which ural development of the brain—a mate- imposes upon the majority; and we know, entails] combating practices, values, ide- rial process—thus explains­ how it is most important of all, that human beings ologies, individuals, and forces that con- that humans can act freely on the basis were the ones who grasped the problems tinue to make us unfree”(p. 116). of conscious evaluations that have no and worked out the solutions. “When It is unlikely that Aronson’s argu- analogue in the nature from which the humans freely plan, cooperate, and work ments will convince bottom-line phys- brain evolved. together, such activities evoke a sense of icalists who will ask how it is that this In other words, human natural his- fulfilling ourselves individually in a com- force called “consciousness” is able to tory explains the grounds for the emer- munity of mutual respect and self-deter- escape the causal links that enmesh gence of human social, cultural, and mination”(p. 198). The ultimate source of everything else. Perhaps they will suspect political history. Aronson’s primary con- hope is the fact that there is work enough that something like a religious affirma- cern is with the latter, and it is with this to engage the energies of all in the indi- tion of a transcendent reality has snuck concern that the book begins and ends. vidually meaningful and socially valuable into the argument. Aronson does, it is Aronson begins the text with a lament, project of better understanding our real true, abstract from the philosophical and not just for the marginalization of secu- scientific complexities in order to com- lar political thought in America but also conditions of life and working to improve for the decrepitude of the Enlightenment municate his political and ethical claims them for each and all, not because a project that he and millions of others to as wide an audience as possible. His god commands us but because we have have served for the last forty years. He dialectical account, however, need grant decided that that this project is what our concludes by trying to reestablish secu- humanity requires of us. no quarter to abstract physicalist deter- lar grounds for hope in a world in which minism. For one need not treat con- the metanarrative of progress can no Jeff Noonan is associate professor sciousness as the “ghost in the machine,” longer be sustained. Aronson’s argument in Gilbert Ryle’s phrase, but rather as a in the final section draws on much of the of philosophy and head of the depart- unique emergent property of the human research he has compiled over decades ment at the University of Windsor in organism that violates no physical laws as a historian of ideas. In a concise state- Ontario, Canada.

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At the center of Stenger’s arguments Separating the Wheat is modern quantum mechanics. He casts a wide net in his review of modern phys- from the haff ics, and there is no room here to touch C on all the interesting subjects he treats. However, I would have found his argu- ment for atheism better focused, though Stuart Jordan less complete, if the author had restrict- ed himself more to the fundamentals Quantum Gods, by Victor J. Stenger (Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus of modern quantum theory (con­firmed Books, 2009, ISBN 978-1-59-02-713-3) 264 pp. Cloth $26.98. by thousands of experiments) and had offered fewer complete chapters on sub- jects like the standard model for elemen- tary particles and chaos and complexity ne of the enduring debates best physics that has been developed theory, subjects related to the main argu- be­tween atheists and theolo- over the last half-century. ment and fascinating in themselves but O gians concerns the presence or Ironically, that leads to my only crit- which might have been more succinctly absence­ of scientific evidence for the icism. If the purpose of the book is to summarized in their relevance to the God existence of a deity. While the vast convince the intelligent reader who is not question. majority of the scientific community a trained scientist that any substantive In my opinion, the best chapters for would probably assert there is no reli- God concept no longer makes sense, explaining the nature of quantum theory, able evidence for a God, the debate goes grasping the arguments that Stenger which one must grasp if the relevance of on. In this book, astrophysicist Victor presents will require considerable the subject to the God question is to be Stenger argues from contemporary effort. His treatment will convince most understood, are Chapters 8 (“The Spooky physics and cosmology that there can physicists and many other scientists. Quantum”) and 13 (“Ghost Busting the be no God who participates in worldly However, laypersons who have limit- Quantum”), followed by Chapter 14 affairs without violating the premis- ed backgrounds in modern physics will (“Quantum Philosophy”).­ I found all of es of standard Christian, Jewish, and be entering unfamiliar territory. These these chapters to be excellent and essen- Islamic theology. He further argues that readers are likely to be impressed­ by tial for getting the author’s main points the only deity not completely ruled out the breadth of the arguments but may on the probabilistic nature of physical by modern science would be a God of find some of them difficult to follow. That reality and its consequences for explain- ing why, as in the last chapter, “some- thing” is a more likely state than “noth- ing” and why we should realize that God “. . . astrophysicist Victor Stenger argues from contem- is not only a very unlikely hypothesis for porary physics and cosmology that there can be no explaining­ anything we can measure but is also an entirely unnecessary one for God who explaining why there is something rather than nothing. Thus physics in its present participates in worldly affairs without violating the form, while still failing to yield a final premises of standard Christian, Jewish, and Islamic the- theory of everything, really does have a lot to say about the biggest questions of ology.” all! This itself is worth knowing, in light of frequently heard claims to the contrary. The main question always facing a reviewer is, “Would I recommend deism, who can also be viewed as uneth- is not the author’s problem, but it is a the book?” My answer depends on the ical by reasonable ethical standards. serious one in society as a whole if we intended reader. To a scientist in any Stenger shows that God becomes want people to grasp the reasons God field and the thoughtful reader who is unnecessary to explain the cosmos and is becoming an increasingly diffuse and willing to work through many concepts that the God concept is filled with many often vacuous concept, even among (one that may be initially unfamiliar (even contradictions. This argument is pre- might argue especially among) some of though they are frequently tossed about sented well, and the author has the the better-educated modern theologians. in the popular media), I would highly right background to make it. Stenger That said, the author does an out- recommend the book. has been at the forefront of several standing job of showing why the con- To the skeptic who wishes a less-de- experiments in modern physics that firmed conclusions of modern physics manding regime and still wants a strong have greatly strengthened the case for make a strong case for atheism. Many argument for atheism, I think there are atheism. To a fellow scientist, albeit one of these arguments also show why simpler arguments that, while less rigor- who has worked on problems of a less so-called New Age spiritualism is non- ous, remain highly suggestive. For exam- fundamental nature, I found the book sense, and Stenger makes a strong case ple, after at least two millennia during to be an excellent review of some of the for this as well. which thousands of brilliant thinkers,

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some in a desperate state of mind, and use it if challenged. world to the understanding of more sought one shred of reliable evidence In sum, I think this is an excellent people, or the appeal of religion will no that God exists and found nothing (or book for scientists and careful think- doubt continue for some time. This book it would be the universally recognized ers. Thoughtful, patient nonphysicists is a noble attempt to address that issue most important bit of knowledge ever will also enjoy it and can learn from but probably cannot offer a satisfactory uncovered, and most scientists would it. These are the likely readers in any answer for everyone. But then who can? probably also be ministers, priests, rab- event. However, beyond a certain point bis, etc.), one can say that the probabili- there is no way of making modern phys- ty that God exists is exceedingly small, ics simple. And as Victor Stenger notes Stuart Jordan is an emeritus astro- or at least that the supposed “hidden” near the end of his book, “That is just physicist at the National Aero­nautics God is not very ethical. One does not the way things are.” We remain faced and Space Administration and sci- need to know quantum mechanics to with the challenge of bringing the more ence advisor to the Center for Inquiry grasp that argument or to remember it important abstract phenomena of our Office of Public Policy.

with far-ranging reflections on the impor- A Jeremiad Against Groupthink tance of dissent within every organiza- tion—and the sorts of social weapons that the comfortable or the simply apa- Tom Flynn thetic so frequently deploy against those who raise disturbing questions. Worst Instincts: Cowardice, Conformity, and the ACLU, by Wendy Kaminer makes no pretense of objec- tivity here; in Worst Instincts she is Kaminer (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 2009, ISBN 978-080704430- an open partisan, telling her side of a 8) 160 pp. Cloth $24.95. bruising internal battle that she and her co-partisans lost. It is one of this book’s great virtues that Kaminer is able to eginning in 2003, Wendy Kaminer At one point, she and about thirty other recount this conflict incisively and to accuses, the venerable American dissidents launched a Web site, savethe blend it with such thoughtful treatment BCivil Liberties Union (ACLU) aclu.com (full disclosure: I signed its of the larger moral and psychological lost its way. Awash in financial sup- petition) before leaving the board in questions that these situations raise. port since 9/11 and led by charismatic 2006. No, she wasn’t purged; discouraged “That a group bound together by an executive director Anthony Romero, the by the dim prospects for change from ideology of mistrust would bow to the ACLU voluntarily agreed to screen new within, she simply declined to run for demand of its own leadership to ‘trust hires against terrorist watch-lists while another term. us’ is a testament to the conflict between­ publicly decrying their use. It engaged The situation Kaminer recounts some­ reason and solidarity; partisanship in “data mining” in search of prospec- times edges on the absurd. For many, demands irrationality when members tive donors while condemning the same the ACLU is the very embodiment of the are expected not simply to support their practice by industry or government. Astonishingly, the organization widely regarded as the nation’s foremost pro- “Astonishingly, the organization widely regarded as the tector of unpopular speech considered nation’s foremost protector of unpopular speech con- an internal gag rule forbidding mem- bers of its own board from criticizing it sidered an internal gag rule forbidding members of its in public. The accusations go on, sug- own board from criticizing gesting that ACLU leadership engaged in everything from misleading donors it in public.” to entering civil liberties controversies other groups already had in hand, hop- ing by bluster and fanfare to claim cred- old populist slogan “Question Authority,” team but to suspend judgment of it, even it for the labors of other, often poorer, and she depicts its director demand- within the confines of the locker room,” activists. ing—and getting—loyalty, obedience, Kaminer writes. When social critic Wendy Kaminer, a sometimes even silence. Moreover,­ she The controversies Kaminer treats Free Inquiry columnist, tells this story in charges, board members who had joined could stand as archetypes for countless Worst Instincts, she writes from expe- the ACLU out of devotion to its princi- moral choices that Americans confront- rience; at the time she was an ACLU ples surrendered to groupthink and went ed, and all too often shamefully ducked, board member who made herself unwel- along with it all. in the cauldron of the Bush years. Worst come in the organization by insistently In Worst Instincts, Kaminer offers Instincts makes for thought-provoking, calling attention to abuses like these a short but searing account of her time rewarding, and (best of all) uncomfort- and de­manding that something be done. on the ACLU national board, intertwined able reading.

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have come about in the minds of people Reason in Therapy who have not lost their child-like love of mental play.” “The reasoning process . . . is a Mary Ann Barnhart rhythm combining wild, creative imagi- nation on the one hand and rigorously Pessimism to Realistic Hope: A Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment Program critical evaluation on the other hand.” for Depression­ and Self-Esteem, by Tony Picchioni (Baltimore: By rehearsing the range of options and PublishAmerica, 2008, ISBN 1-60563-894-3) 137 pp. Paper $24.95. mentally testing our theories and plans of action, we increase our odds of avoid- ing reckless ventures, which often con- tribute to depression and its accompa- or thirty years, Dr. Tony Pic­ chioni explores the healthy interac- nying loss of self-esteem. chioni has worked in the field tion between self-interest and mutual In some respects, this highly read- F of therapy, conflict resolution, interests. He shows how ethics have able book might be taken as a refresher and mediation. He is also chair of the developed through natural and social course in the joys of sanity and self-es- Department of Human Development interaction rather than supernatural teem. My favorite section is titled “Logic at Southern Methodist University in communiqués. and the Passion of Life.” In my work as Dallas. His book, Pessi­mism to Real­ The chapter “Hopefulness and Rea­ a therapist, I have found its wealth of istic Hope, provides a jargon-free pro- sonableness”­ throws light on the way insights of practical use for individuals gram for self-fulfillment by learning the suppression of imagination contrib- and groups coming from diverse back- to trust the reasoning process. “One utes to depression and emotional entrap- grounds. of Hollywood’s most persistent dis- ment. Day-dreaming and imagination, he services,” he writes, “is the portrayal argues,­ play critical roles not only in sci- Mary Ann Barnhart is a former ther- of love and logic as natural enemies.” entific research but also in helping indi- apist. She is the coauthor of The New Throughout, he shows how emotion- viduals deal with daily issues. Cool ana- Birth: A Naturalistic View of Religious al intelligence and rationality enhance lytic thinking and bold—even playful— Conversion and has written papers on each other. imagination work together to increase aging and articles on marriage. She Avoiding “the selfish gene” and “the the range of creative options. “Some of is currently at work on a psycholog- virtue of selfishness” cul-de-sac, Pic­ the most powerful ideas and theories ical novel.

chooled children are too often insulated omeschooling xamined from their peers and the diverse society H E in which they will spend most of their lives. Edd Doerr Kunzman notes that to some degree homeschooling “began to gain traction” Write These Laws on Your Children: Inside the World of Conserva­tive with the decline of the smaller “white Christian Homeschooling, by Robert Kunzman (Boston: Bea­con academies” that sprang up in response to Press, 2009, ISBN-13/EAN: 978-0-8070-3291-6) 256 pp. Cloth public-school desegregation. His book is $27.95. a valuable examination of an increasingly important educational and, to the extent that religion-based homeschooling seeks une/July’s Free Inquiry ran my as many as two million children, mostly public aid, church-state problem area. review of Kathryn Joyce’s Quiver­ in fundamentalist families. Jfull: Inside the Christian Patri­ Kunzman provides in-depth studies Edd Doerr, president of Americans archy Movement (“Fundament­alist of six homeschooling families. As with for Religious Liberty (arlinc.org) and Stepford Wives”). Almost simultane- the Quiverfull families, those studied former president of the American ously, the same publisher brought out by Kunzman are similarly disdainful of Humanist Association, is the author Write These Laws on Your Children, public schools, often regarding them as of more than four thousand published Indiana University School of Educa­tion “Pharoah’s schools” or hotbeds of “soc­ books, sections of books, articles, col- professor Robert Kunz­man’s interesting ial­ism” or “secular humanism.” umns, book and film reviews, trans- study of conservative Christian­ homes- Educational professionals tend to lations, letters, short stories, and chooling. The homeschooling movement, frown on homeschooling because far poems. He has made more than two barely on the radar in the mid-1970s, too many homeschooling parents lack thousand speeches and radio and has grown exponentially to encompass adequate training and because homes- television appearances.

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a sarcastic flag over both the religious This Is News? and secular fields. With their “neutrali- ty” thus well secured they are freed from having to ask any truly interesting ques- Matt Marshall tions, most notably “Why?” and “How?” Why was an admittedly religious pres- God Is Back: How the Global Revival of Faith Is Changing the World, by ident like George W. Bush blind to the religious turmoil that his invasion of John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge (New York: The Penguin Iraq would unleash, and what does that Press, 2009, ISBN 978-1-59420-213-1) 416 pp. Cloth $27.95. say about religion’s power to blind and divide? How can religious growth be both a product of freewheeling mar- ket capitalism and also serve as the t’s a bit strange—if not audacious— United States. Guided by the basic eco- balm that, to paraphrase the authors, that The Economist’s editor in chief, nomic principles of Adam Smith (i.e., that protects us from capitalism’s thorns? I John Micklethwait, and its Wash­ freedom of competition plus self-interest If neurobiology has demonstrated­ the ington bureau chief, Adrian Woold­ridge, equals growth) and evolutionary psychol- positive effect praying has on the brain, would choose to coauthor a free-market ogy (“Man . . . is a theotropic beast: given why seek purely extraphysical expla- explanation of religion’s growth and for- the option, he is inclined to believe in a nations as to why this is so? And, most titude in the midst of our era’s greatest God”), the authors argue that as more important, why, simply because religion economic recession. Stranger still is that countries open up to democracy and continues to exist, should we pull at the they should use the ill-timed tome to market capitalism, the increased freedom weeds that seek to temper its growth? rail against a position that blew its final will naturally cause religion to flourish. After all, a large chorus of naysayers smoke in the cultural revolution of the Religion­ is here, and it ain’t going away, dismissed climate change, too. Yet glob- 1960s, namely that advancing modernity they tell us. Better just learn to live with al warming continues to expand in the will inevitably trample religion into the it. In a nutshell, that’s the book. Its prem- modern world. Should we simply give in dustbin of history. Yet this is exactly ise, argument, and conclusion are pretty and learn to live with that as well? what Micklethwait­ and Wooldridge­ have done, arguing over the four hundred-odd pages of God Is Back that, contrary to “As much as Micklethwait and Wooldridge would have their notion of common secular belief, us religion is actually alive and well—even growing—in most parts of the world. believe otherwise, they just haven’t added much new So wait, the Reagan–Bush II years, when heads were piously bowed over to the the button, weren’t just a bad dream? religious-secular dialogue.” Thanks for waking up, guys. Their lagging premise might be excusable if it merely formed the basis much handled by its cover. In the end, Micklethwait and Wool­ of the book’s introduction or led to Which isn’t to say there aren’t any dridge’s lack of inquiry exposes their new and interesting conclusions. But, interesting nuggets within God’s pages. greatest bias of all: that of belief in the sadly, it’s the foundation of the entire In fact, what makes the book so frus- free market’s ability to keep itself in bal- book, and even at that is wasted on sup- trating is that as soon as the authors ance on a never-ending road of growth. porting a drab, one-story edifice whose unearth a tempting gem, they toss it (While airing their religious affiliations, long halls lead to something akin to a aside like archaeologists on a quanti- it would have been nice for them to rear service-entrance, its rusted door tative rather than qualitative dig. They come clean about their economic alle- opening onto a flat, undeveloped patch can’t wait to check the next subject off giances as well.) With the skyscrapers of dirt. As much as Micklethwait and their list. There’s little time to assess of the global economy teetering around Wooldridge would have us believe oth- the value of any unexpected, inconve- them, the authors confidently tout the erwise, they just haven’t added much nient rubble scraped up by their shov- merits of simply letting “religious peo- new to the religious-secular dialogue. els. This is perhaps a result of their ple get on with their business.” Sure, Cer­tainly not enough to warrant a book. commitment to remain—or, at least, they admit, religion can be dangerous, Starting with an anecdotal look at a appear to remain—unbiased in their evenly deadly, and preachers have been rather intolerant and ignorant “house quest. Professing an initial hope that known to bilk and abuse their flocks as church” in present-day China, the “whatever biases we bring have can- predictably as multinational corporate authors­ turn their eyes to secular Europe celed each other out,” the Roman Cath­ CEOs, but what’s the alternative? (Be (a region they view as an anomaly in olic and atheist authors proceed to play assured, this is a rhetorical question.) the global religious landscape) and the a calculated and unsatisfying game of Their inability to see beyond religion’s powerful and exportable religiosity of the tug-of-war, finding moments to drape glow (the atheist among them is surely

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­of the “I’m an atheist, but . . .” nature America’s megachurches to Wal-Mart considering overpopulation. that Richard Dawkins despises) causes shopping centers (and not derisively), The United States is Micklethwait them to make a willful slide into the the authors cite Pew statistics in argu- and Wooldridge’s supreme test case, comfortable, steam­ing pool of ignorant ing that churchgoing makes a person showing, they argue, how religious plu- bliss. So proud are they, in fact, of their happier and “is a lot easier to do” than ralism leads to a prosperous, demo- exhilarating immersion that they give accumulating the wealth it would take cratic, and happy society. With their in to the scholarly hubris of branding to make that person equally content. economic mindset, they naturally—and not wrongly—expect such a market to spread. But they refuse to examine, let alone become alarmed at, how other “Religion is here, and it ain’t going away, they tell us. American and religious traditions might Better just learn to live with it.” well tag along on this journey around the world, seeding and/or supporting high rates of violence and depression, a widening gap between rich and poor, it. No doubt they are hoping their term This is followed by such jaw-dropping a penchant for treating addicts as soulcraft, by which is meant “religion’s conclusions as finding that Pentecost­ moral and not medical cases, and the ability to provide purpose where life alism is “a great force for social progress wrongheaded insistence that religious might seem purposeless, and commu- and upward mobility,” as if the two were choice offsets any ill effects of childhood nity where community is lacking,” will inherently inseparable, and, without seri- indoctrination (to name but a few). As soon be bandied about with the likes ously addressing the effects of religious indicated, this is a book that wears of “Islamofascism” and “theocon.” Why repression on women, that “women are its heart on its cover—its disingenu- the nonbeliever among them couldn’t notable gainers” from Pente­costalism. ous argument is immediately apparent. suggest an alternative to this religious They also suggest that megachurch Secular­ists know all too well that God remedy is a mystery. But it smacks of sprawl provides “social bonds for other- never went away. And Micklethwait and one who posits himself above the hud- wise atomized suburban man,” without Wooldridge are less than convincing in dled masses: “Sure, I can find meaning considering that a move back to city pitching him as a prodigal son. without belief,” we can hear him saying. life would not only accomplish the same “But you can hardly expect the rest of thing but would likewise help in the fight the ignorant rabble to do so.” against climate change, transportation Matt Marshall is a freelance writer/ Feeling quite justified within their and energy woes, and other problems critic in Cleveland, Ohio. He is a reg- don’t-knock-it-if-it-works Garden of that face us collectively. It comes as ular contributor to Jazz Improv Maga­ E­den, our Economist friends are happy little surprise when they see high birth- zine and AllAboutJazz.com, and he to prance off into any number of glossy rates among the religious only in terms maintains the Cleveland Humanist meadows. After repeatedly likening of how they will expand belief without blog. His fiction has been published in

crew members find themselves on the It Isn’t Just the Plot that Helix, a fantastic spiral of synthetic worlds arrayed around a central star. Twists (Imagine the lovechild of Larry Niven’s Ringworld and a corkscrew.) The sur- vivors must ex­plore vast expanses of Tom Flynn the Helix in search of a place where Lovelock­ ’s sleeping colonists can make Helix, by Eric Brown (Nottingham, U.K.: Solaris Books, 2007, ISBN a life for themselves. In so doing they cross a riotous patchwork of imagined 978-1-84416-472-1) 526 climates and cultures. Having long since pp. Paper $7.99. forgotten the true nature of their world, elix, by Eric Brown, is a sprawl- “. . . a handful of crew each zone’s inhabitants fashioned more ing science-fiction novel com- or less absurd theologies to explain bining a solid adventure story, members find them- H their origins, which are challenged in world-building on an epic scale, and selves on the Helix. . . . delicious ways as they encounter the sharp-elbowed satire of religion. adventurers from dying Earth. Helix Five hundred years into its jour- Imagine the lovechild of delivers old-fashioned wonder with a ney away from a nearly uninhabitable Larry Niven’s Ringworld knowing critique of blind faith that secu- near-future Earth, its passengers in lar humanists­ will surely enjoy. suspended animation, the colony ship and a corkscrew.” Lovelock breaks apart. Awakened to confront the emergency, a handful of

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 64 REVIEWS

Killinger notes that he, a Lynchburg A Hometown View of Falwell Episcopal minister, and two local pro- fessor/ministers, all four of them critics of the Religious Right, were subjected to Edd Doerr Internal Revenue Service (IRS) audits during the Reagan administration. At The Other Preacher in Lynchburg: My Life Across Town from Jerry Falwell, about the same time, New York Society by John Killinger­ (New York: St. Martin’s Press/Thomas Dunne for Ethical Culture leader and humanist author Edward L. Ericson also faced Books, 2009, ISBN: 0-312-53858-8) 208 pp., Cloth $24.95. an IRS audit. Until I told Killinger and Ericson about the audits, neither had known of the other’s audit. Was Falwell ohn Killinger, Harvard and Prince­ the Bible on the cover of which Falwell’s behind the audits? Who knows? ton educated theologian and author name was larger than the book title!] Killinger’s book is not only a good Jof more than sixty books, served as and gewgaws and keeping vast teams of read but also presents a wealth of back- minister of First Presbyterian Church employees at work opening people’s gifts, ground on an important religio-politi- in Jerry Falwell’s­ hometown from 1980 recording addresses­ into donor rolls and cal operator and bully. He concludes: to 1986. Those years and a stint in Los sending out SOS’s requesting more and “I knew [Falwell] was a street fighter, Angeles gave him unique insights into more money to keep them from ‘going the Falwell­ phenomenon. In The Other Preacher­ in Lynchburg­ , he writes that “Killinger’s book is not only a good read but also pres- Falwell “more than anybody else was responsible for forging the religious ents right into a formidable political bloc in a wealth of background on an important religio-politi- America”; he was “Karl Rove before there was a Karl Rove.” cal Killinger describes how Falwell ran operator and bully.” afoul of the Securities and Exchange Commission; how “the religious culture but even some street fighters have eth- of America was filled with these auda- under.’” He writes: “The whole basical- ical standards. Jerry Falwell, I decided, cious, narcissistic, self-serving priests of ly anti-cultural religious movement was didn’t.” the airwaves, who were forever hawking spreading like a mucky fungus across Having had my own encounters with books [I recall seeing a Falwell edition of American Christianity.” Falwell, I found the author’s book very

A Church-State Tour “Hold onto your hats Edd Doerr as Boston University law

Holy Hullabaloos: A Road Trip to the Battlegrounds of the Church- professor Jay Wexler State Wars, by Jay Wexler (Boston: Beacon Press, 2009, ISBN- takes you on an excit- 13/EAN: 978-0-8070-0044-1) 288 pp. Paper $16.00. ing ride through some of the Supreme Court’s old onto your hats, as in Holy Wexler is a strong church-state separa- most significant church- Hulla­baloos, Boston Uni­versity tionist. His book is a worthy companion state cases. . . .” H law professor Jay Wexler takes for the late Robert Alley’s 1999 opus The you on an exciting ride through some of the Consti­tution and Religion: Leading Supreme Court’s most significant church- Supreme Court Cases on Church and state cases and, literally, to the locales State (Prometheus­ Books). I wish, howev- oddball 1990 decision in Oregon v. Smith, where the cases originated. Included in er, that Wexler had included a chapter on which he based on a 1940 ruling that the his tour are the rulings on vouchers for the court battles over reproductive choice, Court overturned in 1943. Wexler’s book faith-based schools, creationism in sci- certainly major church-state hullabaloos, is a brisk, entertaining read. *** ence classes, school prayer, and others. and that he had looked at Justice Scalia’s

65 http://www.secularhumanism.org Aug./Sept. 2009 LETTERS

(Letters, continued from p. 12) the Seymore Butts series). I think and was written up in the school she would see that there is nothing paper as a propagator of rape and like woman-worshiping (yes, wor- Share male violence. I was a traitor to the shiping) porn to prove beyond a rea- cause of women’s rights. And yet, sonable doubt that “woman is the Your Stories weren’t we taught that we could do dominant sex,” as Paglia points out anything? We could be CEOs, astro- with face-slapping clarity. Ms. Coop­ nauts or Supreme Court Justices, erman, don’t you get it? We rule! In our October/November 2007 issue, Enjoy that power! right? Oh, and nude models? I guess Free Inquiry featured “Dealing with So, no, pornography does not prop- not. Clearly, the message was that we Dying,” a selection of essays from agate rape. The existence of penises could be anything— anything, that readers describing their experienc- propagates rape. Or more accurate- is, that modern feminists approve of. es with dying, death, and end-of-life ly, biological inequity and sexual Was this the plan? To throw off the rituals. This feature was very well-re- dimorphism propagate rape. If we shackles men put on us, only to allow ceived, so in June/July 2010 we plan fellow women to re-shackle us in a can’t accept that, arm ourselves, and venture out into the world, we might another such symposium in print. Free whole new way? Inquiry solicits brief essays (or propos- True feminism, Ms. Cooperman, is as well just stay home and braid each other’s hair. als for essays) from readers concern- about sexual freedom, and yes, sexual ing secular humanist responses to: freedom comes at a price. But so do all forms of freedom, as an exchange • serious, debilitating, or chronic of safety for liberty. True feminism illness; is also about coming to terms with • caring for a seriously ill loved nature, in all its harshness and vul- We Were Right the one or friend; garity. In fact, Cooperman really First Time • end-of-life phenomena; and ought to set aside Dworkin and read • issues relating to physician aid in a bit of Darwin. Or even more to In the December/January 2009 issue of dying, assisted suicide, or other the point, she might trade Dworkin forms of beneficent euthanasia. Free Inquiry, author Paul R. Gross stated for Camille Paglia, who, despite her in his review titled “Berlinski and the Essays or proposals are invited shock-value prose and over-the-top- Windmill” that Berlinski held a PhD in pery, paints a more honest, unwhiney philosophy. New information seemed to from persons suffering serious ill- picture of the weaker sex (i.e., men). contradict this statement, and we pub- ness, who have recovered from seri- Modern feminists, Paglia writes, lished an erratum in a subsequent issue. ous illness, and from family mem- attempt to ignore biology— the stark However, we have concluded that Gross’s bers, loved ones, caregivers, and reality of masculine energy. initial assertion was correct.—Eds. concerned professionals. Completed [Catherine] MacKinnon and essays will be due no later than [Andrea] Dworkin detest pornog- February 26, 2010, and may be sub- raphy because it symbolizes every- mitted at any earlier time. If submit- ting a completed essay, total word thing they don’t understand and RITE TO can’t control about their own bod- W count should ideally be shorter than ies. Current feminism, with its 750 words and must not exceed antiscience and social construc- 1,200 words. You may also write a tionist bias, never thinks about Send submissions to brief proposal describing the essay Norm R. Allen Jr., Letters Editor, nature. Hence it cannot deal with you have in mind. FREE INQUIRY, sex, which begins in the body and Send your essay or proposal to P.O. Box 664, Amherst, is energized by instinctual drives.... Donna Danford at Free Inquiry, P.O. NY 14226-0664. Box 664, Amherst, NY 14226-0664, or Porn­ography, which erupts into the Fax: (716) 636-1733. e-mail ddanford@centerforinquiry. open in periods of personal free- E-mail: [email protected]. dom, shows the dark truth about net. Essays submitted by mail must In letters intended for be accompanied by a file in rich text nature, concealed by the artifices of publication, please include name, or Microsoft Word format on CD, civilization. Pornography is about address,­ city and state, zip code, diskette, or flash drive. Essays sub- lust, our animal reality that will and daytime phone number never be fully tamed by love. … (for verification purposes only). mitted by e-mail may be included in the body of the e-mail or attached as [Vamps and Tramps] Letters should be 300 words or less a file in rich text or Microsoft Word So, I’ll make Cooperman a deal. and pertain to previous FREE INQUIRY articles. format. Please note, these special I’ll cozy up with a Luna bar and submission requirements apply only (re-read Dworkin. But, in return, and to this feature. in all fairness, Cooperman should Unless otherwise specified, sub- actually watch a bit of pornography before she condemns it (I recommend

free inquiry http://www.secularhumanism.org 66 physics, California Institute of Technology (USA) Marcel Roche, permanent delegate to UNESCO Vitaly Ginzburg, Moscow State University from Venezuela (Venezuela) (Russia) Salman Rushdie, author, Massachusetts Rebecca Goldstein, philosopher and author (USA) Institute of Technology (USA) INTERNATIONAL ACADEMY OF HUMANISM Adolf Grünbaum, Andrew Mellon Professor of Fernando Savater, philosophy educator (Spain) ACADÉMIE INTERNATIONALE D’HUMANISME Philosophy­ of Science, University of Pittsburgh Peter Singer, DeCamp Professor of Bioethics The Academy is composed of nontheists who are: (1) (USA) at the University Center for Human Values, devoted to the principle of free inquiry in all fields Jürgen Habermas, professor of philosophy, of human endeavor; (2) committed to the scientific University of Frankfurt (Germany) Princeton University (USA) outlook and the use of reason and the scientific Margherita Hack, astronomer, astrophysicist (Italy) Jens C. Skou, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry method in acquiring knowledge about nature; and (3) Herbert Hauptman, Nobel Laureate; professor (Denmark) upholders of humanist ethical values and principles. of biophysical science, State University of New York at Buffalo (USA) J.J.C. Smart, professor emeritus of philosophy, HUMANIST LAUREATES Alberto Hidalgo Tuñón, professor of philoso- Australian National University (Australia) Pieter Admiraal, medical doctor (Netherlands) phy, Universidad de Oviedo (Spain) Shulamit Aloni, former education minister Wole Soyinka, Nobel Laureate, playwright Christopher Hitchens, author, lecturer (USA) (Israel) Donald Johanson, Institute of Human Origins (Nigeria) Ruben Ardila, psychologist, National University of (discoverer of “Lucy”) (USA) Barbara Stanosz, professor of philosophy, Colombia (Colombia) Sergeí Kapitza, chair, Moscow Institute of Margaret Atwood, author (Canada) Instytut Wydawniczy “Ksiazka i Prasa” (Poland) Physics and Technology; vice president, Kurt Baier, professor of philosophy, University of Jack Steinberger, Nobel Laureate in Physics Academy of Sciences (Russia) Pittsburgh (USA) George Klein, cancer researcher, Karolinska (USA) Etienne-Emile Baulieu, Lasker Award for Institute, Stockholm (Sweden) Clinical Medicine winner (France) Svetozar Stojanovi´c, director, Institute for György Konrád, novelist; sociologist; cofounder, Baruj Bonacerraf, Nobel Prize Laureate in Philosophy and Social Theory, University of Belgrade Hungarian Humanist Association (Hungary) Physiology or Medicine (USA) Nobel Laureate in Chemistry (Serbia) Elena Bonner, author, human rights activist Sir Harold W. Kroto, Thomas S. Szasz, professor of psychiatry, State (Russia) (UK) Jacques Bouveresse, professor of philosophy, Ioanna Kuçuradi, secretary general, Fédéra­ University­ of New York Medical School, Syracuse tion Internationale des Sociétés de Philosophie­ Collège de France (France) (USA) (Turkey) Paul D. Boyer, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Sir Keith Thomas, historian, president, Corpus (USA) Paul Kurtz, professor emeritus of philosophy, Mario Bunge, Frothingham Professor of State University of New York at Buffalo (USA) Christi College, Oxford University (UK) Foundations and Philosophy of Science, McGill Valerii A. Kuvakin, philosopher, founding direc- Rob Tielman, professor of sociology, Universiteit tor, Center for Inquiry/Moscow (Russia) University (Canada) voor Humanistiek, Utrecht; former copresident, Jean-Pierre Changeux, Collège de France, Gerald A. Larue, professor emeritus of archeol- International­ Humanist and Ethical Union Institut Pasteur, Académie des Sciences ogy and biblical studies, University of Southern (France) California at Los Angeles (USA) (Netherlands) Clarence J. Robinson professor Patricia Smith Churchland, professor of phi- Thelma Lavine, Lionel Tiger, professor of anthropology, Rutgers– of philosophy, George Mason University (USA) losophy, University of California at San Diego; the State University of New Jersey (USA) adjunct professor, Salk Institute for Biological Richard Leakey, author, paleo-anthropologist Studies (USA/Canada) (Kenya) Neil deGrasse Tyson, scientist, Hayden Planetarium Richard Dawkins, Charles Simonyi Professor Jean-Marie Lehn, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry (USA) (France) of Public Understanding of Science, Oxford Mario Vargas Llosa, author (Perú) University (UK) Elizabeth Loftus, professor, University of former Minister of Social Affairs, José M.R. Delgado, professor and chair, California/Irvine (USA) Simone Veil, Department of Neuropsychology, University of José Leite Lopes, director, Centro Brasileiro de Health, and Urban Affairs (France) Madrid (Spain) Pesquisas Fisicas (Brazil) Gore Vidal, author, social commentator (USA) Daniel C. Dennett, director of the Center for Adam Michnik, historian, political writer, cofounder Mourad Wahba, professor of philosophy, Cognitive Studies, Tufts University (USA) of KOR (Workers’ Defense Committee) (Poland) Jean Dommanget, Belgian Royal Observatory Jonathan Miller, OBE, theater and film director, University of Ain Shams, Cairo; president of the (Belgium) physician (UK) Afro-Asian Philosophical Association (Egypt) Taslima Nasrin, author, physician, social critic Ann Druyan, author, lecturer, producer (USA) James Watson, Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Umberto Eco, novelist, semiotician, University of (Bangladesh) Bologna (Italy) Elaine Pagels, Harrington Spear Paine Professor Medicine (USA) Luc Ferry, professor of philosophy, Sorbonne of Religion, Princeton University (USA) Steven Weinberg, Nobel Prize winner; professor University and University of Caen (France) Jean-Claude Pecker, professor emeritus of of physics, University of Texas at Austin (USA) Antony Flew, professor emeritus of philosophy, astrophysics, Collège de France, Académie des Harvey Weinstein, cofounder of Miramax (USA) Reading University (UK) Sciences (France) Yves Galifret, professor emeritus of neurophysi- Steven Pinker, Harvard Col. Prof. and Johnstone George A. Wells, professor of German, Birkbeck ology, Université Pierre and Marie Curie; general Family Prof. in Department of Psychology, College, University of London (UK) secretary of l’Union Rationaliste (France) Harvard University (USA) Edward O. Wilson, Pellegrino University Johan Galtung, professor of sociology, University Dennis Razis, medical oncologist, “Hygeia” of Oslo (Norway) Diagnos­tic & Therapeutic Center of Athens S.A. Professor, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel Laureate; professor of (Greece) Harvard University (USA)