Teaching and Training, Including Techniques and Dr Gary Massey Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland Technology, Testing and Assessment

ISSN 2520-2073 (print) ISSN 2521-442X (online) TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

‘Clear language engenders clear thought, and clear thought is the most important benefit of education’ ‒ Richard Mitchell

Vol. 5 Issue 1 2021

Issue doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1 The quarterly journal published by Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) ISSN 2520-2073 (print) AIMS AND SCOPE TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE ISSN 2521-442X (online) Training, Language and Culture (TLC) is a peer-reviewed journal that aims to promote and disseminate research spanning the spectrum of language and linguistics, education and culture studies with a special focus on professional communication and professional discourse. Editorial Board of A quarterly journal published by RUDN University Training, Language and Culture invites research-based articles, reviews and editorials covering issues of relevance for the scientific and professional communities. EDITORIAL BOARD Dr Elena N. Malyuga Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation FOCUS AREAS Barry Tomalin Glasgow Caledonian University London, London, UK Training, Language and Culture covers the following areas of scholarly interest: theoretical and practical perspectives in language and linguistics; Dr Michael McCarthy University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK culture studies; interpersonal and intercultural professional communication; language and culture teaching and training, including techniques and Dr Gary Massey Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland technology, testing and assessment. Dr Robert O’Dowd University of León, León, Spain Dr Elsa Huertas Barros University of Westminster, London, UK LICENSING Dr Olga V. Aleksandrova Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation All articles and book reviews published in Training, Language and Culture are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Li- Dr Lilia K. Raitskaya Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, Russian Federation cense (CC BY 4.0). This means that people can share the material (copy and redistribute in any medium or format), as well as adapt it (remix, trans- Dr Alex Krouglov University College London, London, UK form, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially) as long as they give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and in- Dr Igor E. Klyukanov Eastern Washington University, Cheney, USA dicate if changes were made. This can be done in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorsement. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as the license terms are being followed. Michael Carrier Highdale Consulting, London, UK Dr Joongchol Kwak Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea Dr Chai Mingjiong Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China INDEXATION Dr Claudia Schuhbeck International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Mexico City, Mexico The journal is currently indexed in Scopus, DOAJ, Russian Index of Science Citation, Ulrich’s Web, Linguistics Abstracts Online (Wiley), Google Scholar, EBSCO, ROAD, CyberLeninka, British Library, Bodleian Libraries (University of Oxford), Ghent University Library. Dr Enrique F. Quero-Gervilla University of Granada, Granada, Spain Dr Iván Vicente Padilla Chasing National University of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia ACCESS TO PUBLICATIONS ADVISORY BOARD Training, Language and Culture offers Platinum Open Access to its content which means that both readers and authors are granted permanent and 100% free access to the published material. Authors are not charged article processing fees, or publication fees, or article submission fees, or any Robert Williams University of Westminster, London, UK other type of fees. Authors retain copyright of their work and allow it to be shared and reused, provided that it is correctly cited. All content pub- Anthony Fitzpatrick International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany lished in the journal is available immediately upon publication. Following the Budapest Open Access Initiative’s definition of Open Access, readers Myriam Fischer Callus International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany of Training, Language and Culture are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the journal's articles and Dr Evgeniya V. Ponomarenko MGIMO University, Russia use them for any other lawful purpose. All and any publication costs associated with journal's operation are covered by the publisher – Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University). EDITORS Elena N. Malyuga, Editor-in-Chief (RUDN University) malyuga-en@rudn.ru Barry Tomalin, Co-Editor (ICC) [email protected] PEER REVIEW Elizaveta G. Grishechko, Executive Secretary (RUDN University) [email protected] Training, Language and Culture is committed to ensuring a fair and productive peer review process to secure the integrity of the scholarly record. The purpose of peer review is to assist the Editors in making editorial decisions and through the editorial communications with the author it may COMPUTER DESIGN Elizaveta G. Grishechko also assist the author in improving the paper. Training, Language and Culture uses double-blind review, which means that reviewers are unaware of the identity of the authors, and authors are also unaware of the identity of reviewers. The typical period of time allowed for reviews is 3 weeks. FOUNDERS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation http://eng.rudn.ru/ PUBLICATION SCHEDULE AND VOLUME International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC) The journal is published quarterly (four issues per year coming out in March, June, September and December) with each issue incorporating 6 to 8 Bochum, Germany https://icc-languages.eu/ original research articles, 1 to 4 reviews on relevant books and other publications on the subjects within the Aims and Scope of the journal, as well as reports on events and latest news. Print will be available on demand. PUBLISHER Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation ETHICAL PRINCIPLES In selecting (review process included), preparing (editing) and publishing manuscripts, editors of Training, Language and Culture are guided by in- CORPORATE CONTRIBUTORS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation ternational standards of publication ethics. TLC Editorial Board will carefully and responsibly consider all reasonable complaints regarding viola- International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany tions found in published materials. Journal publisher, RUDN University, is a co-founder and member of the Association of Science Editors and Pub- lishers (ASEP) and supports the ASEP Declaration on Ethical Principles for Scientific Publications. The journal also adheres to the policies promoted by the Committeee on Publication Ethics (COPE). EDITORIAL BOARD ADDRESS 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation

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Printing run 100 copies. Order No 15. Open price. Responsibility for opinions expressed in articles and reviews published and the accuracy of statements contained therein rests solely with the indi- Signed to print 18.03.2021. Date of imprint 24.03.2021. Format 60х84/8. vidual contributors. Offset paper. Offset printing. Typeface “Optima, Impact”. Printer’s sheet 10,02 Detailed information on the journal’s aims and scope, editorial board, publication policy, peer review, publication ethics, author guidelines and latest news and announcements is available on the journal’s website at https://rudn.tlcjournal.org. Printed at RUDN University Publishing House: 3 Ordzhonikidze str., 115419 Moscow, Russian Federation Online archive of all issues published in Training, Language and Culture is available at https://rudn.tlcjournal.org/archive.html. Ph.: +7 (495) 952-04-41; Email: [email protected] Publishing Agreement (Public Offer) to Publish an Article in the Academic Periodical ’Training, Language and Culture’ is available online on the © Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, 2021 journal website at https://rudn.tlcjournal.org/publication-policy.html. ISSN 2520-2073 (print) AIMS AND SCOPE TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE ISSN 2521-442X (online) Training, Language and Culture (TLC) is a peer-reviewed journal that aims to promote and disseminate research spanning the spectrum of language and linguistics, education and culture studies with a special focus on professional communication and professional discourse. Editorial Board of A quarterly journal published by RUDN University Training, Language and Culture invites research-based articles, reviews and editorials covering issues of relevance for the scientific and professional communities. EDITORIAL BOARD Dr Elena N. Malyuga Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation FOCUS AREAS Barry Tomalin Glasgow Caledonian University London, London, UK Training, Language and Culture covers the following areas of scholarly interest: theoretical and practical perspectives in language and linguistics; Dr Michael McCarthy University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK culture studies; interpersonal and intercultural professional communication; language and culture teaching and training, including techniques and Dr Gary Massey Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland technology, testing and assessment. Dr Robert O’Dowd University of León, León, Spain Dr Elsa Huertas Barros University of Westminster, London, UK LICENSING Dr Olga V. Aleksandrova Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation All articles and book reviews published in Training, Language and Culture are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Li- Dr Lilia K. Raitskaya Moscow State Institute of International Relations (MGIMO University), Moscow, Russian Federation cense (CC BY 4.0). This means that people can share the material (copy and redistribute in any medium or format), as well as adapt it (remix, trans- Dr Alex Krouglov University College London, London, UK form, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially) as long as they give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and in- Dr Igor E. Klyukanov Eastern Washington University, Cheney, USA dicate if changes were made. This can be done in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorsement. The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as the license terms are being followed. Michael Carrier Highdale Consulting, London, UK Dr Joongchol Kwak Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, Korea Dr Chai Mingjiong Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai, China INDEXATION Dr Claudia Schuhbeck International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Mexico City, Mexico The journal is currently indexed in Scopus, DOAJ, Russian Index of Science Citation, Ulrich’s Web, Linguistics Abstracts Online (Wiley), Google Scholar, EBSCO, ROAD, CyberLeninka, British Library, Bodleian Libraries (University of Oxford), Ghent University Library. Dr Enrique F. Quero-Gervilla University of Granada, Granada, Spain Dr Iván Vicente Padilla Chasing National University of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia ACCESS TO PUBLICATIONS ADVISORY BOARD Training, Language and Culture offers Platinum Open Access to its content which means that both readers and authors are granted permanent and 100% free access to the published material. Authors are not charged article processing fees, or publication fees, or article submission fees, or any Robert Williams University of Westminster, London, UK other type of fees. Authors retain copyright of their work and allow it to be shared and reused, provided that it is correctly cited. All content pub- Anthony Fitzpatrick International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany lished in the journal is available immediately upon publication. Following the Budapest Open Access Initiative’s definition of Open Access, readers Myriam Fischer Callus International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany of Training, Language and Culture are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the journal's articles and Dr Evgeniya V. Ponomarenko MGIMO University, Russia use them for any other lawful purpose. All and any publication costs associated with journal's operation are covered by the publisher – Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University). EDITORS Elena N. Malyuga, Editor-in-Chief (RUDN University) [email protected] Barry Tomalin, Co-Editor (ICC) [email protected] PEER REVIEW Elizaveta G. Grishechko, Executive Secretary (RUDN University) [email protected] Training, Language and Culture is committed to ensuring a fair and productive peer review process to secure the integrity of the scholarly record. The purpose of peer review is to assist the Editors in making editorial decisions and through the editorial communications with the author it may COMPUTER DESIGN Elizaveta G. Grishechko also assist the author in improving the paper. Training, Language and Culture uses double-blind review, which means that reviewers are unaware of the identity of the authors, and authors are also unaware of the identity of reviewers. The typical period of time allowed for reviews is 3 weeks. FOUNDERS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation http://eng.rudn.ru/ PUBLICATION SCHEDULE AND VOLUME International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC) The journal is published quarterly (four issues per year coming out in March, June, September and December) with each issue incorporating 6 to 8 Bochum, Germany https://icc-languages.eu/ original research articles, 1 to 4 reviews on relevant books and other publications on the subjects within the Aims and Scope of the journal, as well as reports on events and latest news. Print will be available on demand. PUBLISHER Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation ETHICAL PRINCIPLES In selecting (review process included), preparing (editing) and publishing manuscripts, editors of Training, Language and Culture are guided by in- CORPORATE CONTRIBUTORS Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation ternational standards of publication ethics. TLC Editorial Board will carefully and responsibly consider all reasonable complaints regarding viola- International Certificate Conference – The International Language Association (ICC), Bochum, Germany tions found in published materials. Journal publisher, RUDN University, is a co-founder and member of the Association of Science Editors and Pub- lishers (ASEP) and supports the ASEP Declaration on Ethical Principles for Scientific Publications. The journal also adheres to the policies promoted by the Committeee on Publication Ethics (COPE). EDITORIAL BOARD ADDRESS 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str., 117198 Moscow, Russian Federation

lation process and workplace research, translator About our competence and education, trainer training, organisational development and evolving translation CONTENTS industry profiles. Has contributed chapters and ar- contributors ticles to numerous edited volumes and international journals, and in recent years co-edited 5 About our contributors Richard D. Lewis the Bloomsbury Companion to Language Industry Studies (2020), a new edition of Towards Authentic 7 Introduction to Issue 5(1) by Barry Tomalin One of Britain’s foremost linguists, brought Berlitz to East Asia, Portugal and Finland and spent sever- Experiential Learning in Translator Education (2019) al years in Japan, where he personally tutored Em- and a special issue of the Interpreter and Translator press Michiko and five other Japanese Imperial Trainer (2019) on trainer training. Original Research Family members. When Cultures Collide, his guide 9 ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE – A FALLACY? by Richard D. Lewis to world business cultures translated into 15 lan- Aoife Ahern guages, has sold over 1,000,000 copies and won Tenured lecturer at the School of Education of the 20 NATIONAL IDENTITY IN INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION: REVISITING PROBLEMS OF INTERCULTURAL the prestigious US Executive Book Club award. Complutense University of Madrid, Spain. Teaches COMMUNICATION IN THE GLOBAL WORLD courses on language teaching methodology for by Anna V. Pavlovskaya Currently lectures throughout the world on cross- cultural issues and writes prolifically. His latest young learners of English as a Foreign Language, 37 RE-FRAMING CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR TRANSLATION RESEARCH IN THE AGE OF NEURAL MACHINE book, with Kai Hammerich, is Fish Can’t See Wa- and the teaching of literacy in EFL. Pedagogical TRANSLATION: INVESTIGATING TRANSLATORS’ ADDED VALUE WITH PRODUCTS AND PROCESSES ter. Received a Finnish knighthood in 1997, for his coordinator of the English specialisation studies for by Gary Massey 40 years’ experience helping Finland develop in- Primary Education Degree. PhD in Spanish Lin- ternational links. Was promoted to Knight Com- guistics, European Doctorate (UNED – University 57 DEVELOPING PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ DIGITAL COMMUNICATION AND COMPETENCES THROUGH SERVICE College London). Has developed her research and LEARNING FOR BILINGUAL LITERACY mander in 2009, Order of the Lion of Finland. by Aoife Ahern and Beatriz López-Medina teaching both in Spain – at the UCM and the Anna V. Pavlovskaya UNED – and internationally, at University College 68 INTRODUCING GERMAN PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS TO REMOTE TEACHING: POLICY, PREPARATION AND Doctor of History, Professor of Lomonosov Mos- London (doctoral research), University of Edin- PERCEPTIONS OF COMPETENCE DEVELOPMENT OF FUTURE FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS cow State University, Head of the Department of burgh (Post-doc), and others. Research interests are by Sandra Stadler-Heer Regional Studies (since 1995). Honoured Professor related to the interaction between linguistically en- 86 THE IMPLEMENTATION OF AUTHENTIC LANGUAGE INPUT IN SECOND LANGUAGE (L2) TEACHING: of Moscow State University (MSU). Author of The coded meaning and pragmatics in communica- PEDAGOGICAL ARGUMENTS Russian World (in 2 volumes, 2009), Russia and tion; second language acquisition and learning; by Maria Skiada the USA: The Problem of Interaction of Cultures and literacy teaching and learning in first and sec- (1998), How to Deal with Russians (in Russian, ond languages. English, Spanish, French, Polish, Korean, Italian, Book Reviews Chinese), England and the English (2004), Italy and Beatriz López-Medina 97 Intercultural politeness: Managing relations across cultures (a review) the Italians (2006), Russia and the Russians (2010). PhD in Linguistics, teaches at the School of Educa- original work by Helen Spencer-Oatey and Daniel Z. Kadar reviewed by Maurice Cassidy Director and founder of the Centre of Cross-Cul- tion, Complutense University of Madrid, Spain. 100 The bilingual brain: And what it tells us about the science of language (a review) tural Studies (since 1993). President and founder Offers technical support to the Quality Assurance original work by Albert Costa reviewed by Dominique Vouillemin of the Academy of Gastronomic Sciences (since Agency for Higher Education at madri+d Knowl- 2013). edge Foundation. Former Quality Coordinator of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities at Nebrija Uni- News & Events Gary Massey versity, Spain. Civil servant at the Education De- 103 ICC News by Barry Tomalin Professor of Translation Studies, Director of the In- partment of the Autonomous Region of Madrid. stitute of Translation and Interpreting, and Deputy Obtained the Second National Award of Spanish 104 EUROLTA News by Myriam Fischer Callus Dean of the School of Applied Linguistics at the Educational Research with a project on gifted children. Research interests include CLIL approach, 104 RUDN University News by Elena N. Malyuga Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW). Board member of CIUTI and an EMT assessor and bilingual education, and foreign language learning representative. Main research interests cover trans- and acquisition.

4 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 5 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org

Sandra Stadler-Heer been teaching Greek language and literature in ed- must be studied and considered on its own terms. Senior Lecturer of TESOL at the Department of Lin- ucational institutions in Greece and in Switzer- Introduction to He offers a two-phased approach for undertaking guistics and Literature, Catholic University of Eich- land. Member of the Greek and European Adult this process of cultural due diligence in the study stätt-Ingolstadt, Germany. Holds a PhD from the Education Association, as well as of the Transfor- titled Organisation culture – a fallacy? University of Regensburg in Anglophone Litera- mative Learning Network. Research interests in- Issue 5(1) In an interesting article titled National identity tures and was awarded the Prize for Excellence in clude the application of SLA theories in second by Co-editor Barry Tomalin in international education: Revisiting problems of Teaching with Digital Media 2020 of the Catholic language teaching, the use of authentic texts in intercultural communication in the global world, University. Author of South African Young Adult teaching Greek as L2, the impact of transformative Welcome to our first issue of 2021, Volume 5 of Anna Pavlovskaya compares Russian and Chinese Literature, 2000-2014, and reviewer for the ELTJ learning on adult L2 students, learning and teach- Training Language and Culture. After a difficult cultures and shows how the differences affect the and English Today. Co-convenor of the AILA Litera- ing in higher education. year for teaching and training and with personal attitudes to learning and teaching in Russian uni- ture in Language Learning and Teaching Research contact drastically reduced due to lockdowns as a versities with Chinese students. Talking to Chinese Network. Maurice Cassidy result of the Covid-19, our educational pro- students in her own university, she learns their first Senior English as a Foreign Language international grammes and contacts have had to transfer to on- impressions of Russia and how their views have Maria Skiada consultant, specialist in ELT and former Director of line delivery and discussion and maybe, who changed during their stay, and draws conclusions Has obtained a Masters diploma from the Athens the Executive Centre at International House Lon- knows, been introduced to a ‘new normal’ for as to what they need in order to feel more at home School of Philosophy in Theory and Practice of don, UK. Past Chair of Business English UK. Has much of training and teaching. in Russia and Russian universities and make the Teaching and Assessment. In 2017 was awarded a travelled widely internationally, inspecting lan- Meanwhile, research has continued apace and most of their studies. She concludes by drawing PhD from the Department of Modern Greek Stud- guage schools and training teachers. we are proud to publish academic research help- lessons, not just for Russia but for all universities ies, University of Geneva. Since 2020 has been ing us to better understand attitudes to organisa- benefiting from Chinese student enrolment and engaged in the Hellenic Open University in Dominique Vouillemin tional culture around the world, the relationship also for teaching students from other countries, to Greece and since 2018 – in the Frederic University Teacher and teacher trainer at International House between intercultural communication and national help them adapt to a new environment and a dif- in Cyprus in their Adult Education Master Pro- London, UK, specialising in language learning and identity, the role of authentic materials in language ferent academic system. grammes. Teaches Modern Greek as a second/for- international communication and cultures. Tutor teaching and learning, the relationship between As global communication explodes, what eign language to adults. Director of the Hellenic on the IH Business Cultural Trainers Certificate. human translation skills and neural translation ma- Richard Lewis describes as ‘vigorous globalisa- Culture School Switzerland and since 1999 has Runs Cambridge University Cert IBET courses. chines, the development of pre-service teachers’ tion’, more and more official and literary commu- digital communication skills and the development nication is being translated into different languages of remote teacher training programmes. for different audiences. How can this be done Three topics dominate our articles in this issue most efficiently? By professional translators or by – international cultures, digital competence in lan- artificial intelligence (AI)? Surveying the literature guage learning and teaching and teacher training, and conducting an exploratory survey in the study and the importance of authenticity and authentic titled Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation materials in language teaching and learning. One research in the age of neural machine translation: especially interesting application on digital tech- Investigating translators’ added value with prod- nology is the value of neural machine translation ucts and processes, Gary Massey concludes that as compared with professional human translators. although AI translation has a value and is likely to So, plenty to get on with. increase, the training of translators and interpreters Richard Lewis is a world leader in intercultural is vital in appreciating the nuance of the document studies, especially with his ground-breaking book, to be translated and rendering it in a way that will When Cultures Collide. In this issue he addresses be fully understood and recognised by a reader the problem of organisational culture in business used to using a different language. and challenges a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach often In Developing pre-service teachers’ digital com- based on assumptions about US and Western man- munication and competences through service agement culture. Reflecting on Edgar Schein’s or- learning for bilingual literacy, Aoife Ahern and ganisational culture grid, he reviews his own expe- Beatrice Lopez-Mendoza address both the role rience in the US, Germany, France and Japan and and value of digital instruments in training lan- argues that each country’s organisational culture guage teachers. Working with teachers doing a de-

6 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 7 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1-9-19 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 9-19 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org gree in education for primary school teachers the Finally, in The implementation of authentic lan- authors worked on a project to get trainee primary guage input in second language (L2) teaching: school teachers to use digital tools to help lan- Pedagogical arguments Maria Skiada examines the guage learners in two underprivileged schools in role of authenticity and authentic materials in lan- Original Research Madrid improve their literacy in two languages guage learning and teaching. After outlining the (Spanish and English). The results of the project en- main theoretical and pedagogical principles be- dorsed the value of digital technology in support- hind the use of authentic materials, she explains ing learners, and the authors emphasise the impor- how authentic materials shed an important light Organisational culture – a fallacy? tance in teacher training courses of the develop- not just on language but also on the society and by Richard D. Lewis ment of the digital competence of student culture(s) of the language being learned. Authentic teachers. input is a positive and motivating driving force for Richard D. Lewis Richard Lewis Communications, UK [email protected] Article history Received December 19, 2020 | Revised February 12, 2021 | Accepted March 10, 2021 Still on the subject of remote teaching and learning, even at elementary levels. Finally, she Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest learning, in Introducing German pre-service teach- discusses how the teaching strategy and tasks need Research funding No funding was reported for this research ers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and to be adapted to ensure the correct degree of chal- doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-9-19 perceptions of competence development of future lenge for learners at different levels. For citation Lewis, R. D (2021). Organisational culture – a fallacy? Training, Language and Culture, 5(1), 9-19. foreign language teachers Sandra Stadler-Heer ex- We also review a study of bilingualism by Al- plores the role of remote foreign language teacher bert Costa, and a new study by Dr Helen Spencer- In a global economy with such an increase in the role of information technology in global communication more and training in German universities, examining the Oatey and Daniel Z. Kadar on how to build and more national business are forming links with companies in other countries. There is a tendency to expect a degree of Dev/TPC (Developmental Model of Teacher Pro- manage relationships across cultures. We con- uniformity of approach as management behaviours can be argued to express the same aims and broadly similar ap- fessional Competence) introduced in 2020. Ana- clude as usual with RUDN University, ICC and proaches. However, research shows that although certain concepts may be held in common they are viewed very dif- lysing the results of two pilot studies she notes the EUROLTA news. So, plenty to get on with, learn ferently in different cultures perceived and acted upon by managers according to the culture they live and work in. advantages and disadvantages of online teacher from and enjoy. This can lead to disagreements over operations management and communication. Using a two-phase approach this training and, while recognising its value, she lists Training, Language and Culture welcomes con- paper explores these cultural differences and their influence on the idea of a common organisational cultures. It argues additional steps that need taking and the impor- tributions in the form of articles, reviews and cor- for a cultural due diligence approach to examining and reconciling potential cultural differences to optimise the international business relationship. tance of further research. Nevertheless, as she con- respondence. As always, the journal offers Plat- cludes, remote teacher training is very likely to in- inum Open Access to its content with a 100% free KEYWORDS: organisational culture, cultural due diligence, globalisation, cross-border merger, cross-border crease, as is the demand for digital competence access to the published material. Details are avail- acquisition, communication style, management style and both present exciting opportunities for lan- able online at rudn.tlcjournal.org. Feel free to con- guage teachers and learners. tact us at [email protected]. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0)

1. INTRODUCTION al intelligence, transitions and transformations, In this area of vigorous globalisation, it is not corporate architecture, strategy and structure, be- surprising that ‘organisational culture’ has become havioural expectations, organisational science, de- a buzzword, enkindling a vast amount of literature cision making, the global challenge, organisational attempting to describe and deﬁne it. In the refer- science, decision making, management consult- ence section of his admirable book, Organisational ing, intercultural competence, psychodynamics of Culture and Leadership, Edgar Schein lists 237 organisational life, leading business teams, culture books and papers written between the years gaps, organisational symbolism and so on. 1950-2010 of which 107 were published in the This paper argues that to impose a monocultur- 1990s and the 21st century (Schein, 2010). They al western and US-based approach to understand deal with many aspects and perspectives pertain- international business culture is a mistake, what- ing to international business, including mergers ever the inﬂuence internationally of western man- and acquisitions, organisational leadership, cultur- agement principles and practice. Based on person-

© Richard D. Lewis 2021 8 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 9 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-9-19 Organisational culture – a fallacy? Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 9-19 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Richard D. Lewis al experience and research, I would argue that to Table 1 achieve the aims listed above we have to take into ‘Which elements of company organisation Common issues in company organisation account the very different ways in which key mar- are we talking about? They are, of course, hierarchy criteria of success communication style dress kets operate culturally. In making this point I refer innumerable and can be looked at from to leading companies in Japan, Germany and layers of authority incentives face use of space France and offer a two-phased approach to taking different angles’ command and control punishments disagreement use of time cultural differences into account in international business. Germany and, possibly, South America one has to empowerment expectations brainstorming rolling forecasts take into consideration that organisational culture 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND precepts, as commented on in current literature, types of leaders appraisals feedback working hours The literature deals with a variety of organisa- are often both non-applicable and even meaning- decision-making promotion error detection individualism tions, mainly in the sphere of private enterprise, less in cultures comprising four fifths of humanity. some with state ownership or intervention. Since The authors referred to above have not failed to consensus loyalty code of ethics subcultures the turn of the century joint ventures as well as take into account the influence of national charac- mission statement baronies whistle-blowers human rights mergers and acquisitions have grown apace. Big- teristics in multinational business, but the often ger and bigger countries have demonstrated ap- cursory manner in which these are mentioned in- petite for growth. Even big names like Jaguar, dicate (to me) that these embedded traits are gross- 4. CASE STUDIES rect. In the US you ‘tell it how it is’. This may in- Nokia and Alcatel have been swallowed up. In the ly underestimated by writers who have only sec- In these case studies we will take common fea- volve challenging a decision made by a senior col- UK, huge British-owned industries such as textiles, ond-hand experience of cultures other than their tures of organisational culture and see how they league, certainly applicable to error detection, ir- automobiles ship-building and coal-mining have own. I have worked five years inside an American are interpreted in different countries, beginning respective of whether someone loses face or not almost disappeared. Survival of the fittest (or big- corporation, five years inside a French multina- with the USA. (Lewis, 2018; Lewis 2019). In such cases Ameri- gest) seems to be the order of the day. In the midst tional, five years in a Finnish company, five years cans usually acknowledge readily, so loss of face is of transformation and transition, the organisation in a Portuguese one, two years in a German broad- 4.1. The USA infrequent. Disagreement in American firms is also and re-organisation of the companies involved (of- casting company (Deutsche Welle) and a dozen Hierarchy is respected in most American firms direct, often expressed without rancour. Brain- ten giants in their field) is a subject of great impor- more dealing with major firms in Sweden, Spain, but officers would describe themselves as ‘democ- storming is popular and common, innovative ideas tance and no little fascination. Can two strong cor- Italy, Brazil, Denmark, Japan and the United Arab ratic’. Layers of authority would be restricted in are welcomed. Whistle-blowers can be admired porate cultures develop compatibility? How do Emirates. With all these I would say that the mod- number – the pyramid would be flat and wide rather than demonised. Dress varies according to they seek best practice? Edgar Schein and others els of organisational culture described or proposed rather than tall and narrow. Command and control the company code but office employees must be have confronted and analysed a plethora of issues in ninety percent of books on the subject are inap- sounds all right, but empowerment is ok too. scrupulously clean and considered smartly that arise in a country in transition, whether in a propriate, misdirected or bear little relevance to all American managers leading a subsidiary abroad dressed. Americans are used to working in ample merger or simply improving/transforming its struc- the countries I have worked in, with the exception are expected to make decisions ‘standing on their personal space – offices are generally light and ture. The current literature on organisational cul- of the United States, Finland and Denmark. own two feet’ but, in fact, are controlled by a strict airy, crowded conditions frustrate. As for the use of ture offers a series of possible solutions and (dare I three-month rolling forecast to HQ. US leaders in time, Americans are very punctual, work hard and say) not infrequent recommendations surrounding 3. RESEARCH AIMS general are expected to make firm decisions with- will stay late at work at times of crisis for the firm. such issues. Which elements of company organisation are out unnecessary delay. They are not too concerned Subcultures are tolerated equally and human It is understandable that the issues presented we talking about? They are, of course, innumer- about consensus among colleagues but will ‘take rights, in accordance with the Constitution of the are ones that normally arise (though not only) in able and can be looked at from different angles the rap’ (bear the consequences) if they err. Expec- United States, are a given. It is worthy of note, an Anglo-Saxon environment and consequently (e.g. customer orientation or measurement of suc- tations of work rate are high for employees and in- however, that Americans willingly accept that du- are discussed (usually in the English language) cess). However, Schein (2010) and others com- centives and punishments are often effected ties are in tandem with rights (which is not always from an Anglo-Saxon perspective. In the opinion monly refer to the following issues (see Table 1). through bonus systems. Inefficient employees are the case in some other countries). of this writer, such a perspective is invalid when a Without imposing a personal interpretation on ‘let go’ (which means fired). strong non-Anglo culture (Japan, France) is in- how writers on organisational culture treat these Appraisals are common and promotion is on 4.2. Japan volved, particularly in an M&A situation, where issues, I find that their descriptions do not stray far the line. A certain amount of loyalty is expected In 1966, I was sent to Japan to establish a transformative measures encounter reluctant or from the routines I was subjected to in two size- but American individualism and career ambitions branch of an American multinational in Tokyo, I negative acceptance. Given the current and future able US corporations and which form part of the are taken into account. The communication style stayed 5 years there, eventually opening 6 offices economic preponderance of China, India, Japan, case studies described below. between leaders and colleagues is essentially di- in Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe and Yokohama. It did not

10 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 11 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-9-19 Organisational culture – a fallacy? Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 9-19 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Richard D. Lewis al experience and research, I would argue that to Table 1 achieve the aims listed above we have to take into ‘Which elements of company organisation Common issues in company organisation account the very different ways in which key mar- are we talking about? They are, of course, hierarchy criteria of success communication style dress kets operate culturally. In making this point I refer innumerable and can be looked at from to leading companies in Japan, Germany and layers of authority incentives face use of space France and offer a two-phased approach to taking different angles’ command and control punishments disagreement use of time cultural differences into account in international business. Germany and, possibly, South America one has to empowerment expectations brainstorming rolling forecasts take into consideration that organisational culture 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND precepts, as commented on in current literature, types of leaders appraisals feedback working hours The literature deals with a variety of organisa- are often both non-applicable and even meaning- decision-making promotion error detection individualism tions, mainly in the sphere of private enterprise, less in cultures comprising four fifths of humanity. some with state ownership or intervention. Since The authors referred to above have not failed to consensus loyalty code of ethics subcultures the turn of the century joint ventures as well as take into account the influence of national charac- mission statement baronies whistle-blowers human rights mergers and acquisitions have grown apace. Big- teristics in multinational business, but the often ger and bigger countries have demonstrated ap- cursory manner in which these are mentioned in- petite for growth. Even big names like Jaguar, dicate (to me) that these embedded traits are gross- 4. CASE STUDIES rect. In the US you ‘tell it how it is’. This may in- Nokia and Alcatel have been swallowed up. In the ly underestimated by writers who have only sec- In these case studies we will take common fea- volve challenging a decision made by a senior col- UK, huge British-owned industries such as textiles, ond-hand experience of cultures other than their tures of organisational culture and see how they league, certainly applicable to error detection, ir- automobiles ship-building and coal-mining have own. I have worked five years inside an American are interpreted in different countries, beginning respective of whether someone loses face or not almost disappeared. Survival of the fittest (or big- corporation, five years inside a French multina- with the USA. (Lewis, 2018; Lewis 2019). In such cases Ameri- gest) seems to be the order of the day. In the midst tional, five years in a Finnish company, five years cans usually acknowledge readily, so loss of face is of transformation and transition, the organisation in a Portuguese one, two years in a German broad- 4.1. The USA infrequent. Disagreement in American firms is also and re-organisation of the companies involved (of- casting company (Deutsche Welle) and a dozen Hierarchy is respected in most American firms direct, often expressed without rancour. Brain- ten giants in their field) is a subject of great impor- more dealing with major firms in Sweden, Spain, but officers would describe themselves as ‘democ- storming is popular and common, innovative ideas tance and no little fascination. Can two strong cor- Italy, Brazil, Denmark, Japan and the United Arab ratic’. Layers of authority would be restricted in are welcomed. Whistle-blowers can be admired porate cultures develop compatibility? How do Emirates. With all these I would say that the mod- number – the pyramid would be flat and wide rather than demonised. Dress varies according to they seek best practice? Edgar Schein and others els of organisational culture described or proposed rather than tall and narrow. Command and control the company code but office employees must be have confronted and analysed a plethora of issues in ninety percent of books on the subject are inap- sounds all right, but empowerment is ok too. scrupulously clean and considered smartly that arise in a country in transition, whether in a propriate, misdirected or bear little relevance to all American managers leading a subsidiary abroad dressed. Americans are used to working in ample merger or simply improving/transforming its struc- the countries I have worked in, with the exception are expected to make decisions ‘standing on their personal space – offices are generally light and ture. The current literature on organisational cul- of the United States, Finland and Denmark. own two feet’ but, in fact, are controlled by a strict airy, crowded conditions frustrate. As for the use of ture offers a series of possible solutions and (dare I three-month rolling forecast to HQ. US leaders in time, Americans are very punctual, work hard and say) not infrequent recommendations surrounding 3. RESEARCH AIMS general are expected to make firm decisions with- will stay late at work at times of crisis for the firm. such issues. Which elements of company organisation are out unnecessary delay. They are not too concerned Subcultures are tolerated equally and human It is understandable that the issues presented we talking about? They are, of course, innumer- about consensus among colleagues but will ‘take rights, in accordance with the Constitution of the are ones that normally arise (though not only) in able and can be looked at from different angles the rap’ (bear the consequences) if they err. Expec- United States, are a given. It is worthy of note, an Anglo-Saxon environment and consequently (e.g. customer orientation or measurement of suc- tations of work rate are high for employees and in- however, that Americans willingly accept that du- are discussed (usually in the English language) cess). However, Schein (2010) and others com- centives and punishments are often effected ties are in tandem with rights (which is not always from an Anglo-Saxon perspective. In the opinion monly refer to the following issues (see Table 1). through bonus systems. Inefficient employees are the case in some other countries). of this writer, such a perspective is invalid when a Without imposing a personal interpretation on ‘let go’ (which means fired). strong non-Anglo culture (Japan, France) is in- how writers on organisational culture treat these Appraisals are common and promotion is on 4.2. Japan volved, particularly in an M&A situation, where issues, I find that their descriptions do not stray far the line. A certain amount of loyalty is expected In 1966, I was sent to Japan to establish a transformative measures encounter reluctant or from the routines I was subjected to in two size- but American individualism and career ambitions branch of an American multinational in Tokyo, I negative acceptance. Given the current and future able US corporations and which form part of the are taken into account. The communication style stayed 5 years there, eventually opening 6 offices economic preponderance of China, India, Japan, case studies described below. between leaders and colleagues is essentially di- in Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe and Yokohama. It did not

seem to decide on a course of action when all oth- I asked him, ‘What do you do with your less tal- ‘The concept of hierarchy, trumpeted by er options are no longer viable. The collective na- ented fifty-year-olds?’ He answered, ‘We keep ‘The organisation of a Japanese the sage Confucius in 1500 BC, is firmly ture of Japanese people means that consensus is them away from the real business. Some of them corporation is ideologically, structurally implanted in Japanese society and applies valued at all levels, though seniors often exert we train to be good golfers. We call them Vice- and culturally inherently different from the pressure. Collectivism also impacts systems of in- presidents and they entertain visiting American equally to family life, business companies centives and punishment: individuals may not be Vice-presidents for days on end. Older ones man- Anglo-Saxon model’ and government’ seen to benefit from personal bonuses. Such re- age Sony buildings in Tokyo – we rent out many to wards must be conferred on the department, e.g. foreign firms’. fair has cast serious doubts concerning the code of take me long to realise that I had entered a differ- to which a crack salesman belongs. Accountants, In Japan, loyalty to one’s company is rarely dis- ethics at higher levels in large corporations. ent world and that Japanese companies are run in too, play their part in sales. Expectations with re- cussed, as it is taken for granted. Appointment to a As persons, the Japanese executives – or a completely different way from US firms or, for gard to new recruits are always high, as loyalty reputable Japanese firm is regarded as a job-for- ‘salary-men’ – appear boringly uniform compared that matter, those in any other country. If we go and work ethic are taken for granted. Periodic ap- life. Loyalty is to one’s kaisha (company), which is with Westerners. Nearly all wear a grey or dark through our table of issues and see how they im- praisals are not popular in Asian companies. Pro- often referred to as uchi (home). Fidelity feeds blue suit, white shirt and unexciting tie. Their lack pact Japanese people, we will discover the follow- motion will be achieved in due course, not based straight through to the President. This is fairly com- of individualism gives foreigners the impression ing. on exceptional performance, but on longevity, de- mon in Asia, though in China baronies are often that they behave like a shoal of fish, arriving at The concept of hierarchy, trumpeted by the sage partmental loyalty and obedience. Criteria for pro- created, which affect the chain of command. work on time, swimming in the same direction, Confucius in 1500 BC, is firmly implanted in Ja- motion causes problems for Japanese companies. The communication style between managers staying on at their desk till the sector leader goes panese society and applies equally to family life, What can one do to promote a brilliant performer and subordinates in Japanese companies is quiet, home. This is no criticism of their behaviour. business companies and government. If there are aged 25-30? He is destined, whatever his talents, subdued, polite and indirect in comparison with Working side-by-side with Japanese men and wo- 100 persons in a firm, each one will know his to accept guidance (and orders) from men in their that in Western companies. Orders are issued very men can be a harmonious and rewarding experi- number or rank and will instruct or obey accord- forties and fifties. He simply cannot be promoted often in the form of hints (‘Perhaps we should tidy ence. Sub-cultures hardly exist in Japan, as they do ingly. If you are number 98, you will take orders above them. The corollary is the mediocre manag- up the office’ or ‘We might try to put a call in to in the US, and tolerance is high as long as one fol- from 97 people of higher rank, particularly from er in his forties or fifties who is blocking the up- Coca Cola today’). Underlying all forms of instruc- lows the rules. Questions of human rights are no. 97, who may well be taking care of your de- ward mobility of younger men with superior intel- tions, suggestions, criticism or reprimand is the vi- barely discussed: one’s job is one’s job. velopment. In turn, you will advise numbers 99 lect. What can be done? In the US, Britain and tal question of face, which affects all matters of This quick survey of life in a Japanese company and 100. Hierarchy is decided by longevity – age Australia, young stars are simply promoted and re- control and compliance in Japanese society. For indicates that procedures, aspirations and conduct or how long you have been with the company. If a warded. This cannot be done in Japan and some this reason, superiors invariably communicate have little in common with Anglo-oriented firms, batch of people joined in the same year, age will other Asian countries. with subordinates in a courteous, often paternal, except perhaps a disciplined, civilised pursuit of count. If two people are the same age, the date of I was fortunate enough to be befriended, during tone and manner. Disagreement is disguised as wealth in the form of company profits. Even here, their university degree will decide. There are strict my own sojourn in Japan, by Akio Morita, the then possible consent (‘I suppose that could be true’), goals differ. While quarterly profits, demanded by layers of authority: Shacho (CEO), Bucho (senior president of Sony. He was an outstanding, but the word ‘no’ is absent in Japanese business. Sub- shareholders, are often the target in US corpora- director), Kacho (junior manager), Kakari-cho (sec- atypical, Japanese executive, well-known among ordinates always know when there is a difference tions, Japanese firms see progress more in enlarg- tion chief). Command and control is the norm in foreign managers and with acute insight of West- of opinion and quietly comply (with a smile). ing their market share (Toyota vs Nissan, etc.) Japanese companies, full empowerment is rarely ern practices in business. He confided to me how Quite a difference from American and Australian therefore guaranteeing steady profits at a later granted, except for minor assignments. Leaders of he dealt with the promotion dilemmas referred to discourse! stage. corporations tend to be dignified, often aloof, and above. ‘I cannot promote young stars officially, nei- Brainstorming, so popular in the US, Britain The organisation of a Japanese corporation is are not involved in day-to-day operations, as many ther can I give them big salaries or impressive job and the Netherlands, is almost impossible to ideologically, structurally and culturally inherently American managers are. A Japanese president is titles. My best advertising man is 28 years old and achieve in a Japanese company, where employees different from the Anglo-Saxon model. Any work expected to set guidelines for the next year’s activi- has the title of second assistant in the packaging simply have no wish to air their views in front of outlining or proposing maxims and solutions in the ties and later to ratify proposals which filter up- department. His pay is modest, but he knows that superiors. Feedback in response to exhortation is sphere of Organisational Culture cannot afford to wards from kachos and buchos for approval. Deci- my door is always open to him and I listen careful- normally minimal. Disinclination to challenge ignore or neglect the potent lessons to be learnt sion-making in Japanese companies seems shroud- ly to all his ideas. I have given him scholarships to views or decisions of superiors is quite contrary to from the powerful currents of implacable collec- ed in mystery, particularly to foreign executives spend one year in the United States and plan an- US or Canadian practice and can cause problems tivism, intrinsic harmony, patience and stamina, who negotiate with them. Decisions which take a other year for him in Britain and Germany. Of in error detection or willingness to admit defects in nurture and tenacity, deference, theism, ambiguity week or a month with Americans may drag on for course, he has introductions and a generous ex- production (Toyota late recalls in 2014). Whistle- and long-termism that flow from Asian and other 6 times as long with Japanese firms, who often pense account’. blowers in Japan are unpopular. The Fukushima af- durable cultures around the world.

12 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 13 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-9-19 Organisational culture – a fallacy? Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 9-19 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Richard D. Lewis seem to decide on a course of action when all oth- I asked him, ‘What do you do with your less tal- ‘The concept of hierarchy, trumpeted by er options are no longer viable. The collective na- ented fifty-year-olds?’ He answered, ‘We keep ‘The organisation of a Japanese the sage Confucius in 1500 BC, is firmly ture of Japanese people means that consensus is them away from the real business. Some of them corporation is ideologically, structurally implanted in Japanese society and applies valued at all levels, though seniors often exert we train to be good golfers. We call them Vice- and culturally inherently different from the pressure. Collectivism also impacts systems of in- presidents and they entertain visiting American equally to family life, business companies centives and punishment: individuals may not be Vice-presidents for days on end. Older ones man- Anglo-Saxon model’ and government’ seen to benefit from personal bonuses. Such re- age Sony buildings in Tokyo – we rent out many to wards must be conferred on the department, e.g. foreign firms’. fair has cast serious doubts concerning the code of take me long to realise that I had entered a differ- to which a crack salesman belongs. Accountants, In Japan, loyalty to one’s company is rarely dis- ethics at higher levels in large corporations. ent world and that Japanese companies are run in too, play their part in sales. Expectations with re- cussed, as it is taken for granted. Appointment to a As persons, the Japanese executives – or a completely different way from US firms or, for gard to new recruits are always high, as loyalty reputable Japanese firm is regarded as a job-for- ‘salary-men’ – appear boringly uniform compared that matter, those in any other country. If we go and work ethic are taken for granted. Periodic ap- life. Loyalty is to one’s kaisha (company), which is with Westerners. Nearly all wear a grey or dark through our table of issues and see how they im- praisals are not popular in Asian companies. Pro- often referred to as uchi (home). Fidelity feeds blue suit, white shirt and unexciting tie. Their lack pact Japanese people, we will discover the follow- motion will be achieved in due course, not based straight through to the President. This is fairly com- of individualism gives foreigners the impression ing. on exceptional performance, but on longevity, de- mon in Asia, though in China baronies are often that they behave like a shoal of fish, arriving at The concept of hierarchy, trumpeted by the sage partmental loyalty and obedience. Criteria for pro- created, which affect the chain of command. work on time, swimming in the same direction, Confucius in 1500 BC, is firmly implanted in Ja- motion causes problems for Japanese companies. The communication style between managers staying on at their desk till the sector leader goes panese society and applies equally to family life, What can one do to promote a brilliant performer and subordinates in Japanese companies is quiet, home. This is no criticism of their behaviour. business companies and government. If there are aged 25-30? He is destined, whatever his talents, subdued, polite and indirect in comparison with Working side-by-side with Japanese men and wo- 100 persons in a firm, each one will know his to accept guidance (and orders) from men in their that in Western companies. Orders are issued very men can be a harmonious and rewarding experi- number or rank and will instruct or obey accord- forties and fifties. He simply cannot be promoted often in the form of hints (‘Perhaps we should tidy ence. Sub-cultures hardly exist in Japan, as they do ingly. If you are number 98, you will take orders above them. The corollary is the mediocre manag- up the office’ or ‘We might try to put a call in to in the US, and tolerance is high as long as one fol- from 97 people of higher rank, particularly from er in his forties or fifties who is blocking the up- Coca Cola today’). Underlying all forms of instruc- lows the rules. Questions of human rights are no. 97, who may well be taking care of your de- ward mobility of younger men with superior intel- tions, suggestions, criticism or reprimand is the vi- barely discussed: one’s job is one’s job. velopment. In turn, you will advise numbers 99 lect. What can be done? In the US, Britain and tal question of face, which affects all matters of This quick survey of life in a Japanese company and 100. Hierarchy is decided by longevity – age Australia, young stars are simply promoted and re- control and compliance in Japanese society. For indicates that procedures, aspirations and conduct or how long you have been with the company. If a warded. This cannot be done in Japan and some this reason, superiors invariably communicate have little in common with Anglo-oriented firms, batch of people joined in the same year, age will other Asian countries. with subordinates in a courteous, often paternal, except perhaps a disciplined, civilised pursuit of count. If two people are the same age, the date of I was fortunate enough to be befriended, during tone and manner. Disagreement is disguised as wealth in the form of company profits. Even here, their university degree will decide. There are strict my own sojourn in Japan, by Akio Morita, the then possible consent (‘I suppose that could be true’), goals differ. While quarterly profits, demanded by layers of authority: Shacho (CEO), Bucho (senior president of Sony. He was an outstanding, but the word ‘no’ is absent in Japanese business. Sub- shareholders, are often the target in US corpora- director), Kacho (junior manager), Kakari-cho (sec- atypical, Japanese executive, well-known among ordinates always know when there is a difference tions, Japanese firms see progress more in enlarg- tion chief). Command and control is the norm in foreign managers and with acute insight of West- of opinion and quietly comply (with a smile). ing their market share (Toyota vs Nissan, etc.) Japanese companies, full empowerment is rarely ern practices in business. He confided to me how Quite a difference from American and Australian therefore guaranteeing steady profits at a later granted, except for minor assignments. Leaders of he dealt with the promotion dilemmas referred to discourse! stage. corporations tend to be dignified, often aloof, and above. ‘I cannot promote young stars officially, nei- Brainstorming, so popular in the US, Britain The organisation of a Japanese corporation is are not involved in day-to-day operations, as many ther can I give them big salaries or impressive job and the Netherlands, is almost impossible to ideologically, structurally and culturally inherently American managers are. A Japanese president is titles. My best advertising man is 28 years old and achieve in a Japanese company, where employees different from the Anglo-Saxon model. Any work expected to set guidelines for the next year’s activi- has the title of second assistant in the packaging simply have no wish to air their views in front of outlining or proposing maxims and solutions in the ties and later to ratify proposals which filter up- department. His pay is modest, but he knows that superiors. Feedback in response to exhortation is sphere of Organisational Culture cannot afford to wards from kachos and buchos for approval. Deci- my door is always open to him and I listen careful- normally minimal. Disinclination to challenge ignore or neglect the potent lessons to be learnt sion-making in Japanese companies seems shroud- ly to all his ideas. I have given him scholarships to views or decisions of superiors is quite contrary to from the powerful currents of implacable collec- ed in mystery, particularly to foreign executives spend one year in the United States and plan an- US or Canadian practice and can cause problems tivism, intrinsic harmony, patience and stamina, who negotiate with them. Decisions which take a other year for him in Britain and Germany. Of in error detection or willingness to admit defects in nurture and tenacity, deference, theism, ambiguity week or a month with Americans may drag on for course, he has introductions and a generous ex- production (Toyota late recalls in 2014). Whistle- and long-termism that flow from Asian and other 6 times as long with Japanese firms, who often pense account’. blowers in Japan are unpopular. The Fukushima af- durable cultures around the world.

4.3. Germany ners, working habits – above all, orderliness of In terms of organisational structure, it is not ‘Working for Deutsche Welle, I noticed ‘German ‘Ordnung’ is more orderly than mind. When all these conditions have been ful- only in Asia that we find models that diverge that my German colleagues, though its British or American equivalents. It filled, one can say, Alles in Ordnung. This is almost sharply from the Anglo-Saxon. Germany, too, is a friendly enough, were quick to pounce on demands orderliness in the home, the a definition of German organisational culture. It is world of its own. The spectacular failure of the their version and they may be reluctant to abandon DaimlerChrysler merger revealed startling cultural any mistakes I made. After a while, I office, one’s general environment, one’s well-tried, proven processes that have served the differences between Germans and Americans. realised that constructive criticism is car and other possessions, neatness of nation well in the past. Many German firms have One assumed that certain comforting commonali- expected in German corporations. It is dress and accessories, orderliness of one’s lengthy manuals prescribing how tasks should be ties such as a driving work ethic, a linear approach carried out. Re-organising or re-structuring a Ger- to tasks and keen results-orientation would facili- personal, but seen as helpful to the social manners, working habits – above man firm entering a merger will have to take into tate smooth integration. This was a fallacy. An in- individual (to avoid future mistakes)’ all, orderliness of mind’ account the nation’s bureaucratic realities and tercultural meeting of the minds never took place. deep-rooted national caution. Misunderstanding and miscomprehension were relation of debt to equity. Incentives for employees agreement openly, shunning Brit-style coded rampant. The merger triggered the loss of billions may involve bonuses but tend, as in Asia, to recog- speech or Italian diplomacy and are consequently 4.4. France of dollars as the share price plummeted. Where nise departmental achievement. Loyalty is expect- accused of lacking in tact by many nationalities. France has a distinct and durable national cul- did German norms fail to calibrate with other ed in German companies and job tenure is German executives dress in good quality, gen- ture which strongly impacts the nature of French Western ones? lengthy. Both upward and horizontal mobility is erally new, clothes and expect others to do the enterprises and makes them less amenable to Scanning our approach to organisational issues less than in the US. Step-by-step hierarchical pro- same. They are jealous of their personal space and change and external influence. French self-esteem again, we discover the following. motion is slow but sure. In Germany, there is no are non-tactile. Seniors have large, private offices parallels and equals that of the Americans or Chi- Hierarchy is much stricter and more firmly es- substitute for experience. The most qualified per- and generally keep the door closed. They love pri- nese. French self-centredness resides in the belief tablished in Germany than in America or any- son in this regard is likely to be on the highest vacy, especially in a work situation. They lack that French are intellectually superior to others and where else in Western business. Layers of authority rung of the ladder. American gregariousness, where people wander that they are the flag-bearers of European civilisa- are distinct. The hierarchical pyramid is much Germans have their own distinct communica- from office to office to exchange ideas (‘How’s it tion. They resent the replacement of French by steeper than in most cultures (Hammerich & tion style. Entering a room, they are initially un- going, Jack?’). As far as the German concept of English as the language of international trade and Lewis, 2013). Communication in a German com- smiling; though they relax afterwards, their attitude time is concerned, it is extremely linear. They wish diplomacy. French business norms are very differ- pany is vertical rather than horizontal. Orders are remains formal. Greetings are with surnames and to complete every phase before going on to the ent from Anglo-Saxon ones. They use English less passed downwards to the person immediately be- official job titles. There are many ‘Doktors’ in Ger- next one. They could be described as slow and than any other Europeans, except the Spaniards, low you. Instructions are rarely horizontal; cross- many. Orders are given crisply and factually. Con- steady, do not like to be rushed. US-style 3-month- and they distinguish themselves at international departmental communication is rare and may be text is always provided. Germans like to know why ly rolling forecasts they generally despise, consid- conferences by being the last signatories to agree- frowned upon. US firms usually have strictly cen- they are embarking on a certain course of action ering the interval too short to be meaningful. They ments concluded by organisations such as WTO tralised reporting. Large German companies often and why at this time. Humour and charisma are prefer to write a detailed annual report. As far as (World Trade Organisation), OECD (Organisation feature decentralisation and compartmentalisation. often both lacking at this stage (at least in Ameri- working hours are concerned, Germans like to fin- for Economic Cooperation and Development), etc. Each department reports vertically to its head. De- can eyes). Germans ask serious questions to which ish at 5 and begin their leisure time. They prefer to Their persistent anti-Americanism and distrust of partmental rivalry is much more acute than in they expect serious answers (not always provided separate as clearly as possible their working and Anglo-Saxon precepts make French executives most countries. by North Americans, Brits and Australians). Brain- private lives. They are, of course, diligent workers poor candidates for organisation change or adapta- Germans are class-conscious. Senior managers storming is a rare event in a German company, and excellent planners. Human rights are impor- tion in mergers and acquisitions. are usually intellectuals. In classless America, in- feedback from staff is limited. Working for tant for them, though they rarely shirk from related French corporations are as hierarchical as Ger- tellectuals are often called ‘egg-heads’. Decision- Deutsche Welle, I noticed that my German col- responsibilities. man, often even more so. While German CEOs fre- making in America often features spontaneity, flex- leagues, though friendly enough, were quick to Most German enterprises conform to the na- quently sound out opinions emanating from ibility and adaptability. Germans give pride of pounce on any mistakes I made. After a while, I re- tional reputation. Ordnung (orderliness) is perhaps unions and the factory floor, the French President- place to well-tested procedures and processes. If alised that constructive criticism is expected in the most important word in their language. Ger- Directeur-Général brooks little opposition to his or these structures have brought the company so far, German corporations. It is personal, but seen as man Ordnung is more orderly than its British or her directives. Most French CEOs, especially those why change things? In Germany, consensus carries helpful to the individual (to avoid future mistakes). American equivalents. It demands orderliness in of big corporations, are alumni of France’s elite more weight than Anglo-Saxon individualism. Ger- Some of my French and British co-workers were the home, the office, one’s general environment, business schools, HEC (École des hautes études man collectivism is almost as potent as Asian. Cri- offended by such directness. Japanese and other one’s car and other possessions, neatness of dress commerciales de Paris) and Ecole Normale teria of success is not based on profits but on the Asians find it unacceptable. Germans express dis- and accessories, orderliness of one’s social man- Supérieure. They bring with them the appropriate

14 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 15 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-9-19 Organisational culture – a fallacy? Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 9-19 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Richard D. Lewis cultural baggage – a sense of history, deep respect for culture and language, elegant theories of busi- ‘Re-organisation is obviously imperative ness and administration and an in-built suspicion in the case of M&A, but where two of and distaste for Anglo-American commercial- cultures are involved, no meaningful ism. Such Chief Officers make all major decisions – consensus is often assumed rather than sought. organisation can be achieved without first Errors are frequent but CEOs are rarely fired. The attending to the problem of conflicting assumption is that the best-qualified man (or national traits’ woman) was elected in the first place, so change will not improve things. The system has proved rights. They are sometimes less than successful in Figure 1. Phase 1 of organisational culture detrimental to French business, but criteria for suc- dealing with their sizeable minorities but seek little cess is not based on profits. advice from others. Phase 1 represents the Anglo-Saxon model of different to the French firm. They approach the al- The reputation of the company is the primary organisational culture. It takes the example of an liance through their own cultural prism. What concern and the government has shown little hesi- 5. DISCUSSION American firm joining forces with a French firm in needs to happen is a process of adaptation to the tation in times past when bailing out iconic firms 5.1. The primacy of national culture and a cross-border JV (joint venture) or M&A (merger French culture leading to compromise and to an such as Renault and Citroen. Incentive systems nation-state traits and acquisition). The American firm approaches accepted degree of cultural adaptation by both have more to do with correct behaviour than prof- This summarised survey of three non-Anglo cul- the French firm with its own organisational cultur- sides in the interests of cooperation. Phase 2 is the its, and promotion is linked to cronyism and ‘old tures shows deep-rooted core beliefs which form al ideas which, as we have discussed, may be very organisation of this alignment (Figure 2). boy’ networks. the basis of mindsets that diverge sharply from French communication style is essentially Latin those of North Americans, British, Australians and in character. Discourse is long, rambling and di- New Zealanders. Japanese, Chinese and French gressive. Agendas are rarely adhered to and con- are all convinced of their intellectual and cultural clusions are postponed to the end of the day. It is superiority, and the Germans are not far behind. often said of the French that they will not agree to Then there are El Mundo Español and O Mundo anything until they have agreed to everything. Lusitano, whose adherents number 500 million in The speech style is eloquent, oratorical, often South America alone. These powerhouses of cul- charismatic. They are stubborn negotiators, re-state ture evince little or no inclination to be American- Figure 2. Phase 2 of organisational culture their opinions and positions and shy away from ised, Anglicised or organised by anybody else. compromise, which they regard as Anglo-Saxon Mergers and acquisitions abound and many of wheeling and dealing. these are multinational but few acquired entities Phase 2 follows the same overall process as agreement. The second phase is vital to the settling Their obstinacy and long-windedness can be surrender their corporate culture. Microsoft has Phase 1 but is inevitably more complex. First, of differences that may arise and the order of the exasperating for pragmatic Brits and Scandina- not taken the Finnishness out of Nokia. The other there is an agreement that the two cultures can two phases cannot be reversed, otherwise planners vians. Their strength is adherence to logic. They way round, neither has Tata (Indian) taken the work together. This then needs to be applied to all are whistling in the dark. consider that they, better than anyone, have a Britishness out of Jaguar and Land Rover, nor has the organisational areas of operation involving the One of the most important ways of achieving holistic approach. Volkswagen completely Germanised Rolls Royce. two parties to the agreement. This needs to be re- Phases 1 and 2 successfully is to undertake a cul- Disagreement is open rather than diplomatic. It is natural that writing of books on organisa- garded as work in progress. In other words, the tural audit of each partner as part of the negotia- Brainstorming is ok, though presidents impose tional culture has a worthy aim in trying to create two partners go through the process of refining the tion. We call this part of doing your cultural due their views. French business people have their own a model for modern, smoothly-running compa- rules (and taboos) of each of the departments diligence. We are all familiar with due diligence, code of ethics and tend to disregard others’. They nies. Re-organisation is obviously imperative in the working with each other. This is an important an accounting term, which describes the process rival Italians in dressing smartly, they are relatively case of M&A, but where two cultures are involved, process in ensuring mutual understanding and of examining the financial details of the two parties punctual but can be finicky about working hours. no meaningful organisation can be achieved with- reaching agreement on day-to-day operational in order to establish financial viability. Cultural Their 35-hour week has gained them few friends. out first attending to the problem of conflicting na- management issues that might arise. This then due diligence involves the same process but looks They are lukewarm about US-style statistics, rolling tional traits. Organisational culture procedure is leads to a commonly accepted modus operandi at the values and attitudes of each organisation forecasts and personal appraisals. To be French is necessarily a two-phase operation. Phase 1 is the which with mutual tolerance and common sense and the operations management of each relevant to be an individualist with one’s own personal analysis and (attempted) alignment of both compa- allows both sides to arrive at a multicultural organ- department. It then identifies areas of different views on subcultures, ethnic issues and human nies’ national characteristics (Figure 1). isational mode, accepted by all parties to the ways of working which might lead to disagreement

16 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 17 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-9-19 Organisational culture – a fallacy? Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 9-19 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Richard D. Lewis cultural baggage – a sense of history, deep respect for culture and language, elegant theories of busi- ‘Re-organisation is obviously imperative ness and administration and an in-built suspicion in the case of M&A, but where two of and distaste for Anglo-American commercial- cultures are involved, no meaningful ism. Such Chief Officers make all major decisions – consensus is often assumed rather than sought. organisation can be achieved without first Errors are frequent but CEOs are rarely fired. The attending to the problem of conflicting assumption is that the best-qualified man (or national traits’ woman) was elected in the first place, so change will not improve things. The system has proved rights. They are sometimes less than successful in Figure 1. Phase 1 of organisational culture detrimental to French business, but criteria for suc- dealing with their sizeable minorities but seek little cess is not based on profits. advice from others. Phase 1 represents the Anglo-Saxon model of different to the French firm. They approach the al- The reputation of the company is the primary organisational culture. It takes the example of an liance through their own cultural prism. What concern and the government has shown little hesi- 5. DISCUSSION American firm joining forces with a French firm in needs to happen is a process of adaptation to the tation in times past when bailing out iconic firms 5.1. The primacy of national culture and a cross-border JV (joint venture) or M&A (merger French culture leading to compromise and to an such as Renault and Citroen. Incentive systems nation-state traits and acquisition). The American firm approaches accepted degree of cultural adaptation by both have more to do with correct behaviour than prof- This summarised survey of three non-Anglo cul- the French firm with its own organisational cultur- sides in the interests of cooperation. Phase 2 is the its, and promotion is linked to cronyism and ‘old tures shows deep-rooted core beliefs which form al ideas which, as we have discussed, may be very organisation of this alignment (Figure 2). boy’ networks. the basis of mindsets that diverge sharply from French communication style is essentially Latin those of North Americans, British, Australians and in character. Discourse is long, rambling and di- New Zealanders. Japanese, Chinese and French gressive. Agendas are rarely adhered to and con- are all convinced of their intellectual and cultural clusions are postponed to the end of the day. It is superiority, and the Germans are not far behind. often said of the French that they will not agree to Then there are El Mundo Español and O Mundo anything until they have agreed to everything. Lusitano, whose adherents number 500 million in The speech style is eloquent, oratorical, often South America alone. These powerhouses of cul- charismatic. They are stubborn negotiators, re-state ture evince little or no inclination to be American- Figure 2. Phase 2 of organisational culture their opinions and positions and shy away from ised, Anglicised or organised by anybody else. compromise, which they regard as Anglo-Saxon Mergers and acquisitions abound and many of wheeling and dealing. these are multinational but few acquired entities Phase 2 follows the same overall process as agreement. The second phase is vital to the settling Their obstinacy and long-windedness can be surrender their corporate culture. Microsoft has Phase 1 but is inevitably more complex. First, of differences that may arise and the order of the exasperating for pragmatic Brits and Scandina- not taken the Finnishness out of Nokia. The other there is an agreement that the two cultures can two phases cannot be reversed, otherwise planners vians. Their strength is adherence to logic. They way round, neither has Tata (Indian) taken the work together. This then needs to be applied to all are whistling in the dark. consider that they, better than anyone, have a Britishness out of Jaguar and Land Rover, nor has the organisational areas of operation involving the One of the most important ways of achieving holistic approach. Volkswagen completely Germanised Rolls Royce. two parties to the agreement. This needs to be re- Phases 1 and 2 successfully is to undertake a cul- Disagreement is open rather than diplomatic. It is natural that writing of books on organisa- garded as work in progress. In other words, the tural audit of each partner as part of the negotia- Brainstorming is ok, though presidents impose tional culture has a worthy aim in trying to create two partners go through the process of refining the tion. We call this part of doing your cultural due their views. French business people have their own a model for modern, smoothly-running compa- rules (and taboos) of each of the departments diligence. We are all familiar with due diligence, code of ethics and tend to disregard others’. They nies. Re-organisation is obviously imperative in the working with each other. This is an important an accounting term, which describes the process rival Italians in dressing smartly, they are relatively case of M&A, but where two cultures are involved, process in ensuring mutual understanding and of examining the financial details of the two parties punctual but can be finicky about working hours. no meaningful organisation can be achieved with- reaching agreement on day-to-day operational in order to establish financial viability. Cultural Their 35-hour week has gained them few friends. out first attending to the problem of conflicting na- management issues that might arise. This then due diligence involves the same process but looks They are lukewarm about US-style statistics, rolling tional traits. Organisational culture procedure is leads to a commonly accepted modus operandi at the values and attitudes of each organisation forecasts and personal appraisals. To be French is necessarily a two-phase operation. Phase 1 is the which with mutual tolerance and common sense and the operations management of each relevant to be an individualist with one’s own personal analysis and (attempted) alignment of both compa- allows both sides to arrive at a multicultural organ- department. It then identifies areas of different views on subcultures, ethnic issues and human nies’ national characteristics (Figure 1). isational mode, accepted by all parties to the ways of working which might lead to disagreement

16 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 17 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-9-19 Organisational culture – a fallacy? Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 9-19 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Richard D. Lewis and conflict and explores ways of resolving issues 5.2. Communication Obviously, these are generalisations and indi- proach, people’s expectations or the business rela- that might arise. Most companies don’t do this One of the key issues in cross-border agree- vidual managers may communicate differently but tionship differs immensely and needs to be recog- with the result that an estimated 50% of joint ven- ments is the problem of communication between as generalisations they give a good indication of nised and adapted to. As we have seen in our dis- tures and mergers and acquisitions fail to meet managers. One of the problems is how managers how linear-actives (US, Germany), multi-actives (in cussion of the USA, Japan, Germany and France their projected share value (The Economist Intelli- talk to each other, even when they are using a some respects, France) and reactives (Japan) might managers have very different approaches to opera- gence Unit, 2012). At the same time managers in- common language such as English as a lingua misunderstand each others’ attitudes and behav- tions management and leadership and decision terviewed all over the world stated that culture franca. iours through the failure to recognise communica- making and Schein’s (2010) grid of issues com- was one of the key issues in the success of compa- In the ill-fated failed merger between Daimler tion patterns. monly faced by international organisations is valu- nies working internationally. Of the CEOs sur- Benz (Germany) and Chrysler (US) between 1998 able but each area is approached very differently veyed, 51% cited differences in cultural traditions and 2007, commentators noted the attitude of 6. CONCLUSION by managers in corporations in different cultures and 49% cited differences in workplace norms German managers who were reportedly irritated In this paper I have contested the idea that a following their own cultural organisation and (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012). Under- by the typical and more relaxed US communica- ‘one size fits all’ approach to organisational culture communication patterns. The key to a successful taking a cultural due diligence survey of organisation style. On the other side, a Chrysler in-compa- covers the variety of organisational cultures around relationship is to do your cultural due diligence on tional cultures at the beginning of an agreement is ny joke went, ‘How do you pronounce Daimler the world. Especially in an age where global busi- both organisations seeking collaboration before it an investment of time and resources but saves Chrysler? Answer: Daimler. The Chrysler is ness has progressed as never before due to ease of starts and identify and iron out potential difficul- enormous amounts of time wasted in misunder- silent’ (Lewis, 2016). communication and the use of ICTs we are now ties. This is never going to resolve all the issues standings and delays as work progresses. If done, it Table 2 illustrates the Lewis model of linear-ac- dealing with companies from all over the world. that arise but creates an effective platform for co- creates a forum where managers on both sides of tive, multi-active and reactive cultures of the com- Although there are some commonalities in ap- operation. the agreement can discuss, agree on solutions to municative features of each type of culture and issues arising and collaborate more effectively. how this affects business relationships. References Table 2 The Economist Intelligence Unit. (2012, April 25). Com- Lewis, R. D. (2016). Cross-cultural issues relating to the The Lewis model of linear-active, multi-active and reactive cultures (Lewis, 2012, p. 187) peting across borders: How cultural and commu- DaimlerChrysler merger: Case study. Warnford, nication barriers affect business. The Economist. UK: Richard Lewis Communications. LINEAR-ACTIVE MULTI-ACTIVE REACTIVE Retrieved from https://eiuperspectives.econo- Lewis, R. D. (2018). When cultures collide: Leading mist.com/economic-development/competing- across cultures (4th ed.). London, UK: NB Books. Talks and listens in equal degrees Talks most of the time Listens most of the time across-borders Lewis, R. D. (2019). The cultural imperative: Global Hammerich, K., & Lewis, R. D. (2013). Fish can’t see trends in the 21st century. Training, Language Rarely interrupts Often interrupts Never interrupts water: how national culture can make or break and Culture, 3(3), 8-20. doi: 10.29366/2019tlc. Confronts with facts Confronts emotionally Never confronts your corporate strategy. Chichester, UK: John Wi- 3.3.1 ley & Sons Ltd. Schein, E. (2010). Organizational culture and leader- Frank, direct Indirect, manipulative Indirect/courteous Lewis, R. D. (2012). When teams collide. London, UK: ship (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass NB Books. Publishing. Truth before diplomacy Diplomatic, creative truth Diplomacy before truth

Cool Excitable Inscrutable AUTHIOR INFORMATION: RICHARD D. LEWIS Richard Lewis Communications | Riversdown House, Warnford, Hants, SO32 3LH England, UK Partly conceals feelings Displays feelings Conceals feelings [email protected]

Speech is for information Speech is for opinions Speech is to promote harmony

Deﬁnes problems and solves in quick sequence Goes for all-embracing solutions Prefers gradualist solutions

Admits own mistakes Finds an excuse Hides, covers up mistakes

Likes clarity and accuracy Tolerates ambiguity Likes ambiguity

Talks in turns Often talks over the other Takes turns slowly

Tolerates some silence Cannot tolerate silence Likes sharing silences

18 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 19 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-9-19 Organisational culture – a fallacy? Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 9-19 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Richard D. Lewis and conflict and explores ways of resolving issues 5.2. Communication Obviously, these are generalisations and indi- proach, people’s expectations or the business rela- that might arise. Most companies don’t do this One of the key issues in cross-border agree- vidual managers may communicate differently but tionship differs immensely and needs to be recog- with the result that an estimated 50% of joint ven- ments is the problem of communication between as generalisations they give a good indication of nised and adapted to. As we have seen in our dis- tures and mergers and acquisitions fail to meet managers. One of the problems is how managers how linear-actives (US, Germany), multi-actives (in cussion of the USA, Japan, Germany and France their projected share value (The Economist Intelli- talk to each other, even when they are using a some respects, France) and reactives (Japan) might managers have very different approaches to opera- gence Unit, 2012). At the same time managers in- common language such as English as a lingua misunderstand each others’ attitudes and behav- tions management and leadership and decision terviewed all over the world stated that culture franca. iours through the failure to recognise communica- making and Schein’s (2010) grid of issues com- was one of the key issues in the success of compa- In the ill-fated failed merger between Daimler tion patterns. monly faced by international organisations is valu- nies working internationally. Of the CEOs sur- Benz (Germany) and Chrysler (US) between 1998 able but each area is approached very differently veyed, 51% cited differences in cultural traditions and 2007, commentators noted the attitude of 6. CONCLUSION by managers in corporations in different cultures and 49% cited differences in workplace norms German managers who were reportedly irritated In this paper I have contested the idea that a following their own cultural organisation and (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012). Under- by the typical and more relaxed US communica- ‘one size fits all’ approach to organisational culture communication patterns. The key to a successful taking a cultural due diligence survey of organisation style. On the other side, a Chrysler in-compa- covers the variety of organisational cultures around relationship is to do your cultural due diligence on tional cultures at the beginning of an agreement is ny joke went, ‘How do you pronounce Daimler the world. Especially in an age where global busi- both organisations seeking collaboration before it an investment of time and resources but saves Chrysler? Answer: Daimler. The Chrysler is ness has progressed as never before due to ease of starts and identify and iron out potential difficul- enormous amounts of time wasted in misunder- silent’ (Lewis, 2016). communication and the use of ICTs we are now ties. This is never going to resolve all the issues standings and delays as work progresses. If done, it Table 2 illustrates the Lewis model of linear-ac- dealing with companies from all over the world. that arise but creates an effective platform for co- creates a forum where managers on both sides of tive, multi-active and reactive cultures of the com- Although there are some commonalities in ap- operation. the agreement can discuss, agree on solutions to municative features of each type of culture and issues arising and collaborate more effectively. how this affects business relationships. References Table 2 The Economist Intelligence Unit. (2012, April 25). Com- Lewis, R. D. (2016). Cross-cultural issues relating to the The Lewis model of linear-active, multi-active and reactive cultures (Lewis, 2012, p. 187) peting across borders: How cultural and commu- DaimlerChrysler merger: Case study. Warnford, nication barriers affect business. The Economist. UK: Richard Lewis Communications. LINEAR-ACTIVE MULTI-ACTIVE REACTIVE Retrieved from https://eiuperspectives.econo- Lewis, R. D. (2018). When cultures collide: Leading mist.com/economic-development/competing- across cultures (4th ed.). London, UK: NB Books. Talks and listens in equal degrees Talks most of the time Listens most of the time across-borders Lewis, R. D. (2019). The cultural imperative: Global Hammerich, K., & Lewis, R. D. (2013). Fish can’t see trends in the 21st century. Training, Language Rarely interrupts Often interrupts Never interrupts water: how national culture can make or break and Culture, 3(3), 8-20. doi: 10.29366/2019tlc. Confronts with facts Confronts emotionally Never confronts your corporate strategy. Chichester, UK: John Wi- 3.3.1 ley & Sons Ltd. Schein, E. (2010). Organizational culture and leader- Frank, direct Indirect, manipulative Indirect/courteous Lewis, R. D. (2012). When teams collide. London, UK: ship (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass NB Books. Publishing. Truth before diplomacy Diplomatic, creative truth Diplomacy before truth

Speech is for information Speech is for opinions Speech is to promote harmony

Deﬁnes problems and solves in quick sequence Goes for all-embracing solutions Prefers gradualist solutions

Admits own mistakes Finds an excuse Hides, covers up mistakes

Likes clarity and accuracy Tolerates ambiguity Likes ambiguity

Talks in turns Often talks over the other Takes turns slowly

Tolerates some silence Cannot tolerate silence Likes sharing silences

18 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 19 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya

1. INTRODUCTION tising techniques, space layout, card payment sys- In recent years, Russian education has encoun- tem, discount policies and many other things – tered a substantial problem: the increasing number will be very similar or absolutely identical. Original Research of Chinese students in Russian universities. Interna- Globalisation of everyday culture has also given tionalisation of education is a logical development rise to standardisation in the spiritual sphere: ethi- in the modern world. This process started a few cal codes, behaviour patterns, ideals and ideas are centuries ago, and it has intensified quite remark- gradually being brought to a common standard. National identity in international education: Revisiting ably nearly everywhere in the last decades. Russia, Uniformity is especially evident among the youth: problems of intercultural communication in the global however, has encountered some unexpected diffi- even those young people who have no opportuni- culties connected, above all, with the student- ties to travel abroad absorb the dominant cultural world teacher interaction in the classroom. This is a para- elements through television and computers. by Anna V. Pavlovskaya dox, because the modern world appears to have Clothes, food, popular music, films, role models, everything needed to ensure successful in- information about celebrities’ personal lives Anna V. Pavlovskaya Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia [email protected] ternational interactions within the field of educa- (which has become a substitute for literary Article history Received January 5, 2021 | Revised February 22, 2021 | Accepted March 10, 2021 tion: worldwide cultural globalisation; theories of reading, and, in fact, a source of young people’s Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest intercultural communication that have stood the notions of the meaning of life and their place in it) Research funding No funding was reported for this research test of time; and, in the case of Russia and China, a – all these are now the same in Russia, the United doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 long history of co-operation. States, South Africa, Japan, Australia, UK, Brazil, For citation Pavlovskaya, A. V. (2021). National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of To grapple with the current situation, this paper China, and even the so-called ‘Muslim states’ that intercultural communication in the global world. Training, Language and Culture, 5(1), 20-36. seeks to: (1) explore issues related to the world- wage a systematic, yet unsuccessful, war against This paper discusses the need to develop new approaches to the problems of intercultural communication under mod- wide cultural globalisation; (2) analyse the existing these phenomena. The country’s geographical lo- ern conditions. The established theories were formulated in the mid-20th century in a specific historical context and for theories of intercultural communication; (3) dis- cation or political system does not matter. People specific purposes; today they are outdated. The ongoing globalisation, changing global balance of power, increased cuss difficulties in communication between Russ- all over the world hold their breath following the mobility of the ever-growing masses of the world population, mainly in the spheres of tourism, education and labour ian teachers and Chinese students arising from dif- intricacies of the private lives of the British royal migration, call for new concepts and theoretical frameworks. Cultural globalisation revived interest in national cultures, ferences in the education traditions of the two family, scandals involving American pop singers, creating a desire to preserve national traditions, lifestyles, characteristic features of everyday life and even those of the countries; and (4) suggest ways of overcoming the divorces in the families of famous American worldview. This process is stimulated by the opposition between increasing globalisation and attempts to uphold na- current challenges. The study uses data obtained actors. When you enter a lecture room at a univer- tional identity. Thus, most nations today find issues related to national identity increasingly important and sensitive. The from surveys, case studies and media reports, as sity anywhere in the world, you have virtually no clash between the two opposing vectors – cultural standardisation, on the one hand, and a kind of cultural well as historical sources that provide a historical chance of working out your location by looking at nationalism, on the other – leads to a growing number of cross-cultural misunderstandings and conflicts. This study re- and cultural perspective for the issues under dis- the students’ clothes, gadgets in their hands, or lies on a variety of sources, including the results of a survey of Russian and Chinese students studying at the cussion. coffee cups on their desks. Lomonosov Moscow State University. The discussion of the need to design new approaches to intercultural communication is illustrated by the experiences of Chinese students studying at Russian universities and Russian academics Time cannot be stopped, and cultural globalisa- teaching Chinese students. The number of Chinese students is steadily growing, but Russian educational institutions are 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND tion is a mark of the modern era. not prepared to handle this increased inflow. Students, in their turn, are not prepared to integrate into an alien culture. The 21st century can be called the era of perva- In the early 1960s, Canadian philosopher and Apart from the need to develop new principles and techniques for cross-cultural studies, the paper also emphasises the sive globalisation of culture in all its spheres, from culture theorist Marshall McLuhan (1964) coined importance of providing practical information and advice in various forms – the Internet, guidebooks, induction cour- high art to everyday culture. Standardisation of the the term ‘global village’. He believed that the new ses to help international students to adapt to the Russian education system and everyday life. Of great importance are larger part of cultural phenomena has swept across information and communication technology had professional advancement courses for the Russian faculty teaching students from China, which would offer them an in- the entire world, and this is especially true for led to the erosion of ‘time and space’: ‘As electri- troduction into Chinese education traditions, behaviour patterns and mentality. Some other ways of addressing the cur- everyday life, consumption, food traditions, etc. cally contracted, the globe is no more than a vil- rent issues in integrating Chinese students into the Russian world are suggested. On today’s world map there are hardly any ‘blind lage’ (McLuhan, 1964, p. 30). McLuhan mainly spots’ where you would find no Coca-Cola, or wrote about the impact of television, but he also KEYWORDS: international education, intercultural communication, Russian-Chinese relations, national mentalities, tra- trainers, or the Visa card. Modern supermarkets of foresaw other, more powerful methods of exerting ditions of education, international students, clash of cultures Shanghai, Moscow, Frankfurt and Chicago will impact, such as through the modern Internet. At only differ, as yet, in prices and the language that This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits the same time, he tried to avoid value judgments: unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material the shop assistants and customers speak. Every- ‘I don’t approve of the global village. I say for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0) thing else – the choice of goods and brands, adver- we live in it’ (McLuhan, 1964, p. 30). Yet, he pre-

© Anna V. Pavlovskaya 2021 20 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 21 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya dicted that globalisation would inevitably lead to in Shanghai, the company launched an online ad cultural integration, and would become a powerful ‘The global village seems to have become ‘However, cultural globalisation and titled ‘Eating with Chopsticks’. The video featured tool exerting influence on national cultures: a fact of life, cultural uniformity has been standardisation are accompanied by the a beautiful Asian woman who was unsuccessfully ‘Whole cultures could now be programmed to achieved nearly everywhere, and all we opposite process – increasing interest in struggling to eat Italian food, including pasta, piz- keep their emotional climate stable in the same za and cannoli, with chopsticks. A male voiceover way that we have begun to know something about need to do is agree on a common one’s own national culture, determination said: ‘Is it too big for you?’ The ad provoked public maintaining equilibrium in the commercial language, after which we could live as a to uphold national traditions, way of life, outrage with far-reaching consequences: on the economies of the world’ (McLuhan, 1964, p. 30). single global family – at least in what and even certain features of the national first day the ad was viewed by over 120 million Today, even the biggest assumptions made by people; the fashion show in Shanghai was can- researchers have proved correct. As of December concerns everyday life and cultural mindset. This process was probably celled; Dolce & Gabbana’s boutiques were closed 31, 2020, the number of Internet users in the values’ triggered by the clash between the down all over China; the Chinese e-commerce world comes to nearly 5 billion. It is well over half intensifying globalisation and attempts to companies withdrew D&G’s products from their of the current world population, which is around survived in the ‘global’ environment (Abi-Hashem, preserve national authenticity’ online stores; Chinese film and showbiz celebrities 7,8 billion people. This is truly impressive, consid- 2020). We are talking about the ‘civilised’ and in- issued statements refusing to wear the brand’s ering that this figure includes babies and very old dustrialised countries. To give an example, the in- the restaurant’s outlets, as well as the principles clothes; and when the Italian designers offered people. What is more, in some regions of the formal meeting between Iran’s President Hassan underlying this successful business, to be a major their apologies, these were ignored. The failure world – Europe or North America, for example, – Rouhani and French President Francois Hollande element in the globalisation of social life. was even more epic as Chinese consumers are the the percentage of Internet users comes to nearly was disrupted because the two sides failed to He also suggested the term ‘grobalisation’ de- world’s leaders in the purchase of luxury goods, 90% (Internet World Stats, 2021; Worldometer, agree on some aspects of the state dinner: Rouhani scribing ‘the imperialistic ambitions of nations, cor- and Dolce & Gabbana has 44 trading outlets in 2021). It might be assumed that computer skills objected to wine being served at the meal, while porations, organisations, and the like and their de- China, not to mention online sales (Romanova, are among the earliest skills that children develop the French refused to take it away. It should be not- sire to impose themselves on various geographic 2018). Of course, the clamour soon died down, in those countries. ed that for Iran this was a matter of religious prin- areas’ (Ritzer, 2011, p. 5). Grobalisation encom- D&G’s shops were reopened, but the clash of cul- The global village seems to have become a fact ciples, while France was simply defending its right passes three modern processes which the author tures is evident here. of life, cultural uniformity has been achieved near- to cultural identity. believes to be crucial – capitalism, Americanisa- A number of experts argued that Dolce & Gab- ly everywhere, and all we need to do is agree on a In 2010, McDonald’s botched its massive cam- tion and McDonaldisation. Curiously enough, in bana, known for their scandalous reputation and common language, after which we could live as a paign trying to win over Italian consumers. The the Russian language this term is especially telling propensity for provocation, created the scandal single global family – at least in what concerns McItaly burger, made entirely of the ingredients (grob in Russian means coffin). It suggests that Mc- deliberately to attract attention to the brand. As is everyday life and cultural values. However, cultur- produced in Italy and representing the colours of Donaldisation, i.e. cultural globalisation, is equal well known, despite the scandalous reputation, the al globalisation and standardisation are accompa- the Italian flag, was met with indignation by Ital- to coffin, i.e. death to regional cultures (Strelets, sales of the Italian fashion house are steadily grow- nied by the opposite process – increasing interest ians who saw that as a travesty of the ‘food culture 2020). Ritzer, however, derived this term from the ing. Yet, in China the situation seems to have gone in one’s own national culture, determination to up- of unparalleled richness and diversity’, i.e. Italian English word grow, referring to one of the objec- out of control. One reason might be that the no- hold national traditions, way of life, and even cer- food culture, and showered newspapers with re- tives globalisation pursues – growth in profits tion of ‘provocation’ (épatage) is completely alien tain features of the national mindset. This process sentful letters calling for a stop to pervasive (Ritzer, 2011, p. 5). to Chinese culture. And those who developed the was probably triggered by the clash between the ‘gastro-globalisation’ (Fort, 2010). In 2019, a wave The expansion of McDonald’s restaurants in the ad campaign for D&G should have been better in- intensifying globalisation and attempts to preserve of protest arose in Rome, where McDonald’s was context of globalisation is a striking example of ac- formed about the reverential attitude of the Chi- national authenticity. Consequently, issues related planning to build a restaurant next to the ancient tive resistance to the standardising impact of the nese to chopsticks, which they view as part of their to national identity have become extremely impor- Baths of Caracalla (The Local, 2019), and in Flo- global trends, and this is especially noticeable in cultural heritage. tant and sensitive for most nations. rence, where the local authorities eventually man- countries with a rich food culture, such as France Experts on Chinese cultural traditions are unan- As a result, every now and then our ‘global vil- aged to block a fast-food outlet on the much- or Italy. At the same time, here are some statistics imous in stating that ‘for China, chopsticks are lage’ gets rocked by scandals related to some na- revered Piazza del Duomo causing McDonald’s to illustrating the futility of efforts to oppose the glob- something more than a tool for eating food; it’s a tional cultural characteristics, which have not only file a multi-million lawsuit against this historic city al developments: today France ranks second in the sign of belonging to the Chinese culture’ (Maslov, survived in the globalised world but have become (The Local, 2016). world by the number of McDonald’s outlets, and 2014, p. 33). Historically, they represented the even more salient. What is more, we are not talk- McDonald’s has long become a kind of symbol Italy ranks fourth (Statista, 2020). borderline separating civilised people using chop- ing about the traditional cultures of various indige- of globalisation. In the early 1990s, American so- A couple of years ago Italian fashion brand sticks during meals, i.e. the Chinese, from ‘barbar- nous peoples that have been preserved in some ciologist George Ritzer (2011) coined the term Dolce & Gabbana suffered a major intercultural ians’ who used fingers or, later, such ‘indecent distant parts of the world, or have miraculously ‘McDonaldisation’, declaring the advancement of failure. To promote their upcoming runway show tools’ as knives and forks for that purpose

22 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 23 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya dicted that globalisation would inevitably lead to in Shanghai, the company launched an online ad cultural integration, and would become a powerful ‘The global village seems to have become ‘However, cultural globalisation and titled ‘Eating with Chopsticks’. The video featured tool exerting influence on national cultures: a fact of life, cultural uniformity has been standardisation are accompanied by the a beautiful Asian woman who was unsuccessfully ‘Whole cultures could now be programmed to achieved nearly everywhere, and all we opposite process – increasing interest in struggling to eat Italian food, including pasta, piz- keep their emotional climate stable in the same za and cannoli, with chopsticks. A male voiceover way that we have begun to know something about need to do is agree on a common one’s own national culture, determination said: ‘Is it too big for you?’ The ad provoked public maintaining equilibrium in the commercial language, after which we could live as a to uphold national traditions, way of life, outrage with far-reaching consequences: on the economies of the world’ (McLuhan, 1964, p. 30). single global family – at least in what and even certain features of the national first day the ad was viewed by over 120 million Today, even the biggest assumptions made by people; the fashion show in Shanghai was can- researchers have proved correct. As of December concerns everyday life and cultural mindset. This process was probably celled; Dolce & Gabbana’s boutiques were closed 31, 2020, the number of Internet users in the values’ triggered by the clash between the down all over China; the Chinese e-commerce world comes to nearly 5 billion. It is well over half intensifying globalisation and attempts to companies withdrew D&G’s products from their of the current world population, which is around survived in the ‘global’ environment (Abi-Hashem, preserve national authenticity’ online stores; Chinese film and showbiz celebrities 7,8 billion people. This is truly impressive, consid- 2020). We are talking about the ‘civilised’ and in- issued statements refusing to wear the brand’s ering that this figure includes babies and very old dustrialised countries. To give an example, the in- the restaurant’s outlets, as well as the principles clothes; and when the Italian designers offered people. What is more, in some regions of the formal meeting between Iran’s President Hassan underlying this successful business, to be a major their apologies, these were ignored. The failure world – Europe or North America, for example, – Rouhani and French President Francois Hollande element in the globalisation of social life. was even more epic as Chinese consumers are the the percentage of Internet users comes to nearly was disrupted because the two sides failed to He also suggested the term ‘grobalisation’ de- world’s leaders in the purchase of luxury goods, 90% (Internet World Stats, 2021; Worldometer, agree on some aspects of the state dinner: Rouhani scribing ‘the imperialistic ambitions of nations, cor- and Dolce & Gabbana has 44 trading outlets in 2021). It might be assumed that computer skills objected to wine being served at the meal, while porations, organisations, and the like and their de- China, not to mention online sales (Romanova, are among the earliest skills that children develop the French refused to take it away. It should be not- sire to impose themselves on various geographic 2018). Of course, the clamour soon died down, in those countries. ed that for Iran this was a matter of religious prin- areas’ (Ritzer, 2011, p. 5). Grobalisation encom- D&G’s shops were reopened, but the clash of cul- The global village seems to have become a fact ciples, while France was simply defending its right passes three modern processes which the author tures is evident here. of life, cultural uniformity has been achieved near- to cultural identity. believes to be crucial – capitalism, Americanisa- A number of experts argued that Dolce & Gab- ly everywhere, and all we need to do is agree on a In 2010, McDonald’s botched its massive cam- tion and McDonaldisation. Curiously enough, in bana, known for their scandalous reputation and common language, after which we could live as a paign trying to win over Italian consumers. The the Russian language this term is especially telling propensity for provocation, created the scandal single global family – at least in what concerns McItaly burger, made entirely of the ingredients (grob in Russian means coffin). It suggests that Mc- deliberately to attract attention to the brand. As is everyday life and cultural values. However, cultur- produced in Italy and representing the colours of Donaldisation, i.e. cultural globalisation, is equal well known, despite the scandalous reputation, the al globalisation and standardisation are accompa- the Italian flag, was met with indignation by Ital- to coffin, i.e. death to regional cultures (Strelets, sales of the Italian fashion house are steadily grow- nied by the opposite process – increasing interest ians who saw that as a travesty of the ‘food culture 2020). Ritzer, however, derived this term from the ing. Yet, in China the situation seems to have gone in one’s own national culture, determination to up- of unparalleled richness and diversity’, i.e. Italian English word grow, referring to one of the objec- out of control. One reason might be that the no- hold national traditions, way of life, and even cer- food culture, and showered newspapers with re- tives globalisation pursues – growth in profits tion of ‘provocation’ (épatage) is completely alien tain features of the national mindset. This process sentful letters calling for a stop to pervasive (Ritzer, 2011, p. 5). to Chinese culture. And those who developed the was probably triggered by the clash between the ‘gastro-globalisation’ (Fort, 2010). In 2019, a wave The expansion of McDonald’s restaurants in the ad campaign for D&G should have been better in- intensifying globalisation and attempts to preserve of protest arose in Rome, where McDonald’s was context of globalisation is a striking example of ac- formed about the reverential attitude of the Chi- national authenticity. Consequently, issues related planning to build a restaurant next to the ancient tive resistance to the standardising impact of the nese to chopsticks, which they view as part of their to national identity have become extremely impor- Baths of Caracalla (The Local, 2019), and in Flo- global trends, and this is especially noticeable in cultural heritage. tant and sensitive for most nations. rence, where the local authorities eventually man- countries with a rich food culture, such as France Experts on Chinese cultural traditions are unan- As a result, every now and then our ‘global vil- aged to block a fast-food outlet on the much- or Italy. At the same time, here are some statistics imous in stating that ‘for China, chopsticks are lage’ gets rocked by scandals related to some na- revered Piazza del Duomo causing McDonald’s to illustrating the futility of efforts to oppose the glob- something more than a tool for eating food; it’s a tional cultural characteristics, which have not only file a multi-million lawsuit against this historic city al developments: today France ranks second in the sign of belonging to the Chinese culture’ (Maslov, survived in the globalised world but have become (The Local, 2016). world by the number of McDonald’s outlets, and 2014, p. 33). Historically, they represented the even more salient. What is more, we are not talk- McDonald’s has long become a kind of symbol Italy ranks fourth (Statista, 2020). borderline separating civilised people using chop- ing about the traditional cultures of various indige- of globalisation. In the early 1990s, American so- A couple of years ago Italian fashion brand sticks during meals, i.e. the Chinese, from ‘barbar- nous peoples that have been preserved in some ciologist George Ritzer (2011) coined the term Dolce & Gabbana suffered a major intercultural ians’ who used fingers or, later, such ‘indecent distant parts of the world, or have miraculously ‘McDonaldisation’, declaring the advancement of failure. To promote their upcoming runway show tools’ as knives and forks for that purpose

(Dawson, 1964, p. 342). Throughout millennia, cross-cultural studies must focus on this target The majority of Russian students surveyed had chopsticks were the subject of poems praising their group. It should also be noted that today we are never been to China and had no interests connect- ‘The majority of Russian students hard-working nature and tireless care for people. witnessing an unprecedented rise in mobility in ed with this country (except for a small number of surveyed had never been to China and had Many of those were love poems, as chopsticks are the above-mentioned areas – tourism, education students who were studying Chinese, but they did no interests connected with this country only useful and make sense when they are togeth- and work. not improve the overall picture). It is obvious that er, the two of them. They have become a symbol Another major factor complicating the current their knowledge is highly stereotyped and ex- (except for a small number of students of love and marriage, are often given as a present issues in communication and mutual understand- tremely superficial. Chinese cuisine ranked first who were studying Chinese, but they did for wedding, and are still a symbol of love and fi- ing is the low level of awareness and a decline in probably because of the large number of Chinese not improve the overall picture). It is delity (Wang, 2015, p. 122-132). There are a great what American cultural theorists described as ‘cul- restaurants in Moscow and the popularity of Asian many traditions and rituals related to chopsticks: tural literacy’ (Hirsch et al., 1987; Hirsch, 1988). cuisine among young people, who believe it to be obvious that their knowledge is highly dropping them on the floor is a bad sign; picking The spread of the Internet, among other factors, ‘healthy’. Quite obviously, technology got onto the stereotyped and extremely superficial’ them into food or tapping them on the plate is un- has left no room for the traditional mass media, list due to the spread of Chinese gadgets all over acceptable; one must not lick or bite them, or print books, documentaries, news and current af- the world. Conspicuous is the fact that quite a few Things the Chinese stated they didn’t like about poke food with them. A large number of taboos fairs programmes, especially among young people. Russian students had no China-related associations Russia: (1) food; (2) weather; (3) work slowly and emphasise the role and place of chopsticks in Chi- For example, in Soviet times the role of TV news at all. ineffectively; (4) discrimination and racism; (5) nese culture and life. and print press was very high; today it is extremely backwardness and under-development; (6) unsafe. It is revealing that, wishing to ‘get revenge’ on limited. The Soviet Union practised an effective, 3.3. The Chinese about Russia Most difficult things about living in Russia: (1) the European fashion house for the insult to their though not very popular, method of information The situation with Chinese students is different: the Russian language; (2) misunderstanding; (3) traditions, the Chinese launched a ‘retaliatory’ ad dissemination known as political information the respondents were quite motivated to gain lack of a Russian friend; (4) communication; (5) in which a clumsy European is attempting to eat meetings. Such meetings were regularly organised knowledge about Russia as they had come to this bureaucracy. Chinese food using a knife and a fork. The prob- for servicemen, schoolchildren and university stu- country to study, and they had been learning its Finally, food is a special topic: it creates many lem is that in the West the knife and the fork are dents to provide them with information, albeit ide- language for a number of years. Moreover, the problems and provides little enjoyment. Things the mere utensils for taking meals; they do not bear ologically tinged, about different countries and Russian language was their specialist area, which Chinese stated they liked about food in Russia: (1) any symbolic meaning, and such a commercial peoples. Now they are gone, and there is nothing would imply a certain interest in the country itself. borscht; (2) blinis; (3) plov; (4) soup; (5) nothing. could not be offensive for Europeans. People tend to replace them. As a result, although globalisa- Yet, their most common associations are quite su- Things the Chinese stated they didn’t like about to measure others by their own yardstick. tion, travel opportunities and the Internet have perficial and primitive. (Let us note that many simi- food in Russia: (1) rye bread; (2) all food; (3) dairy Thus, we have pervasive cultural globalisation made this world a smaller place, knowledge about lar surveys were conducted among US and Eu- products, especially cheese which is added to all and the global village, on the one hand, and the the world is decreasing among the general public. ropean students, and, with the exception of vodka dishes. aggravating intercultural misunderstandings and and Putin, their associations and impressions were It must be stressed that the survey mainly in- conflicts, on the other. This is not a historical para- 3. A CASE STUDY noticeably different, though they were just as su- cluded first and second-year students. We may as- dox but a logical course of development. The 3.1. Premise perficial and stereotypical.) More sadly, they do sume that the time they had spent was not suffi- world has become more mobile and interconnect- A survey conducted at the Lomonosov Moscow not change much even after Chinese students have cient to get to know the country better. One of the ed, which resulted in the escalation of cross-cul- State University in 2019, produced some indica- spent some time in Russia and have gained first- master’s students provided a detailed account of tural clashes and the growing urge to preserve tive results. The survey included students of the hand experience of the country. how his attitude to Russia changed (his text will one’s cultural identity. Lomonosov Moscow State University: Chinese The Chinese suggested the following five most further be quoted verbatim): from disliking to lov- There is one more important aspect to it. In the (about 200 respondents, aged 18-25) and Russian common association words about Russia before ing – a rather typical progression for a senior stu- last 20-30 years, new players, such as Russia, Chi- (about 250 respondents, aged 16-22). Let us look arrival: (1) cold (including frost, winter, climate); dent. Before he started learning Russian, Russia for na and many other countries, have emerged on the at the data and comment on it. (2) large country (some added ‘but few people’); him was ‘an empty designation that only exists on global cultural arena. This does not refer to politics (3) beautiful; (4) bears; (5) vodka; (6) Putin. maps and in the news’. He started learning Rus- or economy but to the intensive use of such global 3.2. Russians about China The five most common association words after sian using a textbook from the 1990s, which was achievements as tourism, education, and labour Five most common association words: (1) Chi- arrival were: (1) cold (one comment – ‘but beauti- not the best source for developing his knowledge: force. Importantly, these areas of cross-cultural in- nese cuisine (including tea, rice, noodles, exotic ful’); (2) large; (3) beautiful; (4) clean air; (5) old; ‘I decided that both the Russian language and Rus- teractions are especially problematic in terms of dishes, sushi); (2) overpopulation, excessive num- (6) not like I imagined the country at first. sia itself were a long way away from our life. In adaptation. Business is driven by money; politics is ber of people; (3) no association words; (4) the Things the Chinese stated they liked about Rus- fact, we were learning the Russian of the Soviet pe- driven by power; and we are talking about ordi- Great Wall of China; (5) equally divided sia: (1) fresh air; (2) beautiful women and men; (3) riod’. He first visited the country in 2009 when he nary people living their everyday lives. Modern responses: hieroglyphs – red colour – technology. few people; (4) kind. was accompanying a Chinese businessman to Chi-

24 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 25 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya ta, and he spent most of the time in the hotel out Quite soon, however, not only politics but busi- er structure in the world is different. Here is just nected with the cultural competence training in of fear ‘even without a reason. I refused to go out ness, too, started playing an increasingly central one such example. Development of the theoretical the English-speaking world, and a new education- in my free time. And I sighed with relief when the role in cross-cultural research, and the pragmatic tenets of intercultural communication coincided al field in Russia called ‘Area Studies’, as it is un- work was over and I could leave’. The turning approach in this area became increasingly prom- with the peak of the Cold War, on the one hand, derstood in some higher education institutions, for point came when he arrived in Moscow for his inent. The focus shifted from theoretical investiga- and the heyday of Russian-Chinese relations, on example Moscow State University. studies: ‘I’ve been living in Moscow for the last 4 tion to attempts to create scientific models that the other. It is not surprising that Russia and China Issues related to Russia’s interaction with the years, and I’ve got used to my life here. Russia is could be used to identify characteristic features of were invariably placed in the same group in all East Asian nations, which are becoming increas- no longer a mysterious country. People fall in love other nations – mainly for the purpose of ensuring concepts developed by American scholars, which ingly active on the international arena, are gaining with Russia because of its biological cleanliness, good understanding and smooth communication, implied that Russian and Chinese cultures and na- greater prominence, especially in what concerns fascinating beauty, passionate people… The Chi- as well as for predicting behaviour. Such were the tional characters were identical. This alone shows China. In recent years, the inflow of Chinese stu- nese adore Putin, because he has the qualities that objectives pursued by most Western scholars in the ‘usefulness’ of such studies. It is still more sur- dents into Russian universities has grown dramati- we would like to see in our leaders. He never pan- the field in the mid-20th century. Research be- prising that in the last two decades the works from cally. This is a rapidly developing process, and, ac- ders to the US or Western Europe, which reminds came dominated by the aspiration to find simple the 1950-1960s got their second wind in many cording to projections, it has not reached its peak us of Mao. And the Russian babas (women) are solutions to complicated problems, and re- countries, including Russia, where the triad of yet. Government data suggest that the number of simply a legend! All this suggests that Russian peo- searchers focused on developing culture parame- Hall, Hofstede and Hirsch is revered almost like Chinese citizens studying in Russia has doubled in ple are brave and strong; they look quaint from an ters that would make it possible to fit all the nu- the classical Marxist thinkers in the past. At the the last six years, coming currently to around 30 outsider’s perspective’. Unfortunately, not many in- ances of behaviour, thinking and feelings of differ- same time, in the United States, the UK and some thousand. The opposite process is also taking ternational students who come to Russia to study ent peoples into some rigid frameworks. other countries scholars have created new modern place: more and more Russian students are study- develop such an understanding of and love for the That set the scene for the rise of a new area of theories and published a great many studies dealing at Chinese universities, with the current figure country. research – intercultural communication – a scien- ing with cross-cultural communication and adapta- standing at 18 thousand (RIA Novosti, 2019). (The tific discipline that made the study of national tion issues, and some of them address cultural bar- data for 2020 are less indicative, as the number of 4. DISCUSSION characters and cultures exclusively practice-orient- riers for international students studying in these students grew less dramatically than expected due Today the world is faced with a major problem: ed. This work involved researchers from a great va- countries. to the Covid-19 pandemic.) the research area that emerged in the mid-20th riety of fields – anthropologists, linguists, sociolo- Today we need to review the theory of intercul- Russian higher education institutions have a century and sought to address the increasing num- gists. It was necessary to promptly devise methods tural communication in Russia. We must borrow long history of working with international students, ber of communication issues caused by globalisa- of teaching people who had no relevant training in the best concepts developed over the decades, ap- the Chinese in particular. However, such an intention – this area of study has proved to be useless. I how to communicate with people of other nations ply them to the new conditions of the global sive international inflow has proved to be a serious am talking about intercultural communication – a – without spending too much time on gaining world, and, most importantly, reject the ‘West-cen- challenge for many universities, as well as for stu- field of applied knowledge that, according to one knowledge about their history and culture. This re- tric’ view of the world. Though in the recent years dents. This refers not to the methods of teaching of its founders Edward Hall, was meant to help ‘de- sulted in the development of clear-cut concepts some new studies have been published that cover the Russian language but to cultural interactions at cipher the complex, unspoken rules of each that attempted to ram diverse cultures into definite certain aspects of cross-cultural communication various levels – from classroom activities and off- culture’ (Hall & Hall, 1990, p. 4). The problem is parameters suitable for teaching practical commu- (for example, Ter-Minasova, 2017; Voevoda, 2020), campus practical training to living in the student that this scholarly discipline, which has recently nication skills. Let us note right away that such an there are no synthetical works in this area. New dormitory and shopping. come into fashion again, is closely connected with approach inevitably leads to oversimplification concepts must be based on research conducted in The current situation is paradoxical. Chinese the place and time of its emergence. and stereotypisation. Russia, and they must be applicable in the Russian students are known all over the world for their dili- The foundations of intercultural communication To be fair, the scope of the work accomplished context. Intercultural communication is an applied gence, perseverance and a strong sense of respon- were being laid in the post-war period, predomi- was impressive. Moreover, it apparently brought discipline that seeks to achieve very concrete sibility. In 1995 I obtained a grant to conduct re- nantly in the United States where the government practical benefits to the United States, creating goals, and, as we have learnt from experience, it search at Amherst College (Massachusetts). Apart allocated substantial subsidies to develop the field. conditions for this new world leader to advance on cannot be universal for all nations. That would go from myself, there were two other grant holders – The political factor was dominant from the very the global arena in various spheres, including poli- against its own aims and objectives – facilitating a British historian and a Chinese chemist. Through- beginning. It was vitally important to define the tics, business and culture. However, all research adaptation in this large world, helping to avoid out the six months of our stay, the work of a whole character, behaviour patterns, mentality and cul- efforts were limited to those narrow practical conflicts and establish good-neighbour relations. laboratory hinged on the Chinese researcher: he ture of the nations that the US was coming into di- goals. Ways and methods of achieving this will be differ- left for work at 6 am and came back at 12 pm. As rect contact with at that time, and knowledge Besides, those studies were extremely Eurocen- ent for different nations. We must look for new it turned out, he was growing some special kind of about allies was just as important as knowledge tric or, more exactly, they were informed by West- perspectives on the problem, and approaches that crystal, and no one else could do it. I was told about enemies. ern values and interests. Today, however, the pow- appear to hold the most promise are those con- that, under US legislation, the American laboratory

26 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 27 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya ta, and he spent most of the time in the hotel out Quite soon, however, not only politics but busi- er structure in the world is different. Here is just nected with the cultural competence training in of fear ‘even without a reason. I refused to go out ness, too, started playing an increasingly central one such example. Development of the theoretical the English-speaking world, and a new education- in my free time. And I sighed with relief when the role in cross-cultural research, and the pragmatic tenets of intercultural communication coincided al field in Russia called ‘Area Studies’, as it is un- work was over and I could leave’. The turning approach in this area became increasingly prom- with the peak of the Cold War, on the one hand, derstood in some higher education institutions, for point came when he arrived in Moscow for his inent. The focus shifted from theoretical investiga- and the heyday of Russian-Chinese relations, on example Moscow State University. studies: ‘I’ve been living in Moscow for the last 4 tion to attempts to create scientific models that the other. It is not surprising that Russia and China Issues related to Russia’s interaction with the years, and I’ve got used to my life here. Russia is could be used to identify characteristic features of were invariably placed in the same group in all East Asian nations, which are becoming increas- no longer a mysterious country. People fall in love other nations – mainly for the purpose of ensuring concepts developed by American scholars, which ingly active on the international arena, are gaining with Russia because of its biological cleanliness, good understanding and smooth communication, implied that Russian and Chinese cultures and na- greater prominence, especially in what concerns fascinating beauty, passionate people… The Chi- as well as for predicting behaviour. Such were the tional characters were identical. This alone shows China. In recent years, the inflow of Chinese stu- nese adore Putin, because he has the qualities that objectives pursued by most Western scholars in the ‘usefulness’ of such studies. It is still more sur- dents into Russian universities has grown dramati- we would like to see in our leaders. He never pan- the field in the mid-20th century. Research be- prising that in the last two decades the works from cally. This is a rapidly developing process, and, ac- ders to the US or Western Europe, which reminds came dominated by the aspiration to find simple the 1950-1960s got their second wind in many cording to projections, it has not reached its peak us of Mao. And the Russian babas (women) are solutions to complicated problems, and re- countries, including Russia, where the triad of yet. Government data suggest that the number of simply a legend! All this suggests that Russian peo- searchers focused on developing culture parame- Hall, Hofstede and Hirsch is revered almost like Chinese citizens studying in Russia has doubled in ple are brave and strong; they look quaint from an ters that would make it possible to fit all the nu- the classical Marxist thinkers in the past. At the the last six years, coming currently to around 30 outsider’s perspective’. Unfortunately, not many in- ances of behaviour, thinking and feelings of differ- same time, in the United States, the UK and some thousand. The opposite process is also taking ternational students who come to Russia to study ent peoples into some rigid frameworks. other countries scholars have created new modern place: more and more Russian students are study- develop such an understanding of and love for the That set the scene for the rise of a new area of theories and published a great many studies dealing at Chinese universities, with the current figure country. research – intercultural communication – a scien- ing with cross-cultural communication and adapta- standing at 18 thousand (RIA Novosti, 2019). (The tific discipline that made the study of national tion issues, and some of them address cultural bar- data for 2020 are less indicative, as the number of 4. DISCUSSION characters and cultures exclusively practice-orient- riers for international students studying in these students grew less dramatically than expected due Today the world is faced with a major problem: ed. This work involved researchers from a great va- countries. to the Covid-19 pandemic.) the research area that emerged in the mid-20th riety of fields – anthropologists, linguists, sociolo- Today we need to review the theory of intercul- Russian higher education institutions have a century and sought to address the increasing num- gists. It was necessary to promptly devise methods tural communication in Russia. We must borrow long history of working with international students, ber of communication issues caused by globalisa- of teaching people who had no relevant training in the best concepts developed over the decades, ap- the Chinese in particular. However, such an intention – this area of study has proved to be useless. I how to communicate with people of other nations ply them to the new conditions of the global sive international inflow has proved to be a serious am talking about intercultural communication – a – without spending too much time on gaining world, and, most importantly, reject the ‘West-cen- challenge for many universities, as well as for stu- field of applied knowledge that, according to one knowledge about their history and culture. This re- tric’ view of the world. Though in the recent years dents. This refers not to the methods of teaching of its founders Edward Hall, was meant to help ‘de- sulted in the development of clear-cut concepts some new studies have been published that cover the Russian language but to cultural interactions at cipher the complex, unspoken rules of each that attempted to ram diverse cultures into definite certain aspects of cross-cultural communication various levels – from classroom activities and off- culture’ (Hall & Hall, 1990, p. 4). The problem is parameters suitable for teaching practical commu- (for example, Ter-Minasova, 2017; Voevoda, 2020), campus practical training to living in the student that this scholarly discipline, which has recently nication skills. Let us note right away that such an there are no synthetical works in this area. New dormitory and shopping. come into fashion again, is closely connected with approach inevitably leads to oversimplification concepts must be based on research conducted in The current situation is paradoxical. Chinese the place and time of its emergence. and stereotypisation. Russia, and they must be applicable in the Russian students are known all over the world for their dili- The foundations of intercultural communication To be fair, the scope of the work accomplished context. Intercultural communication is an applied gence, perseverance and a strong sense of respon- were being laid in the post-war period, predomi- was impressive. Moreover, it apparently brought discipline that seeks to achieve very concrete sibility. In 1995 I obtained a grant to conduct re- nantly in the United States where the government practical benefits to the United States, creating goals, and, as we have learnt from experience, it search at Amherst College (Massachusetts). Apart allocated substantial subsidies to develop the field. conditions for this new world leader to advance on cannot be universal for all nations. That would go from myself, there were two other grant holders – The political factor was dominant from the very the global arena in various spheres, including poli- against its own aims and objectives – facilitating a British historian and a Chinese chemist. Through- beginning. It was vitally important to define the tics, business and culture. However, all research adaptation in this large world, helping to avoid out the six months of our stay, the work of a whole character, behaviour patterns, mentality and cul- efforts were limited to those narrow practical conflicts and establish good-neighbour relations. laboratory hinged on the Chinese researcher: he ture of the nations that the US was coming into di- goals. Ways and methods of achieving this will be differ- left for work at 6 am and came back at 12 pm. As rect contact with at that time, and knowledge Besides, those studies were extremely Eurocen- ent for different nations. We must look for new it turned out, he was growing some special kind of about allies was just as important as knowledge tric or, more exactly, they were informed by West- perspectives on the problem, and approaches that crystal, and no one else could do it. I was told about enemies. ern values and interests. Today, however, the pow- appear to hold the most promise are those con- that, under US legislation, the American laboratory

Let us begin with what might be called social er faiths, of non-Slavic origin, as well as barbarians ‘Russian higher education institutions and psychological causes. These include difficul- (Sreznevsky, 1993). And as for phrases similar to ‘Moreover, starting from the 18th century have a long history of working with ties in identification and self-identification, mutual the one found in the 18th century periodical Zritel the notion of ‘foreigner’ was increasingly international students, the Chinese in lack of knowledge about the characteristic features (Beholder) – ‘our high society is more foreign than linked with westerners. In the earlier times and lifestyles of the peoples of the two countries. Russian’ – they would refer exclusively to Eu- particular. However, such an intensive This breeds misunderstanding, alienation, a sense ropean influences (Sreznevsky, 1993). it was broader, encompassing people of international inflow has proved to be a of insecurity and even fear, which hinder work and Russians perceived the Chinese as a curiosity, other faiths, of non-Slavic origin, as well serious challenge for many universities, as normal communication. At first sight, we seem to some exotic and bizarre off-worlders. Ekaterina as barbarians’ know a lot about China and the Chinese – proba- Andreeva (who would later marry poet Konstantin well as for students’ bly, more than about other nations. We know that Balmont) recalled in her memoires how her father, ing the New Economic Policy period, made ap- we are neighbours, and that historically we have a wealthy merchant, received his trade partners in pearance in the literary works by Mikhail Bulgakov employees had fixed working hours, mandatory been tied by trade links, and in some periods of their Moscow home: ‘Sometimes in our father’s and Vikenti Veresaev, as well as in novels about lunch and coffee breaks, not to mention their enti- the 20th century we were close friends and allies house we saw real living Chinese with long braids, the Russian Revolution such as Red Devilkins (in tlements to vacations, sabbaticals, etc. But the standing up together against world imperialism. Yet wearing silk jackets embroidered with birds, flow- the first film adaptation of 1923 the Chinese char- crystal required constant attention. It was only the for the older generation this knowledge is essen- ers and dragons, and wearing soft shoes with acter was replaced by a black-skinned boy, and Chinese intern, with his work ethic, commitment tially limited to memories about Chinese thermos white felt soles. They treated Father to their tea, the famous film of 1967, The Elusive Avengers, had and disregard for his own private time, who was flasks that Russian families kept with great care, drinking it from tiny cups of the finest porcelain. a Gipsy character). But even during the period able to complete this important work. and to a phrase from a song from Soviet times: Greeting us, they would screw up their narrow when Russia had quite close relations with China, In Russia, Chinese students have developed a ‘Russians and the Chinese are brothers forever’. eyes, bare their yellow teeth, which was apparent- the image of the Chinese among the Soviet people reputation for being crafty at skipping classes and The song is very cheerful and is quite enjoyable to ly meant to represent a smile, and touch our palms was very vague and blurred. One of the characters dodging homework and other responsibilities. listen to even today. with their skinny hands with very long nails. I was in a tale by Samuil Marshak says: ‘In China? Is it Some journalists try to explain that by claiming And if we delve deeper, we will find that we terrified of them…’ (Aleksandrov, 1997, p. 63). where people have squinty eyes and long that Russia attracts the so-called ‘fourth wave’ of know next to nothing about our ‘little brother’ rep- Those were characters from a fairy tale, not the braids?’ (Marshak, 1968, p. 221). Such were the Chinese youth: those from the first wave go to resented by so many people. Over the long history real world. limited perceptions about the distant brother, who study to Britain and other European countries; the of the Russian state, we have gone through the In the early 20th century journalist and doctor sometimes would turn into a distant foe, depend- second wave goes to the United States; the third stages of spiritual unification with Byzantium, cul- Vladimir Korsakov wrote about the differences being on the historical period. one heads for Australia, and the fourth wave ends tural interaction with Italy, idolisation of Germany, tween Europeans and the Chinese, including Rus- Consequently, when Russian professors today up in Russia. But such an explanation is not theo- admiration of Britain, imitation of France, and sians into the notion of Europeans: ‘One must not hear that they are going to have international stu- retically valid because the choice of the university copying of the American way of life. Western na- measure the spiritual nature of the Chinese and Eu- dents in their class, they think about the French or is connected with the students’ financial capaci- tions, and more particularly Europeans, have long ropeans by the same yardstick. For centuries, the Italians. And when they learn it is the Chinese, ties, rather than with their potential academic abil- become ‘our’ people, close and understandable to life of the Chinese went its own way, and it is still they get slightly disappointed. ity. Yet, we need to consider that universities in the Russians. This does not eliminate the issues of mis- following that path, which is completely different Russians cannot gain knowledge about China above countries require candidates to demonstrate understanding and cross-cultural conflicts, but the from the life of Europeans. The Chinese have from the customary sources of information, which a certain level of English proficiency confirmed by Western world is essentially easy-to-understand everything in their own way: childhood, adoles- they can use to learn about many European coun- international certificates, while Russian universities and close to us. Our worlds are connected by the cence and old age. The Chinese have their own tries without leaving their homes. These include, have to be content with regular entrance exams ties of blood; we have borrowed many things from way of thinking and their own, absolutely unique, for example, fiction books that introduced us to that do not test the candidates’ knowledge of Rus- there, adapting them to the Russian context, while range of feelings. To understand the spirit of the the France of Dumas and Remarque, or music sian. trying out and rejecting some others. Chinese people, get a grasp of their thinking, gain which gave us insights into the British world So, what are the roots of challenges that Russ- The situation with China is completely differ- an insight into their soul, one must live with them through the Beatles and Queen, or the cinema in- ian professors (let me stress that this does not refer ent. Relatively close relations with this country for many years, study their daily routines and dustry that unveiled American, Indian and Brazil- to the teachers of Russian as a foreign language – only began in the 17th century, though there had spend a lot of time watching their life’ (Korsakov, ian life to us. In China even the Internet is professionals in teaching international students – been some vague mutual perceptions between the 1901, p. 217-218). different: it does not have Wikipedia, Google, You- but to the vast group of academics who were only two countries before that time. Moreover, starting In the first half of the 20th century, after the Tube, Instagram, WhatsApp and many other ap- recently exposed to the presence of students from from the 18th century the notion of ‘foreigner’ was 1917 Revolution, contacts with the Chinese inten- plications and platforms that are habitual to us but East Asia at their lectures and seminars) and Chi- increasingly linked with westerners. In the earlier sified. They took part in the Russian Civil war, ran have been blocked in China for political reasons. nese students are facing today? times it was broader, encompassing people of oth- the famous laundries in Russia’s capital cities dur- This also impacts the dissemination of knowledge

28 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 29 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya about Russia in China. The Chinese study Russian same should be expected from the students. Apart using old textbooks that are good in terms of lan- ‘Effective communication with Chinese ‘We are not saying that every faculty from studying the Russian language, they must un- guage teaching techniques but are out-of-date students in the classroom requires at least member working with Chinese students dertake some adaptation course introducing them from the perspective of cultural knowledge. Be- some basic understanding of Chinese should obtain an additional degree in to the Russian life and education system. sides, teaching Russian as a foreign language has The European model of education, which we historically prioritised Russian classical literature, culture and mentality. It is important not Sinology, but they certainly must have have known since the 18th century, reached China which provides excellent examples of fine literary only in terms of expanding the teachers’ some basic understanding of their only in the 20th century, and in a fragmented work but is not very helpful for understanding general knowledge – it is a prerequisite students’ life and mentality – at least from form. In its entirety, it was adopted only in the re- modern life in Russia and its people (Ivanova, cent decades, when the country entered a new 2018). for success’ a practical perspective…’ stage of societal modernisation. A book by Chi- Effective communication with Chinese students nese writer and philosopher Lin Yutang My Coun- in the classroom requires at least some basic un- Commitment to traditional values, the system of minds. When a Chinese individual leaves this try and My People (2012), written almost 100 derstanding of Chinese culture and mentality. It is hieroglyphs that isolates China from the rest of the zone of control, he or she becomes extremely ego- years ago, demonstrates the traditional attitude to important not only in terms of expanding the world, a mindset moulded over centuries by Chi- tistical leading a disorderly life and involving oth- education. The author notes the difference be- teachers’ general knowledge – it is a prerequisite nese philosophers, as well as the overall course of ers in this disorder (Malyavin, 2007, p. 26). This is, tween the Chinese and European approaches to for success. This is a separate topic, and a large the country’s historical development, have formed perhaps, the root cause of the unusual behaviour education. Both Western and Chinese scholars are one. It is not well covered in the existing Russian one of the key features of Chinese culture – its of Chinese students when they find themselves in devoted to their learning. The devotion of some academic literature, although some solid studies, closed nature, which is two-edged. On the other an alien environment. Western professors to their special subjects is more including translated works, have recently been hand, it implies non-admission of foreigners to Equally important is understanding of aspects impressive, even though it sometimes amounts to published addressing the national character of Ital- their world and a desire to keep all the wealth of that at first sight might appear to be irrelevant to ‘a morbid pride’, but the respectful attitude of the ians, the British, the French and some other na- their culture to themselves. Consider just one his- the learning process: the daily routines and habits Chinese for a scholar has a different source. They tions. As for studies on East Asian peoples, the Ja- torical riddle: why was it the black tea that Euro- of the Chinese. When this is lacking, Russian respect ‘that type of education which increases his panese are best represented. Information about the peans initially brought from China, while the Chi- teachers get baffled when Chinese students refuse practical wisdom, his knowledge of world affairs, Chinese is scarce and is usually limited to rather nese themselves had always preferred green tea? It to come for an extra class at 6 pm, saying that this and his judgment in times of crisis’ (Yutang, 2012, primitive and not very reliable travel Internet re- almost looks like the Chinese deliberately ‘spoiled’ is dinner time. Russians do not attach much im- p. 97). sources. their most treasured product before selling it to portance to the time of meals – they eat when they China had no science in the Western under- Despite the radical transformation of the Chi- outlanders. On the other hand, the Chinese reject have time for that. But for the Chinese meal times standing of the word, with the exception of philol- nese society, rapid globalisation of many aspects the outside world and, when they have to go there, are vitally important as they structure the day, set ogy and history. Yutang (2012) makes a witty re- of their culture, especially among the youth, pene- they shut themselves up in small communities the right pace of living and generate the needed mark alluding to Chinese pragmatism: ‘Astronomy tration of Western traditions and lifestyles, which where they stick to their habitual rituals and com- energy. is very near astrology, and zoology and botany are just like in other regions of the world are gradually munication patterns. This certainly complicates Chinese students also complain about the lack very near cuisine, since so many of the animals becoming a symbol of ‘civilisation’ in this country, their learning at a foreign university. of a long lunch break, which in their home coun- and fruits and vegetables are eatable’ (Yutang, the basic features of the Chinese national charac- It is well known that the Chinese attach enor- try they use not only for meals but also for rest. 2012, p. 270). ter and mindset remain the same. According to a mous importance to interpersonal relationships, When it is absent, they feel tired and distracted in In the old days, educational institutions had the well-known scholar, ‘the globalised Chinese re- social relationships, and public image. However, classes, which results in lower academic perfor- tutorial system, ‘where the teacher knew exactly main Chinese in their own eyes, and in the eyes of all this only applies to ‘their own people’: there is mance (Xiapin, 2017, p. 156; Ye & Deng, 2020). what his pupils had or had not read, and where other peoples’ (Malyavin, 2007, p. 16). Further- striking contrast between their highly polite and There are many other instances of misunderstand- there was a very close and intimate relationship more, sociological studies conducted in Taiwan, courteous treatment of the ‘insiders’ and the cold, ing, not limited to eating habits, that affect the between teacher and student’ (Yutang, 2012, p. which has always been more exposed to Western indifferent and, quite often, blatantly hostile atti- learning process. 277). There were no marks, submission deadlines, influences, show that the Taiwanese are more tude to the ‘outsiders’ (Malyavin, 2007, p. 25). A We are not saying that every faculty member no promotion from grade to grade, and no gradua- committed to traditional values and norms than Hong-Kong sociologist Sun Longji points to the working with Chinese students should obtain an tion diplomas. Quite a different matter was the for- citizens of the People’s Republic of China (Malya- lack of ‘public virtue of the group’ and egotism of additional degree in Sinology, but they certainly mal examination to obtain the scholastic degree, vin, 2007, p. 16). Just like with other nations, be- the Chinese (Sun, 1983, p. 314). In Chinese cul- must have some basic understanding of their stu- which opened the way to a career as a government haviour of the Chinese is largely governed by his- ture each person, from birth on, is enclosed in a dents’ life and mentality – at least from a practical official – the ultimate aspiration for the Chinese in torical tradition that contributed to shaping their network of interpersonal relationships that define perspective, and in what concerns the learning all times. But that was a different ambition, one mentality and character. and organise their existence and control their process and communication in the classroom. The that was not related to scholarship or knowledge.

30 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 31 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya about Russia in China. The Chinese study Russian same should be expected from the students. Apart using old textbooks that are good in terms of lan- ‘Effective communication with Chinese ‘We are not saying that every faculty from studying the Russian language, they must un- guage teaching techniques but are out-of-date students in the classroom requires at least member working with Chinese students dertake some adaptation course introducing them from the perspective of cultural knowledge. Be- some basic understanding of Chinese should obtain an additional degree in to the Russian life and education system. sides, teaching Russian as a foreign language has The European model of education, which we historically prioritised Russian classical literature, culture and mentality. It is important not Sinology, but they certainly must have have known since the 18th century, reached China which provides excellent examples of fine literary only in terms of expanding the teachers’ some basic understanding of their only in the 20th century, and in a fragmented work but is not very helpful for understanding general knowledge – it is a prerequisite students’ life and mentality – at least from form. In its entirety, it was adopted only in the re- modern life in Russia and its people (Ivanova, cent decades, when the country entered a new 2018). for success’ a practical perspective…’ stage of societal modernisation. A book by Chi- Effective communication with Chinese students nese writer and philosopher Lin Yutang My Coun- in the classroom requires at least some basic un- Commitment to traditional values, the system of minds. When a Chinese individual leaves this try and My People (2012), written almost 100 derstanding of Chinese culture and mentality. It is hieroglyphs that isolates China from the rest of the zone of control, he or she becomes extremely ego- years ago, demonstrates the traditional attitude to important not only in terms of expanding the world, a mindset moulded over centuries by Chi- tistical leading a disorderly life and involving oth- education. The author notes the difference be- teachers’ general knowledge – it is a prerequisite nese philosophers, as well as the overall course of ers in this disorder (Malyavin, 2007, p. 26). This is, tween the Chinese and European approaches to for success. This is a separate topic, and a large the country’s historical development, have formed perhaps, the root cause of the unusual behaviour education. Both Western and Chinese scholars are one. It is not well covered in the existing Russian one of the key features of Chinese culture – its of Chinese students when they find themselves in devoted to their learning. The devotion of some academic literature, although some solid studies, closed nature, which is two-edged. On the other an alien environment. Western professors to their special subjects is more including translated works, have recently been hand, it implies non-admission of foreigners to Equally important is understanding of aspects impressive, even though it sometimes amounts to published addressing the national character of Ital- their world and a desire to keep all the wealth of that at first sight might appear to be irrelevant to ‘a morbid pride’, but the respectful attitude of the ians, the British, the French and some other na- their culture to themselves. Consider just one his- the learning process: the daily routines and habits Chinese for a scholar has a different source. They tions. As for studies on East Asian peoples, the Ja- torical riddle: why was it the black tea that Euro- of the Chinese. When this is lacking, Russian respect ‘that type of education which increases his panese are best represented. Information about the peans initially brought from China, while the Chi- teachers get baffled when Chinese students refuse practical wisdom, his knowledge of world affairs, Chinese is scarce and is usually limited to rather nese themselves had always preferred green tea? It to come for an extra class at 6 pm, saying that this and his judgment in times of crisis’ (Yutang, 2012, primitive and not very reliable travel Internet re- almost looks like the Chinese deliberately ‘spoiled’ is dinner time. Russians do not attach much im- p. 97). sources. their most treasured product before selling it to portance to the time of meals – they eat when they China had no science in the Western under- Despite the radical transformation of the Chi- outlanders. On the other hand, the Chinese reject have time for that. But for the Chinese meal times standing of the word, with the exception of philol- nese society, rapid globalisation of many aspects the outside world and, when they have to go there, are vitally important as they structure the day, set ogy and history. Yutang (2012) makes a witty re- of their culture, especially among the youth, pene- they shut themselves up in small communities the right pace of living and generate the needed mark alluding to Chinese pragmatism: ‘Astronomy tration of Western traditions and lifestyles, which where they stick to their habitual rituals and com- energy. is very near astrology, and zoology and botany are just like in other regions of the world are gradually munication patterns. This certainly complicates Chinese students also complain about the lack very near cuisine, since so many of the animals becoming a symbol of ‘civilisation’ in this country, their learning at a foreign university. of a long lunch break, which in their home coun- and fruits and vegetables are eatable’ (Yutang, the basic features of the Chinese national charac- It is well known that the Chinese attach enor- try they use not only for meals but also for rest. 2012, p. 270). ter and mindset remain the same. According to a mous importance to interpersonal relationships, When it is absent, they feel tired and distracted in In the old days, educational institutions had the well-known scholar, ‘the globalised Chinese re- social relationships, and public image. However, classes, which results in lower academic perfor- tutorial system, ‘where the teacher knew exactly main Chinese in their own eyes, and in the eyes of all this only applies to ‘their own people’: there is mance (Xiapin, 2017, p. 156; Ye & Deng, 2020). what his pupils had or had not read, and where other peoples’ (Malyavin, 2007, p. 16). Further- striking contrast between their highly polite and There are many other instances of misunderstand- there was a very close and intimate relationship more, sociological studies conducted in Taiwan, courteous treatment of the ‘insiders’ and the cold, ing, not limited to eating habits, that affect the between teacher and student’ (Yutang, 2012, p. which has always been more exposed to Western indifferent and, quite often, blatantly hostile atti- learning process. 277). There were no marks, submission deadlines, influences, show that the Taiwanese are more tude to the ‘outsiders’ (Malyavin, 2007, p. 25). A We are not saying that every faculty member no promotion from grade to grade, and no gradua- committed to traditional values and norms than Hong-Kong sociologist Sun Longji points to the working with Chinese students should obtain an tion diplomas. Quite a different matter was the for- citizens of the People’s Republic of China (Malya- lack of ‘public virtue of the group’ and egotism of additional degree in Sinology, but they certainly mal examination to obtain the scholastic degree, vin, 2007, p. 16). Just like with other nations, be- the Chinese (Sun, 1983, p. 314). In Chinese cul- must have some basic understanding of their stu- which opened the way to a career as a government haviour of the Chinese is largely governed by his- ture each person, from birth on, is enclosed in a dents’ life and mentality – at least from a practical official – the ultimate aspiration for the Chinese in torical tradition that contributed to shaping their network of interpersonal relationships that define perspective, and in what concerns the learning all times. But that was a different ambition, one mentality and character. and organise their existence and control their process and communication in the classroom. The that was not related to scholarship or knowledge.

Praising the old traditional Chinese system, University teachers often lose interest in such Ssu-Ma Ch’ien’s famous Shih Chi (Historical which had more to do with accumulation of ‘silent’ audiences and complain about the Records) complied in 2nd–1st centuries BC. This ‘Reforms seeking to make a shift from oral knowledge rather than actual education, the students’ passivity. monumental work describing the history of China to written exams did not find favour with philosopher speaks ironically about the new, Knowledge accumulation in Chinese education from its mythical founders to the author’s contem- the teachers because in written exams Western, system: earlier ‘no one believed, or tried is a progressive process, in which elements are poraries includes 130 voluminous chapters (Yu- to make others believe, that by piling up ‘units’ of strung like beads. Conversely, Russian professors tang, 2012, p. 271). students always have opportunities to psychology, religion and salesmanship and English like to digress from the main topic; they build ar- In Chinese tradition, knowledge transfer was fa- cheat or guess the right answer, while in constitutional history on a person, you can create guments and counterarguments, challenge the uni- cilitated by the written word, or rather graphical an oral exam a more or less experienced an educated man out of him’ (Yutang, 2012, p. versally accepted wisdoms, and require the stu- symbols. Book reading, written tests and written 277). dents to solve complicated problems on their own. exams prevailed. In Russia, oral speech dominated teacher can always adequately assess the Many things have certainly changed over the All this perplexes Chinese students. the academic life from the inception of the first student’s level of knowledge. ‘Papers’ century. China has made a major breakthrough in Such attitudes are rooted in the nature of Chi- universities: captivating lectures, debates, heated have never been trusted in Russia, in any scientific knowledge development and reformed nese logic, which is based on their understanding discussions formed the foundations of Russian ed- field of activity’ its education system along the Western lines (today of truth. Yutang (2012) argued that truth, according ucation. Reforms seeking to make a shift from oral a Chinese university campus looks very much like to Chinese, can never be proved. It can only be to written exams did not find favour with the their voice is so low that it is close to whisper. Very one in the United States). It borrowed the best suggested. This demonstrates the opposition be- teachers because in written exams students always loud talk is unacceptable. When asked the typical practices adjusting them to the Chinese context. tween logical reasoning and common sense, have opportunities to cheat or guess the right an- classroom question ‘Is everything clear?’, Chinese But the mentality and attitudes to the fundamental which in China ‘takes the place of inductive and swer, while in an oral exam a more or less experi- students always say ‘yes’ and nod their heads, fol- things in life, sustained by rituals, philosophy and deductive reasoning’ (Yutang, 2012, p. 112). Ana- enced teacher can always adequately assess the lowing their academic etiquette (Afonasenko, religious doctrines, change very slowly. And this is lytical reasoning cuts truth up into various aspects student’s level of knowledge. ‘Papers’ have never 2004; Xiapin, 2017). Russian professors interpret not necessarily a drawback, since it allows people for the purpose of finding the supporting argu- been trusted in Russia, in any field of activity. Here this as indifference and lack of interest in the sub- to retain at least a tiny bit of their national identity ments; as a result, truth loses its internal links and is a curious example: during a conflict between ject. in the globalising world. content. Yutang (2012, p. 117) points out the ‘su- the founders of the Moscow Artistic Theatre and Reasons for such behaviour also lie in the Chi- In this light, of great importance is the study of perstitious belief in the power of words’, which is their main ‘sponsor’ merchant Savva Morozov, the nese national character and traditional behaviour differences between the Russian and Chinese edu- so characteristic of the Chinese. renowned theatre director Vladimir Nemirovich- patterns. The key concept of Chinese ethics is cation systems, which are rarely considered in Malyavin (2007), one of the most well-known Danchenko insisted on signing a written agree- ‘face’ – a notion that is difficult to define through dealing with international students. There are quite modern researchers of Chinese culture and civili- ment with Morozov that would limit the patron’s words. It includes perception of a person by soci- a few of them, and they affect various aspects of sation, holds that ‘cognition in the Chinese way interference in the theatre’s life. Konstantin ety, their social status and public image. It empha- the educational experience. Let us consider the means settling oneself into the very quality of the Stanislavsky, who himself came from a merchant’s sises what other people think of a person, and teacher-student communication, for example. Be- given environment, the bodily absorption of it. family, was against it: ‘I do not advise you to do what impression he/she makes on them. This con- ginning from childhood, the Chinese are taught to Hence, the inability of the Chinese to take part in this, as I know, from my own experience, that such cept also involves the person’s dignity and dignity respect teachers. Teachers are always right, so open discussions, to provide progressive argumen- agreements only lead to arguments. If two persons, of other people, with the focus, again, not so pupils must listen to them and agree with them. tation for an adopted viewpoint, or to develop it. driven by a common goal, cannot reach an oral much on the substance as on the exterior form – Chinese students do not accept the Russian system In China, the collision of arguments is replaced by agreement, how would a piece of paper how the person is perceived by others. Loss of face of debates and discussions because it makes them exchange of specific and aesthetically pleasing for- help?’ (Stanislavsky, 1960, p. 109). This historical is worse than disgrace as it is understood by Rus- feel confused. mulas, quotes and allusions’ (Malyavin, 2007, p. anecdote is a good illustration of the Russian atti- sians. In Russian culture humiliation can evoke ‘He who knows, does not speak (does not get 18-19). tude to written documents. sympathy and compassion, while in China a loss into arguments). He who speaks (gets into argu- It is not surprising that the purpose of education The Chinese tend to be reserved in expressing of face is almost impossible to restore. ments, tries to prove his point), does not know’. was understood as mere learning of as many indis- their feelings. During conversations, they try to ‘Those who are good do not argue; those This famous quote by the ancient Chinese philoso- putable ‘truths’ as possible: pupils carefully wrote keep their facial expression and body posture who argue are not good’, says the Tao-Te Ching, a pher Lao Tsu explains the very essence of the down and learned the teacher’s words, and then fixed, sitting straight and with very little move- primary text of the Taoist Canon. Therefore, in a lot problem. passed them on to their own pupils. In old China ment. They try to avoid looking the other person in of cases the Chinese pursue one goal in their be- There is a similar saying in Russian – ‘Speech is scientific study was limited mainly to reading and the eye, as they believe this is only done by ene- haviour – to assert and preserve ‘face’, both their silver, but silence is gold’ – which might be true memorising a vast number of works. This required mies or people that hate each other. When talking own and that of other people. The principal means from the perspective of conventional wisdom, but enormous effort, incredible assiduity and outstand- to teachers, the Chinese avoid body movements or to achieve this is to avoid conflicts, if only at the has little to do with the ‘talkative’ academic world. ing memory. Some scholars were able to repeat facial gestures; it is just their lips that move, and expense of being insincere and telling lies. Here is

32 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 33 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya what a nonconforming thinker of the 16th century 5. CONCLUSION 5. Universities that enrol international students 8. The academic staff members should be of- Li Zhi (1527-1602) wrote about his contempo- In conclusion, let us list some of the potential should offer, as part of the curriculum, some cul- fered professional advancement courses, including raries: ‘A liar tells lies to another liar, and both are strands of work and principles of devising pro- tural adaptation courses dedicated to the practical in the online mode, focusing on the special as- content’ (Malyavin, 2007, p. 24). This critical por- grammes dedicated to assisting international stu- aspects of living and studying in Russia, as well as pects of teaching students from East Asia, their na- trayal of a society that values the ‘face’ of their dents with their adaptation to Russian universities, to understanding the Russian mentality. It might tional education traditions, mentality and customs. members above everything else is not unground- as well as providing support to a Russian faculty also be expedient to introduce a system of tutor- Such courses could use the valuable experience of ed, albeit exaggerated to become almost a carica- that has just begun teaching Chinese students. ship supervised by the universities’ international the staff who have worked with these student audi- ture. 1. The theory of intercultural communication offices or administrative divisions. ences for a long time (especially, teachers of Rus- University teachers are certainly not obliged to must produce new concepts which would take ac- 6. A wider use of the new tools for information sian as a foreign language). adjust themselves to a foreign education system: count of the current situation in the globalised dissemination and awareness-raising – the Internet It goes without saying that all the above is international students come to study in a different world, and would be applicable in the Russian and social media, in particular – with an emphasis equally important for other groups of international country and immerse themselves in a different context. We must elaborate our own approaches on visual technologies; attracting Russian students students. The emphasis on the ‘Chinese problem’ learning environment – that is part of their educa- to addressing the issues. Some Russian scholars to this work; organisation of joint events. is explained by its current relevance, and the spe- tion. At the same time, the academic staff must un- have published cross-cultural works focusing on 7. It is vitally important to use immersive learn- cific difficulties that university faculty have recent- derstand the difficulties their students face, and problems peculiar to Russia. Special mention ing techniques at the early stage of the students’ ly encountered. Implementation of these measures should explain to them what is happening in the should be given to Ter-Minasova’s (2004) Language stay in Russia (commonly, international students, must be supported at the highest level of authority, classroom and why. and Intercultural Communication, a book dedicat- especially from Asia, often stick together in closed from the universities’ senior officials to the state Reverential attitude to teachers among the Chi- ed to issues in ‘human communication with a par- communities, creating their own microworld and government and administrative bodies. This will nese is supplemented by the establishment of ticular emphasis on language as the main – but not having little contact with the external environ- improve the quality of student teaching, attract rather intimate teacher-student relationships: they the only! – means of communication’ (Ter-Minaso- ment). This could be done through organising spe- more students to Russia, and, eventually, promote have meals together, visit each other at home, and va, 2004, p. 4); and a study by Leontovich (2003) cial interactive tours, off-campus practical training, mutual understanding between countries and peo- communicate beyond the classroom. Relationships examining cross-cultural interactions between and various events involving Russian students. ples. between Russian professors and students are more Russia and the United States. Yet, these works deal distant and limited to the time spent at the univer- with individual aspects of cross-cultural contacts, sity, which causes quite significant discomfort in while there is a need for an overarching systemic References the Chinese students, especially at the beginning framework for intercultural communication. Abi-Hashem, N. (2020). Resiliency and culture: An in- Hall, E. T., & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding cultural of their stay. Studies dedicated to the adaptation of 2. Studying the fundamental and applied as- terdisciplinary approach. RUDN Journal of Psy- differences. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. the Chinese to Russian universities often suggest pects of what may be called ‘national character’ or chology and Pedagogics, 17(4), 586-603. doi: Hirsch, E. D. (1988). The dictionary of cultural literacy. introducing the institution of ‘tutorship’ for them. ‘area studies’; identifying parameters and factors 10.22363/2313-1683-2020-17-4-586-603 Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. International students coming to Russia have to that shape them. Afonasenko, E. V. (2004). Osobennosti ehtnicheskogo Hirsch, E. D., Kett, J. F., & Trefil, J. S. (1987). Cultural lit- overcome the difficulties of adjusting themselves 3. Introducing a single Russian language exami- samosoznaniya sovremennykh kitaitsev [Pecu- eracy. New York, NY: Vintage Books. to an alien cultural environment wholly on their nation for candidates who want to study at Russian liarities of modern Chinese citizens’ ethnic iden- Internet World Stats. (2021). World Internet usage and own, without proper professional support and as- universities, a Russian version of TOEFL. This will tities]. Razvitie lichnosti, 1, 131-143. population statistics. Retrieved from https://inter- sistance. Of course, the personality factor is often eliminate one of the key problems that both Rus- Aleksandrov, Yu. (1997). Moskovskii al’bom: Vospomi- networldstats.com/stats.htm at play. There will always be enthusiasts who spare sian faculty and international students face in the naniya o Moskve i moskvichakh XIX-XX vekov Ivanova, N. (2018). Literature and power in the new [Moscow album: Memories of Moscow and Mus- age: Institutions and divisions. Russian Journal of no effort trying to help international students to classroom. covites of the XIX-XX centuries]. Moscow, Russia: Communication, 10(2-3), 251-261. doi: 10.1080/ adapt to a foreign culture. 4. Developing practical recommendations to Nashe nasledie. 19409419.2018.1535911 But there is a need to develop comprehensive, help students (tourists, business people, labour mi- Davey, G. (2008). The international student’s survival Korsakov, V. V. (1901). Detskii mir v Kitae [Children’s professionally informed systems, principles and grants) to adapt to life in Russia, as well as to gain guide: How to get the most from studying at a world in China]. Vestnik Evropy, 5(3), 217-226. techniques aimed at relieving the stress of the some insights into the Russian mentality (national UK university. London, UK: Harper Collins. Leontovich, O. A. (2003). Rossiya i SSHA. Vvedenie v adaptation period. Such systems should not be character). Here we could draw on the experience Dawson, R. (Ed.). (1964). The legacy of China. Oxford, mezhkul’turnuyu kommunikatsiyu [Russia and universal; they must be developed in Russia (not of Western countries that publish various Survival UK: Clarendon Press. the United States: An introduction to intercultural borrowed from the English language sources, Guides (e.g. Davey, 2008; Quick, 2017), or my Fort, M. (2010, January 28). McDonald’s launch McItaly communication]. Volgograd, Russia: Peremena. which is often the case in Russia) and should tar- own humble work – How to Deal with the Rus- burger. Retrieved from https://theguardian.com/ Malyavin, V. V. (2007). Kitai upravlyaemyi: Staryi dobryi get, for example, students from East Asia, or even sians (Pavlovskaya, 2003) and How to Do Business lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2010/jan/28/mcdon- menedzhment [China the manageable: Good old more specifically Chinese students. in Russia (Pavlovskaya, 1999). alds-launch-mcitaly-burger management]. Moscow, Russia: Evropa.

34 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 35 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 National identity in international education: Revisiting problems of intercultural communication in the global world Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Anna V. Pavlovskaya what a nonconforming thinker of the 16th century 5. CONCLUSION 5. Universities that enrol international students 8. The academic staff members should be of- Li Zhi (1527-1602) wrote about his contempo- In conclusion, let us list some of the potential should offer, as part of the curriculum, some cul- fered professional advancement courses, including raries: ‘A liar tells lies to another liar, and both are strands of work and principles of devising pro- tural adaptation courses dedicated to the practical in the online mode, focusing on the special as- content’ (Malyavin, 2007, p. 24). This critical por- grammes dedicated to assisting international stu- aspects of living and studying in Russia, as well as pects of teaching students from East Asia, their na- trayal of a society that values the ‘face’ of their dents with their adaptation to Russian universities, to understanding the Russian mentality. It might tional education traditions, mentality and customs. members above everything else is not unground- as well as providing support to a Russian faculty also be expedient to introduce a system of tutor- Such courses could use the valuable experience of ed, albeit exaggerated to become almost a carica- that has just begun teaching Chinese students. ship supervised by the universities’ international the staff who have worked with these student audi- ture. 1. The theory of intercultural communication offices or administrative divisions. ences for a long time (especially, teachers of Rus- University teachers are certainly not obliged to must produce new concepts which would take ac- 6. A wider use of the new tools for information sian as a foreign language). adjust themselves to a foreign education system: count of the current situation in the globalised dissemination and awareness-raising – the Internet It goes without saying that all the above is international students come to study in a different world, and would be applicable in the Russian and social media, in particular – with an emphasis equally important for other groups of international country and immerse themselves in a different context. We must elaborate our own approaches on visual technologies; attracting Russian students students. The emphasis on the ‘Chinese problem’ learning environment – that is part of their educa- to addressing the issues. Some Russian scholars to this work; organisation of joint events. is explained by its current relevance, and the spe- tion. At the same time, the academic staff must un- have published cross-cultural works focusing on 7. It is vitally important to use immersive learn- cific difficulties that university faculty have recent- derstand the difficulties their students face, and problems peculiar to Russia. Special mention ing techniques at the early stage of the students’ ly encountered. Implementation of these measures should explain to them what is happening in the should be given to Ter-Minasova’s (2004) Language stay in Russia (commonly, international students, must be supported at the highest level of authority, classroom and why. and Intercultural Communication, a book dedicat- especially from Asia, often stick together in closed from the universities’ senior officials to the state Reverential attitude to teachers among the Chi- ed to issues in ‘human communication with a par- communities, creating their own microworld and government and administrative bodies. This will nese is supplemented by the establishment of ticular emphasis on language as the main – but not having little contact with the external environ- improve the quality of student teaching, attract rather intimate teacher-student relationships: they the only! – means of communication’ (Ter-Minaso- ment). This could be done through organising spe- more students to Russia, and, eventually, promote have meals together, visit each other at home, and va, 2004, p. 4); and a study by Leontovich (2003) cial interactive tours, off-campus practical training, mutual understanding between countries and peo- communicate beyond the classroom. Relationships examining cross-cultural interactions between and various events involving Russian students. ples. between Russian professors and students are more Russia and the United States. Yet, these works deal distant and limited to the time spent at the univer- with individual aspects of cross-cultural contacts, sity, which causes quite significant discomfort in while there is a need for an overarching systemic References the Chinese students, especially at the beginning framework for intercultural communication. Abi-Hashem, N. (2020). Resiliency and culture: An in- Hall, E. T., & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding cultural of their stay. Studies dedicated to the adaptation of 2. Studying the fundamental and applied as- terdisciplinary approach. RUDN Journal of Psy- differences. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. the Chinese to Russian universities often suggest pects of what may be called ‘national character’ or chology and Pedagogics, 17(4), 586-603. doi: Hirsch, E. D. (1988). The dictionary of cultural literacy. introducing the institution of ‘tutorship’ for them. ‘area studies’; identifying parameters and factors 10.22363/2313-1683-2020-17-4-586-603 Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. International students coming to Russia have to that shape them. Afonasenko, E. V. (2004). Osobennosti ehtnicheskogo Hirsch, E. D., Kett, J. F., & Trefil, J. S. (1987). Cultural lit- overcome the difficulties of adjusting themselves 3. Introducing a single Russian language exami- samosoznaniya sovremennykh kitaitsev [Pecu- eracy. New York, NY: Vintage Books. to an alien cultural environment wholly on their nation for candidates who want to study at Russian liarities of modern Chinese citizens’ ethnic iden- Internet World Stats. (2021). World Internet usage and own, without proper professional support and as- universities, a Russian version of TOEFL. This will tities]. Razvitie lichnosti, 1, 131-143. population statistics. Retrieved from https://inter- sistance. Of course, the personality factor is often eliminate one of the key problems that both Rus- Aleksandrov, Yu. (1997). Moskovskii al’bom: Vospomi- networldstats.com/stats.htm at play. There will always be enthusiasts who spare sian faculty and international students face in the naniya o Moskve i moskvichakh XIX-XX vekov Ivanova, N. (2018). Literature and power in the new [Moscow album: Memories of Moscow and Mus- age: Institutions and divisions. Russian Journal of no effort trying to help international students to classroom. covites of the XIX-XX centuries]. Moscow, Russia: Communication, 10(2-3), 251-261. doi: 10.1080/ adapt to a foreign culture. 4. Developing practical recommendations to Nashe nasledie. 19409419.2018.1535911 But there is a need to develop comprehensive, help students (tourists, business people, labour mi- Davey, G. (2008). The international student’s survival Korsakov, V. V. (1901). Detskii mir v Kitae [Children’s professionally informed systems, principles and grants) to adapt to life in Russia, as well as to gain guide: How to get the most from studying at a world in China]. Vestnik Evropy, 5(3), 217-226. techniques aimed at relieving the stress of the some insights into the Russian mentality (national UK university. London, UK: Harper Collins. Leontovich, O. A. (2003). Rossiya i SSHA. Vvedenie v adaptation period. Such systems should not be character). Here we could draw on the experience Dawson, R. (Ed.). (1964). The legacy of China. Oxford, mezhkul’turnuyu kommunikatsiyu [Russia and universal; they must be developed in Russia (not of Western countries that publish various Survival UK: Clarendon Press. the United States: An introduction to intercultural borrowed from the English language sources, Guides (e.g. Davey, 2008; Quick, 2017), or my Fort, M. (2010, January 28). McDonald’s launch McItaly communication]. Volgograd, Russia: Peremena. which is often the case in Russia) and should tar- own humble work – How to Deal with the Rus- burger. Retrieved from https://theguardian.com/ Malyavin, V. V. (2007). Kitai upravlyaemyi: Staryi dobryi get, for example, students from East Asia, or even sians (Pavlovskaya, 2003) and How to Do Business lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2010/jan/28/mcdon- menedzhment [China the manageable: Good old more specifically Chinese students. in Russia (Pavlovskaya, 1999). alds-launch-mcitaly-burger management]. Moscow, Russia: Evropa.

34 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 35 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1-37-56 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 rudn.tlcjournal.org

Marshak, S. Ya. (1968). Volshebnaya palochka [The Strelets, I. E. (2020). Featuring language and style of the magic wand]. In V. M. Zhirmunski (Ed.), Samuil crisis discourse of Donald Trump in 2020. Mos- Yakovlevich Marshak. Proizvedeniya dlya detei cow University Bulletin. Series 9: Philology, 6, [Samuil Yakovlevich Marshak. Writings for chil- 100-114. Original Research dren] (pp. 217-229). Moscow, Russia: Kh.L. Sun, L. (1983). Deep structure of Chinese culture. Hong Maslov, A. A. (2014). Kitai i kitaitsy: O chem molchat Kong: Taishan Publishing Company. putevoditeli [China and the Chinese: What Ter-Minasova, S. G. (2004). Yazyk i mezhkul’turnaya guidebooks are silent about]. Moscow, Russia: kommunikatsiya [Language and intercultural Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in Ripol-Classic. communication]. Moscow, Russia: Slovo. McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The exten- Ter-Minasova, S. G. (2017). Challenges of intercultural the age of neural machine translation: Investigating sion of man. New York, NY: Gingko Press. communication: A view from Russia. Moscow Pavlovskaya, A. V. (1999). How to do business in Russia. State University Bulletin: Linguistics and Intercul- translators’ added value with products and processes Moscow, Russia: MALP. tural Communication, 4, 9-19. by Gary Massey Pavlovskaya, A. V. (2003). How to deal with the Rus- The Local. (2016, November 8). McDonald’s sues Flo- sians: Guidebook for businessmen. Moscow, rence for $20 mn after city blocks restaurant. Re- Gary Massey Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Switzerland [email protected] Russia: Moscow State University Publishing. trieved from https://thelocal.it/20161108/mcdon- Article history Received December 2, 2020 | Revised January 29, 2021 | Accepted March 10, 2021 Quick, T. L. (2017). Survive and thrive: The international alds-sues-florence-for-20-mn-over-site-refusal Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest students’ guide to succeeding in the U.S. New The Local. (2019, July 31). Rome: Italian government Research funding No funding was reported for this research York, NY: International Family Transitions. quashes plan to open McDonald’s next to Roman doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 RIA Novosti. (2019, June 13). Golikova soobshchila o ruins. Retrieved from https://thelocal.it/201907 For citation Massey, G. (2021). Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine roste chisla kitaiskikh studentov v Rossii [Goliko- 31/italy-rome-mcdonalds-terme-di-caracalla-can- translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes. Training, Language and Culture, 5(1), va reported a growing number of Chinese stu- celled 37-56. dents in Russia]. Retrieved from https://ria.ru/ Voevoda, E. (2020). Intercultural communication in 20180613/1522613954.html multicultural education space. Training, Lan- The exploratory study reported in this article is predicated on the notion that human translators’ cognition Ritzer, G. (2011). The McDonaldization of society (Vol. guage and Culture, 4(2), 11-20. doi: 10.22363/ represents a key added value over disembodied artificial intelligence. It re-frames the methods, data and re- 6). Los Angeles, CA: Pine Forge Press. 2521-442X-2020-4-2-11-20 sults of a precursor study, and supplements them with additional data and analyses to develop a new cogni- Romanova, T. (2018). Dolce & Gabbana okazalas’ v Wang, Q. E. (2015). Chopsticks: A cultural and culinary tive perspective on re-positioning human translation competence and translators’ expertise in the age of tsentre rasistskogo skandala [Dolce & Gabbana history. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University neural machine translation (NMT). The study is centred on an investigation of culturally specific complex caught up in a racist scandal]. Retrieved from Press. conceptual metaphor in translation, and it melds a more conventional product-oriented approach with ex- https://vedomosti.ru/lifestyle/articles/2018/11/21/ Worldometer. (2021). World population. Retrieved from perimental translation process research (TPR). It indicates that human translators’ decision-making and 787054-dolce-gabbana https://worldometers.info/world-population problem-solving at different levels of training and experience take place on a conceptual level. Compared Sreznevsky, I. I. (1993). Materials for the dictionary of Xiapin, S. (2017). Main sociocultural adaptation prob- with the translations of the same metaphors by publicly available NMT systems and by beginners as well as the old Russian language on written monuments lems of Chinese students in Russian system of (Vol. 1). St. Petersburg, Russia: Department of higher education. Pedagogical Review, 1(15), more advanced students, the product data of the professionals involved in the study produce more varied Russian language and literature studies of the Im- 153-162. doi: 10.23951/2307-6127-2017-1-153- translation solutions, with a range of deviations from the standardised output. This suggests that, after ac- perial Academy of Sciences. 162 cessing the conceptual level of meaning realised in a particular lexical form, experienced professionals, as a Stanislavsky, K. S. (1960). Collected works in eight vol- Ye, W., & Deng, N. (2020). Claiming and displaying na- group, are able to generate multiple potential target-text solutions in order to reach their target audience. umes (Vol. 7) [Sobranie sochinenii v vos’mi tional identity: A case study of Chinese exchange The supplementary process data indicates that they do so situationally, based on 4EA cognition, through in- tomakh (Tom 7)]. Moscow, Russia: Iskusstvo. students in Russia. Training, Language and Cul- tuition and/or deliberative rationality. It is this, the author argues, that is the distinguishing feature of sea- Statista. (2020). Number of McDonald’s restaurants in ture, 4(3), 43-54. doi: 10.22363/2521-442X- soned professional translators and a hallmark of their added value. Europe from 2016 to 2018, by country. Retrieved 2020-4-3-43-54 from https://statista.com/statistics/256044/mc- Yutang, L. (2012). My country and my people. Plano, KEYWORDS: conceptual metaphor theory, translation process research, product-oriented studies, process- donalds-restaurants-in-europe TX: Read Books Ltd. oriented studies, 4EA cognition, neural machine translation, human added value, GoogleTranslate, DeepL, cognitive translatology AUTHOR INFORMATION: ANNA V. PAVLOVSKAYA Lomonosov Moscow State University | 33\2-576 Nakhimovskiy pr., 117418 Moscow, Russia [email protected] This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0)

© Gary Massey 2021 36 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 37 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-20-36 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1-37-56 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 20-36 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 rudn.tlcjournal.org

© Gary Massey 2021 36 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 37 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey

1. INTRODUCTION (APTIS) focuses on evolving profiles and the future ers’ (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 193). They pro- As artificial intelligence and machine learning of translation and interpreting training (APTIS, pose a five-stage model of skill acquisition from ‘The present article is premised on the make ever deeper inroads into translation ecolo- 2020). novice to expert, which privileges a combination implicit notion that the added value that gies and markets, researchers and educators in the The conversation about (N)MT and professional of reflective, deliberative rationality and situation- human translators can and do bring to applied linguistic discipline of translation studies, human translation has even reached the courts. al, experience-based intuition in human progress along with representatives and exponents of the The language industry business news and intelli- towards the arationality of expert judgment. In a bear resides in their socio-cultural, socio- translation industry they serve, are seeking to re- gence platform Slator reported a Polish court rul- later contribution by Stuart E. Dreyfus (2004, p. technical 4EA cognition, as opposed to conceptualise and re-position human translation in ing from February 2021 on what constitutes a pro- 178-181), the primacy of situational, experience- disembodied, de-contextualised artificial the production chains of multilingual communica- fessional (human) translator, applying the criteria based know-how is closely associated with em- tion content. In particular, they have been increas- of educational qualifications and professional bodiment at the three higher stages of the Dreyfus intelligence’ ingly concerned to identify and maximise the competence to do so (Marking, 2021). The court model of adult skill acquisition (competence, pro- added value of human intervention during transla- concluded that a professional translator must have ficiency and expertise) – in explicit contradistinc- cal realisations by which meaning is conveyed in tion and (post-)editing processes. In doing so, they proper university training in translation techniques, tion to ‘disembodied’ artificial intelligence (Drey- source and target texts. This exploratory study are participating in a broader discourse on artifi- be knowledgeable in the rules of translation and fus, 2004, p. 178). The Dreyfus model broadly seeks evidence of this in selected data drawn from cial intelligence and human expertise that has have practical experience and substantive knowl- squares with key findings from expertise research an experimental translation process research (TPR) been under way for decades. edge in the field of the translation task. The court’s (e.g. Ericsson et al., 1993) and leading models of project containing salient source-text examples of Examples of the current preoccupation in the decision was in favour of the defendant in the embodied, embedded, enacted, extended and af- culturally specific complex conceptual metaphor. study, practice and teaching of translation are le- case, a dissatisfied client who had refused to pay fective (4EA) cognition (Hutchins, 2010; Wheeler, Unusually for studies of conceptual metaphor in gion. The International Federation of Translators language-service provider (LSP) for low-quality 2005) from second-generation cognitive science. translation, the data comprise not only the source- (FIT), an international grouping of associations of work, 92% of which had been poorly post-edited Experience endows human cognition with the pro- text and target-text products, but also data elicited translators, interpreters and terminologists, with output from the free NMT tool Google Translate. gressive goal-oriented involvement, situational dis- by established TPR methods during the actual more than 100 affiliated professional associations In similar vein, a growing number of publica- crimination and frequently intuitive adaptivity in process of translation. The target-text solutions pro- representing more than 80,000 translators in 55 tions, professional and academic, have been ad- approaching new problems and unfamiliar tasks duced by the participants were also compared countries, has seen it necessary to issue a position dressing the position, roles and value of human that are essential to the successive attainment of with those proposed by publicly available NMT paper on machine translation to support member translators in the current and future translation consistently superior expert performance. The systems. associations, translation service providers and ecosystem (e.g. Joscelyne, 2018; Macken et al., overwhelming conclusion is that any human translators, and to advise clients and users of trans- 2020; Massey & Ehrensberger-Dow, 2017a; added value is most likely to reside here when 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS lation services (FIT, 2019). Schmitt, 2019). Indicative of this wider trend is the translators engage in solving the novel, idio- The material in the present article is drawn from Another case in point is the recent conference 2020 issue of Cultus: The Journal of Intercultural syncratic, ill-defined problems that characterise a prior experimental study of how translation stu- organised by the worldwide Conférence interna- Mediation and Communication, which is dedicat- the complexity of translation tasks (Muñoz Martín, dents and professional translators interlingually tionale permanente d’instituts universitaires de tra- ed to the topic of ‘Translation plus: the added val- 2014, p. 9; Larina, 2015). manage the original source-text domain mapping ducteurs et interprètes (CIUTI) devoted wholly to ue of the translator’ (Cultus Journal, 2020). The present article is premised on the implicit of conceptual metaphor when translating. Massey the conjunction of artificial and intercultural intel- One of the key works to launch the discourse notion that the added value that human translators and Ehrensberger-Dow (2017b) analysed the prod- ligence in translation and interpreting (CIUTI Con- surrounding human and artificial intelligence was can and do bring to bear resides in their socio-cul- ucts and processes of professional translators ference 2020, 2020). Indeed, a 2018 survey of the seminal Mind over Machine: The Power of Hu- tural, socio-technical 4EA cognition, as opposed to working into their first language (L1) from German CIUTI members, comprising some 50 of the man Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Com- disembodied, de-contextualised artificial intelli- into English and English into German, and of MA world’s leading translator and interpreter educa- puter (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986). In it, the Dreyfus gence. It reframes and re-contextualises the meth- and BA students translating the same English text tion and research institutes worldwide, placed arti- brothers locate superior skill in approaching and ods, data and results of a study, originally conduct- as their professional counterparts into German ficial intelligence – in the shape of neural machine solving complex problems in the situated human ed some three years ago, in the light of attempts to (also their L1). In all cases, the conceptual meta- translation (NMT) – among the most significant experience of ‘knowing how’, as opposed to the identify and re-position human translation compe- phors under examination appeared in newspaper challenges facing training and graduate employa- ‘knowing that’ (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. tence and translators’ expertise in the age of artifi- articles reporting research findings in the area of bility of the future (Massey, 2020). 16-21) of the calculative rationality on which arti- cial intelligence, most visibly and tangibly repre- marine biology. Previously unpublished findings In common with numerous other translation ficial intelligence was based: ‘Only with greater sented in translators’ working lives by NMT. Hu- relating to the translators’ specific target-text reali- studies and translator training events, the 2021 human experience comes know-how – a far supe- man added value, it is argued, is manifest in trans- sations of conceptual metaphor are also used in conference of the UK and Irish Association of Pro- rior holistic, intuitive way of approaching problems lational decision-making and problem-solving on the present article, which are compared to disem- grammes in Translation and Interpreting Studies that cannot be imitated by rule-following comput- a conceptual level that transcends the surface lexi- bodied NMT realisations.

38 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 39 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey

The processes and product data analysed were by the other three groups comprised the title and (TAPs) or cue-based retrospective verbalisations collected during the Capturing Translation Process- abridged opening paragraph of an article on a sim- ‘Within the closer confines of translation (RVPs), and behavioural observation, either with es (CTP)1 project and predate the general availabil- ilar topic (the risk of naval sonar systems to studies research, there has been an researchers actually present as translators work or ity of public online NMT systems. The data subset whales) published in the British Sunday newspaper upsurge of interest in how translators’ by means of workplace video recordings, key- comprises translations of a German source text The Observer in August 2004. Both source texts stroke logs, computer screen recordings, eye track- into English and an English source text into Ger- were selected for their typical stylistic features and minds respond to and interact with the ing and/or psychophysiological methods to collect man. None of the translators used MT in any for their various potential translation problems or computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools physiological sensor data (Jakobsen, 2017). Pro- phase of the translation process. This means that ‘rich points’ (PACTE Group, 2009, p. 212-216). and (N)MT systems embedded in the cesses render a complex web of data that makes it none of them were exposed to the priming effects All participants were asked in the translation unfeasible to model them holistically. Process data that have been observed in cognitive investigations brief to translate the text for publication in an complex socio-cognitive and socio- therefore tend to be used selectively to construct of the way translators post-edit MT output (cf. Ban- equivalent newspaper in a target lingua-culture. technical environments in which they partial models. Examples are Angelone’s (2010) galore et al., 2015; Carl & Schaeffer, 2017). They were permitted to use any external online work’ model of uncertainty management or PACTE’s Both of the source texts in the present study are linguistic or knowledge resources they wished to. (Hurtado Albir, 2017) competence clusters, both of of comparable genre and degree of difficulty, and In the context of the present study, the target sub-field that is now increasingly referred to as which are mentioned below. they treat a similar topic. The processes were text segments produced by the participants are ‘cognitive translatology’ (e.g. Muñoz Martín, In step with the development of second-genera- recorded in a usability lab under similar condi- also compared with those of the public NMT en- 2016), demarcated and in large part defined by the tion cognitive science, and 4EA cognition in par- tions. The participants translated the text at a com- gines, GoogleTranslate and DeepL, in order to as- adoption and implementation of an empirical ticular, the purview of translation process re- puter equipped with an eye-tracking monitor and certain similarities and differences in the solutions methodology centred on translation process researchers has extended beyond experimental stud- software2 in addition to keystroke-logging3 and arrived at through embodied human cognition and search (TPR) (Muñoz Martín, 2013, p. 79). ies of cognitive acts in translators’ minds to the so- screen-recording4 programmes. They were asked to disembodied artificial intelligence. Both source The initial impulse that drove the emergence of cio-cognitive spaces and socio-technical environ- translate as they would normally do, and at their texts were translated in full by DeepL twice, first in this sub-field was an interest in the development ment in and with which translators interact (Jakob- own pace. They then verbalised what they had November 2019, and then in February 2021, and and constitution of translators’ cognition, compe- sen, 2017, p. 38-42). TPR has been moving out of been doing, prompted by the process recordings of by GoogleTranslate once, in February 2020. The tence(s) and expertise as these deploy strategies to the laboratory into ‘the field’ (Risku et al., 2019) to their screen activities overlaid with visualisations two translations by the DeepL NMT tool were solve problems and arrive at decisions during the research socio-cognitive practices and processes of their eye movements. The use of these record- made so as to ascertain possible variations over various phases of the translation process. Krings’s (Risku & Windhager, 2013) in the authentic, situat- ings was intended to stimulate recall and com- time in the NMT target-text segments. (1986) pioneering work to explore the black box ed settings of the translator’s workplace, combin- mentary by providing richer visual cues to what of translators’ minds launched TPR as a means of ing ethnographic and experimental techniques in the participants had been doing. Retrospective ver- 3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND investigating the processes behind translation mixed methods approaches. bal protocols (RVPs) of the commentaries and 3.1. TPR and cognitive translatology products and the effects of those processes on the Among other things, it has addressed the situat- screen activities were transcribed in XML-markup Within the closer confines of translation studies quality of target texts. Researchers have also con- edness of translation work and competence (e.g. according to the TEI P5 guidelines5. research, there has been an upsurge of interest in sistently addressed the competences and/or exper- Risku, 2010; 2014), translation as human-comput- The German source text translated by one how translators’ minds respond to and interact tise of groups of translators with different degrees er interaction (e.g. O’Brien, 2012), the physical, group of professional participants is the opening of with the computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools and forms of experience, from beginners to sea- cognitive and organisational ergonomics of trans- a news report on the use of naval sonar equipment and (N)MT systems embedded in the complex so- soned professionals, and how translators’ skill sets lation in the workplace (e.g. Ehrensberger-Dow & allegedly causing whales to beach (96 words cio-cognitive and socio-technical environments in develop over time. Situated ‘within a behavioural Hunziker Heeb, 2016; Ehrensberger-Dow & Mas- long). It appeared in the quality Swiss German-lan- which they work (e.g. Cadwell et al., 2018; Risku cognitive experimental methodological para- sey, 2017) and the role of intuition and emotion in guage newspaper Neue Zürcher Zeitung in April et al., 2019; Macken et al., 2020). This has been a digm’ (Jakobsen, 2017, p. 21), the various methods translation performance and competence (Lehr, 2009. The 95-word English source text translated key concern of the burgeoning interdisciplinary and tools deployed in various combinations to re- 2021). It has progressed ‘from the microlevel of search translation processes have been borrowed solving linguistic challenges to the macro level of from psychology, cognitive science, psycholinguis- the influence of societal expectations on translato- 1 The corpus comprises translation processes and products from translators working with various language combinations on different source texts in workplace and/or lab tics and writing research (O’Brien, 2015). Transla- rial decisions’ (Ehrensberger-Dow et al., 2017, p. settings, collected between 2007 and 2012 116), re-embedding translation in its real-life envi- 2 A Tobii T60 screen-based eye-tracker and Tobii Studio 2 software were used. The gaze path recordings were used to stimulate recall for the retrospections in order to tion process data can be elicited and collected obtain richer verbal data concurrently during the act of translation itself, or ronments and entering a new paradigm of cogni- 3 Inputlog 2.0 was used, which was the most recent version of this logger at the time as soon as possible after this has taken place. Tech- tive translatology that is driven by an embodied, 4 Camtasia Studio embedded, extended and enacted approach to the 5 The Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) Guidelines for Electronic Text Encoding and Interchange specifies methods for marking up machine-readable texts. More information niques can be sub-divided into verbal data elicita- is available at https://tei-c.org/Guidelines tion, such as concurrent think-aloud protocols way the mind works (Muñoz Martín, 2016).

40 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 41 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey

TPR before and within a fully emergent cogni- Shuttleworth, 2014) which, in emphasising the tive translatology paradigm has often been moti- ‘In step with the development of second- psychological rather than textual aspects of ‘The relatively recent phenomenon of vated by didactic considerations of how to devel- generation cognitive science, and 4EA metaphor, offers insights into cognitive processes investigating conceptual metaphor in op the ability to translate (Massey, 2017, p. 496), cognition in particular, the purview of that are clearly applicable to TPR (Schäffner & translation has built on earlier work and some research groups have proposed and test- Shuttleworth, 2013, p. 94). ed models of translation competence and expert- translation process researchers has Broadly speaking, conceptual metaphor theory devoted to the translation of surface ise. A leading exemplar is the PACTE group’s mod- extended beyond experimental studies of locates metaphor not in language per se but in manifestations of lexical metaphor, el, validated over a number of years in a series of cognitive acts in translators’ minds to the how we ‘conceptualise one mental domain in centred on issues of translatability, TPR experiments (Hurtado Albir, 2017). PACTE’s terms of another’ (Lakoff, 1993, p. 203), seeking to research has led to the NACT translation compe- socio-cognitive spaces and socio-technical account for all manifestations of metaphorical establishing ‘laws’ and procedures for tence framework (PACTE Group, 2018), a set of environment in and with which translators thought, from the everyday to the poetic, which is their transfer or creating typologies for performance level descriptors for translator train- interact’ itself merely ‘an extension of our everyday, con- handling metaphor translation’ ing and assessment. The descriptive categories ventional system’ (Lakoff, 1993, p. 246). Metaphor used cover language competence (reception of the as well as digital social media. It also places dis- is understood as a process of mapping from one translate from one language and culture to anoth- source language and production in the target lan- tinctly more emphasis on socio-cognitive (inter-) domain of human experience (the source domain) er. As Samaniego Fernández (2013, p. 169) puts it, guage, in relation to the genres liable to be trans- personal competences in contexts of work. It to another (the target domain) in order to under- ‘language boundaries are at the same time bound- lated at each level), cultural, world knowledge and maintains the previous model’s emphasis on stand and convey understanding of abstract con- aries of distinct cultural communities, and meta- thematic competence (mobilising knowledge of (inter-)cultural competence, but no longer anchors cepts in the target domain. The mapping is realised phor interpretation is strongly culturally condi- source and the target cultures, world knowledge it a discrete category of sociolinguistic and textual by means of surface metaphorical expressions in tioned: it does not consist in mere decoding of lan- and thematic knowledge in specific fields), instru- descriptors (Smakman, 2019). Instead, it offers a lexical form. Far from being arbitrary, mapping guage signs. At the end of the day, what seems to mental competence (using documentation re- transversal, situated description of the many draws on our embodied experiences of the world be impeding the translation process is culture’. sources and technological tools), translation ser- (inter-)cultural, transcultural and multicultural as- to create ontological (structural) and epistemic (in- The relatively recent phenomenon of investigat- vice provision competence (managing aspects of pects of a translator’s work. Graduates, and by ex- ferential) correspondences between the conceptu- ing conceptual metaphor in translation has built professional practice and the work market), and tension translators, should obviously be able to al source and target domains. Mapping between on earlier work devoted to the translation of sur- translation problem-solving competence, the cen- translate and mediate in specific intercultural con- domains is often necessarily partial and asymmet- face manifestations of lexical metaphor, centred tral strategic competence governing the deploy- texts and work in multicultural, multilingual teams rical (Lakoff, 1993, p. 245) as the focus will fall on issues of translatability (e.g. Dagut, 1976), es- ment of all the others to solve various problem and environments (EMT Board, 2017, p. 8-10). But only on those features needed to establish func- tablishing ‘laws’ and procedures for their transfer types (PACTE Group, 2018, p. 120-122). All of from the beginning, the framework stresses that the tional analogy (Göpferich, 2003, p. 34). or creating typologies for handling metaphor trans- these categories and components are shared, in transcultural and sociolinguistic awareness and The theory posits two distinct types of concep- lation (e.g. Newmark, 1981; Toury, 1995; Van den various permutations, by other key heuristic and communicative skills making up language and cul- tual metaphor. Primary metaphors are ‘grounded Broeck, 1981). evidence-based models of translation competence ture competence ‘encompasses all the general or in the everyday experience that links our sensory- Göpferich’s (2003) problem-solution model, (e.g. Kelly, 2007; Göpferich, 2009). language-specific linguistic, sociolinguistic, cultural motor experience to the domain of our subjective specifically tailored to metaphor translation, marks The way some of these models have transi- and transcultural knowledge and skills that consti- judgements’ (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003, p. 255). a break with this heuristic, prescriptive tradition. tioned over time reflects an increasing awareness tute the basis for advanced translation compe- Complex metaphors represent combinations of pri- The model is divided into an analysis phase, in of just how relevant the situated cultural, social tence. It is the driving force behind all the other mary conceptual metaphors and are frequently which source-text metaphors are first identified, in- and technological contexts of 4E cognition are to competences’ (EMT Board, 2017, p. 6). subject to culturally specific variation (Lakoff & terpreted and their textual function determined, the competent (and expert) practice of professional Johnson, 2003, p. 257; Muñoz Martín, 2013, p. and a transfer phase, which envisages the transla- translation. For example, compared to its prede- 3.2. Conceptual metaphor in translation 85; Fougner Rydning & Lauchaud, 2011, p. 173; tor verbalising a target-text solution after first se- cessor (EMT Expert Group, 2009), the influential As cognitive translation research has evolved, Schäffner, 2005, p. 65). lecting from four basic translation procedures: lit- heuristic competence framework of the European the potential for developing closer synergies be- As we have seen, cultural and intercultural eral translation of a source metaphor, changing a Master’s in Translation (EMT) network (EMT Board, tween TPR, cognitive translatology and the broader components have recurrently featured in leading metaphor into different metaphor, paraphrase a 2017), a widely applied benchmark for profiling field of cognitive linguistics has been explored models of translation competence. It is therefore metaphor into sense and, introducing a metaphor the skill sets required of translation graduates en- (e.g. Rojo & Ibarretxe-Antuñano, 2013). One ma- hardly surprising that the cultural specificity of where none exists in the source text. It thus seeks tering the work market, clearly upvalues socio- jor theoretical cluster that has been repeatedly complex conceptual metaphor has been the im- to align target-text renditions with the assumed technical knowledge and skills in the reflective identified is conceptual metaphor (e.g. Samaniego pulse behind much of the research into the way strategic cognitive processes that have generated handling of language and translation technology Fernández, 2011; Muñoz Martín, 2013, p. 80-81; translators handle conceptual transfer as they them.

42 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 43 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey

Göpferich’s (2003) approach reflects a nascent a response to Mandelblit’s (1995) experiment. Her interest in the intersection of cognitive linguistics ‘Göpferich’s (2003) approach reflects a ‘Various researchers have collected and results show evidence of her participants encoun- and translation that saw researchers more consis- nascent interest in the intersection of analysed bilingual and multilingual tering difficulties where equivalent idiomatic ex- tently applying contemporary conceptual metacognitive linguistics and translation that corpora of textual products to describe the pressions of equal conventionality to the source- phor theory to their work. Like the bulk of research language expression are not available in the target and modelling on lexical metaphor, most of it has saw researchers more consistently procedures and parameters of metaphor in language (see also Anisimova et al., 2018). The de- been text-based and therefore product-oriented, applying contemporary conceptual meta- translation from the conceptual gree of difficulty appears to increase with domain with investigators applying what Chesterman phor theory to their work’ perspective’ conflict, in other words the need to map across (2015) has referred to as reverse-engineering of the domains, which leads to translators stagnating in processes by which conceptual metaphor has been sations in financial and economic reporting by us- translation, where they find no consistency in the the source-language domain. The fact that transla- translated. In reverse-engineered processes, the re- ing a bilingual Belgian corpus of French-language handling of developed metaphor, they stand very tion difficulty is increased by domain conflict indi- searcher proceeds from products – the target-text and Dutch-language newspaper articles. Samanie- much in the tradition of early prescriptive ap- cates strongly that translation does not take place segments – to infer and reconstruct one or more go Fernández (2013) presents a descriptive study proaches to metaphor translation by proposing that primarily through word association but at the con- plausible sequences of thought processes, actions, of novel metaphors and their translation in a cor- translators should choose from three possible (and ceptual level. decisions and/or strategies that the translators are pus of 122 source newspaper texts and their trans- rather obvious) strategies (Tebbit & Kinder, 2016, In a later psycholinguistic study, Fougner Ryd- assumed to have applied. lations in Spanish published over a one-year peri- p. 418-420): retain all the metaphorical expres- ning and Lachaud (2011) take up the distinction Various researchers have collected and an- od. She concludes from her analysis of actual sions; maintain some metaphorical expressions; between primary and complex metaphors in an alysed bilingual and multilingual corpora of textu- translation occurrences that translators are ‘sharp abandon the developed metaphor in the interests experiment directed at metaphor comprehension. al products to describe the procedures and para- text creators’, and that traditional notions we have of target-text-oriented transparency for each indi- 50 participants processed 80 different manipulated meters of metaphor in translation from the concep- of equivalence are a simplification that must be vidual expression. sentences each in on-screen stimulation sequences tual perspective. Schäffner (2004) adopts an empir- enlarged to cover the multiplicity of translational By contrast, and somewhat puzzlingly, studies to measure reaction times and the accuracy of ical, product-oriented approach to discuss authen- answers given by translators, from ‘unfaithfulness’ in conceptual metaphor translation of what Ches- their responses in interpreting metaphorical mean- tic examples of conceptual metaphor in transla- to the source text and author to the creation of terman (2015, p. 13) calls ‘actual processes’ – ob- ing at the conceptual level. Their findings show tions of German political discourse. She concludes new material (Samaniego Fernández, 2013, p. servations of the translation process ‘as it unfolds, that conceptual clarity (or comprehension) among that the ‘analysis of texts with respect to metaphors 192). rather than retrospectively inferring from the end- the participants was lower for complex metaphors. and metaphorical reasoning processes in different Shuttleworth (2011) reports on a multilingual result how this result might have arisen’ – have re- One final piece of research worth mentioning in languages can, thus, reveal possible cultural differ- corpus-based study, overtly framed by conceptual mained very rare. There are only a handful known this context is Sjørup’s (2011, 2013) eye-tracking ences in conceptual structures’ (Schäffner, 2004, metaphor theory, to identify ‘types of translation to the author. These include Mandelblit’s (1995) study of lexical metaphor in translation. Though p. 1267) transcending the heuristic and prescrip- behaviour’ (Shuttleworth, 2011, p. 302) at the con- early pioneering experiment to test her ‘cognitive not directed towards conceptual metaphor as tive procedure-based approaches to metaphor ceptual level in translating popular science meta- translation hypothesis’ that translation of meta- such, it does indicate that metaphor production in common in previous contributions from translation phor. In addition to stressing the sheer complexity phors may involve, in addition to linguistic shift, a general is more effortful than non-metaphor trans- studies. She elaborates on her cognitive approach of the product-based analysis, his findings show conceptual shift between different conceptual on- lation, but somewhat inconclusively points out to metaphor in subsequent detailed studies of Eng- little clear evidence of obvious manipulation or tologies (Mandelblit, 1995, p. 486). She recorded that effort varies according to the translation pro- lish translations of German political and news subversion of source-text metaphors, or that the time taken, and additional comments, by procedure chosen by the translator. texts about the financial crisis (Schäffner, 2012; metaphor presents a major problem to translators fessional and student translators asked to translate Product-oriented studies of conceptual meta- 2014). of popular science texts in his corpus-based study. various time expressions from their L2 to their L1. phor are increasingly common, but process-orient- Monti (2009) examines a corpus of French, Ital- Finally, Tebbit and Kinder (2016) use conceptu- One group translated from English into French, the ed studies of conceptual metaphor are still few ian and Spanish translations of Lakoff and John- al metaphor theory to develop a decision-making other group from French into English. Her results and far between. Yet, it would only make sense to son’s Metaphors We Live By (2003), uncovering a model for analysing extended metaphors (which showed that, over both groups of participants, bring together a product-oriented, reverse-engi- more-or-less shared repertoire of mental schemes they refer to as ‘developed’ metaphors) in transla- conceptual metaphor translation takes significantly neered approach with TPR on actual processes to across the four languages, despite the significant tion in order to ‘contribute to deeper and more longer, and is presumably more effortful, if the tar- obtain deeper insights into the behaviour, deci- degree of variation in lexical realisations that he systematic understandings of how metaphors work get domains differ in the source language and in sion-making and problem-solving of translators as observes. Focusing on providing target-language in texts and the responsibility that translators as- the target language. they translate. This is precisely what Schäffner and models for translation didactics than on translation sume in front of these understandings’ (Tebbit & Tirkkonen-Condit’s (2002) two TAP studies, Shuttleworth (2013) suggest as a beneficial avenue procedures, Nicaise (2011) compares and con- Kinder, 2016, p. 419). Basing their study on a lim- again involving students and professionals but this for conceptual metaphor studies, and it is one that trasts lexical realisations of discursive conceptuali- ited corpus four target-text products from Bible time in near-authentic translation conditions, was the study reported here pursues.

44 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 45 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey

4. STUDY AND RESULTS ontological metaphors of topography and personi- translations using the same metaphor (M:M). The 4.1. Stages of analysis fication with the orientational metaphor of the ‘A distinction was made between pre- NMT target texts DL19, DL21 and GT21 were all As already mentioned, aspects of the analyses downward (‘abfallend’ in the Duden Online defin- pausing (pauses after a target-text translated M:M2. undertaken here have been presented and dis- ition) slope (lack of control is down; unconscious segment immediately preceding the The ProG translations of ‘[low-frequency] race’ cussed from a different perspective in Massey and is down). The closest correspondence in English to segment corresponding to the source-text revealed eight M:M (67%), one M1:M2 (8%), one Ehrensberger-Dow (2017b) and, partially, in Mas- the use of this metaphor in its source-text sense is M:P (8%) and two M:0 (17%) translations. The pat- sey (2016). The initial studies had set out to an- ‘inclination’, though the directionality implied in metaphor) and peri-pausing (pauses tern of MAG products is slightly less spread: seven alyse the processes and products behind source- the English word is not downward but upward. The during the production of the target-text translated M:M (70%), two M1:M2 (20%) and one text reception and target-text production of the second complex conceptual metaphor examined segment). Pausing is assumed to indicate M:0 (10%). The BAG products are a little more concepts underlying surface lexical metaphors in in this study is ‘race’. This combines the primary uniform than the ProG and MAG groups: nine par- order to identify patterns of conceptual mapping metaphors of action is motion and purposes are both that a problem exists and that it is ticipants translate M:M (82%) and two M1:M2 behaviour according to educational level, profes- destinations (implicit in the notion of the winning being processed with internal cognitive (18%). The DL19, DL21 and GT21 translations of sional experience and translation direction (into L1 line that will be crossed) with the general-to-spe- resources, either with or without external ‘[low-frequency] race’ are all M:M. and/or their second language, L2). cific mapping of a competition is a race. resource consultation’ The current study considers how a group of na- Data were analysed in four stages. First, the 4.3. Process data analyses tive English-speaking professional translators trans- translation products were categorised according to Third, the RVPs were analysed in greater depth The ProE keystroke pausing data show that two late a complex conceptual metaphor in the first the scheme of four procedures proposed by Toury to determine participants’ conceptual clarity participants paused for more than five seconds sentence of their German source text, ‘Hang’ (i.e. (1995, p. 81-84): metaphor into same metaphor (Fougner Rydning & Lachaud, 2011). Angelone’s (22%): one pre-paused (11%) and the other peri- ‘inclination’ or ‘tendency’, post-modified by ‘zum (M:M), metaphor into different metaphor (M1:M2), (2010) uncertainty-management model was used, paused (11%). In the RVPs, five ProE participants Selbstmord’, meaning ‘to[wards] suicide’). This metaphor into non-metaphor, or sense paraphrase which presents translation as a chain of decision- (56%) mentioned the metaphor: one in relation to data is then compared to the way three groups of (M:P), and omission of the metaphor (M:0). Toury’s making activities with multiple, interconnected se- comprehension (11%), one to transfer (11%) and native German-speaking professionals and stu- (1995) fifth and sixth procedures (creating meta- quences of problem-solving behaviour that are ac- three to target-text production (33%). dents translate a complex metaphor in the second phors from non-metaphors and adding metaphors tivated when problems occur. These sequences are ProG pausing behaviour differed sizeably from sentence of the English source text, ‘race’ (pre- with no linguistic motivation in the source text) are segmented into source-text comprehension uncer- the ProE group: ten participants paused for five modified in the source text by ‘low-frequency’). irrelevant to the present study. Every metaphorical tainty (Comp), mediation-based transfer uncertain- seconds or more (83%): seven pre-paused (58%), Nine professionals working into their L1, English realisation was classified independently by two re- ty (Trans), when translators ‘cannot match lan- two pre- and peri-paused (17%) and one peri- (ProE), translated the German source-text meta- searchers and then compared. guage structures (lexemes, collocations, standard paused (8%). In the RVP data, ten ProG partici- phors. Twelve professionals (ProG), ten MA stu- Second, the process data from the keystroke phrases) in the source text to appropriate equiva- pants referred to ‘race’ (83%): five in relation to dents (MAG) and eleven BA beginners (BAG) trans- logs and the RVPs were analysed for problem indi- lents to use in the target text’, and target-language comprehension (42%), two to transfer (17%) and lated the English source-text metaphor into their cators. In line with PACTE (2005) and Alves and production (Prod) uncertainty, indicating ‘the ap- three to production (25%). L1, German. For all translators, the process data Vale (2009), a pause of five seconds or more (>5 plication of conscious, deliberate strategies for MAG pausing is a little less pronounced, consist of pauses identified in the keystroke logs s.) was taken to be a problem indicator in the key- overcoming comprehension, transfer, or produc- though comparable, with seven interrupting their and any comments in the RVPs. stroke logs (see Kumpulainen (2015) for a details tion indecision’ (Angelone, 2010, p. 19-21). processes for five seconds or more (70%), three ‘Hang [zum Selbstmord]’ represents a personifi- on operationalising pausing data in translation Finally, the NMT products (labelled DL19 for pre-pausing (30%), one pre- and peri-pausing cation, endowing whales with human psychologi- process research). A distinction was made between the 2019 DeepL translations, DL21 for the 2021 (10%) and three peri-pausing (30%). In the RVPs, cal attributes to help us understand the phe- pre-pausing (pauses after a target-text segment im- DeepL translations and GT21 for the 2021 Google- all ten MA students mention the metaphor (100%): nomenon of mass beaching. The German term mediately preceding the segment corresponding to Translate translations) were analysed according to five in relation to comprehension (50%), three to ‘Hang’ is itself, in its original sense, an ontological the source-text metaphor) and peri-pausing (paus- the Toury (1995) scheme. The results were then transfer (30%) and two to production (20%). metaphor relating to topography, a downward es during the production of the target-text seg- compared to the human product data. BAG pausing behaviour differed noticeably slope, defined by the German dictionary resource ment). Pausing is assumed to indicate both that a from that of the other two groups. Only four par- Duden Online in the first entry for the term as a problem exists and that it is being processed with 4.2. Product data analyses ticipants paused five seconds or more (36%): three downward sloping side of a mountain (the meta- internal cognitive resources (see Langlois, 2020), The product analysis of the ProE translations of before target-text production (27%) and one dur- phorical meaning intended in our source text is either with or without external resource consulta- ‘Hang [zum Selbstmord]’ shows eight (89%) par- ing it (9%). The RVP data analysis reveals that ten contained in the dictionary’s second definition) tion. In the RVPs, it was assumed that any partici- ticipants translating the metaphor into a different participants mentioned ‘race’ (91%), seven in rela- (Duden Online, 2021). This conceptual metaphor pant mentioning either of the rich points indicated metaphor (M1:M2) and one (11%) paraphrasing its tion to comprehension (63%), two to transfer is complex because it brings together the primary their awareness of a translation issue. sense (M:P). There were no omissions (M:0) or (18%) and one to production (9%).

46 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 47 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey

Table 1 5. DISCUSSION group. But a closer examination of the M1:M2 to- Overview of results of the product and process analyses 5.1. Human translations of ‘Hang’ kens reveals that two MAG participants, and also Analysis of the product data showed all but one the remaining two BAG members, realise at least PRODUCT DATA ANALYSES of the ProE group rendering ‘Hang’ through other partially the metaphorical components of the origi- TT realisation % procedures lexical metaphorical realisations, such as ‘propen- nal source-language domain mapping. When these sity [to suicide]’, ‘[suicidal] tendencies’, or ‘[death] M1:M2 solutions are aggregated with the M:M re- ‘Hang’ M:M M1:M2 M:P M:0 wish’, with only one resorting to the paraphrase sults, 90% of the MA students and 100% of the BA ProE (n=9) - 89 11 - ‘commit [suicide]’. The culture-speciﬁc realisation beginners can be said to render at least one meta- ‘Hang’ was only partially mapped by the L1 Eng- phorical component from the source-language tar- DL19 (n=1) - 100 - - lish speakers, who retained the personiﬁcation but get domain. By comparison, relatively fewer pro- DL21 (n=1) - 100 - - omitted the source-culture topographical and ori- fessionals mapped as closely to the source-lan-

GT21 (n=1) - 100 - - entational elements. As an interesting aside, a guage target domain (67%). The one ProG profes- tenth translator, a German L1 speaker wrongly in- sional with the M1:M2 solution chose the meta- Σ NMT (n=3) - 100 - - cluded in the initial data analysis, was the only phor ‘drive forward [a development]’ (‘[eine En- ‘Race’ one seen to produce an M:M solution (‘inclination twicklung] vorantreiben’). While this is a realisa- [to commit suicide]’) – a possible indicator of con- tion of the primary metaphor action is motion, it ProG (n=12) 67 8 8 17 ceptual transfer occasioned by his socialisation bears no direct relation to the complex culture- MAG (n=10) 70 20 - 10 and embeddedness in the lingua-culture that pro- speciﬁc conceptual metaphor of competition and/ duced the source text. or race. BAG (n=11) 82 18 - - The actual translation process data show that The students therefore demonstrate a distinctly DL19 (n=1) 100 - - - only two participants paused for ﬁve seconds or closer orientation on the original source-text map-

DL21 (n=1) 100 - - - more. However, a majority of the ProE group ping. How can this difference between the stu- (56%) did verbalise awareness of the metaphor as dents and the professionals be accounted for? The GT21 (n=1) 100 - - - a rich point in the source text: one participant had process data for the entire subset can help answer Σ NMT (n=3) 100 - - - a comprehension/conceptual clarity issue, one in- that question.

PROCESS DATA ANALYSES dicated a transfer problem and two further RVPs Pausing for the translation of ‘race’ was substan- indicated production or formulation issues. As a tially higher among the ProG (83%) and MAG Pauses >5s. % participants group, therefore, the professionals do appear to groups (70%) compared to the ProE results for ‘Hang’ Pre- Peri- Both Σ have been engaging conceptually with this com- ‘Hang’ (22%). On the other hand, pausing was no- plex source-text metaphor, but they seem to have ticeably lower among the BAG beginners (36%). If ProE (n=9) 11 11 - 22 relied in large part on intuition in reaching their we accept that pausing indicates the deployment ‘Race’ solutions. of internal cognitive resources, suggesting a con- ProG (n=12) 58 8 17 83 ceptual engagement with the metaphor, then the 5.2. Human translations of ‘race’ German L1 professionals appear to deliberate and MAG (n=10) 30 30 10 70 The analyses show that ‘race’ is handled by the reflect more than both groups of students, espe- BAG (n=11) 27 9 - 36 German L1 translators less uniformly overall. There cially before beginning to write (75% in total). For RVP mentions % participants are indications that experience does appear to their part, the MA students also seem to reflect make a difference in terms of both products and, more than the beginners (70%), though fewer do ‘Hang’ Comp Trans Prod Σ perhaps more pertinently, processes. so before target text production (40% in total). ProE (n=9) 11 11 33 56 Two-thirds of the ProG group used the identical The RVP process analyses show that the propor- ‘Race’ corresponding metaphor in the target language (ei- tion of mentions for the ‘race’ rich point among all ther ‘Wettrennen’ or ‘Rennen’), but M:M realisa- three German L1 groups lay between 83% and ProG (n=12) 42 17 25 83 tions (either ‘Wettrennen’ or ‘Rennen’) in the BAG 100%, notably higher than for ‘Hang’ (56%). In MAG (n=10) 50 30 20 100 group were even higher, at four fifths. At 70%, the particular, the uncertainty management analysis of BAG (n=11) 63 18 9 91 MAG realisations (either ‘Wettlauf’ or ‘Rennen’) the BAG group shows that seven beginners re- are, at first glance, closer to those of the ProG marked overtly on conceptual clarity problems in

48 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 49 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey the RVPs (63%). Strikingly, however, only one of frequenzrennen’ in place of DL19’s grammatically What can such variation be telling us? Echoing of its translators. As already stated in Massey those who did so actually paused before, and non-standard (and semantically ambiguous) post- the conclusion reached by Samaniego Fernández (2016) and Massey and Ehrensberger-Dow none paused during target-text production. modification (‘das Rennen der niedrigen Frequen- (2013, p. 192) above, the variation in the data (2017b), the results tend to reinforce didactic im- Pulling the strands together, therefore, we can zen’). In this respect, therefore, the DeepL engine strongly suggests that the principal distinguishing plications that have already been drawn as a result say that the professionals seem to proceed in a appears to have learned. feature of the experienced, competent profession- of previous cognitive linguistic research. The ad- markedly more reflective manner than the begin- Standardisation appears to be the rule in the als as a group is their ability to access the concep- mittedly small exploratory study presented here ners, quite probably as a result of the experience NMT target-text segments. When compared close- tual level of meaning realised in a particular lexi- seems to confirm work done by Nicaise (2011) and they have accumulated, the (inter-)cultural aware- ly to the human translations, an interesting pattern cal form, and then to use intuition (as in the case Tabakowska (2014), who stress the importance of ness they have developed and the deliberative ra- emerges. Allowing for minor grammatical shifts, of ‘Hang’) and/or deliberative rationality (in the alerting students and teachers alike to the cognitive tionality they have acquired. Between the begin- and the use of the synonyms ‘Wettrennen’ and case of ‘race’) to generate multiple potential target- base of all meaning by systematically introducing ners and professionals are the MA students, who ‘Wettlauf’ for ‘Rennen’ in the German target texts text solutions in a specific communicative situa- cognitive linguistics into translator education cur- exhibit behaviour towards the professional end of (three instances in all), the NMT translations corre- tion, in order to best serve the intelligibilities, inter- ricula and professional development courses. a spectrum – as befits competent learners on the spond exactly to 44% of the total solutions and ests and needs of a (pre-defined or projected) tar- Translator education can only benefit from know- verge of embarking on professional careers. 50% of the M:M2 solutions for the ProE group, to get audience. There is nothing particularly new ing how members of given lingua-cultural commu- 33% of the total solutions and 50% of the M:M so- about this implication – Venuti (2019, p. 1), for in- nities ‘use metaphors to reflect their attitudes to- 5.3. NMT and human translation products lutions for the ProG group, to 50% of the total so- stance, has long and vociferously advocated a wards the world in general and the life of their compared lutions and 71% of the M:M solutions for the MAG hermeneutic model of understanding translation community in particular’ (Nicaise, 2011, p. 421). Returning to the NMT product tokens for the group; and to 82% of the total solutions and 100% not as ‘the reproduction or transfer of an invariant However, there are also implications to be translations of ‘Hang’, both DL19 and DL21 used of the M:M solutions for the BAG group (see Table that is contained in or caused by the source text’ drawn from the inescapable methodological cave- the same noun (‘tendency’) chosen by four of the 2). In all other cases where omission was not used, but as ‘an interpretive act that inevitably varies ats associated with the research. Although the fo- nine of the professional translators. However, the translators either explain the metaphor to the source-text form, meaning, and effect’. But it does cus on conceptual metaphor signals a fruitful ave- while all four of the latter opt for a plural noun reader or establish more context for it. They do so provide some empirical evidence related to Venu- nue of research into the processes and products of with the standard pre-modifier ‘suicidal’, the NMT by using metaphorical alternatives (such as ‘death ti’s claim, and in so doing adds topical relevance conceptual transfer in translation, Shuttleworth versions have a singular noun post-modified with wish’ instead of ‘suicidal tendencies’) or by ex- and renewed force to Pym’s (2003, p. 489) bril- (2014, p. 60) and Samaniego Fernández (2011, p. ‘towards suicide’ (DL19) and ‘to suicide’ (DL21). panding the source-text metaphor with additional liantly pithy minimalist definition of translation 268) sound a justified note of caution that is The three M:M translations of ‘race’ by the NMT semantic components (for example, with explicit competence as ‘the ability to generate a series of shared by the present author. tools also reveal slight grammatical variation. reference to sonar systems and their development more than one viable target text (TTI, TT2 … TTn) The extent to which translators’ production of DL21 and GT21 use the compound noun ‘Nieder- or to low-frequency ranges). for a pertinent source text (ST); the ability to select target texts can be said to be generalisable and to only one viable TT from this series, quickly and reflect target-language and target-culture norms Table 2 with justified confidence’. More combined and conceptualisations should be treated with Exact correspondences between NMT and human translation products product-oriented and process-oriented research care, given the essential situatedness of translation into conceptual metaphor translation is likely to and the multiple actors and factors influencing de- GROUP % CORRESPONDENCE NMT SOLUTIONS provide the additional evidence to validate or in- cision-making processes at any given time during

Total M:M M1:M2 validate this thesis. the situated activity of translation. Those addressing translated conceptual metaphor must bear this ProE (n=9) 44 - 50 5.4. Further implications and caveats in mind when collecting and analysing their data ProG (n=12) 33 50 - The exploratory findings discussed above ap- and when interpreting results, and they should be pear to indicate that investigating conceptual MAG (n=10) 50 71 - prepared to do go out into the field – the actual en- metaphor research in translation with a combined vironments in which translators work – to collect BAG (n=11) 82 100 - product-oriented and process-oriented approach their data. can provide clues to precisely where the added Moreover, the data in the present study, having In this admittedly small sample, we can identify tions produced by the publicly available NMT sys- value of human translation resides in the age of been collected within the context of a project not a distinct cline in the variation across the translator tems. The variation (and deviation) is lowest NMT. The most obvious potential application lies specifically dedicated to research conceptual groups as degrees of experience increase, and a among the beginners and considerably higher in the (further) development of translator compe- metaphor, contained a range of possible impact correspondingly growing range of deviation from among the professionals, with the MA students tence among students and working professionals variables on participants’ decision making that has the standardisation that is represented in the solu- again in-between. for a language industry looking to make the most made it difficult to interpret the results. Future field

50 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 51 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey the RVPs (63%). Strikingly, however, only one of frequenzrennen’ in place of DL19’s grammatically What can such variation be telling us? Echoing of its translators. As already stated in Massey those who did so actually paused before, and non-standard (and semantically ambiguous) post- the conclusion reached by Samaniego Fernández (2016) and Massey and Ehrensberger-Dow none paused during target-text production. modification (‘das Rennen der niedrigen Frequen- (2013, p. 192) above, the variation in the data (2017b), the results tend to reinforce didactic im- Pulling the strands together, therefore, we can zen’). In this respect, therefore, the DeepL engine strongly suggests that the principal distinguishing plications that have already been drawn as a result say that the professionals seem to proceed in a appears to have learned. feature of the experienced, competent profession- of previous cognitive linguistic research. The ad- markedly more reflective manner than the begin- Standardisation appears to be the rule in the als as a group is their ability to access the concep- mittedly small exploratory study presented here ners, quite probably as a result of the experience NMT target-text segments. When compared close- tual level of meaning realised in a particular lexi- seems to confirm work done by Nicaise (2011) and they have accumulated, the (inter-)cultural aware- ly to the human translations, an interesting pattern cal form, and then to use intuition (as in the case Tabakowska (2014), who stress the importance of ness they have developed and the deliberative ra- emerges. Allowing for minor grammatical shifts, of ‘Hang’) and/or deliberative rationality (in the alerting students and teachers alike to the cognitive tionality they have acquired. Between the begin- and the use of the synonyms ‘Wettrennen’ and case of ‘race’) to generate multiple potential target- base of all meaning by systematically introducing ners and professionals are the MA students, who ‘Wettlauf’ for ‘Rennen’ in the German target texts text solutions in a specific communicative situa- cognitive linguistics into translator education cur- exhibit behaviour towards the professional end of (three instances in all), the NMT translations corre- tion, in order to best serve the intelligibilities, inter- ricula and professional development courses. a spectrum – as befits competent learners on the spond exactly to 44% of the total solutions and ests and needs of a (pre-defined or projected) tar- Translator education can only benefit from know- verge of embarking on professional careers. 50% of the M:M2 solutions for the ProE group, to get audience. There is nothing particularly new ing how members of given lingua-cultural commu- 33% of the total solutions and 50% of the M:M so- about this implication – Venuti (2019, p. 1), for in- nities ‘use metaphors to reflect their attitudes to- 5.3. NMT and human translation products lutions for the ProG group, to 50% of the total so- stance, has long and vociferously advocated a wards the world in general and the life of their compared lutions and 71% of the M:M solutions for the MAG hermeneutic model of understanding translation community in particular’ (Nicaise, 2011, p. 421). Returning to the NMT product tokens for the group; and to 82% of the total solutions and 100% not as ‘the reproduction or transfer of an invariant However, there are also implications to be translations of ‘Hang’, both DL19 and DL21 used of the M:M solutions for the BAG group (see Table that is contained in or caused by the source text’ drawn from the inescapable methodological cave- the same noun (‘tendency’) chosen by four of the 2). In all other cases where omission was not used, but as ‘an interpretive act that inevitably varies ats associated with the research. Although the fo- nine of the professional translators. However, the translators either explain the metaphor to the source-text form, meaning, and effect’. But it does cus on conceptual metaphor signals a fruitful ave- while all four of the latter opt for a plural noun reader or establish more context for it. They do so provide some empirical evidence related to Venu- nue of research into the processes and products of with the standard pre-modifier ‘suicidal’, the NMT by using metaphorical alternatives (such as ‘death ti’s claim, and in so doing adds topical relevance conceptual transfer in translation, Shuttleworth versions have a singular noun post-modified with wish’ instead of ‘suicidal tendencies’) or by ex- and renewed force to Pym’s (2003, p. 489) bril- (2014, p. 60) and Samaniego Fernández (2011, p. ‘towards suicide’ (DL19) and ‘to suicide’ (DL21). panding the source-text metaphor with additional liantly pithy minimalist definition of translation 268) sound a justified note of caution that is The three M:M translations of ‘race’ by the NMT semantic components (for example, with explicit competence as ‘the ability to generate a series of shared by the present author. tools also reveal slight grammatical variation. reference to sonar systems and their development more than one viable target text (TTI, TT2 … TTn) The extent to which translators’ production of DL21 and GT21 use the compound noun ‘Nieder- or to low-frequency ranges). for a pertinent source text (ST); the ability to select target texts can be said to be generalisable and to only one viable TT from this series, quickly and reflect target-language and target-culture norms Table 2 with justified confidence’. More combined and conceptualisations should be treated with Exact correspondences between NMT and human translation products product-oriented and process-oriented research care, given the essential situatedness of translation into conceptual metaphor translation is likely to and the multiple actors and factors influencing de- GROUP % CORRESPONDENCE NMT SOLUTIONS provide the additional evidence to validate or in- cision-making processes at any given time during

50 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 51 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey research will therefore require not only more eco- distinguishes them as experienced, competent (non)adoption of machine translation among pro- Ehrensberger-Dow, M., & Massey, G. (2017). Socio- logical validity by being situated in the authentic translators is their ability to access the conceptual fessional translators. Perspectives, 26, 301-321. technical issues in professional translation prac- environments of translation, but also more rigor- level of meaning realised in a particular lexical doi: 10.1080/0907676X.2017.1337210 tice. Translation Spaces, 6(1), 104-121. doi: ous control of tasking and setting (such as specific form, and then to generate multiple potential tar- Carl, M., & Schaeffer, M. (2017). Why translation is dif- https://doi.org/10.1075/ts.6.1.06ehr cross-language matching of metaphors) and more get-text solutions in order to reach a given target ficult: A corpus-based study of non-literality in EMT Expert Group. (2009). Competences for profes- post-editing and from-scratch translation. Hermes sional translators, experts in multilingual and mul- targeted elicitation methods (such as immediate audience. The process data indicates that they do – Journal of Language and Communication in timedia communication. Brussels, Belgium: Eu- retrospective interview questions) to eliminate the so situationally, through intuition and/or delibera- Business, 56, 43-57. doi: 10.7146/hjlcb.v0i56. ropean Commission. Retrieved from https:// noise that the data caused in the original experi- tive rationality, presumably based on their 4EA 97201 ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/emt_compe- mental studies. cognition. This is the distinguishing feature of sea- Chesterman, A. (2015). Models of what processes? In tences_translators_en.pdf soned professional translators and a hallmark of M. Ehrensberger-Dow, B. Englund Dimitrova, S. EMT Board. (2017). European Master’s in Translation. 6. CONCLUSION their added value. Hubscher-Davidson & U. Norberg (Eds.), De- Competence framework 2017. Brussels, Belgium: Behind the exploratory study reported in this ar- Notwithstanding the caveats of the study men- scribing cognitive processes in translation: Acts European Commission. Retrieved from https:// ticle is the notion that human translators’ cognition tioned in the previous section, the research pre- and events (pp. 7-20). Amsterdam, Netherlands: ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/emt_compe- represents a key added value over disembodied ar- sented here points to the fundamental logic and John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/bct.77.02che tence_fwk_2017_en_web.pdf tificial intelligence. Re-framing the methods, data congruence of combining reverse-engineered CIUTI Conference 2020. (2020). Artificial intelligence & Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). and results of a prior study, and supplementing product data with data from actual processes. The intercultural intelligence. Actions and interactions The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition them with additional data and analyses, it presents present author wholeheartedly concurs with other in translation, interpreting and target contexts. of expert performance. Psychological Review, a new cognitive perspective on re-positioning hu- translation studies researchers, like Schäffner and Retrieved from https://www.ciuti2020isit.org 100(3), 363-406. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.100. Cultus Journal. (2020). Call for papers. CULTUS 14: 3.363 man translation competence and translators’ ex- Shuttleworth (2013), that an approach melding ac- Translation plus: The added value of the transla- FIT. (2019). FIT position paper on machine translation. pertise in the age of NMT. Focusing on culturally tual process data analysis with reverse-engineered tor. Retrieved from https://www.cultusjournal.- Retrieved from https://fit-ift.org/fit-position-paper- specific complex conceptual metaphor, the re- product data can add an enriching and insightful com/index.php/call-for-papers on-machine-translation search combines target-text product analysis with layer to translation research. Given the current and Dagut, M. (1976). Can ‘metaphor’ be translated? Babel, Fougner Rydning, A., & Lachaud, C. (2011). Are prima- experimental TPR findings to reveal how transla- likely future direction of increasingly technolo- 22(1), 21-33. doi: 10.1075/babel.22.1.05dag ry conceptual metaphors easier to understand tional decision-making and problem-solving take gised professional translation practices, it has the Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. (1986). Mind over ma- than complex conceptual metaphors? An investi- place on a conceptual level that transcends the distinct potential to unveil precisely where and chine: The power of human intuition and expert- gation of the cognitive processes in metaphor lexical realisations by which meaning is conveyed how embodied, embedded, enacted, extended ise in the era of the computer. New York, NY: comprehension. In C. Alvstad, A. Hild & E. in source and target texts. When compared with and affective experience can add the tangible val- Free Press. doi: 10.1109/MEX.1987.4307079 Tiselius (Eds.), Methods and strategies of process translation output of the same metaphors by pub- ue of tailored high-quality services to complement Dreyfus, S. E. (2004). The five-stage model of adult skill research: Integrative approaches in translation licly available NMT systems, the variation in the the presence of NMT in the translation market and acquisition. Bulletin of Science, Technology & So- studies (pp. 169-186). Amsterdam, Netherlands: product data of professionals suggests that what industry. ciety, 24(3), 177-181. doi: 10.1177/0270467604 John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/btl.94 264992 Göpferich, S. (2003). Metapher und Translation: Zur Duden Online. (2021). Der Hang. Rechtschreibung. Be- Universalität bzw. Kulturgebundenheit der Meta- References deutungen. Retrieved from https://duden.de/ pher und der Modellierung des Metaphernüber- rechtschreibung/Hang setzungsprozesses [Metaphor and translation: On Alves, F., & Vale, D. (2009). Probing the unit of transla- sider in the classroom. Training, Language and Ehrensberger-Dow, M., & Hunziker Heeb, A. (2016). In- the universality and/or cultural constraint of tion in time: Aspects of the design and develop- Culture, 2(1), 38-50. doi: 10.29366/2018tlc.2.1.3 vestigating the ergonomics of a technologized metaphor and of modelling the metaphor transla- ment of a web application for storing, annotat- APTIS. (2020). CFP: APTIS 2021. Evolving profiles: The translation workplace. In R. Muñoz Martín (Ed.), tion process]. In B. Nord & P. A. Schmitt (Eds.), ing, and querying translation process data. future of translation and interpreting training. Re- Reembedding translation process research (pp. Traducta Navis. Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag Across Languages and Cultures, 10(2), 251-273. trieved from https://www.aptis-translation-inter- 69-88). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Ben- von Christiane Nord (pp. 31-52). Tübingen, Ger- Angelone, E. (2010). Uncertainty, uncertainty manage- preting.org/aptis-2020 jamins. doi: 10.1075/btl.128.04ehr many: Stauffenburg. ment and metacognitive problem solving in the Bangalore, S., Behrens, B., Carl, M., Ghankot, M., Heil- Ehrensberger-Dow, M., Hunziker Heeb, A., Jud, P., & Göpferich, S. (2009). Towards a model of translation translation task. In G. M. Shreve & E. Angelone mann, A., Nitzke, J., Schaeffer, M., & Sturm, A. Angelone, E. (2017). Insights from translation competence and its acquisition: The longitudinal (Eds.), Translation and cognition (pp. 17-40). Am- (2015). The role of syntactic variation in transla- process research in the workplace. In D. Perrin & study ‘TransComp’. In S. Göpferich, A. L. Jakob- sterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins. doi: tion and post-editing. Translation Spaces, 4(1), U. Kleinberger (Eds.), Doing applied linguistics: sen & I. M. Mees (Eds.), Behind the mind: Meth- 10.1075/ata.xv.03ang 119-144. doi: 10.1075/ts.4.1.06sch Enabling transdisciplinary communication (pp. ods, models and results in translation process re- Anisimova, A., Pavlyuk, M., & Kogotkova, S. (2018). Se- Cadwell, P., O’Brien, S., & Teixeira, C. S. (2018). Resis- 116-123). Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter. search (pp. 11-37). Copenhagen, Denmark: Sam- lecting a translation equivalent: Factors to con- tance and accommodation: Factors for the doi: 10.1515/9783110496604-014 fundslitteratur Press.

52 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 53 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey research will therefore require not only more eco- distinguishes them as experienced, competent (non)adoption of machine translation among pro- Ehrensberger-Dow, M., & Massey, G. (2017). Socio- logical validity by being situated in the authentic translators is their ability to access the conceptual fessional translators. Perspectives, 26, 301-321. technical issues in professional translation prac- environments of translation, but also more rigor- level of meaning realised in a particular lexical doi: 10.1080/0907676X.2017.1337210 tice. Translation Spaces, 6(1), 104-121. doi: ous control of tasking and setting (such as specific form, and then to generate multiple potential tar- Carl, M., & Schaeffer, M. (2017). Why translation is dif- https://doi.org/10.1075/ts.6.1.06ehr cross-language matching of metaphors) and more get-text solutions in order to reach a given target ficult: A corpus-based study of non-literality in EMT Expert Group. (2009). Competences for profes- post-editing and from-scratch translation. Hermes sional translators, experts in multilingual and mul- targeted elicitation methods (such as immediate audience. The process data indicates that they do – Journal of Language and Communication in timedia communication. Brussels, Belgium: Eu- retrospective interview questions) to eliminate the so situationally, through intuition and/or delibera- Business, 56, 43-57. doi: 10.7146/hjlcb.v0i56. ropean Commission. Retrieved from https:// noise that the data caused in the original experi- tive rationality, presumably based on their 4EA 97201 ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/emt_compe- mental studies. cognition. This is the distinguishing feature of sea- Chesterman, A. (2015). Models of what processes? In tences_translators_en.pdf soned professional translators and a hallmark of M. Ehrensberger-Dow, B. Englund Dimitrova, S. EMT Board. (2017). European Master’s in Translation. 6. CONCLUSION their added value. Hubscher-Davidson & U. Norberg (Eds.), De- Competence framework 2017. Brussels, Belgium: Behind the exploratory study reported in this ar- Notwithstanding the caveats of the study men- scribing cognitive processes in translation: Acts European Commission. Retrieved from https:// ticle is the notion that human translators’ cognition tioned in the previous section, the research pre- and events (pp. 7-20). Amsterdam, Netherlands: ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/emt_compe- represents a key added value over disembodied ar- sented here points to the fundamental logic and John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/bct.77.02che tence_fwk_2017_en_web.pdf tificial intelligence. Re-framing the methods, data congruence of combining reverse-engineered CIUTI Conference 2020. (2020). Artificial intelligence & Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). and results of a prior study, and supplementing product data with data from actual processes. The intercultural intelligence. Actions and interactions The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition them with additional data and analyses, it presents present author wholeheartedly concurs with other in translation, interpreting and target contexts. of expert performance. Psychological Review, a new cognitive perspective on re-positioning hu- translation studies researchers, like Schäffner and Retrieved from https://www.ciuti2020isit.org 100(3), 363-406. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.100. Cultus Journal. (2020). Call for papers. CULTUS 14: 3.363 man translation competence and translators’ ex- Shuttleworth (2013), that an approach melding ac- Translation plus: The added value of the transla- FIT. (2019). FIT position paper on machine translation. pertise in the age of NMT. Focusing on culturally tual process data analysis with reverse-engineered tor. Retrieved from https://www.cultusjournal.- Retrieved from https://fit-ift.org/fit-position-paper- specific complex conceptual metaphor, the re- product data can add an enriching and insightful com/index.php/call-for-papers on-machine-translation search combines target-text product analysis with layer to translation research. Given the current and Dagut, M. (1976). Can ‘metaphor’ be translated? Babel, Fougner Rydning, A., & Lachaud, C. (2011). Are prima- experimental TPR findings to reveal how transla- likely future direction of increasingly technolo- 22(1), 21-33. doi: 10.1075/babel.22.1.05dag ry conceptual metaphors easier to understand tional decision-making and problem-solving take gised professional translation practices, it has the Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. (1986). Mind over ma- than complex conceptual metaphors? An investi- place on a conceptual level that transcends the distinct potential to unveil precisely where and chine: The power of human intuition and expert- gation of the cognitive processes in metaphor lexical realisations by which meaning is conveyed how embodied, embedded, enacted, extended ise in the era of the computer. New York, NY: comprehension. In C. Alvstad, A. Hild & E. in source and target texts. When compared with and affective experience can add the tangible val- Free Press. doi: 10.1109/MEX.1987.4307079 Tiselius (Eds.), Methods and strategies of process translation output of the same metaphors by pub- ue of tailored high-quality services to complement Dreyfus, S. E. (2004). The five-stage model of adult skill research: Integrative approaches in translation licly available NMT systems, the variation in the the presence of NMT in the translation market and acquisition. Bulletin of Science, Technology & So- studies (pp. 169-186). Amsterdam, Netherlands: product data of professionals suggests that what industry. ciety, 24(3), 177-181. doi: 10.1177/0270467604 John Benjamins. doi: 10.1075/btl.94 264992 Göpferich, S. (2003). Metapher und Translation: Zur Duden Online. (2021). Der Hang. Rechtschreibung. Be- Universalität bzw. Kulturgebundenheit der Meta- References deutungen. Retrieved from https://duden.de/ pher und der Modellierung des Metaphernüber- rechtschreibung/Hang setzungsprozesses [Metaphor and translation: On Alves, F., & Vale, D. (2009). Probing the unit of transla- sider in the classroom. Training, Language and Ehrensberger-Dow, M., & Hunziker Heeb, A. (2016). In- the universality and/or cultural constraint of tion in time: Aspects of the design and develop- Culture, 2(1), 38-50. doi: 10.29366/2018tlc.2.1.3 vestigating the ergonomics of a technologized metaphor and of modelling the metaphor transla- ment of a web application for storing, annotat- APTIS. (2020). CFP: APTIS 2021. Evolving profiles: The translation workplace. In R. Muñoz Martín (Ed.), tion process]. In B. Nord & P. A. Schmitt (Eds.), ing, and querying translation process data. future of translation and interpreting training. Re- Reembedding translation process research (pp. Traducta Navis. Festschrift zum 60. Geburtstag Across Languages and Cultures, 10(2), 251-273. trieved from https://www.aptis-translation-inter- 69-88). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Ben- von Christiane Nord (pp. 31-52). Tübingen, Ger- Angelone, E. (2010). Uncertainty, uncertainty manage- preting.org/aptis-2020 jamins. doi: 10.1075/btl.128.04ehr many: Stauffenburg. ment and metacognitive problem solving in the Bangalore, S., Behrens, B., Carl, M., Ghankot, M., Heil- Ehrensberger-Dow, M., Hunziker Heeb, A., Jud, P., & Göpferich, S. (2009). Towards a model of translation translation task. In G. M. Shreve & E. Angelone mann, A., Nitzke, J., Schaeffer, M., & Sturm, A. Angelone, E. (2017). Insights from translation competence and its acquisition: The longitudinal (Eds.), Translation and cognition (pp. 17-40). Am- (2015). The role of syntactic variation in transla- process research in the workplace. In D. Perrin & study ‘TransComp’. In S. Göpferich, A. L. Jakob- sterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins. doi: tion and post-editing. Translation Spaces, 4(1), U. Kleinberger (Eds.), Doing applied linguistics: sen & I. M. Mees (Eds.), Behind the mind: Meth- 10.1075/ata.xv.03ang 119-144. doi: 10.1075/ts.4.1.06sch Enabling transdisciplinary communication (pp. ods, models and results in translation process re- Anisimova, A., Pavlyuk, M., & Kogotkova, S. (2018). Se- Cadwell, P., O’Brien, S., & Teixeira, C. S. (2018). Resis- 116-123). Berlin, Germany: Mouton de Gruyter. search (pp. 11-37). Copenhagen, Denmark: Sam- lecting a translation equivalent: Factors to con- tance and accommodation: Factors for the doi: 10.1515/9783110496604-014 fundslitteratur Press.

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54 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 55 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Re-framing conceptual metaphor translation research in the age of neural machine translation: Investigating translators’ added value with products and processes Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Gary Massey

54 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 55 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-37-56 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1-57-67 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 37-56 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 57-67 rudn.tlcjournal.org

Schäffner, C., & Shuttleworth, M. (2013). Metaphor Smakman, D. (2019). Cultural bias and sociolinguistics. in translation. Possibilities for process re- Russian Journal of Linguistics, 23(1), 9-22. doi: search. Target, 25(1), 93-106. doi: 10.1075/ 10.22363/2312-9182-2019-23-1-9-22 target.25.1.08shu Tabakowska, E. (2014). Teaching translation: Can cogni- Original Research Schmitt, P. A. (2019). Translation 4.0 – evolution, tive grammar be of any use? In M. Piotrowska & revolution, innovation or disruption? Lebende S. Tyupa (Eds.), inTRAlinea special issue: Chal- Sprachen 64(2), 193-229. doi: 10.1515/les- lenges in translation pedagogy. Retrieved from 2019-0013 http://intralinea.org/specials/article/teaching_- Developing pre-service teachers’ digital communication Shuttleworth, M. (2011). Translational behaviour at translation_can_cognitive_grammar_be_of_any_ the frontiers of scientific knowledge: A multi- use and competences through service learning for bilingual lingual investigation into popular science Tebbit, S. & Kinder, J. J. (2016) Translating developed metaphor in translation. The Translator, 17(2), metaphors. Babel, 62(3), 402-422. doi: 10.1075/ literacy 301-323. doi: 10.1080/13556509.2011.1079 babel.62.3.03teb by Aoife Ahern and Beatriz López-Medina 9491 Tirkkonen-Condit, S. (2002). Metaphoric expressions in Shuttleworth, M. (2014). Translation studies and translation processes. Across Languages and Cul- Aoife Ahern Complutense University of Madrid, Spain [email protected] metaphor studies: Possible paths of interaction tures, 3(1), 101-116. Beatriz López-Medina Complutense University of Madrid, Spain [email protected] between two well-established disciplines. In Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies – and Article history Received November 23, 2020 | Revised March 1, 2021 | Accepted March 10, 2021 D. R. Miller & E. Monti (Eds.), Translating figu- beyond. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Ben- Conflicts of interest The authors declared no conflicts of interest rative language (pp. 53-65). Bologna, Italy: jamins. doi: 10.1075/btl.4 Research funding No funding was reported for this research Bononia University Press. Van den Broeck, R. (1981). The limits of translatability doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-57-67 Sjørup, A. C. (2011). Cognitive effort in metaphor exemplified by metaphor translation. Poetics To- For citation Ahern, A., & López-Medina, B. (2021). Developing pre-service teachers’ digital communication and translation: An eye-tracking study. In S. O’Bri- day 2(4), 73-87. doi: 10.2307/1772487 competences through service learning for bilingual literacy. Training, Language and Culture, 5(1), 57-67. en (Ed.), Cognitive explorations of translation Venuti, L. (2019). Contra instrumentalism: A translation (pp. 197-214). London, UK: Continuum. polemic. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Learning environments have become increasingly digital in recent decades, requiring teachers and students to develop Sjørup, A. C. (2013). Cognitive effort in metaphor Press. general digital competences across all educational systems and stages. This also means that for future teachers, profes- translation. An eye-tracking and keylogging Wheeler, M. (2005). Reconstructing the cognitive sional digital competencies are a valuable asset that enables them to work with the technologies already fully integrat- study (Doctoral dissertation). Copenhagen world: The next step. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ed in schools and embedded in most curricula. This paper describes the use of digital communication technology Business School, Denmark. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/5824.001.0001 throughout the different stages of a Service Learning Project, involving 2nd and 3rd year students from the Degree in Primary Education at the Universidad Complutense, Madrid. Students and their teachers involved in the project use specific digital communication tools which favour the interaction and completion of the project goal: supporting litera- AUTHOR INFORMATION: GARY MASSEY Zurich University of Applied Sciences | Gertrudstrasse 15, 8401 Winterthur, Switzerland cy programmes in two languages for underprivileged students in two local schools. This paper analyses the tools used [email protected] in the different stages of the project, the digital competencies they are related to and their suitability for similar Service Learning Projects.

KEYWORDS: pre-service teacher, digital communication, digital tools, bilingual literacy, professional competence, underprivileged students, ALFAPS

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1. INTRODUCTION stead, which involve more student participation in The current higher education system is more the construction of knowledge, cooperative work concerned than ever with ﬁnding the most appro- or increased interaction between students and priate teaching methodologies in order to obtain teachers, among other practices (Crisol-Moya et the best learning outcomes. In this respect, active al., 2020). In addition, the advent of multiple digi- methodologies have been gaining ground recently, tal resources, together with the development of ed- mainly because they move away from traditional ucational platforms and the widespread imple- teaching and promote learner-centred models in- mentation of online educational programmes have

KEYWORDS: pre-service teacher, digital communication, digital tools, bilingual literacy, professional competence, underprivileged students, ALFAPS

© Aoife Ahern, Beatriz López-Medina 2021 56 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 57 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-57-67 Developing pre-service teachers’ digital communication and competences through service learning for bilingual literacy Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 57-67 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Aoife Ahern and Beatriz López-Medina also led to significant changes in the ways content summarise the integration of the tools in the At the higher education level, and despite its 2.2. Framework for integration of ICT in initial is presented and learned (Lubovsky, 2020). This project stages, the purpose of each tool and the heterogeneous implementation in the different teacher education and in the project paper describes the digital communication tools area(s) of the digital competence developed with fields (Salem et al., 2019), research shows a posi- The articulation of the project integrated diverse used in the Service Learning (henceforth SL) their use. tive impact of SL programmes on the learning out- digital tools in all the stages of the process with the Project School Languages and Literacies: Compe- comes, since students can better understand the following objective: use the best tools to convey tencies and Strategies, Reading and Writing in 2. BACKGROUND contents of the curriculum while developing the content at all times and to facilitate the achieve- Spanish and English (henceforth, ALFAPS, the ini- 2.1. Service learning and R2L practical skills required in the projects. The comment of the goal involved in each stage of the tials for the project title in Spanish). The project, The quest for finding the best way to make mitment to the project contributes to students’ sat- project. Simultaneously, pre-service teachers de- which involves 2nd and 3rd year students in Pri- learning meaningful is a common practice in any isfaction and sense of achievement, as they come veloped their digital competences in the four key mary Education from the Complutense University, educational context. Since the early 70s, research to understand their own contribution to the bene- areas – information, communication, production took place in two state schools in Madrid in the exploring how to reach this goal has valued the fits obtained by the community. and safety (Skov, 2016). The tasks required for the 2019-2020 academic year. Led by 10 teachers, the role of learning by doing, and of experiential In the case of the present study, ALFAPS partici- completion of the project integrated an array of student participants (n=60) received training in learning – ‘a process through which a learner con- pants put into practice their skills teaching literacy digital tools which also covered the three dimen- Reading to Learn pedagogy (R2L) to help children structs knowledge, skill, and value from direct ex- in Spanish and English in two bilingual state sions which describe the teachers’ professional from two disadvantaged schools in their process of perience’ (Luckmann, 1996, p. 7), which offers op- schools located in different neighbourhoods in competence: generic digital competence, didactic acquiring literacy in English and Spanish. portunities to develop skills that cannot be put into Madrid. Participants (n=60), 2nd and 3rd year stu- digital competence and professional oriented digi- Through the whole process, different digital practice in a traditional classroom. dents in Primary Education, received training on tal competence (Ottestad et al., 2014); i.e. they communication tools were used to disseminate Even though the benefits of experiential learn- the Reading to Learn (R2L) pedagogical model were enabled to go beyond the digital skills re- and exchange information, compile materials, ing have been highlighted by research in recent (Rose & Martin, 2012), which has proven to be quired to ‘function’ in the current society by learn- train the participants and evaluate results, among decades, its implementation in higher education is successful in improving literacy levels with disad- ing the use and creation of tools they will have to other purposes. Simultaneously, the use of these scarce (Rosenstein et al., 2012), and lectures – as vantaged learners worldwide (Rose & Acevedo, use in their careers in the near future. tools became one of the sources of learning for all opposed to active methods of learning – are still 2017). The R2L pedagogy involves using a method- The articulation of the project includes the the participants involved, thereby responding to an very widespread teaching methods at this level. ology which can help with the literacy learning main features of the TPACK (Technology, Pedagogy often-voiced concern about the lack of integration University faculties indicate various reasons which needs of primary school pupils in both their first and Content Knowledge) model (Mishra & of digital competencies in teacher education in prevent the implementation of activities involving (usually Spanish) and additional languages Koehler, 2006). This model highlights that the inte- our context. In this respect, Amhag et al. (2019, p. active learning, for instance, lack of time and mon- (English). Through pedagogic intervention in read- gration of content knowledge and pedagogical 204) observe ‘digital competence for pedagogical ey, university bureaucracy, or departmental poli- ing and writing, focused on the genres of the dif- knowledge, in addition to the ways in which purposes is still poorly integrated into teacher edu- cies, among others, are frequently pointed out as ferent school curriculum areas, this systematic lit- teachers assess the content in terms of its ‘teacha- cation programmes’. In the same vein, Cuhadar difficulties or obstacles preventing progress to- eracy instruction approach has been proven to be bility’, should be what guides them in the selec- (2018, p. 61) states that ‘although there are many wards more active approaches (Wurdinger & Alli- highly effective in developing pupils to become in- tion and application of technological resources. As vital components of successful technology integra- son, 2017). dependent readers and writers (Rose & Martin, stated by Mishra and Koehler (2006), ‘At the heart tion in education, perhaps the most important of Service learning – together with active learning, 2013). The approach was simplified in the training of pedagogical content knowledge is the manner them, as well as the least emphasised one, is the problem-based learning, project-based learning seminars addressed to the participant undergradu- in which subject matter is transformed for process of teacher education’. Both studies, and place-based learning – is considered a teach- ates, who learnt a range of scaffolding strategies re- teaching. This occurs when the teacher interprets among others (Gabarda et al., 2020; Melash et al., ing approach that leads to experiential learning quired in the R2L model. In addition, they pre- the subject matter and finds different ways to rep- 2020; Yehuda, 2020; Magdaléna & Ivanova, (Wurdinger & Carslon, 2009), and has proven to pared specific materials to guide children at resent it and make it accessible to learners’ (Mishra 2020), highlight the relevance of embedding tech- be beneficial for students and communities alike. schools towards a comprehensive understanding of & Koehler, 2006, p. 1021). Teachers analyse, in re- nology naturally in daily activities, since the pre- Service learning programmes are community- texts as well as to use the resources of a model text lation to their learners’ needs, how the content service teachers will have to replicate this practice based and allow students to ‘transfer knowledge in their own writing within the same genre. In or- that must be learnt can be structured and repre- in the development of their future careers. More- and skills gained in the classroom into practical der to carry out this training and the implementa- sented in order to be effectively understood and over, a high exposure to a wide range of activities projects within their communities thus becoming tion of lessons following the R2L model, different interiorised. This analysis provides criteria upon in different areas would make students more com- more socially aware and active’ (Peric, 2012, p. digital tools were used, mainly to communicate in- which the selection of adequate resources should petent digitally (Hřebačková, 2019). This paper 365). The mutual benefits, however, are highly de- formation to the different stakeholders, but also for be based, so that the integration of technology provides an overview of the digital tools used in pendent on the design of the project and on the in- other purposes, such as to collect feedback or cre- should respond to the specific goals, and propos- the ALFAPS Project to support the implementation tegration of the service learning (SL) activities in ate content for the training sessions and for the als on how to reach those goals, that teachers have of the project in all the stages. The sections below the course curriculum. lessons at the target schools. established.

58 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 59 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-57-67 Developing pre-service teachers’ digital communication and competences through service learning for bilingual literacy Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 57-67 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Aoife Ahern and Beatriz López-Medina also led to significant changes in the ways content summarise the integration of the tools in the At the higher education level, and despite its 2.2. Framework for integration of ICT in initial is presented and learned (Lubovsky, 2020). This project stages, the purpose of each tool and the heterogeneous implementation in the different teacher education and in the project paper describes the digital communication tools area(s) of the digital competence developed with fields (Salem et al., 2019), research shows a posi- The articulation of the project integrated diverse used in the Service Learning (henceforth SL) their use. tive impact of SL programmes on the learning out- digital tools in all the stages of the process with the Project School Languages and Literacies: Compe- comes, since students can better understand the following objective: use the best tools to convey tencies and Strategies, Reading and Writing in 2. BACKGROUND contents of the curriculum while developing the content at all times and to facilitate the achieve- Spanish and English (henceforth, ALFAPS, the ini- 2.1. Service learning and R2L practical skills required in the projects. The comment of the goal involved in each stage of the tials for the project title in Spanish). The project, The quest for finding the best way to make mitment to the project contributes to students’ sat- project. Simultaneously, pre-service teachers de- which involves 2nd and 3rd year students in Pri- learning meaningful is a common practice in any isfaction and sense of achievement, as they come veloped their digital competences in the four key mary Education from the Complutense University, educational context. Since the early 70s, research to understand their own contribution to the bene- areas – information, communication, production took place in two state schools in Madrid in the exploring how to reach this goal has valued the fits obtained by the community. and safety (Skov, 2016). The tasks required for the 2019-2020 academic year. Led by 10 teachers, the role of learning by doing, and of experiential In the case of the present study, ALFAPS partici- completion of the project integrated an array of student participants (n=60) received training in learning – ‘a process through which a learner con- pants put into practice their skills teaching literacy digital tools which also covered the three dimen- Reading to Learn pedagogy (R2L) to help children structs knowledge, skill, and value from direct ex- in Spanish and English in two bilingual state sions which describe the teachers’ professional from two disadvantaged schools in their process of perience’ (Luckmann, 1996, p. 7), which offers op- schools located in different neighbourhoods in competence: generic digital competence, didactic acquiring literacy in English and Spanish. portunities to develop skills that cannot be put into Madrid. Participants (n=60), 2nd and 3rd year stu- digital competence and professional oriented digi- Through the whole process, different digital practice in a traditional classroom. dents in Primary Education, received training on tal competence (Ottestad et al., 2014); i.e. they communication tools were used to disseminate Even though the benefits of experiential learn- the Reading to Learn (R2L) pedagogical model were enabled to go beyond the digital skills re- and exchange information, compile materials, ing have been highlighted by research in recent (Rose & Martin, 2012), which has proven to be quired to ‘function’ in the current society by learn- train the participants and evaluate results, among decades, its implementation in higher education is successful in improving literacy levels with disad- ing the use and creation of tools they will have to other purposes. Simultaneously, the use of these scarce (Rosenstein et al., 2012), and lectures – as vantaged learners worldwide (Rose & Acevedo, use in their careers in the near future. tools became one of the sources of learning for all opposed to active methods of learning – are still 2017). The R2L pedagogy involves using a method- The articulation of the project includes the the participants involved, thereby responding to an very widespread teaching methods at this level. ology which can help with the literacy learning main features of the TPACK (Technology, Pedagogy often-voiced concern about the lack of integration University faculties indicate various reasons which needs of primary school pupils in both their first and Content Knowledge) model (Mishra & of digital competencies in teacher education in prevent the implementation of activities involving (usually Spanish) and additional languages Koehler, 2006). This model highlights that the inte- our context. In this respect, Amhag et al. (2019, p. active learning, for instance, lack of time and mon- (English). Through pedagogic intervention in read- gration of content knowledge and pedagogical 204) observe ‘digital competence for pedagogical ey, university bureaucracy, or departmental poli- ing and writing, focused on the genres of the dif- knowledge, in addition to the ways in which purposes is still poorly integrated into teacher edu- cies, among others, are frequently pointed out as ferent school curriculum areas, this systematic lit- teachers assess the content in terms of its ‘teacha- cation programmes’. In the same vein, Cuhadar difficulties or obstacles preventing progress to- eracy instruction approach has been proven to be bility’, should be what guides them in the selec- (2018, p. 61) states that ‘although there are many wards more active approaches (Wurdinger & Alli- highly effective in developing pupils to become in- tion and application of technological resources. As vital components of successful technology integra- son, 2017). dependent readers and writers (Rose & Martin, stated by Mishra and Koehler (2006), ‘At the heart tion in education, perhaps the most important of Service learning – together with active learning, 2013). The approach was simplified in the training of pedagogical content knowledge is the manner them, as well as the least emphasised one, is the problem-based learning, project-based learning seminars addressed to the participant undergradu- in which subject matter is transformed for process of teacher education’. Both studies, and place-based learning – is considered a teach- ates, who learnt a range of scaffolding strategies re- teaching. This occurs when the teacher interprets among others (Gabarda et al., 2020; Melash et al., ing approach that leads to experiential learning quired in the R2L model. In addition, they pre- the subject matter and finds different ways to rep- 2020; Yehuda, 2020; Magdaléna & Ivanova, (Wurdinger & Carslon, 2009), and has proven to pared specific materials to guide children at resent it and make it accessible to learners’ (Mishra 2020), highlight the relevance of embedding tech- be beneficial for students and communities alike. schools towards a comprehensive understanding of & Koehler, 2006, p. 1021). Teachers analyse, in re- nology naturally in daily activities, since the pre- Service learning programmes are community- texts as well as to use the resources of a model text lation to their learners’ needs, how the content service teachers will have to replicate this practice based and allow students to ‘transfer knowledge in their own writing within the same genre. In or- that must be learnt can be structured and repre- in the development of their future careers. More- and skills gained in the classroom into practical der to carry out this training and the implementa- sented in order to be effectively understood and over, a high exposure to a wide range of activities projects within their communities thus becoming tion of lessons following the R2L model, different interiorised. This analysis provides criteria upon in different areas would make students more com- more socially aware and active’ (Peric, 2012, p. digital tools were used, mainly to communicate in- which the selection of adequate resources should petent digitally (Hřebačková, 2019). This paper 365). The mutual benefits, however, are highly de- formation to the different stakeholders, but also for be based, so that the integration of technology provides an overview of the digital tools used in pendent on the design of the project and on the in- other purposes, such as to collect feedback or cre- should respond to the specific goals, and propos- the ALFAPS Project to support the implementation tegration of the service learning (SL) activities in ate content for the training sessions and for the als on how to reach those goals, that teachers have of the project in all the stages. The sections below the course curriculum. lessons at the target schools. established.

Another essential aspect of TPACK, as empha- in response to the call announced by the university and to the sudden switch to fully online study and conveying a quite complex set of facts and infor- sised by Mishra and Koehler (2006), consists of the authorities in March, 2019. Within this stage, a pi- exams. In the next section these stages are revisit- mation in the most concise and synthesised man- intersecting kinds of knowledge that teachers must lot initiative was set up, in which the main compo- ed and the use of digital communication that was ner possible, considering the heavy agendas that access and apply in the effective integration of nents of the project were identified and two carried out is explained in relation to each. the school staff members must deal with every day. technologies into their pedagogical practices. The groups of students put into practice a smaller- Once it had been agreed with the school, the for- domains of knowledge of pedagogy, content (from scale, initial implementation of the SL activities. At 4.2. Digital communication practices in the mal proposal had to be written up and sent to across the curriculum and within the areas of this point, one of the first professional communica- initial project stages compete for selection among those submitted to knowledge that it establishes) and technology can tion challenges was faced: conveying to the Throughout these steps within stage one, the the university authorities in charge of the project be identified separately, but it is at the intersec- schools, in a quick and effective manner, what it project participants used a range of digital re- selection and funding. The proposal required care- tions of these domains that effective planning and was that the university team proposed to them. The sources to communicate. In order to face the first ful consideration of the selection criteria published implementation of teaching activities and the re- stage continued as the decision was made to re- major challenge, an infographic was created (Fig- by the university and had to be composed follow- sources which they require takes place. spond to the call for proposals for university-fund- ure 1), using the subscription-free version of Easel- ing the CFP’s prescribed structure. It was originally This approach not only pertains to the articula- ed SL projects in April of 2019. A team of profes- ly (2021). This infographic was sent as an e-mail composed by the project coordinator, then shared tion of the SL project reported on herein, since the sors from the language Pedagogy department, as attachment to the headships of the two schools the using Google Docs for the core group of partici- university professors involved applied it to the well as colleagues from the Fine Arts Pedagogy project coordinator had identified as potential pating professors to collaborate with suggestions to project design and development (see next section). and the Educational Psychology departments, de- partners. The challenge mentioned consisted in complete or correct the first draft. It is also highly relevant to the university student veloped a written proposal for the project pro- participants, who were required to become in- posed for the 2019-2020 academic year. volved in the professional communication by The proposal was approved and put into action means of technological resources throughout the starting September, 2019. Presentations were training and the implementation of the project. made to the groups of students in Primary Educa- tion to recruit volunteers. The students developed 4. SERVICE LEARNING PROJECT IMPLEMEN- their participation within the courses on Spanish, TATION PROCESS Language Teaching; English, EFL teaching, and the 4.1. Timeline and overview of the stages and elective Teaching Literacy in EFL, from the special- activities of project implementation isation in English. They firstly took part in a train- Following previous good practices in Service ing seminar over the months of October and No- learning projects, according to Copaci and Rusu vember. From late October, the action stage of the (2016), a framework of four stages was adopted, project took place: intervention to provide literacy including: planning/preparation, action, reflection, learning support at the participating schools. and finally, dissemination/demonstration. These The stage of reflection was interwoven with the stages took place on macro- and microlevels action stage, as after each intervention session at throughout the project, although the final step (dis- the schools, student teachers produced a written semination) was developed in a distinct manner record in response to a set of reflection questions from the first three. On the macrolevel, the entire provided by the university professors, written texts project implemented each stage; and on the mi- that were considered in assessing the student crolevel, the participants put into practice the cy- teachers’ learning process as part of their course cle of planning, action and reflection in a recur- evaluation and grading. This action/reflection stage rent manner, as they engaged in the delivery of continued until, as a result of the Covid-19 pan- each one of the literacy learning sessions that the demic, all schools in Spain were closed in Feb- project involved. ruary, 2020. The premature end of the project due The planning/preparation stage continued to this circumstance also meant that the final throughout the project over a number of months. It stages of dissemination/demonstration could not consisted, on the one hand, in the period during be implemented according to the initial plan and which the project was conceptualised and the uni- the students’ participation became severely limited versity teachers decided to put together a proposal due to having to adjust to the pandemic situation, Figure 1. Infographic on ALFAPS Project

60 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 61 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-57-67 Developing pre-service teachers’ digital communication and competences through service learning for bilingual literacy Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 57-67 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Aoife Ahern and Beatriz López-Medina

The project required providing the participating with another in the second language. Thus, it was 4. Formulating specific language and content cess and the possible need for face-to-face tutori- university students with enough knowledge and observed how genres could have parallel structural learning objectives for lower primary pupils (2nd als to provide further, more individualised guid- understanding of the R2L approach so as to put it features across the two languages, for which two year, ages 6-7) based, firstly, on a text analysed ance. into practice to support the participating school screens in the classroom were implemented, each with the teacher trainers, and later on texts select- As the project moved forward, it formed part of pupils’ literacy learning. For this purpose, the plan- with a text from one of the languages, belonging to ed by the trainees. the student’ subjects within their course in Educa- ning/preparation stage also included a specialised the same genre. In the training classroom, the In addition, students completed an online revi- tion, requiring integration into its academic calen- training course for the student teachers. The train- hardware that was available included a desktop PC sion quiz, created with Google Forms, intended to dar that ended in December, which led to an exam ing included an intensive introduction to the R2L connected to an overhead projector, as well as a help them consolidate the knowledge acquired in period after the Christmas break. At that point, approach in its application with pupils using the high-definition touchscreen monitor. In the dual the training sessions. The quiz provided pho- project coordinators distributed a new PPT presen- community language (Spanish, in our case), as language analysis exercise, both the projected tographs of the seminar sessions, showing the ac- tation to celebrate the project’s interim results and well as with a foreign language, English. This bilin- screen and the touchscreen were used to display a tual development of the teaching practices that to encourage student’ interest to participate in the gual implementation of both the specialised train- text from the same genre (e.g. a Descriptive Re- had been demonstrated, in addition to diagrams project as part of their second-semester courses ing and the literacy support lessons provided as port) in English on one screen and in Spanish on conveying the theoretical fundamentals of the R2L (February to May). The interim achievements in- the project’s main action focus constituted an es- the other. To guide the students in checking their approach, as visual expressions of the notions that cluded a total of around 125 literacy support les- pecially innovative aspect. It also required a series analyses, in turn, the two session instructors spoke had to be interiorised. son hours provided across the two languages at of decisions about how to most effectively deliver and worked on the text in their own language, ex- the two participating schools. In the texts that they the training to the student teachers, including plaining the analysis developed with the projec- 4.4. Digital communication in the action stage had produced during the lessons, the primary which digital communication tools were most ap- tion of both texts on view. This enabled the partici- Upon completion of the training sessions, stu- pupils had shown enthusiasm and joy at the in- propriate. The complexity of the learning that was pants to use the view of both texts and languages dents were organised into groups and a schedule volvement of the student teachers in supporting proposed for the short period of time in which the to deepen their understanding of the genres of the for their interventions was established. Since they their learning, in classroom environments where university students had to acquire the knowledge primary school curriculum and the texts that chil- were grouped in different classes, each having dis- they were able to receive individualised attention and skills required for use in providing literacy dren use in those genres across the primary years, tinct timetables, while their school interventions and help. support at the schools required thoughtful design in their first and second languages. had to take place within the children’s language As part of the midway project data collection of the training. The professors needed all the tech- The practical tasks assigned in the seminar con- lesson times, this process required intense coordi- tasks, questionnaires were circulated among the nological resources within their reach so as to sisted of the following. nation efforts. Again, the use of digital tools, participating university students and the schools’ make it possible to have the students ready and 1. Reading and analysing (identifying the genre namely from the Google educational suite, was teaching staff involved, in January, 2019. These ensure the intervention would be effective for the and textual structure) a selection of text fragments, also very helpful for this process. Timetables were were created and distributed using Google Forms, schoolchildren with whom it would be carried out. extracted by the teacher trainers from actual learn- displayed in a collaboratively-edited document allowing for immediate feedback and the creation Thus, the preparation of the training course in- ing materials (mainly textbooks from Spanish affili- into which the students entered their availability of spreadsheet databases with the responses. Final- volved designing a number of presentations. The ates of international publishers, such as Oxford and were thereby assigned to specific groups of ly, the student teams who had agreed to continue professors chose PowerPoint (PPT) as the readily University Press or Cambridge University Press, or primary school pupils. with the SL began the second semester interven- accessible, familiar software for creating the pre- Spanish publishers, including S.M. or Santillana), In the first sessions, student teachers developed tion, but after two classroom sessions, the project sentations. In the PPTs, the students were shown so that the student teachers would become as fa- a task to identify the learners’ needs and the suit- ended abruptly as Spain entered full lockdown in the essential information about the theoretical ba- miliar as possible with the literacy demands the ability of the previously prepared lesson plans. February of 2019 and all educational institutions sis of the R2L approach, and practical tasks were children face at school at the different levels of pri- When required, tasks were adapted to the learners’ were forced to suddenly transition to online dis- represented. The training sessions comprised main- mary education. L1 or L2 level, under the guidance of the teacher tance learning formats. ly whole-group lectures that combined short prac- 2. Using an analysis of one of the aforemen- trainers, based on exchange of documents through tical exercises completed by pairs or small groups tioned fragments, in which the genre and its stages Google Classroom. After these first sessions at the 5. DEVELOPING TRAINEE TEACHERS’ PROFES- of students. had been identified, pinpointing some of its lan- schools, a final university training session was SIONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE DIGITAL AGE guage features to establish as learning objectives held, which included time for focus group inter- Thus far, it has been seen how the design and 4.3. Integration of digital communication in for the primary pupils who would study the text. views with the professors. These interviews were implementation of the SL project described herein training for literacy instruction 3. Searching for a new text that would be ade- recorded, in agreement with the students, using integrated a range of digital technologies to sup- In order to work with the two project languages quate for the participating pupils, identifying its the professors’ and/or students’ own smartphones; port communication that made this project possi- during these sessions, at certain points a tandem genre based on the R2L proposal for genre classifi- the audios were stored online and transcribed later ble. As teacher educators, the university professors structure was applied so that the analysis of a text cation, and structure (the stages and phases of the by project assistants using Audacity (2021) audio attempted to engage their students in practices in one language could be immediately contrasted text). software. The resulting data ensured learning pro- which they may eventually design and implement

62 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 63 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-57-67 Developing pre-service teachers’ digital communication and competences through service learning for bilingual literacy Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 57-67 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Aoife Ahern and Beatriz López-Medina themselves, as professionals. In the project, this well as presenting themselves and projecting an In the use of the technologies for digital com- Communication. Ability to communicate, col- engagement can be seen as multi-layered. The stu- appropriate image as capable literacy support in- munication, summed up in Table 1, it was mainly laborate, interact with and participate in virtual dents learned in an explicit way about how to structors in the professional context of providing a the teacher trainers/professors who designed and teams and networks as well as make use of appro- teach literacy following a specific, systematic R2L relevant service to the school communities. created the resources using these communicative priate media, tone and behaviour. approach (Rose & Martin, 2012); in the process of In keeping with the concepts and framework of tools. The role of the students, on the other hand, Production. Ability to create, configure, and this learning, they were required to implement a the TPACK theoretical model, the teacher educa- was to learn the content for the literacy instruction edit digital content, solve digital problems and ex- range of digital technologies, as shown in the pre- tion activities put into practice throughout the approach, and to put it into practice using the digi- plore new ways to take advantage of technology. vious section. They also applied the knowledge of project were considered in terms of the knowledge tal media provided: at the training sessions, fol- Safety. Ability to use digital technology safely literacy instruction in the real-world context of pri- that had to be developed for the purposes estab- lowing the professors’ presentations, and checking and sustainably in relation to data, identity and mary school classrooms with at-risk pupils; in or- lished, the ways to represent that knowledge, and their own work against the analyses explained and work injuries and to pay attention to legal conse- der to do so, they were required to communicate the affordances of the technologies available to the illustrated with the onscreen projected texts; and quences, rights and duties. with the different collectives that participated, in- participants. A range of purposes were established during their own study time, completing the ques- ALFAPS involves a wide range of activities cluding the professors and the primary school staff over time, while for each purpose or goal the most tionnaires, lesson-planning templates, quizzes and (training, development of teaching units, evalua- members. Thus, the students faced challenges of appropriate communication technologies were ap- reflection worksheets provided, uploading them to tion of materials, etc.) combined with manage- various kinds, including learning the contents of plied. Table 1 reflects the range of communication the Google Classroom, accessing the feedback ment of different groups (students from three uni- the training seminar, applying it to developing tools put to use in connection with each stage and provided through the Classroom app or by way of versity classes, teachers from two schools, activi- teaching plans and implementing those plans, as the range of goals that were pursued. e-mail, searching for appropriate texts for teaching ties in small groups within eight primary school literacy to the intended age-groups, and working classes). This complex structure calls for appropri- Table 1 out the logistics of locating the schools and class- ate tools able to facilitate connection between Correspondence tool-stage-goal of the ALFAPS project rooms, attending the sessions at the correct times groups (Communication), and instruct students on and dates and conveying any difficulties or needs the steps to be followed (Information). In addition, TOOL STAGE GOAL to the teacher trainers by e-mail. it also calls for instruments capable of creating di- Pre-service teachers participating in the project dactic materials on bilingual literacy adapted to Infographic Preparation: dissemination of proposal to Provide an overview of the project so as to potential participants establish university-school collaboration have also covered the key areas of digital compe- different educational levels (Production), always tence, namely the following (Skov, 2016). preserving the children’s identity (Safety). The digi- Information. Ability to identify, locate, retrieve, tal tools and the areas covered are represented in Video Planning/preparation Recruit university students/volunteers to participate (student testimonial) store, organise and analyse digital information and Figure 2, and the overlapping between areas is evaluate relevance and purpose. shown when appropriate.

PowerPoint presentation Planning/preparation Convey project terms and development to potential participants; present the project, develop awareness

Split view monitoring using parallel texts in Action: face-to-face, specialised training Collaboratively guide student teachers in bi- Spanish and English sessions literacy instruction

Google Classroom and e-mail for trainee- Action: online training in bi- literacy Assign/submit training tasks, student planning professor correspondence, Google Docs for instruction and supervision by professors concept revision quiz

Templates Action: face-to-face and online training on Guide the students in the lessons teaching practices

Audio recordings Reﬂection: face-to-face sharing of Gather information on teaching practices information on the teaching process in focus groups

Google Forms questionnaires Reﬂection: evaluation Gather information on students’ pre-existing knowledge, motivation, feedback and engagement; teachers’ views on the process Figure 2. Digital tools and areas of digital competence in ALFAPS

64 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 65 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-57-67 Developing pre-service teachers’ digital communication and competences through service learning for bilingual literacy Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 57-67 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Aoife Ahern and Beatriz López-Medina themselves, as professionals. In the project, this well as presenting themselves and projecting an In the use of the technologies for digital com- Communication. Ability to communicate, col- engagement can be seen as multi-layered. The stu- appropriate image as capable literacy support in- munication, summed up in Table 1, it was mainly laborate, interact with and participate in virtual dents learned in an explicit way about how to structors in the professional context of providing a the teacher trainers/professors who designed and teams and networks as well as make use of appro- teach literacy following a specific, systematic R2L relevant service to the school communities. created the resources using these communicative priate media, tone and behaviour. approach (Rose & Martin, 2012); in the process of In keeping with the concepts and framework of tools. The role of the students, on the other hand, Production. Ability to create, configure, and this learning, they were required to implement a the TPACK theoretical model, the teacher educa- was to learn the content for the literacy instruction edit digital content, solve digital problems and ex- range of digital technologies, as shown in the pre- tion activities put into practice throughout the approach, and to put it into practice using the digi- plore new ways to take advantage of technology. vious section. They also applied the knowledge of project were considered in terms of the knowledge tal media provided: at the training sessions, fol- Safety. Ability to use digital technology safely literacy instruction in the real-world context of pri- that had to be developed for the purposes estab- lowing the professors’ presentations, and checking and sustainably in relation to data, identity and mary school classrooms with at-risk pupils; in or- lished, the ways to represent that knowledge, and their own work against the analyses explained and work injuries and to pay attention to legal conse- der to do so, they were required to communicate the affordances of the technologies available to the illustrated with the onscreen projected texts; and quences, rights and duties. with the different collectives that participated, in- participants. A range of purposes were established during their own study time, completing the ques- ALFAPS involves a wide range of activities cluding the professors and the primary school staff over time, while for each purpose or goal the most tionnaires, lesson-planning templates, quizzes and (training, development of teaching units, evalua- members. Thus, the students faced challenges of appropriate communication technologies were ap- reflection worksheets provided, uploading them to tion of materials, etc.) combined with manage- various kinds, including learning the contents of plied. Table 1 reflects the range of communication the Google Classroom, accessing the feedback ment of different groups (students from three uni- the training seminar, applying it to developing tools put to use in connection with each stage and provided through the Classroom app or by way of versity classes, teachers from two schools, activi- teaching plans and implementing those plans, as the range of goals that were pursued. e-mail, searching for appropriate texts for teaching ties in small groups within eight primary school literacy to the intended age-groups, and working classes). This complex structure calls for appropri- Table 1 out the logistics of locating the schools and class- ate tools able to facilitate connection between Correspondence tool-stage-goal of the ALFAPS project rooms, attending the sessions at the correct times groups (Communication), and instruct students on and dates and conveying any difficulties or needs the steps to be followed (Information). In addition, TOOL STAGE GOAL to the teacher trainers by e-mail. it also calls for instruments capable of creating di- Pre-service teachers participating in the project dactic materials on bilingual literacy adapted to Infographic Preparation: dissemination of proposal to Provide an overview of the project so as to potential participants establish university-school collaboration have also covered the key areas of digital compe- different educational levels (Production), always tence, namely the following (Skov, 2016). preserving the children’s identity (Safety). The digi- Information. Ability to identify, locate, retrieve, tal tools and the areas covered are represented in Video Planning/preparation Recruit university students/volunteers to participate (student testimonial) store, organise and analyse digital information and Figure 2, and the overlapping between areas is evaluate relevance and purpose. shown when appropriate.

PowerPoint presentation Planning/preparation Convey project terms and development to potential participants; present the project, develop awareness

Split view monitoring using parallel texts in Action: face-to-face, specialised training Collaboratively guide student teachers in bi- Spanish and English sessions literacy instruction

Templates Action: face-to-face and online training on Guide the students in the lessons teaching practices

Audio recordings Reﬂection: face-to-face sharing of Gather information on teaching practices information on the teaching process in focus groups

6. DISCUSSION expressed later how frustrated they had felt wast- ceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences, 18, gogical content knowledge: A new framework for Throughout the implementation of the project, ing time in preparing and travelling to the schools 1-11. doi: 10.15405/epsbs.2016.12.1 teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, the students met with difficulties, evidencing the only to discover the cancellations. This also affect- Cuhadar, C. (2018). Investigation of pre-service 108(6), 1017-1054. learning process by which they came to eventual ed their perceptions (as shown by the follow-up teachers’ levels of readiness to technology inte- Ottestad, G., Kelentrić, M., & Kelentrić, G. B. (2014). success in communicating the various messages to questionnaires) of the project organisation, as they gration in education. Contemporary Educational Professional digital competence in teacher edu- Technology, 9(1), 61-75. the diverse addressees with whom they were re- felt the miscommunication showed the coordina- cation. Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy, 9(4), Crisol-Moya, E., Romero-López, M. A., & Caurcel-Cara, 243-249. quired to interact. A few of the difficulties the stu- tors’ neglectful attitudes or lack of preparation. M. J. (2020). Active methodologies in higher edu- Peric, J. (2012). Development of universities’ social re- dents encountered included the following. cation: Perception and opinion as evaluated by sponsibility through academic service-learning 7. CONCLUSION 1. Using templates for planning. In some cases, professors and their students in the teaching- programs. Economy of Eastern Croatia Yesterday, students misunderstood information provided on This study analyses the suitability of different learning process. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, art. Today, Tomorrow, 1, 365-375. the literacy lesson planning template documents digital tools to carry out a Service Learning project 1703. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01703 Rose, D., & Acevedo, C. (2017). Aprender a escribir, with which they needed to practise applying learn- in the area of bilingual literacy. A description of Easelly. (2021). Our mission. Retrieved from https:// Leer para aprender. Lenguaje y Textos, 46, 7-18. ing of the R2L approach. the goals linked to each tool and the embedding easel.ly/aboutus doi: 10.4995/lyt.2017.8688 2. Accessing Google Classroom, participating in into each stage of the process show the potential Gabarda Méndez, V., Marín Suelves, D., & Romero Ro- Rose, D., & Martin, J. R. (2012). Learning to Write, collectively-edited forms or documents. This re- of combining different tools to facilitate the run- drigo, M. de las M. (2020). Digital competence Reading to Learn: Genre, knowledge and peda- quired signing out of all other e-mail accounts ex- ning of the activities. Upon completion of the pro- in initial teacher training. Perception of the stu- gogy in the Sydney School. London: Equinox. cept the university one. Some students found it dif- ject, the most substantial difficulties encountered dents of teaching of the University of Valencia. Rose, D. & Martin, J. R. (2013). Intervening in contexts ficult, leading to delays in engaging in the different by the students were unrelated to the use of tech- ENSAYOS. Revista De La Facultad De Educación of schooling. In J. Flowerdew (Ed.), Discourse in De Albacete, 35(2), 1-16. communication or learning activities. nologies for professional communication; rather, context: Contemporary applied linguistics (pp. Hřebačková, M. (2019). Teaching intercultural commu- 3. Taking initiative to convey needs for guid- they pertained to some of the obstacles they face 447-475). London, UK: Continuum. nicative competence through virtual exchange. Rosenstein, A., Sweeney, C., & Gupta, R. (2012). Cross- ance. Despite the trainers’ reiterated invitations to in communication overall, whether in the context Training, Language and Culture, 3(4), 8-17. doi: disciplinary faculty perspectives on experiential do so, few of the participants who worked together of their studies or in a professional one. Mainly, 10.29366/2019tlc.3.4.1 learning. Contemporary Issues in Educational Re- these difficulties can be summed up as omitting in small groups requested tutorial sessions to re- Luckmann, C. (1996). Defining experiential education. search, 5(3), 139-144. view the lesson plans that they had drafted. Their communication when needed, or lack of initiative Journal of Experiential Education, 19(1), 6-7. Salam, M., Awang Iskandar, D. N., Ibrahim, D. H. A., & perceptions of having lacked sufficient supervision in conveying important needs or information with- Lubovsky, D. V. (2020). Selection of educational routes Farooq, M. S. (2019). Service learning in higher in this respect were identified at the end of the first in the development of either learning, in the edu- by high school and college graduates: A positive education: A systematic literature review. Asia action cycle of the school intervention, by means cational setting, or providing services in a more psychology approach. RUDN Journal of Psychol- Pacific Education Review, 20, 573-593. of a survey exploring their experiences up to then professional situation. In addition, the digital tools ogy and Pedagogics, 17(4), 656-670. doi: Skov, A. (2016, March). What is digital competence? and their satisfaction with the project. In the sur- promote the development of all areas making up 10.22363/2313-1683-2020-17-4-656-670 Retrieved from https://digital-competence.eu/ vey, numerous students mentioned having felt they the digital competence. The overall result in rela- Magdaléna, B., & Ivanova, S. V. (2020). Language, cul- front/what-is-digital-competence needed more help from the teacher trainers, in tion to the integration of digital communication ture and ideology in discursive practices. Russian Yehuda, P. (2020). Pre-service teacher’s self-perception contrast with the low numbers of students who had into the project shows a very positive balance in Journal of Linguistics, 24(2), 219-252. doi: of digital literacy: The case of Israel. Education 10.22363/2687-0088-2020-24-2-219-252 requested tutorials or guidance. our view. The communication tools employed and Information Technologies, 1-17. Melash, V., Molodychenko, V., Huz, V., Varenychenko, Wurdinger, S., & Allison, P. (2017). Faculty perceptions 4. Communication breakdowns among the pro- tended to serve their intended purpose successful- A., & Kirsanova, S. (2020). Modernization of ed- and use of experiential learning in higher educa- ject stakeholders. At a couple of points, the partici- ly, quickly and effectively, and in addition, provid- ucation programs and formation of digital com- tion. Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge Soci- ed the student teachers with worthwhile examples pating schools failed to convey the cancellation of petences of future primary school teachers. In- ety, 13(1), 27-38. doi: 10.20368/1971-8829/150 class sessions, which led to students attending the and models of how to implement the wide range ternational Journal of Higher Education, 9(7), Wurdinger, S. D., & Carlson, J. A. (2009). Teaching for schools without being able to do the interventions. of technologies available depending on the imme- 377-386. doi: 10.5430/ijhe.v9n7p377 experiential learning: Five approaches that work. The effect on the students was problematic, as they diate purposes and goals at hand. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological peda- Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.

References AUTHOR INFORMATION: AOIFE AHERN Amhag, L., Hellström, L., & Stigmar, M. (2019). Teacher Audacity. (2021). Audacity latest version: 2.4.2. Re- Complutense University of Madrid | C/Rector Royo Villanova, 1, 28040 Madrid, Spain educators’ use of digital tools and needs for digi- trieved from https://audacityteam.org/download [email protected] tal competence in higher education. Journal of Copaci, I. A., & Rusu, A. S. (2016). Trends in higher ed- AUTHOR INFORMATION: BEATRIZ LÓPEZ-MEDINA Digital Learning in Teacher Education, 35(4), ucation service-learning courses for pre-service Complutense University of Madrid | C/Rector Royo Villanova, 1, 28040 Madrid, Spain 203-220. doi: 10.1080/21532974.2019.1646169 teachers: A systematic review. The European Pro- [email protected]

66 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 67 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-57-67 Developing pre-service teachers’ digital communication and competences through service learning for bilingual literacy Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 57-67 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Aoife Ahern and Beatriz López-Medina

66 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 67 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer

ty members apparently noted a lower quality of time of crisis into context. The article provides new online as opposed to face-to-face teaching and insight in pre-service teachers’ perceptions of 24% even believed there to be a dramatic break- teaching and learning foreign languages online Original Research down in quality, 24% were convinced that teach- and debates implications for further research and ing within university contexts did not lose much of professional development. its quality and 11% stated ‘the quality of the teach- Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: ing has even improved under corona condi- 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND tions’ (Sommer, 2020, p. 666). While calls for a re- 2.1. Policy Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence turn to established face-to-face teaching method- With three different institutions involved in or- ologies are valid, the lockdown was a motor for in- ganising didactic internships, practical teacher development of future foreign language teachers novation fuelled by previously unthinkable train- training modules in German university-based by Sandra Stadler-Heer ing formats in teacher and school student educa- teacher training are particularly complex to organ- tion. ise. Each institution, the Ministry of Education, the Sandra Stadler-Heer Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany [email protected] This article considers changes in policy made in university and connected schools, are operating in Article history Received December 14, 2020 | Revised February 1, 2021 | Accepted March 10, 2021 reaction to the Covid-19 pandemic in the area of their unique context: a) the Ministry of Education’s Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest didactic internships, resulting preparatory require- legally binding regulations organise teacher edu- Research funding No funding was reported for this research ments in the area of university-based remote for- cation on a federal, the policy level; b) universities doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 eign language teacher training and consequences in the federal states organise and operate on the For citation Stadler-Heer, S. (2021). Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation teacher training level; c) schools are the locations and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers. Training, Language and Culture, for teacher professionalisation and competence 5(1), 68-85. development. Self-reported measures of a pilot where university students get their first guided study asking pre-service foreign language teachers teaching experience on a practical level. This article considers the policies, preparations and perceptions of competence development of pre-service foreign lan- to reflect on their competence development in Teacher training in the federal state of Bavaria, guage teachers within the context of an innovative remote teacher training module. Responding to a recent call for tri- teaching primary and secondary school students as in the other 16 German federal states, is organ- angulated research on teacher professional competences and to curricular changes resulting from the turn of German during school lockdown from April to June 2020 ised by federal regulations of teacher examination universities to online teaching in summer term 2020, a Developmental Model of Teacher Professional Competence and the return to hybrid teaching models in July issued by the respective federal ministries of edu- (DevTPC) is proposed that can serve as basis for operationalising required context- and content-specific teacher com- 2020 are presented as a vantage point for further cation. On April 21st, 2020, the Bavarian Ministry petences. The article’s aim is to establish the theoretical background of the DevTPC and report on first promising re- research on specific teaching topics in the area of of Education released revised instructions regard- sults of a pilot study (n=39) asking pre-service foreign language teachers about their perceived competence develop- foreign language education. The aim of the paper ing the didactic internship which students comment in remote foreign language teaching between April and July 2020. By focussing on the perceived development of is to call for further research in remote (foreign plete in their fourth to seventh semesters. In this technological pedagogical content knowledge in the area of foreign language instruction, the results of the pilot study language) teacher training along the lines of the undergraduate module, university-based teacher contextualise the potential of remote teaching contexts to transform foreign language teacher training and (foreign) lan- Developmental Model of Teacher Professional training is directly linked with teaching practice, guage education in the years to come. The article ends with a series of questions and recommendations for further re- Competence (DevTPC). The DevTPC responds to as a small number of pre-service teachers are allo- search to promote innovation in remote foreign language teacher training. curricular changes in remote teacher training and cated to a specific school and in-service teacher KEYWORDS: remote training, foreign language teacher training, developmental model, professional competence, pre- a recent call for more complex models of teacher respectively who guides the group in their initial service, technological pedagogical content knowledge, TPCK, Covid-19 professionalisation which could serve as a basis for steps of planning and conducting lessons. The in- unbiased research due to triangulation (cf. Schmid ternship is offered in combination with mandatory

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits et al., 2020). The DevTPC combines two empiri- university-based seminars in the respective teach- unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material cally validated models, the COACTIV (Baumert & ing subjects, in our case English. Prior to the pan- for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0) Kunter, 2011) and the TPACK-model (Koehler & demic, the lecturer of the seminar would visit each Mishra, 2008; Schmid et al., 2020) of professional school in person and observe each pre-service 1. INTRODUCTION teacher competences and adds a temporal and sit- teacher conducting an English lesson twice over A survey asking German humanities faculty negative as expected at the beginning of the se- uational dimension by integrating the notion of the the course of the semester in order to monitor members to draw first conclusions of the ‘Corona- mester’ calling the move ‘a legitimate emergency competence continuum (Blömeke et al., 2015). A competence development live and in action. Semester’ and its accompanying move to fully on- solution […] albeit with a relinquishment of essen- pilot study asking pre-service teachers to reflect on The revised regulations issued by the federal line teaching at universities and schools from April tial quality features of the humanities teaching cul- their content-specific competence development Ministry of Education, i.e. a reduction to one live to June 2020 found that responses were ‘not as ture’ (Sommer, 2020, p. 667). While 40% of facul- puts their learning and teaching experiences in a or online visit and the integration of team teach-

© Sandra Stadler-Heer 2021 68 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 69 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer ing, effectively reducing the teaching time of a pre- service teacher in one lesson to ten to twenty min- ‘With three different institutions involved utes, lead to a substantial revision of previously es- in organising didactic internships, tablished assessment practices of future teachers of practical teacher training modules in foreign languages during their practicum. Instead of up to three live lessons, the coordinators of the German university-based teacher training subject of English proposed that pre-service teach- are particularly complex to organise’ ers now had to plan, conduct and evaluate one twenty-minute asynchronous self-study unit for vice teachers of English as a Second/Foreign Lan- their allocated secondary or primary school class- guage during the first lockdown period of the es and one twenty-minute remote live teaching Covid-19 pandemic, they are, to the best judge- session via a videoconferencing tool. The prepara- ment of the author, transferrable to other education of self-study materials was included to cater to tional contexts and locations who have to or want those school children’s needs who were in lock- to implement remote teacher training and lan- down or quarantine and thus could not participate guage learning. In order to implement local direc- Figure 1. Modelling competence as a continuum (Blömeke et al., 2015, p. 7) in online lessons. Responding to the proposition of tives issued by the Bavarian Ministry of Education team teaching, self-study materials and face-to- and provide pre-service teachers with the neces- cal knowledge is both still under-researched and face online lessons were planned, prepared, con- sary technical, methodological and pedagogical ‘In an unprecedented fully online learning not yet fully integrated into German teacher train- ducted and evaluated by pre-service teachers in content knowledge for planning, conducting and context, Baumert and Kunter’s (2011) ing and professional development. So far, profes- teams instead of by themselves. Both formats, self- evaluating the newly introduced teaching formats, model however does not fully represent sional knowledge required by teachers was mostly study units and digital live distance teaching are remote live distance teaching and preparation of conceptualised alongside, for example, Baumert considered particularly fruitful formats for foreign self-study materials, the following preparatory the remote teaching context that obviously and Kunter’s (2011) acclaimed and empirically val- language teacher training as these develop pre-ser- steps were undertaken. requires technological knowledge’ idated COACTIV model of teacher professional vice teachers’ digital competences (Redecker & competence which established teachers’ profes- Punie, 2017) and train their competence to inno- 2.2.1. Revaluating professional competences Blömeke’s (2015) model is particularly interest- sional knowledge by focusing on facets of content vate (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2004). for online (foreign language) teaching ing in a context and time in which competence knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, peda- While the directives of the Bavarian Ministry of In fully online learning contexts, a revaluation and knowledge domains, such as the digital com- gogical/psychological knowledge, organisational Education lead to new assessment practices, the of professional competences (future) teachers need petences of educators (Redecker & Punie, 2017) knowledge and counselling knowledge (Figure 2). high quality of teacher training was to be main- for online language training becomes necessary. or, more specifically, technological pedagogical Such a model recognises the possible interaction tained. However, as the German Standards of While the following conceptualisations were un- content knowledge (Koehler & Mishra, 2008) that between individual prerequisites and knowledge Teacher Training of Foreign Language Teachers dertaken with the intention of training foreign lan- have previously mostly been perceived of as add- acquisition as well as a more extensive connection (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2008, p. 44) contain guage teachers online within the context of a ons or extracurricular are unexpectedly at the cen- and hierarchical organisation of knowledge do- only general guidelines on digital competence de- Bavarian university, the background of the follow- tre of interest despite a lack of research into the mains with growing expertise (Baumert et al., velopment, the established course curriculum had ing models, all originating in neighbouring disci- content-specific competence facets of individual 2011, p. 15). to be updated to train technological pedagogical plines (cf. Blömeke et al., 2015; Koehler & Mishra, subjects and teaching topics. In unforeseen and In an unprecedented fully online learning con- content knowledge (Koehler & Mishra, 2008) and 2008; Baumert & Kunter, 2011), makes the pro- ‘emergency’ circumstances, dispositional aspects text, Baumert and Kunter’s (2011) model however guide students to develop innovative online learn- posed model for developing teachers’ professional such as cognition, affect and motivation play a does not fully represent the remote teaching con- ing designs for teaching and learning foreign lan- competences in remote foreign language teaching major role in how a situation is perceived and in- text that obviously requires technological knowl- guages remotely. applicable to further teacher training contexts as terpreted, which decisions are made, and which edge. Such aspects of teaching with technology are well. actions are subsequently performed for others to at the centre of Koehler and Mishra’s (2008) TPACK 2.2. Preparations Following the example of Krauss et al. (2017) observe. model which describes technological pedagogical Although the following preparatory measures and the modelling of competence as a continuum, As only 23% of German teachers had used digi- content knowledge (TPCK) as evolving from were undertaken in a specific context under spe- a thinking of knowledge processes alongside not tal technologies in their teaching on a daily basis knowledge of technologies (TK), pedagogy (PK) cific circumstances, i.e. in the federal state of apart from performance processes (Blömeke et al., up until 2018 (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichter- and content (CK) and related pedagogical content Bavaria at the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingol- 2015, p. 7) was taken as vantage point for concep- stattung, 2020, p. 285), it is not unjustified to as- (PCK), technological pedagogical (TPK) and tech- stadt with 14 in-service teachers and 39 pre-ser- tualising remote teacher training (Figure 1). sume that the teaching of technological pedagogi- nological content (TCK) knowledge (Figure 3).

70 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 71 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer ing, effectively reducing the teaching time of a pre- service teacher in one lesson to ten to twenty min- ‘With three different institutions involved utes, lead to a substantial revision of previously es- in organising didactic internships, tablished assessment practices of future teachers of practical teacher training modules in foreign languages during their practicum. Instead of up to three live lessons, the coordinators of the German university-based teacher training subject of English proposed that pre-service teach- are particularly complex to organise’ ers now had to plan, conduct and evaluate one twenty-minute asynchronous self-study unit for vice teachers of English as a Second/Foreign Lan- their allocated secondary or primary school class- guage during the first lockdown period of the es and one twenty-minute remote live teaching Covid-19 pandemic, they are, to the best judge- session via a videoconferencing tool. The prepara- ment of the author, transferrable to other education of self-study materials was included to cater to tional contexts and locations who have to or want those school children’s needs who were in lock- to implement remote teacher training and lan- down or quarantine and thus could not participate guage learning. In order to implement local direc- Figure 1. Modelling competence as a continuum (Blömeke et al., 2015, p. 7) in online lessons. Responding to the proposition of tives issued by the Bavarian Ministry of Education team teaching, self-study materials and face-to- and provide pre-service teachers with the neces- cal knowledge is both still under-researched and face online lessons were planned, prepared, con- sary technical, methodological and pedagogical ‘In an unprecedented fully online learning not yet fully integrated into German teacher train- ducted and evaluated by pre-service teachers in content knowledge for planning, conducting and context, Baumert and Kunter’s (2011) ing and professional development. So far, profes- teams instead of by themselves. Both formats, self- evaluating the newly introduced teaching formats, model however does not fully represent sional knowledge required by teachers was mostly study units and digital live distance teaching are remote live distance teaching and preparation of conceptualised alongside, for example, Baumert considered particularly fruitful formats for foreign self-study materials, the following preparatory the remote teaching context that obviously and Kunter’s (2011) acclaimed and empirically val- language teacher training as these develop pre-ser- steps were undertaken. requires technological knowledge’ idated COACTIV model of teacher professional vice teachers’ digital competences (Redecker & competence which established teachers’ profes- Punie, 2017) and train their competence to inno- 2.2.1. Revaluating professional competences Blömeke’s (2015) model is particularly interest- sional knowledge by focusing on facets of content vate (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2004). for online (foreign language) teaching ing in a context and time in which competence knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, peda- While the directives of the Bavarian Ministry of In fully online learning contexts, a revaluation and knowledge domains, such as the digital com- gogical/psychological knowledge, organisational Education lead to new assessment practices, the of professional competences (future) teachers need petences of educators (Redecker & Punie, 2017) knowledge and counselling knowledge (Figure 2). high quality of teacher training was to be main- for online language training becomes necessary. or, more specifically, technological pedagogical Such a model recognises the possible interaction tained. However, as the German Standards of While the following conceptualisations were un- content knowledge (Koehler & Mishra, 2008) that between individual prerequisites and knowledge Teacher Training of Foreign Language Teachers dertaken with the intention of training foreign lan- have previously mostly been perceived of as add- acquisition as well as a more extensive connection (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2008, p. 44) contain guage teachers online within the context of a ons or extracurricular are unexpectedly at the cen- and hierarchical organisation of knowledge do- only general guidelines on digital competence de- Bavarian university, the background of the follow- tre of interest despite a lack of research into the mains with growing expertise (Baumert et al., velopment, the established course curriculum had ing models, all originating in neighbouring disci- content-specific competence facets of individual 2011, p. 15). to be updated to train technological pedagogical plines (cf. Blömeke et al., 2015; Koehler & Mishra, subjects and teaching topics. In unforeseen and In an unprecedented fully online learning con- content knowledge (Koehler & Mishra, 2008) and 2008; Baumert & Kunter, 2011), makes the pro- ‘emergency’ circumstances, dispositional aspects text, Baumert and Kunter’s (2011) model however guide students to develop innovative online learn- posed model for developing teachers’ professional such as cognition, affect and motivation play a does not fully represent the remote teaching con- ing designs for teaching and learning foreign lan- competences in remote foreign language teaching major role in how a situation is perceived and in- text that obviously requires technological knowl- guages remotely. applicable to further teacher training contexts as terpreted, which decisions are made, and which edge. Such aspects of teaching with technology are well. actions are subsequently performed for others to at the centre of Koehler and Mishra’s (2008) TPACK 2.2. Preparations Following the example of Krauss et al. (2017) observe. model which describes technological pedagogical Although the following preparatory measures and the modelling of competence as a continuum, As only 23% of German teachers had used digi- content knowledge (TPCK) as evolving from were undertaken in a specific context under spe- a thinking of knowledge processes alongside not tal technologies in their teaching on a daily basis knowledge of technologies (TK), pedagogy (PK) cific circumstances, i.e. in the federal state of apart from performance processes (Blömeke et al., up until 2018 (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichter- and content (CK) and related pedagogical content Bavaria at the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingol- 2015, p. 7) was taken as vantage point for concep- stattung, 2020, p. 285), it is not unjustified to as- (PCK), technological pedagogical (TPK) and tech- stadt with 14 in-service teachers and 39 pre-ser- tualising remote teacher training (Figure 1). sume that the teaching of technological pedagogi- nological content (TCK) knowledge (Figure 3).

Mishra and Koehler (2006) provide the follow- (e.g. beliefs, self-efficacy)’ (Schmid et al., 2020, p. ing general facets for TPCK, the central knowledge 2). However, relevant related constructs such as domain for remote (language) teachers: (1) under- beliefs is a limitation of Koehler and Mishra’s standing the representation of concepts using tech- (2008) TPACK model, which does not integrate nologies; (2) knowing pedagogical techniques that ‘motivational orientations’, ‘beliefs/values/goals’ use technologies in constructive ways to teach and ‘self-regulation’ as for instance Baumert and content; (3) knowledge of what makes concepts Kunter’s (2011) model does. In the area of assess- difficult or easy to learn and how technology can ment literacy of pre-service teachers, Campbell help redress some of the problems that students and Evans (2000) came to the conclusion that find- face; (4) knowledge of students’ prior knowledge ing a lack of knowledge of assessment practices is and theories of epistemology; (5) knowledge of not the answer to inconsistent pre-service teach- how technologies can be used to build on existing ers’ assessment decisions and recommended look- knowledge and to develop new epistemologies or ing at ‘attitudes concerning the perceived legitima- strengthen old ones (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p. cy or usefulness of adhering to measurement prin- 1029). These general facets are to be understood ciples’ (Campbell & Evans, 2000, p. 354). Similar- as a vantage point for the development of further ly, the impact of teachers’ perceptions as opposed subject-specific instruments to assess TPCK. The to their knowledge of the value of technologies in need for more subject-specific research on TPCK the classroom should not be underestimated. also ‘in relation to specific teaching topics’ was Hence, for the purpose of introducing pre-service most recently called for by Schmid et al. (2020, p. teachers to online live distance teaching during 10). Their TPACK.xs short assessment instrument their internship the following combined model of Figure 2. The COACTIV model of professional competence, with the aspect of professional can help ‘asses TPACK in various contexts as well teacher professional competence is proposed (Fig- knowledge specified for the context of teaching (Baumert & Kunter, 2011, p. 29) as in combination with other relevant constructs ure 4).

Figure 3. TPACK conceptual model and deﬁnitions according to Koehler and Mishra (2008) as Figure 4. Combined Model of Teacher Professional Competence (CombTPC) integrating Baumert displayed in Schmid et al. (2020) and Kunter’s (2011) and Koehler and Mishra’s (2008) TPACK model

72 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 73 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer

While Baumert and Kunter’s (2011) aspects of example, ‘triangulating self-declarations with other professional competence are maintained in full in measures of TPACK such as lesson observations or the new model, the knowledge domains of profes- performance assessments’ (Schmid et al., 2020, p. sional knowledge are adapted to the remote teach- 10). Responding to these recent calls, the following context by integrating technological knowl- ing Developmental Model of Teacher Professional edge and its combinatory effects on pedagogical Competence (DevTPC) (Figure 5) is proposed with and content knowledge as visualised in Koehler the intention to make situational responses and and Mishra’s (2008) model. Baumert and Kunter’s performance apparent, which are a central aspect (2011) organisational knowledge, which means of university-based teacher training and a special e.g. knowing about students, parents and teachers’ focus of didactic internships and the related devel- rights, qualitative and efficient school leadership opment of different competence domains. as well as governance and transparency and coun- The proposed developmental model of profes- selling knowledge, which encompasses teachers sional teacher competence can be used as a counselling students and parents regarding learn- framework to empirically validate triangulated ap- ing difficulties, behavioural and psychological is- proaches looking at self-declarations, lesson obser- sues, were also maintained and included within vations or performance assessments and techno- the striped line circle representing the context as logical pedagogical content knowledge in relation these turned out highly relevant also in online to specific teaching topics, as suggested by Schmid learning contexts. et al. (2020). Lastly, when conceiving the development of In the area of foreign language teacher educa- professional competences as a continuum (Blöme- tion, ‘specific teaching topics’ become relevant in ke et al., 2015), the acquired level of professional specific teaching situations. These topics are close- competence of pre- and in-service teachers within ly linked to the German standards of foreign lan- a specific context, most likely affects their situa- guage education, i.e. the training of communica- Figure 5. Development Model of Teacher Professional Competence (DevTPC) combining Blömeke tion-specific skills of perceiving, interpreting and tive competences, text and media competences, et al. (2015), Koehler and Mishra (2008), and Baumert and Kunter (2011) deciding on lesson content and teaching method- methodological competences and intercultural ologies and thus how they actually perform a les- competences (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2004). For- In digital teaching environments, the ‘specific teaching topics can only be generated and dis- son. Regarding the teaching of foreign languages, eign language teachers need to know how to work teaching topics’ of foreign language teaching re- cussed after technological knowledge is estab- a pre-service teacher’s repertoire for fostering with authentic texts, build up vocabulary knowl- main the same. What differs – and is currently the lished. speaking in the classroom might not be as elabo- edge, listening and audio-visual competences, greatest challenge – is how these specific teaching In the context of didactic internships and con- rate as that of an experienced teacher, for exam- promote transactional and interactional language topics can be taught online. The answer appears to nected mandatory university-based seminars, the ple. Still, a pre-service teacher’s enthusiasm in production, support reading and writing processes lie with the professional competence of foreign Development Model of Teacher Professional Com- teaching writing skills with extensive teaching ma- and strategies of comprehension, teach linguistic language teachers and most prominently so in the petence (DevTPC) was introduced as a framework terials might lead to similar student learning results structures, orthography, intonation and pronuncia- area of technological pedagogical content knowl- of reference in the opening and closing sessions of than an experienced teacher’ explanations backed tion, train intercultural competence, mediation, edge, more specifically knowledge about subject- seminars for pre-service teachers and in profes- with minimal resources. Drawing on Baumert and text and media skills as well as methodological specific webtools that can help foster intercultural sional development sessions for in-service teach- Kunter’s (2011) model, Krauss et al. (2017) were competences (Maley, 2018). communicative competence. These differ accord- ers. The model facilitated the conceptualisation of able to show more generally, how content-peda- Moreover, foreign language teachers need to be ing to competence facet, i.e. different webtools are required digital teaching competences pre- and in- gogical knowledge, beliefs and enthusiasm affect- competent in (explaining the) structuring (of) for- used to encourage speaking skills (e.g. use of service teachers had to develop in order to teach ed students learning with content-pedagogical eign language learning processes, have narrative recorded audio messages and messenger services the foreign language asynchronously, synchronous- knowledge being the strongest and most influential and explanatory skills, and know how to initiate or live, face-to-face videoconferencing tools) than ly and in blended learning settings. In addition, predictor (Krauss et al., 2017, p. 22-23). Such con- social interaction in the classroom through ade- for encouraging writing skills (e.g. use of collabo- competence levels helped pre-service teachers to ceptualisations can serve as a basis for longitudi- quate classroom phrases. Tests assessing domain- rative writing tools) or training reading compre- conceptualise their individual levels of compe- nal studies in the emerging field of remote online specific knowledge of foreign language teachers hension (e.g. use of game-based tools that help tence development in relation to each teaching teacher training, investigating competence devel- teaching in offline settings already exist (e.g. Kirch- with creating quizzes). Significantly, technological topic. The levels range from newcomers (A1), ex- opment in situation-specific skills over time by, for hoff, 2017). pedagogical content knowledge about specific plorer (A2), integrator (B1), experts (B2), leaders

74 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 75 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer

(C1) to pioneers (C2) (Redecker & Punie, 2017). federal state of Bavaria. The university used Zoom tal live distance teaching could be stored. At the rion-referenced peer-reflection of a prepared self- When developing a measure for self-reported and Ilias, a Moodle-based LMS organised by the end of term all 39 students had been able to meet study unit or lesson plan of a digital live distance competence development, these competence lev- university itself. the requirement and complete their internship. teaching unit. Thus, the asynchronous learning els were taken up in the end-of-term questionnaire 2. Do you have to pay attention to particular li- scenarios, i.e. self-study units, which the pre-ser- on self-ascribed competence gains of pre-service cencing and data protection requirements when 2.2.4. Deciding for teaching formats in remote vice teachers designed for their internship school teachers in the area of online English language using third party tools in your teaching? teacher training seminars students, were reviewed by and for pre-service teaching. As the core of teacher training is mediating the teachers in the accompanying university-based 2.2.3. Professional development of in-service two poles of theory and practice, digital learning seminars. Adaptive learning from ongoing experi- 2.2.2. Checking technical requirements and re- teachers involved in the didactic internship scenarios were previously not the mainstream fo- ences with the new technical media of teaching sources for teaching foreign languages online As already indicated, given the sudden transfer cus of training modules. From a teaching perspec- (e.g. videoconferencing software and tools) over Once a model for developing professional com- to fully online teaching, 14 in-service teachers su- tive, university-based teacher training modules, in- the course of the semester and constantly integrat- petences in the remote internship context was pervising pre-service teachers at schools were including the obligatory practice phases, faced a ing upcoming individual, conceptual and context- conceptualised, the following questions served as troduced to different videoconferencing tools and threefold challenge in the area of foreign language specific requirements characterised the weekly guidelines for establishing the technological pre- accompanying opportunities for teaching foreign teaching at the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingol- meetings with pre-service teachers in the seminar requisites for online foreign language teaching. languages with digitally informed methodologies stadt: context. The mix of synchronous and asyn- Again, these are transferable to other online teach- in several virtual meetings at the beginning of a) continuing pre-service teacher training in ex- chronous learning and teaching designs corre- ing contexts as they are adapted from competence term. In accordance with Area 1 (Professional En- clusively virtual environments; sponds to competence Area 3 (Teaching and Area 2 (Digital Recourses), Area 5 (Empowering gagement) of the DigCompEdu (Redecker & Punie, b) preparing pre-service teachers to teach pri- Learning) and Area 5 (Facilitating Learner’s Digital Learners), and specifically 5.1 (Accessibility and 2017), all professional communication was organ- mary/secondary school students live online and Competences) of the DigCompEdu (Redecker & Inclusion) of the Digital Competence Framework ised remotely via e-mail and videoconferencing through predesigned self-study materials; Punie, 2017) in a twofold way for pre-service and for Educators (DigCompEdu), which provides gen- tools. Opportunities for reflective practice were c) putting teaching and learning experiences in-service teachers as well as university lecturers eral but not subject-specific guidelines for teach- later included through digital live distance teach- into context through online peer reflection and simultaneously. ing and learning with digital resources (Redecker ing units conducted by interns which were ob- self-assessment. & Punie, 2017). All participating parties, primary/ served by in-service teachers and university lectur- Three university-based seminars accompanied 2.2.5. Preparing evaluative measures of remote secondary school students, in-service teachers, ers alike. Only in one instance was an in-service the didactic internship from different angles, one teacher training pre-service teachers and university lecturers, teacher willing to be observed while teaching on- for planning, conducting and evaluating English In order to document students’ perceptions of should ideally be asked the following questions. line at the beginning of term by pre-service teach- lessons at primary and middle school level, one their first remote teacher training seminar, two in- 1. Do you have/Can you be provided with a de- ers and a university lecturer before pre-service with the same content for teaching at secondary struments were used to evaluate the teaching inno- vice that is able to access the Internet (e.g. smart- teachers conducted their first lessons. This anecdo- school level, i.e. Realschule or Gymnasium, and vation. Firstly, the new format was assessed in the phone, tablet, desktop PC, etc.)? tally depicts the level of hesitation and insecurity one tackling current issues and topics in English context of the university-wide course evaluation. 2. Do you have/Can you be provided with ac- of some in-service teachers to teach with the help language teaching in practical terms which had to Secondly, an end-of-term survey was constructed cess to an Internet connection? of or exclusively through digital resources. Over be transformed into fully online courses. These asking pre-service teachers to self-assess their 3. Do you have/Can you be provided with a(n the course of the semester, the initial efforts in courses would normally have been taught for 90- competence development in the areas of teaching integrated) microphone and/or camera? Note: Ide- bringing together in-service teachers and university minutes per week at a fixed time and location. foreign languages online. ally, all are available, yet remote training is also trainers in virtual rooms via Zoom or BigBlueBut- In the remote training scenario, asynchronous possible without either. ton paid off. Individual struggles of teachers to put and synchronous training scenarios were com- 3. RESULTS OF COURSE EVALUATION AND For teachers/lecturers: the teaching innovations into practice resulted bined. Weekly synchronous meetings lasted for STUDY ON PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 1. Which videoconferencing tool and/or learn- from a lack of technological resources, in- only 45 minutes instead of 90 minutes and were 3.1. General observations ing management system (LMS) does your school/ frastructure or knowledge on their or their school always conducted on the same day and at the Based on Baumert and Kunter’s (2011) COAC- university provide and support? Note: In our case students’ part or from school leadership-issued re- same time. During these 45-minute live sessions TIV-model of professional competences, novice these differed, i.e. teachers/lecturers had to organ- strictions regarding the use of certain digital tools. pre-service teachers discussed results and ques- teacher cognition, German standards of foreign ise user accounts for the respective systems at the These issues could be sorted out one by one over tions arising during their allotted 45-minute self- language teaching (Kultusministerkonferenz, 2008) beginning of term as well as make sure of con- the course of the semester. In order to respond to study time with prepared materials. Self-study tasks and the DigCompEdu (Redecker & Punie, 2017), a forming to local data regulations. Schools used local data protection laws, a district media centre took the form of interactive introductions to a new survey tracing the development of digital and con- WebEx and BigBlueButton for videoconferencing had for example provided server space where ac- digitally informed teaching method, such as digital tent-specific competences in foreign language and Mebis, a Moodle-based LMS organised by the count information and data collected during digi- storytelling or gamification, or conducting a crite- teaching was constructed. In July 2020, the first

76 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 77 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer cohort completing the fully online didactic intern- structed, drawing on established sources for item tive presentations (25.55%), comprehension ques- serious games. The latter is a task format that es- ship was asked to reﬂect on their beliefs and per- development in three areas, namely content peda- tions (24.82%), quizzes (16.79%), collaborative sentially is more complex and requires a consider- ceived gains in knowledge about how to teach for- gogical knowledge (Kultusministerkonferenz, writing opportunities (16.06%) and, to a lesser ex- ably more extensive preparation in the teaching eign languages online. 2004; 2008), digital competences (Redecker & tent, more elaborate learning scenarios like digital and working methodology, thus being a format A total of 39 pre-service teachers (84% female) Punie, 2017) and team teaching. Three items were storytelling (7.3%), interactive videos (5.11%) or that was not quite suitable for emergency online with 87% aged between 18 to 23 and 13% aged adapted from the DigCompEdu self-evaluation test podcasts (4.38%). No student team worked with teaching. between 24 to 29 participated in the survey. 82% available freely online (DigCompEdu, 2021). The studied in their 1st to 4th semester, 18% between survey was conducted as an online survey using Table 2 their 5th and 8th semester. 17 pre-service teachers the Qualtrics tool. For the purpose of this article, Item 2: Which digital task formats have you already created yourself? (43.59%) had held up to three English lessons pri- only selected items from the ﬁrst two parts of the ACTIVITY % CHOICE COUNT or to the course, 20 participants (51.28%) had 4 to survey on content pedagogical knowledge and 10 hours of teaching experience and 2 (5.13%) digital competences are reported in full. The items Comprehension questions (e.g. true/false, multiple choice, drag and drop) 24.82 34 had more than 10 hours of teaching experience. on team teaching are not analysed in this article. 14 (35.90%) pre-service teachers studied to be- More detailed analyses in future papers will be Collaborative writing tools 16.06 22 come primary school teachers, 3 (7.69%) studied needed to provide further insights in the develop- Digital storytelling 7.3 10 to become middle school teachers, 5 (12.82%) ment of digital competences. studied to become teachers at Realschule, and 17 Quizzes 16.79 23 (43.59%) aim to become teachers at a German 3.3. Statistical analysis Serious games 0 0 Gymnasium. Overall, the 39 participants in the pilot study indicate that their competence in developing digi- Interactive presentations 25.55 35 3.2. Instruments tal activities and learning scenarios improved by Interactive videos 5.11 7 In order to assess pre-service teachers’ percep- 2.43 levels between the beginning and end of the tions of teaching English through digital means a summer term, 2020, i.e. between March and July Podcasts 4.38 6 questionnaire consisting of 36 questions was con- 2020 (Table 1). TOTAL 137

Table 1 Two questions asked about the use of different best practice examples is still evolving as is assess- Item 1: How would you rate your ability to design digital, competence-oriented tasks for English lessons types of digital tools. Table 3 displays pre-service ing the quality and effectiveness of remote foreign using digital tools? Assign yourself a competence level from A1 to C2 teachers’ knowledge about which digital tools they language learning. could use to train in a foreign language speciﬁc The pilot study provides data on pre-service MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION VARIANCE COUNT (N) competence area, such as reading, writing, speak- teachers’ knowledge of when to use different types

Beginning of summer term A1 C1 2.21 1.14 1.29 39 ing and listening. The table lists a number of spe- of digital tools for visualisation, organisation, en- cific tools (learning apps, Thinglink, Google tour tertainment, performance (e.g. learning apps and End of summer term A2 C2 4.64 0.92 0.85 39 Creator and Google Maps) alongside broader cate- Thinglink) or surveys in an English lesson (cf. Table gories of tools (mindmapping, visualisation, survey 4). The question implies knowledge of the tools and organisation) displaying the wide range of mentioned here. Indeed, all these tools were intro- An increase by more than two competence lev- the ongoing emergency situation during lockdown tools available and specifically referring to the duced in the courses for pre-service teachers in- els displays a high confidence in the self-ascribed period of local schools and their return to on-site tools used in the course context. The total number volved in the internship programme. Significantly, ability to develop digital, competence-oriented teaching from mid-June onwards. A follow-up of references is the most important figure in this ta- the total numbers of tools selected per compe- tasks for English lessons using tools. This high study is currently under way and will evaluate ble as it shows that pre-service teachers see multi- tence area are the highest for visualisation tools score did not come as a surprise to the author and whether these self-reported measures can be main- ple ways to use digital tools for a great variety of and the lowest for the only recently available conductor of the study who observed and guided tained over a longer period of time and in regular skills. Depending on prior experience, more or Google Tour Creator. Tool familiarity thus plays a the competence development throughout the se- teaching and training situations. fewer opportunities were perceived as realistic for major role in imagining its use in online language mester. Pre-service teachers in the fully online The following items support the high gains in training. Over the course of the summer term training. Teacher training institutions thus have a course format were highly motivated to put togeth- digital competences. Pre-service teachers reported 2020, pre-service teachers got more experienced responsibility to introduce future teachers to such er self-study materials and enthusing online face- they had used a multitude of digital activities for in designing foreign language activities with the digital applications if they are to include such to-face teaching lessons thereby contributing to foreign language teaching. They prepared interac- help of web applications. However, research into tools in their teaching.

78 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 79 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer cohort completing the fully online didactic intern- structed, drawing on established sources for item tive presentations (25.55%), comprehension ques- serious games. The latter is a task format that es- ship was asked to reﬂect on their beliefs and per- development in three areas, namely content peda- tions (24.82%), quizzes (16.79%), collaborative sentially is more complex and requires a consider- ceived gains in knowledge about how to teach for- gogical knowledge (Kultusministerkonferenz, writing opportunities (16.06%) and, to a lesser ex- ably more extensive preparation in the teaching eign languages online. 2004; 2008), digital competences (Redecker & tent, more elaborate learning scenarios like digital and working methodology, thus being a format A total of 39 pre-service teachers (84% female) Punie, 2017) and team teaching. Three items were storytelling (7.3%), interactive videos (5.11%) or that was not quite suitable for emergency online with 87% aged between 18 to 23 and 13% aged adapted from the DigCompEdu self-evaluation test podcasts (4.38%). No student team worked with teaching. between 24 to 29 participated in the survey. 82% available freely online (DigCompEdu, 2021). The studied in their 1st to 4th semester, 18% between survey was conducted as an online survey using Table 2 their 5th and 8th semester. 17 pre-service teachers the Qualtrics tool. For the purpose of this article, Item 2: Which digital task formats have you already created yourself? (43.59%) had held up to three English lessons pri- only selected items from the ﬁrst two parts of the ACTIVITY % CHOICE COUNT or to the course, 20 participants (51.28%) had 4 to survey on content pedagogical knowledge and 10 hours of teaching experience and 2 (5.13%) digital competences are reported in full. The items Comprehension questions (e.g. true/false, multiple choice, drag and drop) 24.82 34 had more than 10 hours of teaching experience. on team teaching are not analysed in this article. 14 (35.90%) pre-service teachers studied to be- More detailed analyses in future papers will be Collaborative writing tools 16.06 22 come primary school teachers, 3 (7.69%) studied needed to provide further insights in the develop- Digital storytelling 7.3 10 to become middle school teachers, 5 (12.82%) ment of digital competences. studied to become teachers at Realschule, and 17 Quizzes 16.79 23 (43.59%) aim to become teachers at a German 3.3. Statistical analysis Serious games 0 0 Gymnasium. Overall, the 39 participants in the pilot study indicate that their competence in developing digi- Interactive presentations 25.55 35 3.2. Instruments tal activities and learning scenarios improved by Interactive videos 5.11 7 In order to assess pre-service teachers’ percep- 2.43 levels between the beginning and end of the tions of teaching English through digital means a summer term, 2020, i.e. between March and July Podcasts 4.38 6 questionnaire consisting of 36 questions was con- 2020 (Table 1). TOTAL 137

Table 3 Interestingly, when asked if they would work variety and possibly more motivation’ into the vir- Item 3: Indicate, which digital tools can be used to train a speciﬁc foreign language competence, such as with digital tools in English as a foreign language tual classrooms. One of the participants who opted reading, writing, speaking and listening lessons again after the internship had ended, no for ‘rather yes’ explained: ‘I believe that traditional pre-service teacher indicated ‘no’ in the question- learning methods should still be used to some ex- FIELD LISTENING SPEAKING READING WRITING I DON’T KNOW TOTAL naire (Figure 6). When asked to explain why they tent. In moderation and as a means of differentia- would use these tools again, the participants in the tion, however, digital tools are deﬁnitely a reason- Google Tour Creator 22.64 28.30% 15 20.75% 11 3.77% 2 24.53% 13 53 pilot study indicated that they bring more ‘clarity, able choice’.

Google Maps 11.86 30.51% 18 28.81% 17 11.86% 7 16.95% 10 59

Microphone 34.85 53.03% 35 6.06% 4 1.52% 1 4.55% 3 66

Thinglink 25.00 13.24% 9 32.35% 22 10.29% 7 19.12% 13 68

Surveys (e.g. Kahoot, Quizlet) 13.04 7.25% 5 52.17% 36 26.09% 18 1.45% 1 69

Camera 28.17 35.21% 25 15.49% 11 8.45% 6 12.68% 9 71

Mindmapping (Mindmeister, Miro) 9.46% 7 20.27% 15 28.38% 21 36.49% 27 5.41% 4 74

Learning apps 28.09 6.74% 6 39.33% 35 23.60% 21 2.25% 2 89

Organisation (Padlet) 12.22 11.11% 10 36.67% 33 37.78% 34 2.22% 2 90

Visualisation (PowerPoint, Prezi) 25.96 17.31% 18 34.62% 36 22.12% 23 0.00% 0 104

Table 4 Item 4: Indicate in which phase the digital tools can be used in foreign language competence Figure 6. Item 5: Would you use digital tools again?

FIELD PRESENTATION / PRACTICE / PRODUNCTION / I DON’T KNOW TOTAL PRE-PHASE WHILE-PHASE POST-PHASE Drawing on an item from the teachers’ commit- Although the results of the pilot study are most- ment scale of the DigCompEdu, pre-service teach- ly positive regarding the sudden transformation in Learning apps 8.06% 5 37.10% 23 53.23% 33 1.61% 1 62 ers were also asked about their own working pro- teaching foreign languages and conducting the ac- cesses and use of digital media. 8.11% (n=3) pre- companying teacher training online, the survey Microphone 28.89% 26 35.56% 32 31.11% 28 4.44% 4 90 service teachers used the conventionally available supports theoretical notions (Blömeke & Kaiser, digital communication tools like email and Whats- 2017) and previous ﬁndings in neighbouring disci- Organisation (e.g. Padlet) 24.71% 21 35.29% 30 38.82% 33 1.18% 1 85 App. The majority combined various communica- plines (Wagner et al., 2016; Friedrichs-Liesenköt-

Mindmapping (Mindmeister, Miro) 33.33% 24 34.72% 25 26.39% 19 5.56% 4 72 tion tools without having systematic digital solu- ter, 2016; Kutscher et al., 2020) that developing tions for communicating effectively in mind sustained openness toward new teaching method- Visualisation (PowerPoint, Prezi) 33.01% 34 33.98% 35 32.04% 33 0.97% 1 103 (54.05%, n=20). 35.14% (n=13) are however al- ologies and learning materials depends largely on ready looking for systematic solutions and 1 per- context-speciﬁc and technological prerequisites. Thinglink 32.88% 24 31.51% 23 21.92% 16 13.70% 10 73 son (2.7%) even indicated that he/she reﬂects, dis- The success of the remote teaching internship was

Camera 31.87% 29 30.77% 28 31.87% 29 5.49% 5 91 cusses and proactively develops new communica- not only due to all project participants’ high moti- tion strategies. Two participants did not respond to vation to enable young learners to continue their Google Tour Creator 43.40% 23 26.42% 14 9.43% 5 20.75% 11 53 this question asking for the choices for online education while in lockdown. If the university’s communication indicating that teacher training in- computing centre and the county’s media centre Google Maps 56.14% 32 24.56% 14 14.04% 8 5.26% 3 57 stitutions need to make links between professional had not provided technical support and in- Surveys (Kahoot, Quizlet) 38.89% 28 9.72% 7 51.39% 37 0.00% 0 72 commitment and professional communication a frastructure, remote teaching would not have been stronger priority. possible on that scale. In addition, local teachers’

Google Maps 11.86 30.51% 18 28.81% 17 11.86% 7 16.95% 10 59

Microphone 34.85 53.03% 35 6.06% 4 1.52% 1 4.55% 3 66

Thinglink 25.00 13.24% 9 32.35% 22 10.29% 7 19.12% 13 68

Surveys (e.g. Kahoot, Quizlet) 13.04 7.25% 5 52.17% 36 26.09% 18 1.45% 1 69

Camera 28.17 35.21% 25 15.49% 11 8.45% 6 12.68% 9 71

Mindmapping (Mindmeister, Miro) 9.46% 7 20.27% 15 28.38% 21 36.49% 27 5.41% 4 74

Learning apps 28.09 6.74% 6 39.33% 35 23.60% 21 2.25% 2 89

Organisation (Padlet) 12.22 11.11% 10 36.67% 33 37.78% 34 2.22% 2 90

Visualisation (PowerPoint, Prezi) 25.96 17.31% 18 34.62% 36 22.12% 23 0.00% 0 104

Table 4 Item 4: Indicate in which phase the digital tools can be used in foreign language competence Figure 6. Item 5: Would you use digital tools again?

80 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 81 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer and headmasters’ openness and support for online the internship programme described above. An the end of term course evaluation and accompa- teaching opportunities for pre-service teachers was evaluation of preparing, conducting and evaluat- ‘Digital (live) distance teaching was found nying survey on perceived learnings in teaching a prerequisite. Finally, unless own learning and ing foreign language instruction in pre-service to be a valuable addition to the curriculum English online display mostly positive results. teaching experiences in online contexts during teacher teams is also currently under way. Last but of foreign language teacher education and The following questions for reflection arise from teacher training are diverse and of high quality, not least, the present study only hints at how digi- these initial positive results. technological pedagogical content knowledge tal tools can be used by integrating first results of a motor for pre-service teachers’ digital 1. Which changes to policies of foreign lan- cannot be obtained (Foulger et al., 2017; Pamuk, pre-service teachers’ knowledge of when and competence development’ guage teacher training should be made or main- 2011; Wang et al., 2018). A pedagogy of distance which web applications can be used for the train- tained after the end of the pandemic? education and more specifically of foreign lan- ing of foreign language skills. More detailed stud- course with ongoing live distance teaching oppor- 2. How do infrastructural and technological guage distance teaching can help to address this ies need to follow on lesson planning and observa- tunities, pre-service teachers were provided ‘with specificities continue to affect access of primary/ research gap. tions of digitally-based lessons in order to provide real-life opportunities for the application of educa- secondary school students/pre-/in-service teachers/ guidelines on required content-specific knowledge tional […] concepts and principles’ (Alkharusi et teacher trainers to digital teaching/learning oppor- 3.4. Limitations of specific teaching topics. al., 2011, p. 121) of teaching English as a foreign tunities? The previous results present first selected results or second language. 3. How far do infrastructural and technological from a pilot study on introducing remote teaching 4. CONCLUSION This article proposed a developmental model issues affect the quality of foreign language teach- to pre-service teachers of foreign language teach- In many ways, the turn toward online teaching for professional teacher competence as a frame- ing in offline/online teaching environments? ing. Given the extensive introduction of a new the- was accompanied with fears of a ‘lost semester’ for work for optimising knowledge domains for teach- 4. Should digital (live) distance teaching experi- oretical model that proposes to take a closer look students and subsequent prolongation of studies ing foreign languages online and provided the first ences become mandatory in teacher training pro- at teachers’ competence development, a full report and training. Teacher training programmes with empirical results in the area of pre-service teach- grammes after the return to face-to-face teaching? of the results of the pilot study was not possible their mandatory practical phases during which stu- ers’ perceptions. A next necessary step is to devel- 5. Which digital competences should foreign within the scope of this paper but will be pub- dents observe, plan, try out and reflect on their op an instrument assessing TPCK of English lan- language teachers have? lished continuously as follow-up data is presently first teaching experiences in the subject were par- guage teaching in remote learning settings, thus All these questions underline the urgent need collected. Discussing course evaluations and re- ticularly affected by the nationwide instructions to reading the general DevTPC against a subject-spe- for further empirical research in the area of (reports of self-ascribed competences come with sev- stay home and maintain a distance of at least 1.5 cific Developmental Model of Language Teacher mote) foreign language teacher education. Experts eral well-known limitations yet have been used ex- metres to other people. Naturally, any regional ap- Professional Competence (DevLTPC). Digital (live) should be brought together to consult on policy tensively in monitoring ongoing competence de- proach raises issues about whether its measures distance teaching was found to be a valuable addi- development using the Delphi technique. Tests on velopment (Schmid et al., 2020). Moreover, the are scalable and thus transferrable to other con- tion to the curriculum of foreign language teacher CPK in online foreign language learning contexts teaching innovation presented and analysed here texts. education and a motor for pre-service teachers’ should be developed as recent influential studies was conducted by the author of the pilot study Digital live distance teaching was successfully digital competence development. Ideally this de- have shown that general knowledge of technologi- herself, which may lead to limitations in terms of implemented in the practical training modules of velopment is monitored longitudinally and with cal pedagogical content knowledge is not enough replicability. Presently, a concise description of the English as a foreign or second language various cohorts. Given the success of the teaching (Schmid et al., 2020). While digital media are par- what technological pedagogical content knowl- teacher training programme of the Catholic Uni- innovation, digital (live) distance teaching experi- ticularly effective in supporting foreign language edge of English language teachers (TPCK-ELT) en- versity Eichstätt-Ingolstadt in a time of crisis and in ences have by now become an obligatory element learning, a collection of evidence-based best prac- tails is still outstanding yet evolving simultaneous- response to a necessary turn toward online teach- of the training curriculum of foreign language tice examples of digital teaching innovations is still ly to first practical experiences in the new, virtual ing due to the Covid-19 pandemic (Tulchinskii, teachers at the Catholic University of Eichstätt-In- missing and thus another area of particular interest teaching environment. A concept for teaching for- 2020). The presented course format guaranteed the golstadt and will be taught also after the return to for professionalising practical digital competence eign language learning remotely is necessarily de- continuation of qualitative teacher training by inte- face-to-face teaching. education alongside the development of content veloped along the lines of the German standards grating the training and teaching of digital compe- Having analysed German and Bavarian poli- knowledge and content pedagogical knowledge is of foreign language education according to which tences with content-specific knowledge of teach- cies, necessary preparatory measures and innova- lacking. Finally, in order to empirically validate the teachers require knowledge in how to train inter- ing English as a foreign or second language. Fol- tive best practices of digital live distance teaching, proposed developmental model of professional cultural competence, text and media competence, lowing Alkharusi et al.’s (2011, p. 121) suggestion, the study highlighted the transformative potential teacher competence, future studies should opt for methodological competence and communicative the practical outline of the course allowed pre-ser- of this teacher training concept developed and triangulated approaches in order to overcome po- competence. In addition, teachers need to be vice teachers to put into operation their skill-spe- conducted under severe time constraints in times tential biases in competence development (cf. competent in designing activities and tasks with cific training and knowledge acquired in the uni- of crisis. Although pre-service teachers were ini- Schmid et al., 2020, p. 10). Evidently, this is an ex- the help of suitable digital tools. These compe- versity-based course into actual online classroom tially hesitant about conducting live teaching ses- citing time for professionalising remote foreign tences have been developed in team teaching in settings. Connecting the content material of the sions with primary and secondary school students, language teacher training and research.

82 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 83 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer and headmasters’ openness and support for online the internship programme described above. An the end of term course evaluation and accompa- teaching opportunities for pre-service teachers was evaluation of preparing, conducting and evaluat- ‘Digital (live) distance teaching was found nying survey on perceived learnings in teaching a prerequisite. Finally, unless own learning and ing foreign language instruction in pre-service to be a valuable addition to the curriculum English online display mostly positive results. teaching experiences in online contexts during teacher teams is also currently under way. Last but of foreign language teacher education and The following questions for reflection arise from teacher training are diverse and of high quality, not least, the present study only hints at how digi- these initial positive results. technological pedagogical content knowledge tal tools can be used by integrating first results of a motor for pre-service teachers’ digital 1. Which changes to policies of foreign lan- cannot be obtained (Foulger et al., 2017; Pamuk, pre-service teachers’ knowledge of when and competence development’ guage teacher training should be made or main- 2011; Wang et al., 2018). A pedagogy of distance which web applications can be used for the train- tained after the end of the pandemic? education and more specifically of foreign lan- ing of foreign language skills. More detailed stud- course with ongoing live distance teaching oppor- 2. How do infrastructural and technological guage distance teaching can help to address this ies need to follow on lesson planning and observa- tunities, pre-service teachers were provided ‘with specificities continue to affect access of primary/ research gap. tions of digitally-based lessons in order to provide real-life opportunities for the application of educa- secondary school students/pre-/in-service teachers/ guidelines on required content-specific knowledge tional […] concepts and principles’ (Alkharusi et teacher trainers to digital teaching/learning oppor- 3.4. Limitations of specific teaching topics. al., 2011, p. 121) of teaching English as a foreign tunities? The previous results present first selected results or second language. 3. How far do infrastructural and technological from a pilot study on introducing remote teaching 4. CONCLUSION This article proposed a developmental model issues affect the quality of foreign language teach- to pre-service teachers of foreign language teach- In many ways, the turn toward online teaching for professional teacher competence as a frame- ing in offline/online teaching environments? ing. Given the extensive introduction of a new the- was accompanied with fears of a ‘lost semester’ for work for optimising knowledge domains for teach- 4. Should digital (live) distance teaching experi- oretical model that proposes to take a closer look students and subsequent prolongation of studies ing foreign languages online and provided the first ences become mandatory in teacher training pro- at teachers’ competence development, a full report and training. Teacher training programmes with empirical results in the area of pre-service teach- grammes after the return to face-to-face teaching? of the results of the pilot study was not possible their mandatory practical phases during which stu- ers’ perceptions. A next necessary step is to devel- 5. Which digital competences should foreign within the scope of this paper but will be pub- dents observe, plan, try out and reflect on their op an instrument assessing TPCK of English lan- language teachers have? lished continuously as follow-up data is presently first teaching experiences in the subject were par- guage teaching in remote learning settings, thus All these questions underline the urgent need collected. Discussing course evaluations and re- ticularly affected by the nationwide instructions to reading the general DevTPC against a subject-spe- for further empirical research in the area of (reports of self-ascribed competences come with sev- stay home and maintain a distance of at least 1.5 cific Developmental Model of Language Teacher mote) foreign language teacher education. Experts eral well-known limitations yet have been used ex- metres to other people. Naturally, any regional ap- Professional Competence (DevLTPC). Digital (live) should be brought together to consult on policy tensively in monitoring ongoing competence de- proach raises issues about whether its measures distance teaching was found to be a valuable addi- development using the Delphi technique. Tests on velopment (Schmid et al., 2020). Moreover, the are scalable and thus transferrable to other con- tion to the curriculum of foreign language teacher CPK in online foreign language learning contexts teaching innovation presented and analysed here texts. education and a motor for pre-service teachers’ should be developed as recent influential studies was conducted by the author of the pilot study Digital live distance teaching was successfully digital competence development. Ideally this de- have shown that general knowledge of technologi- herself, which may lead to limitations in terms of implemented in the practical training modules of velopment is monitored longitudinally and with cal pedagogical content knowledge is not enough replicability. Presently, a concise description of the English as a foreign or second language various cohorts. Given the success of the teaching (Schmid et al., 2020). While digital media are par- what technological pedagogical content knowl- teacher training programme of the Catholic Uni- innovation, digital (live) distance teaching experi- ticularly effective in supporting foreign language edge of English language teachers (TPCK-ELT) en- versity Eichstätt-Ingolstadt in a time of crisis and in ences have by now become an obligatory element learning, a collection of evidence-based best prac- tails is still outstanding yet evolving simultaneous- response to a necessary turn toward online teach- of the training curriculum of foreign language tice examples of digital teaching innovations is still ly to first practical experiences in the new, virtual ing due to the Covid-19 pandemic (Tulchinskii, teachers at the Catholic University of Eichstätt-In- missing and thus another area of particular interest teaching environment. A concept for teaching for- 2020). The presented course format guaranteed the golstadt and will be taught also after the return to for professionalising practical digital competence eign language learning remotely is necessarily de- continuation of qualitative teacher training by inte- face-to-face teaching. education alongside the development of content veloped along the lines of the German standards grating the training and teaching of digital compe- Having analysed German and Bavarian poli- knowledge and content pedagogical knowledge is of foreign language education according to which tences with content-specific knowledge of teach- cies, necessary preparatory measures and innova- lacking. Finally, in order to empirically validate the teachers require knowledge in how to train inter- ing English as a foreign or second language. Fol- tive best practices of digital live distance teaching, proposed developmental model of professional cultural competence, text and media competence, lowing Alkharusi et al.’s (2011, p. 121) suggestion, the study highlighted the transformative potential teacher competence, future studies should opt for methodological competence and communicative the practical outline of the course allowed pre-ser- of this teacher training concept developed and triangulated approaches in order to overcome po- competence. In addition, teachers need to be vice teachers to put into operation their skill-spe- conducted under severe time constraints in times tential biases in competence development (cf. competent in designing activities and tasks with cific training and knowledge acquired in the uni- of crisis. Although pre-service teachers were ini- Schmid et al., 2020, p. 10). Evidently, this is an ex- the help of suitable digital tools. These compe- versity-based course into actual online classroom tially hesitant about conducting live teaching ses- citing time for professionalising remote foreign tences have been developed in team teaching in settings. Connecting the content material of the sions with primary and secondary school students, language teacher training and research.

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In Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt | Käthe-Dorsch-Weg 23, 93055 Regensburg, Germany mann. D. Stoilescu & D. McDougall (Eds.), The hand- [email protected] Blömeke, S., & Kaiser, G. (2017). Understanding the de- book of technological pedagogical content velopment of teachers’ professional competen- knowledge (TPCK) for educators (pp. 2-29). New cies as personally, situationally and socially de- York, NY: Routledge. doi: 10.21432/T2CS3G termined. In D. J. Clandinin & J. Huku (Eds.), The Krauss, S., Lindl, A., Schilcher, A., & Tepner, O. (2017). SAGE handbook of research on teacher educa- Das Forschungsprojekt FALKO: Ein einleitender tion (pp. 783-802). London, UK: Sage. Überblick [The FALKO research project: An intro

84 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 85 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-68-85 Introducing German pre-service teachers to remote teaching: Policy, preparation and perceptions of competence development of future foreign language teachers Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 68-85 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Sandra Stadler-Heer

84 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 85 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 The implementation of authentic language input in second language (L2) teaching: Pedagogical arguments Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Maria Skiada

pedagogically incorporating authentic input in lan- ty is ensured through designing authentic tasks guage teaching has evoked the research interests (task authenticity), in other words, activities which of many linguists and language teachers and has maintain the primary communicative purpose of Original Research provided the basis for expressing various views, the text (Buendgens-Kosten, 2014; Gilmore, 2007; which are often opposing, regarding the necessity Guariento & Morley, 2001). Within this frame- and validity of this practice from both a theoretical work, the definition of authentic text has a dual and pedagogical perspective. meaning. On the one hand, authentic is consid- The implementation of authentic language input in Indeed, contemporary L2 teaching methods ered any text, whether oral or written, which has second language (L2) teaching: Pedagogical arguments have reintroduced, in a compelling way, the de- not been compiled strictly on pedagogical terms mand for an authenticity-centred language teach- (Wallace, 1992) so as to ensure the linguistic by Maria Skiada ing, especially with regard to the latest permuta- progress of students, but in order to respond to a Maria Skiada Hellenic Open University, Greece [email protected] tions of the communicative approach and mainly, need for communication, information or real lan- Article history Received November 29, 2020 | Revised February 10, 2021 | Accepted March 10, 2021 within the task-based approach, where the nature guage expression. In short, a text which is not pro- Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest and notion of task itself are calling for authenticity duced to teach but to communicate (Tomlinson, Research funding No funding was reported for this research in learning materials design (Skiada-Sciaranetti & 2013) and ‘to fulfil some social purpose in the lan- doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 Georgiadou, 2019). This revival can be further ex- guage community in which it was produced’ (Little For citation Skiada, M. (2021). The implementation of authentic language input in second language (L2) teaching: plained in sociological and pedagogical terms. On et al., 1989, p. 27). On the other hand, an authen- Pedagogical arguments. Training, Language and Culture, 5(1), 86-96. the one hand, the revolution in information and tic text entering the language classroom remains communication technologies has granted greater authentic or is being authenticated when pro- This paper was written at the same time that the annual language and culture seminar of Hellenic Culture School access to authentic texts of all types. On the other cessed on the basis of its primary communicative Switzerland was being held in Greece. That was a felicitous coincidence, since it allowed the observation and interpre- hand, a gradual pedagogical shift towards learner function, in order to achieve a reception on behalf tation of the students’ learning behaviour and their target language interactions within its native environment. This autonomy and thence self-direction in learning, of the students similar to that of native speakers. short immersion into authentic language and culture input was welcomed by students of all proficiency levels as a has passed the responsibility for learning and the The aim of this article is to take part in this challenge and call for participating in a new, enriched learning activity performed within a natural, real-life situation access to information and knowledge, from the wide academic debate on authenticity by present- and hence, a more purposeful and meaningful communication context. Students were led to a self-directed reception teacher to the learner. In the light of this move- ing and analysing the pedagogical arguments ad- and assimilation of language input, applying their own strategies, experiences or intuition. This attitude of students, ment in language pedagogy today’s learner has vocating the use of authentic texts for language normally deprived of a native language environment, reflects the need to incorporate authentic materials in L2 classes higher expectations of authenticity – of target lan- learning. based on their ability to function as substitutes for the native environment, which is missing, and on their potential to guage and culture input and of interactions ap- become vehicles for language progress, pragmatic and cultural awareness. The importance of authentic texts in lan- plied to obtaining and processing it (Mishan, 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND guage learning has been discussed by theorists in applied linguistics and language learning throughout the 20th centu- 2.1. Culture ry but with the development of the communicative approach and task-based learning it has become a leading feature 2005, p. 10-11). of language teaching materials. This paper explores the development of task authenticity in the selection of language Within this context, the academic debate focus- These arguments are encapsulated in three gen- teaching materials in class and examines the arguments for their use, based on the analysis of culture, currency and ing on the nature of authenticity, its theoretical eral categories of features, intrinsically incorporat- challenge. framework and the conditions preserving its value ed in authentic texts, underlining their pedagogical has intensified. First and foremost, authenticity as role. Mishan (2004) proposes this distinction sum- KEYWORDS: task authenticity, schema, authentic materials, communicative approach, task-based learning, culture, an absolute textual quality (text authenticity) is ming up the pedagogical value of authentic lan- currency, challenge validated by evidence reduced to the primary con- guage input into three inherent features of authen- ditions of production and reception of the text. At tic texts, namely the ‘3 C’s: culture, currency, chal- This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material the same time, authenticity, as an element which lenge’ (Mishan, 2004, p. 220). for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0) transcends the textual basis per se, is transformed The first category pertains to culture, in other into a characteristic of the relationship between words, the cultural dimension of authentic texts 1. INTRODUCTION guage’ (Sweet, 1964, p. 177). Several years later, the text and the reader and it has to do with appro- and its beneficial impact on language acquisition. In 1899, Henry Sweet, an English philologist Mishan (2005) confirmed this initial hint by claim- priate response (Widdowson, 1978, p. 80). This In 1948, T.S. Eliot wrote that ‘even the humblest specialising in Germanic languages, was the first ing that on the eve of the 20th century the appeal means that it relies more on the interaction be- material artefact which is the product and the sym- to recognise the value of implementing authentic of authenticity has been reinforced becoming ‘the tween the learner and the input text, rather than bol of a particular civilisation, is an emissary of the texts in second language teaching, based on their predominant paradigm for the language teaching on the input text itself and, therefore it depends on culture out of which it comes’ (Eliot, 1948, p. 92). potential to ‘do justice in every feature of the lan- classroom’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 10). This issue of the learner’s response to it. This kind of authentici- Since language and culture are an indivisible

© Maria Skiada 2021 86 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 87 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 The implementation of authentic language input in second language (L2) teaching: Pedagogical arguments Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Maria Skiada

have the form Kramsch (1993) has criticised, that Authentic texts are considered appropriate culture. Texts present several abstract concepts, ‘Particularly in classes of refugees or of simply ‘tacking on’ separate cultural elements fields for such cultural investigation. Mishan such as codes of conduct or specific lexical items immigrants, who of necessity must as an ‘expendable fifth skill’ (Kramsch, 1993, p. 1). (2005) describes them as ‘treasure chests’ embody- with references to administrative, political and so- participate and converse in an unfamiliar Besides, the cultural messages mediated ing a cultural wealth handed over to students for cial systems. Those that have lexical representa- through authentic texts are not always discernible them to explore and assimilate (Mishan, 2005, p. tions are obviously more accessible (Mishan, language often contrary to their own and explicit. For this reason, as Tomalin and Stem- 46). Adequate exposure to the target culture 2005, p. 47-48). cultural environment, there is a dire need pleski (1993, p. 8) claim, ’little benefit will result through various channels and sources (television Within this scope, schemata are of vital signifi- for greater empathy to be acquired’ from merely displaying a cultural document or shows, literature, magazines, daily press, films, cance for language progress. During the reception artefact in the class’. What is necessary on the etc.) provides an excellent opportunity for students and processing of language input, students have unity, an inseparable, symbiotic whole, the entire teacher’s part is to train students in applying strate- to recognise specific behaviours, habits, traditions, already identified internal schemata, which are in range of language production – from an advertis- gies to identify language input and to retrieve ap- forms of interaction and other aspects of the target line with the incoming information, or create new ing slogan to the verse of a poem – is representa- propriate information from there. In this way, a culture and therefore derive conclusions regarding receptors to accommodate the new linguistic cul- tive of the culture within which it was developed. process is stimulated which gradually leads to the underlying attitudes and values. Particularly in the ture. In both cases, comprehension is achieved Sapir (1963) adds to this notion, emphasising that cultivation of a skill, that of cultural awareness, case of refugees and immigrants who choose to through an interactive and cyclical process carried ‘it is an illusion to think that we can understand which involves developing sensitivity towards the learn the target language systematically, within an out between the receptor and the language input. the significant outlines of a culture through sheer impact of culturally-induced behaviour on lan- instructed learning environment, the use of au- Subsequently, the lack of, silencing of, or any at- observation and without the guide of the linguistic guage usage and communication (Tomalin & thentic texts contributes to the understanding, veri- tempt to neutralise the cultural dimension of the symbolism which makes these outlines significant Stempleski, 1993, p. 5; Gladkova & Larina, 2018). fication and assimilation of every piece of linguis- language, has the potential to deter language pro- and intelligible to society’ (Sapir, 1963, p. 161). This awareness will in turn create favourable con- tic and cultural information encountered outside cess, as it does not create those conditions which This does not mean that language functions ditions for the development of empathy, in other of the class, under language immersion conditions. are conducive to the development of schemata unilaterally as a symbol of an objective cultural re- words, the capacity to identify with a non-familiar This information is otherwise dispersed and convo- pertaining to the new linguistic culture. Many lan- ality. At the same time, it is an integral part of this culture, which is an important emotional factor in luted. Hence, authentic texts function as ‘the keys guage misunderstandings which are hastily inter- reality in which it is ‘shaped’ and formed in con- successful language acquisition (Thaler, 2019). for opening up the target language culture’ (Maley, preted as ‘deficiencies in language processing stant interaction with other parts. This two-way dy- Particularly in classes of refugees or immigrants, 1993, p. 3) and create a type of cultural frame- skills’, are due to a failure in accessing the appro- namic between language and culture makes it im- who of necessity must participate and converse in work for the language. priate schemata (Carell & Eisterhold, 1983). Along possible to study them in isolation. ‘Teaching cul- an unfamiliar language often contrary to their own This assumption is closely linked to schema these lines, comprehension continues to be a lan- ture without language is fundamentally flawed and cultural environment, there is a dire need for theory which ascribes a psycholinguistic interpre- guage skill, but is also perceived as a function per- to separate language and culture teaching is to im- greater empathy to be acquired. tation to the way in which knowledge of the cul- taining to the knowledge of the specific cultural ply that a foreign language can be treated in the Of course, a situation of absolute empathy is a tural framework affects the learning and under- framework, that is the schemata in particular. early learning stages as if it were self-contained rather utopian idea, since ‘the native cultural expe- standing of the target language, especially in- Nunan’s (1989) study is representative, according and independent of other sociocultural phenome- rience is bound to shape the perception of the stances that are perceived as ‘linguistic misunder- to which an appropriate cognitive framework has na’ (Byram, 1991, p. 18). new reality by relating and evaluating both fields standings’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 47). The emphasis been proven to be a determining factor in a stu- Therefore, since the cultural whole is to such an of experience’ (Buttjes & Byram, 1991, p. 232- placed on the assimilation of the other culture as dent’s ability to understand school texts, even extent interrelated to the target language, the main 233). Despite this, the development of a familiar being conducive to language acquisition compris- more than linguistic complexity. priority is to portray and highlight these cultural cultural framework as a reference point for lan- es a convincing pedagogical argument in favour of This pedagogical argument which adduces the messages by making learners aware of them during guage acquisition can ultimately be beneficial the use of authentic texts incorporating this schemata theory in favour of authentic texts as reli- language acquisition. Authentic texts constitute an within an instructed language acquisition environ- culture. able vectors of the target language cultural appropriate language learning material corpus and ment. Researching and identifying points of con- To be specific, schemata are defined as ‘cogni- context, becomes even stronger in the case when are indicated for this purpose, provided that they vergence and divergence between two cultures, as tive networks that encapsulate our expectations re- L2 learning takes place outside its native geo- represent aspects of the target culture and become well as comparatively studying these cultures and garding more or less standardised types of dis- graphic territory. In this case, authentic texts can therefore credible depictions of this culture within deriving useful conclusions, may broaden horizons course’ (Edmonson, 1997, p. 51). Schemata are function as substitutes for the cultural reality that is the classroom. At the teaching level, the process of of understanding and ultimately improve learners’ considered culturally ‘coloured’ and to a certain missing and enable students’ access to the cultural students integrating new cultural elements is ability to communicate with native speakers of extent ‘idiosyncratic’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 47), since core of the target language, in other words, the for- smoothly and seamlessly carried out when it en- their target language culture. It may also be a start- they constitute notions which are formed in the mulation of new schemata, which in fact, unleash- tails an organic part of the lesson, harmoniously ing point for a process of deepening and re-adapt- mind of an individual through native cultural ex- es comprehension and is a first major step in lan- incorporated into language teaching and does not ing to native and foreign cultural environments. perience acquired when integrating into their own guage learning.

88 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 89 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 The implementation of authentic language input in second language (L2) teaching: Pedagogical arguments Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Maria Skiada have the form Kramsch (1993) has criticised, that Authentic texts are considered appropriate culture. Texts present several abstract concepts, ‘Particularly in classes of refugees or of simply ‘tacking on’ separate cultural elements fields for such cultural investigation. Mishan such as codes of conduct or specific lexical items immigrants, who of necessity must as an ‘expendable fifth skill’ (Kramsch, 1993, p. 1). (2005) describes them as ‘treasure chests’ embody- with references to administrative, political and so- participate and converse in an unfamiliar Besides, the cultural messages mediated ing a cultural wealth handed over to students for cial systems. Those that have lexical representa- through authentic texts are not always discernible them to explore and assimilate (Mishan, 2005, p. tions are obviously more accessible (Mishan, language often contrary to their own and explicit. For this reason, as Tomalin and Stem- 46). Adequate exposure to the target culture 2005, p. 47-48). cultural environment, there is a dire need pleski (1993, p. 8) claim, ’little benefit will result through various channels and sources (television Within this scope, schemata are of vital signifi- for greater empathy to be acquired’ from merely displaying a cultural document or shows, literature, magazines, daily press, films, cance for language progress. During the reception artefact in the class’. What is necessary on the etc.) provides an excellent opportunity for students and processing of language input, students have unity, an inseparable, symbiotic whole, the entire teacher’s part is to train students in applying strate- to recognise specific behaviours, habits, traditions, already identified internal schemata, which are in range of language production – from an advertis- gies to identify language input and to retrieve ap- forms of interaction and other aspects of the target line with the incoming information, or create new ing slogan to the verse of a poem – is representa- propriate information from there. In this way, a culture and therefore derive conclusions regarding receptors to accommodate the new linguistic cul- tive of the culture within which it was developed. process is stimulated which gradually leads to the underlying attitudes and values. Particularly in the ture. In both cases, comprehension is achieved Sapir (1963) adds to this notion, emphasising that cultivation of a skill, that of cultural awareness, case of refugees and immigrants who choose to through an interactive and cyclical process carried ‘it is an illusion to think that we can understand which involves developing sensitivity towards the learn the target language systematically, within an out between the receptor and the language input. the significant outlines of a culture through sheer impact of culturally-induced behaviour on lan- instructed learning environment, the use of au- Subsequently, the lack of, silencing of, or any at- observation and without the guide of the linguistic guage usage and communication (Tomalin & thentic texts contributes to the understanding, veri- tempt to neutralise the cultural dimension of the symbolism which makes these outlines significant Stempleski, 1993, p. 5; Gladkova & Larina, 2018). fication and assimilation of every piece of linguis- language, has the potential to deter language pro- and intelligible to society’ (Sapir, 1963, p. 161). This awareness will in turn create favourable con- tic and cultural information encountered outside cess, as it does not create those conditions which This does not mean that language functions ditions for the development of empathy, in other of the class, under language immersion conditions. are conducive to the development of schemata unilaterally as a symbol of an objective cultural re- words, the capacity to identify with a non-familiar This information is otherwise dispersed and convo- pertaining to the new linguistic culture. Many lan- ality. At the same time, it is an integral part of this culture, which is an important emotional factor in luted. Hence, authentic texts function as ‘the keys guage misunderstandings which are hastily inter- reality in which it is ‘shaped’ and formed in con- successful language acquisition (Thaler, 2019). for opening up the target language culture’ (Maley, preted as ‘deficiencies in language processing stant interaction with other parts. This two-way dy- Particularly in classes of refugees or immigrants, 1993, p. 3) and create a type of cultural frame- skills’, are due to a failure in accessing the appro- namic between language and culture makes it im- who of necessity must participate and converse in work for the language. priate schemata (Carell & Eisterhold, 1983). Along possible to study them in isolation. ‘Teaching cul- an unfamiliar language often contrary to their own This assumption is closely linked to schema these lines, comprehension continues to be a lan- ture without language is fundamentally flawed and cultural environment, there is a dire need for theory which ascribes a psycholinguistic interpre- guage skill, but is also perceived as a function per- to separate language and culture teaching is to im- greater empathy to be acquired. tation to the way in which knowledge of the cul- taining to the knowledge of the specific cultural ply that a foreign language can be treated in the Of course, a situation of absolute empathy is a tural framework affects the learning and under- framework, that is the schemata in particular. early learning stages as if it were self-contained rather utopian idea, since ‘the native cultural expe- standing of the target language, especially in- Nunan’s (1989) study is representative, according and independent of other sociocultural phenome- rience is bound to shape the perception of the stances that are perceived as ‘linguistic misunder- to which an appropriate cognitive framework has na’ (Byram, 1991, p. 18). new reality by relating and evaluating both fields standings’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 47). The emphasis been proven to be a determining factor in a stu- Therefore, since the cultural whole is to such an of experience’ (Buttjes & Byram, 1991, p. 232- placed on the assimilation of the other culture as dent’s ability to understand school texts, even extent interrelated to the target language, the main 233). Despite this, the development of a familiar being conducive to language acquisition compris- more than linguistic complexity. priority is to portray and highlight these cultural cultural framework as a reference point for lan- es a convincing pedagogical argument in favour of This pedagogical argument which adduces the messages by making learners aware of them during guage acquisition can ultimately be beneficial the use of authentic texts incorporating this schemata theory in favour of authentic texts as reli- language acquisition. Authentic texts constitute an within an instructed language acquisition environ- culture. able vectors of the target language cultural appropriate language learning material corpus and ment. Researching and identifying points of con- To be specific, schemata are defined as ‘cogni- context, becomes even stronger in the case when are indicated for this purpose, provided that they vergence and divergence between two cultures, as tive networks that encapsulate our expectations re- L2 learning takes place outside its native geo- represent aspects of the target culture and become well as comparatively studying these cultures and garding more or less standardised types of dis- graphic territory. In this case, authentic texts can therefore credible depictions of this culture within deriving useful conclusions, may broaden horizons course’ (Edmonson, 1997, p. 51). Schemata are function as substitutes for the cultural reality that is the classroom. At the teaching level, the process of of understanding and ultimately improve learners’ considered culturally ‘coloured’ and to a certain missing and enable students’ access to the cultural students integrating new cultural elements is ability to communicate with native speakers of extent ‘idiosyncratic’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 47), since core of the target language, in other words, the for- smoothly and seamlessly carried out when it en- their target language culture. It may also be a start- they constitute notions which are formed in the mulation of new schemata, which in fact, unleash- tails an organic part of the lesson, harmoniously ing point for a process of deepening and re-adapt- mind of an individual through native cultural ex- es comprehension and is a first major step in lan- incorporated into language teaching and does not ing to native and foreign cultural environments. perience acquired when integrating into their own guage learning.

2.2. Currency The greater the relevance and the correspondence The next pedagogical argument is analysed ‘Authentic texts enter the lesson with the ‘The greater the relevance and the of the text to the interests and general profile of the within a different category of features which focus- smell, taste and rough edges of life outside correspondence of the text to the interests learners, the stronger the motivation for learning, es on the notion of currency. This term has a broad the walls of the school thus allowing and general profile of the learners, the which is a crucial affective factor in language ac- meaning which encompasses the concepts of the students to perceive the target language as stronger the motivation for learning, quisition. Therefore, the aforementioned points current reality, synchrony, diachrony and topicali- embody a strong argument in favour of the use of ty. This kind of currency with all its conceptual pa- a vivid reality and to observe the various which is a crucial affective factor in authentic texts in L2 teaching (Bacon & Finneman, rameters, equally resides in both the linguistic and ways in which this language is realised language acquisition’ 1990; Little et al., 1989; Swaffar, 1985; Peacock, thematic content of authentic texts and endows and typically used’ 1997). The significant impact of learning motives them with a strong advantage over traditional text body can foster this objective. Authentic texts in language learning is a point where all L2 acqui- learning resources. To begin with, authentic texts, Especially in the case of refugees and immigrants keep students aware of these changes, so that they sition theorists coincide and concur (Arnold & when serving the teaching process, become the who have direct and vital needs for communica- are not surprised or disoriented later when en- Brown, 1999, p. 13). Ellis (1994) agrees, underlin- channels through which the language is conveyed; tion and social integration. They will be called to countering these changes, but rather recognise and ing the beneficial impact that the engagement of it is the real world of native speakers in the lan- abandon the comfort zone of the school classroom attempt to reproduce them (Berardo, 2006). learners’ interest in classroom activities has on guage class (Horwitz, 2008; Bell, 2005; Guariento and respond to real, socially situated communica- Beyond the language, such currency is equally learner motivation, adding that part of this motiva- & Morley, 2001). Authentic texts enter the lesson tion needs where different skills are required (Be- featured in the thematic content of authentic texts. tion is derived from the actual desire for communi- with the smell, taste and rough edges of life out- rardo, 2006, p. 64). Language instruction is con- According to recent research findings, the subjects cation (Ellis, 1994, p. 517). In this sense, authentic side the walls of the school (Little et al., 1989) thus sidered effective when it has prepared learners ex- of traditional coursebooks are restricted and dis- texts, when selected on the basis of relevance to allowing students to perceive the target language actly for this moment. Pedagogic texts are not in a play repetitive and monotonous normality. The em- and immediacy with the target audience, facilitate as a vivid reality and to observe the various ways position to serve this goal because they have been phasis lies on common thematic areas (weather, ‘the natural curiosity and interest which energises in which this language is realised and typically compiled to accomplish specific learning objec- travel, food, work, environment, etc.) while more the students’ learning’ (Arnold & Brown, 1999, p. used (Tomlinson, 2003). Contrary to coursebook tives, and for the most part, ignore sociolinguistic controversial issues seem to be side-lined or ab- 14). There is a higher probability that authentic texts that ‘fossilise’ the language within the time references and pragmatic aspects, as well as vio- sent, as well as some taboo topics which may texts meet the expectations of students and serve frame of the book’s edition (Mishan, 2005, p. late the natural flow of speech. The nature of lan- evoke more dynamic engagement and stimulation needs (functional or non-functional) that are dic- 56-57), authentic texts are constantly updated and guage and structures in non-authentic texts is on behalf of the students (Thornbury, 1999, p. 15- tated by their learning incentives. In particular, in topical (Case, 2012) and offer students direct ac- rather ‘artificial and unvaried’, focusing merely on 16; Bell & Gower, 1998). On the other hand, by the case of refugees and immigrants with strong in- cess to conventional, colloquial language usage the language elements to be taught and not reflect- using authentic texts, the teacher has the opportu- tegration incentives, authentic texts, due to their and brings them into contact with realistic and ap- ing real language usages, so that it is unlikely to nity to cover a wide range of topics with refer- intrinsic cultural currency, allow these students to propriate pragmatic models of discourse (Malyuga, prepare students for what they will encounter in ences to the current reality, current news, as well acquire a higher level of fluency and confidence 2020) which develop pragmatolinguistic compe- the real world within real communication circum- as topics that may stimulate debate among stu- while interacting with the target culture (Tomalin tence (Gilmore, 2004, p. 367; Gilmore, 2007, p. stances (Berardo, 2006, p. 65-66). As a result, dents. Furthermore, content currency is more com- & Stempleski, 1993, p. 39). 97). Authentic texts feature a ‘comprehensive learners remain unaware of the criteria according patible with authentic texts rather than with tradi- range of conversational and interpersonal speech’, to which specific word choice is accepted or re- tional coursebooks, in terms of being in line with 2.3. Challenge in other words, they ‘place emphasis on language jected, based on the influence of current sociocul- the adulthood of students. This means that authen- The third pedagogical argument in favour of the variation and choice, rather than conventions and tural and pragmatic factors. This deficiency ‘can be tic texts present issues that have more adult con- use of authentic language input in L2 teaching formal rules’ (Burns & Seidlhofer, 2002, p. 226). a source of frustration and puzzlement as learners tent than those contained in textbooks in order to stems from the inherent difficulty of authentic texts They can reflect the diachronic nature of language struggle with the subtleties of appropriacy of lan- respond to the expectations and interests of adult which entails a challenge for students and is there- – particularly through literary texts – as well as guage registers’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 58). learners. fore, an advantage rather than an obstacle to lan- represent target language on a synchronous axis, Added to that, non-authentic texts are unable to Within a teaching environment, the pedagogic guage learning. Sweet (1964) implies with discre- that is the spoken language in flux. capture and relay all the transformations and value of this intrinsic language and subject matter, tion the positive influence of this challenge in rais- Learners’ interaction with this type of colloquial changes in language, which is a living and con- currency of authentic texts arises from the rele- ing motivation for learning. He casts doubts on in- language input equips them linguistically in order stantly evolving entity. However, in order for a vance and interest such language input has for stu- tended simplicity or ‘unnecessary triviality’, em- to prepare them and make them competent for the teacher to prepare students for experiences with dents. These concepts and their functions are inter- phasising the satisfaction that students gain upon real, social ‘interaction order’ (Goffman, 1983). the language, it is vital to keep them ‘at the cutting spersed and interdependent, to a certain extent, retrieving language elements that may exceed their This equipment is of crucial importance to stu- edge of language change’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 56) creating favourable conditions for personal en- language competency (Sweet, 1964, p. 186). Sub- dents who live in the target language environment. and only a multifarious and abundant authentic gagement and stimulating motivation in students. sequently, this challenge can foster language ac-

90 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 91 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 The implementation of authentic language input in second language (L2) teaching: Pedagogical arguments Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Maria Skiada quisition significantly and therefore, any teaching centred learning process whereby the learner’s au- likely to enable them to cope with demanding practice that deprives students of accessing inter- tonomy towards actively discovering and explor- texts well above their estimated language compe- ‘What the teacher should take into esting language input in based on language profi- ing a new language and cultural universe is put in tence. Lazar (1994) criticises this exclusion by ar- consideration is that partial ciency level criteria is not valid. place. In other words, knowledge is not delivered guing that ‘despite their very limited proficiency in comprehension of a text is no longer Along the same lines, Krashen (2003) assigns in a ready-made form, but arises from a series of the language, students need the challenge and major importance to the function of challenge assumptions, associations, actions, correlations, stimulation of addressing themes and topics that considered to be necessarily problematic, which is accurately depicted in his famous schema repetitions and trials and is therefore more strongly have adult appeal and which encourage them to since even native speakers typically of i + 1. This formula proposes that appropriate assimilated by the student. Furthermore, this dy- draw on their personal opinions and experi- operate with less than total and still comprehensible language input (i) is that namic approach towards language acquisition en- ences’ (Lazar, 1994, p. 116). which exceeds by (+1) the student’s current profi- ables students to make generalisations regarding Besides, challenge is not only attributed to the comprehension’ ciency level. Besides, the comprehension degree grammar and vocabulary, as well as observe the authentic text input, but mainly to the task that nor beneficial. Emphasis should be rather placed of the language input is inextricably tied to learn- different ways in which existing knowledge of lan- mediates between the text and the student. This as- on encouraging students to make the most of their ing incentives, which are largely affecting the guage can be accessed in order to process and ex- sumption introduces new arguments to the acade- partial comprehension. learning process and are activated when the teach- plain new linguistic information. Generalisation mic discussion regarding the need for pedagogic ing material and teaching tasks ‘pose a reasonable entails an important and beneficial learning strate- modification of authentic language input and is 3. DISCUSSION challenge to the students – neither too difficult nor gy, through which the subject, by observing cer- linked to the overall concern regarding task au- It is therefore at the discretion of the teacher to too easy’ (Ellis, 1994, p. 516). tain examples, may form a rule, an axiom or de- thenticity. Within this scope, authentic texts are design tasks of graded difficulty so that students A considered student’s interaction with authen- rive a conclusion (Brown, 2001). Hence, the skill made accessible to students, not by simplification can practise applying different strategies in access- tic texts is a weighty challenge, a process which in of consciously controlling structures of the target of content, but by tailoring the tasks to the learning and processing texts, similar to those of native itself promotes learner’s confidence, thus reinforc- language is developed (Little et al., 1994). Students er’s language proficiency level (Latifi et al., 2013). speakers and in accordance with the language in- ing the sense of achievement. The student suc- learn to access and use language sensitively and More specifically, ‘the difficulty of a reading exer- put at hand. For example, simple but authentic ceeds in managing and accessing – in terms of lan- consciously, thus reinforcing language awareness cise depends on the activity which is required of tasks that are appropriate for authentic texts, such guage and content – a flow of oral and written and minimising dependence on language rules, the students, rather than on the text itself, provid- as newspaper or magazine articles are: reading speech produced by native speakers and intended which may actually be inadequate since these ing it remains within their general competence. In headings, subheadings or lines so as to get the gist for them. This sense of the student overcoming lin- rules simplify language application (Paltridge, other words, one should grade exercises rather of the text, identifying key words, assessing exist- guistic obstacles and understanding demanding 2001; Van Lier, 1995). More specifically, interac- than texts’ (Grellet, 1981, p. 7-9). This means to ing knowledge regarding a particular news item in authentic language input significantly strengthens tion with various types of authentic texts gradually vary the task rather than the text (Prabhu, 1987; order to explain a concept, etc. (Grundy, 1993, p. their motivation and encourages them to continue enables students to apply deductive methods Nunan, 1989; Willis, 1996). However, this task 7). Such strategies are scanning and skimming, as (Berardo, 2006; Leloup & Ponterio, 1997). Consec- through which they can independently discover simplification should be based on the demand for well as intentionally ignoring confusing or irrele- utively, a student with developed self-esteem is ac- language structures, usages and relationships be- task authenticity, which means that tasks should be vant language information at first glance. In this curately equipped for the next step which is the tween language elements, without formerly teach- appropriate to the text and to coincide with the way, students realise that comprehension is not a risk-taking. Self-esteem is not a negligible factor ing explicit grammar rules. text’s primary communicative purpose, thus consti- process of searching for the meaning of each and doesn’t concern only childhood but continues However, despite the benefits, at the lower lev- tuting a rehearsal or approximation of tasks per- word, but a process of developing strategies, with to play a major role in lifelong learning (Arnold & els of language learning, the inherent difficulties of formed by native speakers in real life. applications in both oral and written communica- Brown, 1999). authentic texts are judged on the basis of the prob- Even for students of elementary level, there is a tion (Swaffar, 1999). This means that this student is prepared to risk lems they pose for students and not on whether plethora of tasks appropriate and consistent with Furthermore, students – beginners included – making mistakes, forming assumptions, drawing they pose a challenge for them. The positive effect their language proficiency which are authentic in do not enter the language class as tabula rasa and conclusions and making generalisations on the ba- of challenge on emotional factors that are crucial the sense that they ‘emulate native-speaker are not devoid of language. On the contrary, they sis of context or prior knowledge and experience. for learning – such as motivation, confidence and interac-tions’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 62). What the have already assimilated knowledge and language This readiness to take on ‘risky’ initiatives compris- self-esteem – are not sufficiently assessed. There- teacher should take into consideration is that par- experiences forming their own cognitive frame- es an emotional factor that is vital to learning, pro- fore, there is a tendency to avoid exposing ele- tial comprehension of a text is no longer consid- work which could be exploited to facilitate target vided that the risk taken is balanced, or ‘moderate, mentary levels to authentic input, due to language ered to be necessarily problematic, since even na- language acquisition. Especially authentic texts, as but intelligent’ (Oxford, 1999, p. 63). difficulties which prohibit reception and compre- tive speakers typically operate with less than total real-life products, depict universal types of dis- Exposure to authentic language input can cre- hension. This attitude inevitably precludes lower comprehension (Willis, 1996; Guariento & Morley, course, structures, lexical forms and subjects ate favourable conditions for such risk-taking ini- level students from accessing subject matter which 2001; Widdowson, 1990). Hence, detailed word- which appear more recognisable and familiar to tiatives in the sense that it can trigger a student- meets their interests or needs and hence are more for-word decoding of a text is neither necessary the students. This universality in language or con-

92 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 93 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 The implementation of authentic language input in second language (L2) teaching: Pedagogical arguments Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Maria Skiada quisition significantly and therefore, any teaching centred learning process whereby the learner’s au- likely to enable them to cope with demanding practice that deprives students of accessing inter- tonomy towards actively discovering and explor- texts well above their estimated language compe- ‘What the teacher should take into esting language input in based on language profi- ing a new language and cultural universe is put in tence. Lazar (1994) criticises this exclusion by ar- consideration is that partial ciency level criteria is not valid. place. In other words, knowledge is not delivered guing that ‘despite their very limited proficiency in comprehension of a text is no longer Along the same lines, Krashen (2003) assigns in a ready-made form, but arises from a series of the language, students need the challenge and major importance to the function of challenge assumptions, associations, actions, correlations, stimulation of addressing themes and topics that considered to be necessarily problematic, which is accurately depicted in his famous schema repetitions and trials and is therefore more strongly have adult appeal and which encourage them to since even native speakers typically of i + 1. This formula proposes that appropriate assimilated by the student. Furthermore, this dy- draw on their personal opinions and experi- operate with less than total and still comprehensible language input (i) is that namic approach towards language acquisition en- ences’ (Lazar, 1994, p. 116). which exceeds by (+1) the student’s current profi- ables students to make generalisations regarding Besides, challenge is not only attributed to the comprehension’ ciency level. Besides, the comprehension degree grammar and vocabulary, as well as observe the authentic text input, but mainly to the task that nor beneficial. Emphasis should be rather placed of the language input is inextricably tied to learn- different ways in which existing knowledge of lan- mediates between the text and the student. This as- on encouraging students to make the most of their ing incentives, which are largely affecting the guage can be accessed in order to process and ex- sumption introduces new arguments to the acade- partial comprehension. learning process and are activated when the teach- plain new linguistic information. Generalisation mic discussion regarding the need for pedagogic ing material and teaching tasks ‘pose a reasonable entails an important and beneficial learning strate- modification of authentic language input and is 3. DISCUSSION challenge to the students – neither too difficult nor gy, through which the subject, by observing cer- linked to the overall concern regarding task au- It is therefore at the discretion of the teacher to too easy’ (Ellis, 1994, p. 516). tain examples, may form a rule, an axiom or de- thenticity. Within this scope, authentic texts are design tasks of graded difficulty so that students A considered student’s interaction with authen- rive a conclusion (Brown, 2001). Hence, the skill made accessible to students, not by simplification can practise applying different strategies in access- tic texts is a weighty challenge, a process which in of consciously controlling structures of the target of content, but by tailoring the tasks to the learning and processing texts, similar to those of native itself promotes learner’s confidence, thus reinforc- language is developed (Little et al., 1994). Students er’s language proficiency level (Latifi et al., 2013). speakers and in accordance with the language in- ing the sense of achievement. The student suc- learn to access and use language sensitively and More specifically, ‘the difficulty of a reading exer- put at hand. For example, simple but authentic ceeds in managing and accessing – in terms of lan- consciously, thus reinforcing language awareness cise depends on the activity which is required of tasks that are appropriate for authentic texts, such guage and content – a flow of oral and written and minimising dependence on language rules, the students, rather than on the text itself, provid- as newspaper or magazine articles are: reading speech produced by native speakers and intended which may actually be inadequate since these ing it remains within their general competence. In headings, subheadings or lines so as to get the gist for them. This sense of the student overcoming lin- rules simplify language application (Paltridge, other words, one should grade exercises rather of the text, identifying key words, assessing exist- guistic obstacles and understanding demanding 2001; Van Lier, 1995). More specifically, interac- than texts’ (Grellet, 1981, p. 7-9). This means to ing knowledge regarding a particular news item in authentic language input significantly strengthens tion with various types of authentic texts gradually vary the task rather than the text (Prabhu, 1987; order to explain a concept, etc. (Grundy, 1993, p. their motivation and encourages them to continue enables students to apply deductive methods Nunan, 1989; Willis, 1996). However, this task 7). Such strategies are scanning and skimming, as (Berardo, 2006; Leloup & Ponterio, 1997). Consec- through which they can independently discover simplification should be based on the demand for well as intentionally ignoring confusing or irrele- utively, a student with developed self-esteem is ac- language structures, usages and relationships be- task authenticity, which means that tasks should be vant language information at first glance. In this curately equipped for the next step which is the tween language elements, without formerly teach- appropriate to the text and to coincide with the way, students realise that comprehension is not a risk-taking. Self-esteem is not a negligible factor ing explicit grammar rules. text’s primary communicative purpose, thus consti- process of searching for the meaning of each and doesn’t concern only childhood but continues However, despite the benefits, at the lower lev- tuting a rehearsal or approximation of tasks per- word, but a process of developing strategies, with to play a major role in lifelong learning (Arnold & els of language learning, the inherent difficulties of formed by native speakers in real life. applications in both oral and written communica- Brown, 1999). authentic texts are judged on the basis of the prob- Even for students of elementary level, there is a tion (Swaffar, 1999). This means that this student is prepared to risk lems they pose for students and not on whether plethora of tasks appropriate and consistent with Furthermore, students – beginners included – making mistakes, forming assumptions, drawing they pose a challenge for them. The positive effect their language proficiency which are authentic in do not enter the language class as tabula rasa and conclusions and making generalisations on the ba- of challenge on emotional factors that are crucial the sense that they ‘emulate native-speaker are not devoid of language. On the contrary, they sis of context or prior knowledge and experience. for learning – such as motivation, confidence and interac-tions’ (Mishan, 2005, p. 62). What the have already assimilated knowledge and language This readiness to take on ‘risky’ initiatives compris- self-esteem – are not sufficiently assessed. There- teacher should take into consideration is that par- experiences forming their own cognitive frame- es an emotional factor that is vital to learning, pro- fore, there is a tendency to avoid exposing ele- tial comprehension of a text is no longer consid- work which could be exploited to facilitate target vided that the risk taken is balanced, or ‘moderate, mentary levels to authentic input, due to language ered to be necessarily problematic, since even na- language acquisition. Especially authentic texts, as but intelligent’ (Oxford, 1999, p. 63). difficulties which prohibit reception and compre- tive speakers typically operate with less than total real-life products, depict universal types of dis- Exposure to authentic language input can cre- hension. This attitude inevitably precludes lower comprehension (Willis, 1996; Guariento & Morley, course, structures, lexical forms and subjects ate favourable conditions for such risk-taking ini- level students from accessing subject matter which 2001; Widdowson, 1990). Hence, detailed word- which appear more recognisable and familiar to tiatives in the sense that it can trigger a student- meets their interests or needs and hence are more for-word decoding of a text is neither necessary the students. This universality in language or con-

92 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 93 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 The implementation of authentic language input in second language (L2) teaching: Pedagogical arguments Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Maria Skiada tent allows a higher degree of contextualisation highlighted, as well as their impact on learners’ Burns, A., & Seidlhofer, B. (2002). Speaking and Grellet, F. (1981). Developing reading skills. Cambridge, and fosters prior knowledge activation facilitating process of acquiring awareness of the language pronunciation. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduc- UK: Cambridge University Press. comprehension. Knowledge of a subject presup- system which forms this culture and of the society tion to applied linguistics (pp. 211-232). London, Grundy, P. (1993). Recourse books for teachers: poses a partial, at least, knowledge of the corre- in which this system is implemented and used. It UK: Arnold. Newspapers. Oxford, UK: Oxford University sponding discourse type, therefore students who was explained how authentic texts, as carriers of Buttjes, D., & Byram, M. (Eds.). (1991). Mediating Press. languages and cultures: Towards an intercultural Guariento, W., & Morley, J. (2001). Text and task have this equipment are able to manage texts that this symbiotic relationship between language and theory of foreign language education. Clevedon, authenticity in the EFL classroom. ELT Journal, exceed their language competence (Crandall, culture, are more likely to smooth the reception UK: Multilingual Matters. 55(4), 347-353. doi: 10.1093/elt/55.4.347 1995, p. 87). Besides, the sources of authentic ma- and assimilation process of new and unfamiliar Byram, M. (1991). Teaching culture and language: Horwitz, E. K. (2008). Becoming a language teacher: A terials that can be used in the classroom are infi- linguistic and cultural information, removing ob- Towards an integrated model. In D. Buttjes & M. practical guide to second language learning and nite, including a plethora of naturally graded texts stacles on the way to language acquisition. Fur- Byram (Eds.), Mediating languages and cultures: teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson. which can cover the entire range of proficiency thermore, the conceptual nature of currency which Towards an intercultural theory of foreign Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language levels. This means that some songs, advertise- pervades authentic texts was discussed at both lan- language education (pp. 17-32). Clevedon, UK: teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ments, poems, articles are from a language per- guage and content level. The pedagogical benefits Multilingual Matters. Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition spective inherently easier than others. Therefore, of language and content topicality of learning ma- Carrell, P. L., & Eisterhold, J. C. (1983). Schema theory and use: The Taipei lectures. Portsmouth, NH: as Tomlinson (2003) points out, students of lower terial were interpreted on the basis of the interest and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, Heinemann. levels can be motivated and assisted in developing and relevancy that such material has for students 17(4), 553-573. doi: 10.2307/3586613 Latifi, M., Youhanaee, M., & Mohammadi, E. (2013). advanced skills and not restricted to specially and its consequent positive effect on learners’ mo- Case, A. (2012, November 11). Advantages and Simplifying the text or simplifying the task: How modified material that focuses on decoding lan- tivation. Finally, the pedagogical argument of chal- disadvantages of using authentic texts in class. to improve listening comprehension. Porta Retrieved from https://usingenglish.com/articles/ Linguarum, 19, 7-21. doi: 10.30827/Digibug. guage and mere language practice. lenge arising from the a priori demanding nature advantages-disadvantages-using-authentic-texts- 29623 of authentic input was presented, particularly its in-class.html Lazar, G. (1994). Using literature at lower levels. ELT 4. CONCLUSION ability to act as a positive and motivating driving Crandall, J. (1995). The why, what and how of ESL Journal, 48(2), 115-124. Summing up, this article outlined the main ar- force even at elementary levels. Within this frame- reading instruction: Some guidelines for writers Leloup, J., & Ponterio, R. (1997). Addressing the need guments which advocate – from a pedagogical work, the teaching strategy of varying the tasks de- of ESL reading textbooks. In P. Byrd (Ed.), for electronic communication in foreign lan- perspective – the incorporation of authentic lan- pending on students’ proficiency level and general Material writer’s guide (pp. 79-94). Boston, MA: guage teaching. In R. Steinfeldt (Ed.), Educational guage input in L2 teaching. Overall, the ways in profile was emphasised. This task modification Heinle & Heinle. technologies (pp. 39-54). New York, NY: The which certain inherent characteristics of authentic needs to comply with the guidelines for task au- Edmonson, W. (1997). The role of literature in foreign New York State Council of Educational Associa- texts promote language acquisition at any profi- thenticity, as well as to provide a properly weight- language learning and teaching: Some valid tions. ciency level were analysed. Initially, the ineradica- ed degree of challenge for students of any lan- assumptions and invalid arguments. AILA Little, D., Devitt, S., & Singleton, D. (1989). Learning ble cultural connotations of authentic texts were guage competency. Review, 12, 42-55. foreign languages from authentic texts: Theory Eliot, T. S. (1948). Notes towards the definition of and practice. Dublin, UK: Authentik Language culture. London, UK: Faber and Faber Limited. Learning Resources. References Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language Little, D., Devitt, S., & Singleton, D. (1994). The acquisition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. communicative approach and authentic texts. In Arnold, J., & Brown, H. D. (1999). A map of the terrain. Bell, J., & Gower, R. (1998). Writing course materials Gilmore, A. (2004). A comparison of textbook and A. Swarbrick (Ed.), Teaching modern languages In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. for the world: A great compromise. In B. authentic interactions. ELT Journal, 58(4), (pp. 43-47). London, UK: Routledge. 1-27). Cambridge, UK: CUP. Tomlinson (Ed.), Materials development in lan- 363-374. doi: 10.1093/elt/58.4.363 Maley, A. (1993). Short and sweet: Short texts and how Bacon, S. M., & Finnemann, M. D. (1990). A study of guage teaching (pp. 116-119). Cambridge, UK: Gilmore, A. (2007). Authentic materials and to use them. London, UK: Penguin Books. the attitudes, motives, and strategies of university Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Lan- authenticity in foreign language learning. Malyuga, E. N. (2020). Functions of humour in spoken foreign language students and their disposition to guage Teaching Library. Language Teaching, 40(2), 97-118. doi: 10.1017/ English economic discourse. Moscow University authentic oral and written input. The Modern Berardo, S. (2006). The use of authentic materials in the S0261444807004144 Bulletin. Series 9: Philology, 6, 31-43. Language Journal, 74(4), 459-473. doi: 10.1111/ teaching of reading. The Reading Matrix, 6(2), Gladkova, A., & Larina, T. (2018). Anna Wierzbicka: Mishan, F. (2004). Authenticating corpora for language j.1540-4781.1990.tb05338.x 64-66. Language, culture, communication. Russian learning: A problem and its resolution. ELT Bell, F. L. (2005). Comprehension aids, internet Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An Journal of Linguistics, 22(4), 717-748. doi: 10.22 Journal, 58(3), 219-227. technologies, and the reading of authentic interactive approach to language pedagogy. New 363/2312-9182-2018-22-4-717-748 Mishan, F. (2005). Designing authenticity into language materials by adult second language learners York, NY: Longman. Goffman, E. (1983). The interaction order. American learning materials. Bristol, UK: Intellect Books. (Doctoral dissertation). Florida State University, Buendgens-Kosten, J. (2014). Authenticity. ELT Journal, Review of Sociology, 48(1), 1-17. doi: 10.2307/ Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communica- USA. 68(4), 457-459. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccu034 2095141 tive classroom. Cambridge, UK: CUP.

94 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 95 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 The implementation of authentic language input in second language (L2) teaching: Pedagogical arguments Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org by Maria Skiada tent allows a higher degree of contextualisation highlighted, as well as their impact on learners’ Burns, A., & Seidlhofer, B. (2002). Speaking and Grellet, F. (1981). Developing reading skills. Cambridge, and fosters prior knowledge activation facilitating process of acquiring awareness of the language pronunciation. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduc- UK: Cambridge University Press. comprehension. Knowledge of a subject presup- system which forms this culture and of the society tion to applied linguistics (pp. 211-232). London, Grundy, P. (1993). Recourse books for teachers: poses a partial, at least, knowledge of the corre- in which this system is implemented and used. It UK: Arnold. Newspapers. Oxford, UK: Oxford University sponding discourse type, therefore students who was explained how authentic texts, as carriers of Buttjes, D., & Byram, M. (Eds.). (1991). Mediating Press. languages and cultures: Towards an intercultural Guariento, W., & Morley, J. (2001). Text and task have this equipment are able to manage texts that this symbiotic relationship between language and theory of foreign language education. Clevedon, authenticity in the EFL classroom. ELT Journal, exceed their language competence (Crandall, culture, are more likely to smooth the reception UK: Multilingual Matters. 55(4), 347-353. doi: 10.1093/elt/55.4.347 1995, p. 87). Besides, the sources of authentic ma- and assimilation process of new and unfamiliar Byram, M. (1991). Teaching culture and language: Horwitz, E. K. (2008). Becoming a language teacher: A terials that can be used in the classroom are infi- linguistic and cultural information, removing ob- Towards an integrated model. In D. Buttjes & M. practical guide to second language learning and nite, including a plethora of naturally graded texts stacles on the way to language acquisition. Fur- Byram (Eds.), Mediating languages and cultures: teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson. which can cover the entire range of proficiency thermore, the conceptual nature of currency which Towards an intercultural theory of foreign Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language levels. This means that some songs, advertise- pervades authentic texts was discussed at both lan- language education (pp. 17-32). Clevedon, UK: teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ments, poems, articles are from a language per- guage and content level. The pedagogical benefits Multilingual Matters. Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition spective inherently easier than others. Therefore, of language and content topicality of learning ma- Carrell, P. L., & Eisterhold, J. C. (1983). Schema theory and use: The Taipei lectures. Portsmouth, NH: as Tomlinson (2003) points out, students of lower terial were interpreted on the basis of the interest and ESL reading pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, Heinemann. levels can be motivated and assisted in developing and relevancy that such material has for students 17(4), 553-573. doi: 10.2307/3586613 Latifi, M., Youhanaee, M., & Mohammadi, E. (2013). advanced skills and not restricted to specially and its consequent positive effect on learners’ mo- Case, A. (2012, November 11). Advantages and Simplifying the text or simplifying the task: How modified material that focuses on decoding lan- tivation. Finally, the pedagogical argument of chal- disadvantages of using authentic texts in class. to improve listening comprehension. Porta Retrieved from https://usingenglish.com/articles/ Linguarum, 19, 7-21. doi: 10.30827/Digibug. guage and mere language practice. lenge arising from the a priori demanding nature advantages-disadvantages-using-authentic-texts- 29623 of authentic input was presented, particularly its in-class.html Lazar, G. (1994). Using literature at lower levels. ELT 4. CONCLUSION ability to act as a positive and motivating driving Crandall, J. (1995). The why, what and how of ESL Journal, 48(2), 115-124. Summing up, this article outlined the main ar- force even at elementary levels. Within this frame- reading instruction: Some guidelines for writers Leloup, J., & Ponterio, R. (1997). Addressing the need guments which advocate – from a pedagogical work, the teaching strategy of varying the tasks de- of ESL reading textbooks. In P. Byrd (Ed.), for electronic communication in foreign lan- perspective – the incorporation of authentic lan- pending on students’ proficiency level and general Material writer’s guide (pp. 79-94). Boston, MA: guage teaching. In R. Steinfeldt (Ed.), Educational guage input in L2 teaching. Overall, the ways in profile was emphasised. This task modification Heinle & Heinle. technologies (pp. 39-54). New York, NY: The which certain inherent characteristics of authentic needs to comply with the guidelines for task au- Edmonson, W. (1997). The role of literature in foreign New York State Council of Educational Associa- texts promote language acquisition at any profi- thenticity, as well as to provide a properly weight- language learning and teaching: Some valid tions. ciency level were analysed. Initially, the ineradica- ed degree of challenge for students of any lan- assumptions and invalid arguments. AILA Little, D., Devitt, S., & Singleton, D. (1989). Learning ble cultural connotations of authentic texts were guage competency. Review, 12, 42-55. foreign languages from authentic texts: Theory Eliot, T. S. (1948). Notes towards the definition of and practice. Dublin, UK: Authentik Language culture. London, UK: Faber and Faber Limited. Learning Resources. References Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language Little, D., Devitt, S., & Singleton, D. (1994). The acquisition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. communicative approach and authentic texts. In Arnold, J., & Brown, H. D. (1999). A map of the terrain. Bell, J., & Gower, R. (1998). Writing course materials Gilmore, A. (2004). A comparison of textbook and A. Swarbrick (Ed.), Teaching modern languages In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. for the world: A great compromise. In B. authentic interactions. ELT Journal, 58(4), (pp. 43-47). London, UK: Routledge. 1-27). Cambridge, UK: CUP. Tomlinson (Ed.), Materials development in lan- 363-374. doi: 10.1093/elt/58.4.363 Maley, A. (1993). Short and sweet: Short texts and how Bacon, S. M., & Finnemann, M. D. (1990). A study of guage teaching (pp. 116-119). Cambridge, UK: Gilmore, A. (2007). Authentic materials and to use them. London, UK: Penguin Books. the attitudes, motives, and strategies of university Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Lan- authenticity in foreign language learning. Malyuga, E. N. (2020). Functions of humour in spoken foreign language students and their disposition to guage Teaching Library. Language Teaching, 40(2), 97-118. doi: 10.1017/ English economic discourse. Moscow University authentic oral and written input. The Modern Berardo, S. (2006). The use of authentic materials in the S0261444807004144 Bulletin. Series 9: Philology, 6, 31-43. Language Journal, 74(4), 459-473. doi: 10.1111/ teaching of reading. The Reading Matrix, 6(2), Gladkova, A., & Larina, T. (2018). Anna Wierzbicka: Mishan, F. (2004). Authenticating corpora for language j.1540-4781.1990.tb05338.x 64-66. Language, culture, communication. Russian learning: A problem and its resolution. ELT Bell, F. L. (2005). Comprehension aids, internet Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An Journal of Linguistics, 22(4), 717-748. doi: 10.22 Journal, 58(3), 219-227. technologies, and the reading of authentic interactive approach to language pedagogy. New 363/2312-9182-2018-22-4-717-748 Mishan, F. (2005). Designing authenticity into language materials by adult second language learners York, NY: Longman. Goffman, E. (1983). The interaction order. American learning materials. Bristol, UK: Intellect Books. (Doctoral dissertation). Florida State University, Buendgens-Kosten, J. (2014). Authenticity. ELT Journal, Review of Sociology, 48(1), 1-17. doi: 10.2307/ Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communica- USA. 68(4), 457-459. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccu034 2095141 tive classroom. Cambridge, UK: CUP.

94 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 95 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1-97-99 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 97-99 rudn.tlcjournal.org

Oxford, R. (1999). Anxiety and the language learner: Sweet, H. (1964). The practical study of languages: A New insights. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in guide for teachers and learner. Oxford, UK: OUP. language learning (pp. 58-67). Cambridge, UK: Thaler, I. S (2019). Can a sociolinguistic perspective of Cambridge University Press. Second Language Acquisition solve ‘the Review Paltridge, B. (2001). Genre and the language learning longstanding human curiosity’ of learning classroom. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan languages? Training, Language and Culture, 3(3), Press. doi: 10.3998/mpub.23749 36-55. doi: 10.29366/2019tlc.3.3.3 Peacock, M. (1997). The effect of authentic material on Thornbury, S. (1999). How to teach grammar. Harlow, Intercultural politeness: Managing relations across the motivation of EFL learners. ELT Journal, 51(2), UK: Longman. 144-156. doi: 10.1093/elt/51.2.144 Tomalin, B., & Stempleski, S. (1993). Cultural aware- cultures (a review) Prabhu, N. S. (1987). Second language pedagogy. ness. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Original work by Helen Spencer-Oatey and Daniel Z. Kadar published by Cambridge University Press 2021 Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Tomlinson, B. (2003). Developing principled frame- Sapir, E. (1963). The status of linguistics as a science. In works for materials development. In B. Tomlinson Reviewed by Maurice Cassidy D. G. Mandelbaum (Ed.), Selected writings of (Ed.), Developing materials for language teaching Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality (pp. 107-129). London, UK: Bloomsbury. Maurice Cassidy International House London, UK [email protected] (pp. 160-166). Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: Tomlinson, B. (Ed.). (2013). Developing materials for Article history Received February 1, 2021 | Revised March 3, 2021 | Accepted March 9, 2021 University of California Press. language teaching. London, UK: Bloomsbury. Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest Skiada-Sciaranetti, M., & Georgiadou, I. (2019). Van Lier, L. (1995). Introducing language awareness. Research funding No funding was reported for this research Applying a task-based approach to authentic London, UK: Penguin. doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-97-99 texts: An example of teaching a poem to lower Wallace, C. (1992). Critical literacy awareness in the For citation Cassidy, M. (2021). Intercultural politeness: Managing relations across cultures (a review). Training, level students of Greek as L2. Training, Language EFL classroom. In N. Fairclough (Ed.), Critical Language and Culture, 5(1), 97-99. and Culture, 3(4), 18-26. doi: 10.29366/2019tlc. language awareness (pp. 59-92). London, UK: 3.4.2 Longman. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits Swaffar, J. K. (1985). Reading authentic texts in a foreign Widdowson, H. G. (1978). Teaching language as unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0) language: A cognitive model. Modern Language communication. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Journal, 69(1), 15-34. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4781. Press. 1985.tb02521.x Widdowson, H. G. (1990). Aspects of language It goes without saying that globalisation has people behave but how they express their feelings Swaffar, J. K. (1999). The case for foreign languages as a teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. brought many more people from different coun- and build relationships. In that process of building discipline. ADFL Bulletin, 30(3), 6-12. doi: 10.16 Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. tries together than ever before and put more and international relationships, politeness is extremely 32/adfl.30.3.6 Harlow, UK: Addison Wesley Longman. more into contact virtually via ICT such as the In- important and that is why this book is so timely ternet and social media platforms. Intercultural and so valuable. It explores what intercultural po- AUTHOR INFORMATION: MARIA SKIADA theorists have identified a range of features that en- liteness means, how it is expressed and how it can Hellenic Open University | 32 Winkelstrasse, Meilen, Switzerland [email protected] able people to work together and one of them is be used to help build relationships and resolve how to build relationships. Intercultural theory dif- conflicts. ferentiates between task-oriented and relationship- Helen Spencer-Oatey, Professor of Applied Lin- oriented cultures, and research indicates that the guistics at the University of Warwick UK, and majority of the countries of the world are primarily Daniel Z. Kadar, Professor at the Dalian University relationship-oriented. In relationship-oriented of Foreign Languages in China, have joined forces countries it’s important you build a relationship to write an evaluative approach to how relation- first, whereas in task-oriented countries you build ships are formed and, in the case of conflict, re-es- the relationship through working successfully to- tablished, in different cultures around the world. In gether. But the task comes first. I use the expres- doing so they have made an important addition to sion as a generalisation as individuals in task-ori- the literature on improving relations across cul- ented cultures might be relationship-oriented and tures. vice versa. However, since the majority of the The book is divided into four parts. Part 1 Con- world is relationship- rather than task-oriented it is ceptual Foundations provides the theoretical basis important to pay due attention not just to how of the book. Part 2 explores Evaluation of Polite-

© Maurice Cassidy 2021 96 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 97 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-86-96 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1-97-99 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 86-96 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 97-99 rudn.tlcjournal.org

© Maurice Cassidy 2021 96 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 97 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-97-99 Intercultural politeness: Managing relations across cultures (a review) Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 97-99 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Original work by Helen Spencer-Oatey and Daniel Z. Kadar, reviewed by Maurice Cassidy

people takes place in a context. Step 2 is Normal- judgements of the character apparently guilty of them proactively to achieve cooperation. The au- ‘The book is intended for researchers into cy and Triggering the Evaluation Process. In other impoliteness. The other person in the exchange thors emphasise directness and indirectness as a intercultural theory, pragmatics and words, we know what we would normally expect may also consider us impolite. In Part 3 of the key cultural feature in understanding the cultural conflict research but is also relevant for and anything different triggers the evaluation book the authors address these perceptions. First, perception of what might be perceived as appro- process. Step 3 is Evaluation of Behaviour and the they distinguish between pro-active politeness (ini- priate and inappropriate in politeness rituals. They intercultural trainers and language Agent. We encounter an exchange we are not fa- tiated by you) and reactive politeness (your correct go on to stress the importance of rapport mainte- teachers. Each chapter ends with a miliar with, and quite possible perceive as ‘impo- response to someone else’s politeness), for exam- nance using mindfulness and emotional intelli- summary and some with questions for lite’ and that leads to our forming an opinion of ple the exchanging of business cards in Japan, gence to recognise and compensate for those mo- the other person in the exchange, and quite proba- what you do and what you say. They identify three ments when politeness formulae might be per- reflection and discussion in class’ bly them of us. That leads to Step 4, Evaluation stages in the process, perception (of rudeness or ceived as inappropriate. Warrant, which is an examination of why the per- inappropriacy), response to that perception and So, finally, how can people use etiquette and ness Across Cultures, evaluating the politeness son behaved in the way they did both linguistically the consequences of that response, which might politeness as a way of cementing positive intercul- norms and establishing a framework for analysing and culturally and on what grounds it might have involve apologies, disagreement and conflict. tural relations with those they deal with? First is and evaluating politeness formulae. Part 3 entitled caused offence. Although described here at some Proactive politeness, the authors assert, has been adopting the cultural formulae of those they deal Managing Politeness Across Cultures looks at how length, the four-step evaluation process may hap- extensively researched but reactive politeness with. Second is being aware of the cultural as- to build good relations through politeness, how to pen in just a few seconds but is also useful for re- much less so. How then can international agents, sumptions of how they act and how others act or maintain them and how to restore them when flection and examination after the event. whoever they are and in whatever context, estab- react. Third is using mindfulness and emotional in- things go wrong. Part 4 draws a conclusion on the On what grounds do we base our assumptions lish positive relationships with those they are deal- telligence to spot when an exchange may be inap- importance of politeness theory and its application of politeness and impoliteness in exchanges? The ing with? propriate and taking immediate steps to rectify any to intercultural theory and practice. authors identify three key cultural factors. First is First of all, it is important to recognise the im- misunderstanding. Ultimately, we are all capable The book is intended for researchers into inter- our evaluative judgement that there has been a portance of ‘proactive management’ to reinforce of recognising and adapting to different cultural cultural theory, pragmatics and conflict research breach of norms and expectations that we are ac- and improve international relationships. This and linguistic expressions of politeness and adapt- but is also relevant for intercultural trainers and customed to. Secondly, our concerns and goals means understanding the key principles of cultural ing to them. This book theoretically and practically language teachers. Each chapter ends with a sum- have not been observed or appreciated with a con- interaction and politeness theory and applying will aid progress in this direction. mary and some with questions for reflection and sequent feeling of loss of face. Thirdly, the other discussion in class. person or persons have not observed what we con- AUTHOR INFORMATION: MAURICE CASSIDY The first two chapters explore the theories be- sider to be social rights and obligations. As the au- International House London | 16 Stukeley Street, WC2B5LQ London, UK hind politeness as a lingua-cultural discipline but thors point out, such issues do not always cause [email protected] broadening their investigation. Politeness is a rela- agitation. Misunderstandings may be perceived as tionship building practice among culturally identi- amusing or quaint. Nevertheless, they are capable fied groups, sometimes described as national, but of diminishing the value of the interaction so it is this is misleading. It helps distinguish ingroups worth trying to get it right. from outgroups. The cultural patterning, as the au- The authors go on to examine the impact of thors describe it, reflects linguistic behaviour with- perceived impoliteness on what they describe as in their values and attitudes and behavioural the individual’s perception of morality. There is a norms. The treatment is firmly theoretical but pep- tendency to assume that because I perceive some- pered with explanatory diagrammes and very use- one to have done something impolite – they are ful critical incidents as illustration of the points impolite as a person. In fact, as the authors point made, reflecting the authors’ wide international out, it is important to separate the problem from experience. the person. A person may have said or done some- A lot of perceived impoliteness comes from thing that you perceive of as impolite but it is not misunderstandings between people from different that they are impolite as a person. Do not confuse cultural backgrounds with different ways of ex- the problem with the person. pressing themselves. The authors offer a four-step Up to now the authors have focused on the politeness evaluation process. Step 1, Behaviour in problem of inappropriate interaction which leads Context, recognises that any interaction between to feelings of impoliteness and creates moral

98 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 99 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-97-99 Intercultural politeness: Managing relations across cultures (a review) Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 97-99 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Original work by Helen Spencer-Oatey and Daniel Z. Kadar, reviewed by Maurice Cassidy people takes place in a context. Step 2 is Normal- judgements of the character apparently guilty of them proactively to achieve cooperation. The au- ‘The book is intended for researchers into cy and Triggering the Evaluation Process. In other impoliteness. The other person in the exchange thors emphasise directness and indirectness as a intercultural theory, pragmatics and words, we know what we would normally expect may also consider us impolite. In Part 3 of the key cultural feature in understanding the cultural conflict research but is also relevant for and anything different triggers the evaluation book the authors address these perceptions. First, perception of what might be perceived as appro- process. Step 3 is Evaluation of Behaviour and the they distinguish between pro-active politeness (ini- priate and inappropriate in politeness rituals. They intercultural trainers and language Agent. We encounter an exchange we are not fa- tiated by you) and reactive politeness (your correct go on to stress the importance of rapport mainte- teachers. Each chapter ends with a miliar with, and quite possible perceive as ‘impo- response to someone else’s politeness), for exam- nance using mindfulness and emotional intelli- summary and some with questions for lite’ and that leads to our forming an opinion of ple the exchanging of business cards in Japan, gence to recognise and compensate for those mo- the other person in the exchange, and quite proba- what you do and what you say. They identify three ments when politeness formulae might be per- reflection and discussion in class’ bly them of us. That leads to Step 4, Evaluation stages in the process, perception (of rudeness or ceived as inappropriate. Warrant, which is an examination of why the per- inappropriacy), response to that perception and So, finally, how can people use etiquette and ness Across Cultures, evaluating the politeness son behaved in the way they did both linguistically the consequences of that response, which might politeness as a way of cementing positive intercul- norms and establishing a framework for analysing and culturally and on what grounds it might have involve apologies, disagreement and conflict. tural relations with those they deal with? First is and evaluating politeness formulae. Part 3 entitled caused offence. Although described here at some Proactive politeness, the authors assert, has been adopting the cultural formulae of those they deal Managing Politeness Across Cultures looks at how length, the four-step evaluation process may hap- extensively researched but reactive politeness with. Second is being aware of the cultural as- to build good relations through politeness, how to pen in just a few seconds but is also useful for re- much less so. How then can international agents, sumptions of how they act and how others act or maintain them and how to restore them when flection and examination after the event. whoever they are and in whatever context, estab- react. Third is using mindfulness and emotional in- things go wrong. Part 4 draws a conclusion on the On what grounds do we base our assumptions lish positive relationships with those they are deal- telligence to spot when an exchange may be inap- importance of politeness theory and its application of politeness and impoliteness in exchanges? The ing with? propriate and taking immediate steps to rectify any to intercultural theory and practice. authors identify three key cultural factors. First is First of all, it is important to recognise the im- misunderstanding. Ultimately, we are all capable The book is intended for researchers into inter- our evaluative judgement that there has been a portance of ‘proactive management’ to reinforce of recognising and adapting to different cultural cultural theory, pragmatics and conflict research breach of norms and expectations that we are ac- and improve international relationships. This and linguistic expressions of politeness and adapt- but is also relevant for intercultural trainers and customed to. Secondly, our concerns and goals means understanding the key principles of cultural ing to them. This book theoretically and practically language teachers. Each chapter ends with a sum- have not been observed or appreciated with a con- interaction and politeness theory and applying will aid progress in this direction. mary and some with questions for reflection and sequent feeling of loss of face. Thirdly, the other discussion in class. person or persons have not observed what we con- AUTHOR INFORMATION: MAURICE CASSIDY The first two chapters explore the theories be- sider to be social rights and obligations. As the au- International House London | 16 Stukeley Street, WC2B5LQ London, UK hind politeness as a lingua-cultural discipline but thors point out, such issues do not always cause [email protected] broadening their investigation. Politeness is a rela- agitation. Misunderstandings may be perceived as tionship building practice among culturally identi- amusing or quaint. Nevertheless, they are capable fied groups, sometimes described as national, but of diminishing the value of the interaction so it is this is misleading. It helps distinguish ingroups worth trying to get it right. from outgroups. The cultural patterning, as the au- The authors go on to examine the impact of thors describe it, reflects linguistic behaviour with- perceived impoliteness on what they describe as in their values and attitudes and behavioural the individual’s perception of morality. There is a norms. The treatment is firmly theoretical but pep- tendency to assume that because I perceive some- pered with explanatory diagrammes and very use- one to have done something impolite – they are ful critical incidents as illustration of the points impolite as a person. In fact, as the authors point made, reflecting the authors’ wide international out, it is important to separate the problem from experience. the person. A person may have said or done some- A lot of perceived impoliteness comes from thing that you perceive of as impolite but it is not misunderstandings between people from different that they are impolite as a person. Do not confuse cultural backgrounds with different ways of ex- the problem with the person. pressing themselves. The authors offer a four-step Up to now the authors have focused on the politeness evaluation process. Step 1, Behaviour in problem of inappropriate interaction which leads Context, recognises that any interaction between to feelings of impoliteness and creates moral

98 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 99 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-100-102 The bilingual brain: And what it tells us about the science of language (a review) Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 100-102 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Original work by Albert Costa, reviewed by Dominique Vouillemin

within hours after birth. Research using dummies with electrical sensors show how babies recognise ‘Costa’s contention is that interaction the rhythm of language and separate changes in between people using language (as in a Review sounds very quickly and even separate the sounds classroom) is fundamental to successful of different languages even though they cannot say them until much later. language learning whereas learning from The bilingual brain: And what it tells us about the science One final comment in Chapter 1 took me by a disengaged source – self-study materials surprise. Costa’s contention is that interaction be- – is less successful. As someone who has of language (a review) tween people using language (as in a classroom) is fundamental to successful language learning spent much of his life developing materials Original work by Albert Costa published by Penguin Books 2021 whereas learning from a disengaged source – self- for self-study, I found this conclusion Reviewed by Dominique Vouillemin study materials – is less successful. As someone somewhat disturbing. However, it does who has spent much of his life developing materi- make the case for the importance of Dominique Vouillemin International House London, UK [email protected] als for self-study, I found this conclusion somewhat Article history Received December 19, 2020 | Revised February 12, 2021 | Accepted March 9, 2021 disturbing. However, it does make the case for the blended learning, where live interaction Conflicts of interest The author declared no conflicts of interest importance of blended learning, where live inter- Research funding No funding was reported for this research (for example via WhatsApp or Zoom in the doi 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-100-102 action (for example via WhatsApp or Zoom in the absence of face-to-face contact) is absence of face-to-face contact) is combined with For citation Vouillemin, D. (2021). The bilingual brain: And what it tells us about the science of language (a review). combined with self-study materials Training, Language and Culture, 5(1), 100-102. self-study materials delivered by radio, TV or online. delivered by radio, TV or online’ This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License which permits Chapter 2 begins by examining the impact of unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, including transformation and building upon the material brain damage on bilinguals. Costa examines the ever, research indicates that you never completely for any purpose, provided the original author(s) and source are properly cited (CC BY 4.0) impact of sports accidents resulting in brain injury forget a language you have learned and a compar- and notes that in the recovery period those ative degree of fluency recurs after even a short Well over half the world is bilingual but little is The book is a valuable neuro-linguistic resource wounded might talk in their second language stay in the country where they speak it. In terms of known about it and how it works. In this short and for linguists and researchers into bilingualism and rather than their first but research suggests that brain function the use of a language that has be- highly readable study, Professor Albert Costa ex- also for language teachers. Written in a non-scien- brain damage or aphasia affects all brain organs come unfamiliar is costlier in terms of time. So, the amines the impact of bilingualism on young peo- tific and reader-friendly style, it offers insights into equally, suggesting the areas of the brain involved answer is regular practice in speaking, in interact- ple from infancy to old age and explains how how our brains manage the challenges of picking in processing language are the same. However, re- ing with speakers of the other language if you can bilingualism affects people’s daily lives. Costa uses up and using a second language and shows how search also suggests that the use of a second lan- and reading and following media (movies, docu- his experience in neuro-linguistic research in Bar- bilinguals and users of a second language have guage uses more areas of the brain than using our mentaries and news broadcasts) in the second lan- celona, itself a bilingual city speaking Spanish and considerable advantages over monolinguals, while mother tongue and that working in a second language. Costa’s purpose is to describe rather than Catalan, as well as studies from all over the world not going as far as saying bilinguals are all-round guage involves a higher degree of second-lan- advise but he does stress the importance for lin- to show the effects of bilingualism, including ex- smarter than monolinguals. Costa explores neurol- guage motor control. Readers may have noticed guistic brain development of reading in the first amples from Canada, France and South Korea. The ogy and psychology to explain how two languages that children of bilingual parents (e.g. a French language, the second language or both with very Bilingual Brain has five chapters: The Bilingual Cra- can exist in the same brain. He goes on to show mother and an English father) who go on holiday young children. dle about babies born and brought up in a bilin- how dual language ability gives the speaker cer- in France experience a temporary slowing down in Chapter 3 explores how bilingualism sculpts gual environment; Two Languages, One Brain; tain behavioural advantages and can even delay English when they return to their English school. the brain. Interestingly, Costa states that a human How Bilingualism Sculpts the Brain; Mental Gym- the onset of dementia by up to four years. He also Why? Because they have got used to using French being will have up to 35,000 mother tongue words nastics, and, finally, Making Decisions. In doing so shows that bilinguals are often better at making and it takes a little longer to return fully to the use stored in their brain, but use few and fewer as they he cites research from all over the world, including considered decisions, less prone to instinctive re- of English, although they speak both fluently. The advance in age. Research indicates that bilinguals his own laboratory in Barcelona, Spain. Costa ex- actions and better at managing conflict. ability to move between languages is known as have a ‘brain library’ of fewer words than mono- plains various research experiments into bilingual- So, what do we learn? Some pretty astonishing ‘code switching’. I’ve also noticed that if you have linguals but more overall as they know both the ism around the world and the Further Reading sec- things. In Chapter 1 Costa analyses experiments on learned a language but have not used it for a long words and the translated equivalent in their section at the end of the book directs the reader to babies and shows how they are able to differenti- period of time the first thing to go is vocabulary. ond language. However, as he goes on to say, further research sources. ate change in speech sounds and what is said The words just don’t seem to come to mind. How- bilingualism is only one small part of the develop-

© Dominique Vouillemin 2021 100 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Training, Language and Culture 101 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-100-102 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 100-102 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 rudn.tlcjournal.org ment of linguistic control in the brain. More signif- Emotion is significant in learning a new lan- icant is the difference between the neural process guage. I have known many people with bilingual of learning new words (vocabulary) and learning parents who refused to learn their parent’s mother how to combine them (syntax). Research done at tongue, partly, I suspect, because of some emo- News & Events University College London using neuro-imaging tional disconnect. I think Costa would endorse indicates that learning and use of a second lan- parents encouraging children to learn the language guage does not affect the brain representation of they learned at home as well as the mother tongue the first language but it does affect the effort re- of the country where the child is brought up if In March 2021, Geoff Tranter once again will quired for processing, especially when speaking. only because of its beneficial effects on brain de- ICC News inform and entertain us with A Comedy of Errors Chapter 4 deals with the ability of bilinguals velopment. Discussing bilinguals from an early Authenticity in by Barry Tomalin and Ian McMaster will talk about and multilinguals to multitask and also whether age and also second language learners operating Language and Leadership: What Is It and Do We brain deterioration in old age affects monolinguals at a higher level, Costa concludes that second lan- ICC Board Member Need It? in our April webinar. For dates and ab- or bilinguals first. Research done with children and guage speakers tend to approach issues from a less stracts of each talk please go to https://icc-lan- also with young adults indicates that bilinguals are emotional bias and analyse issues more lucidly. Webinars for Language Teachers guages.eu/webinars. ICC-Languages webinars are better at multi-tasking than monolinguals because They also find it easier to cultivate empathy. ICC-Languages goes from strength to strength open to everyone, not just members, and to view bilingualism helps develop an attentional system In summary, Costa’s findings emphasise the im- with a new series of webinars, publicity for its EU- our past webinars and future webinars as they are which encourages flexibility and adaptation to portance of learning and understanding a foreign ROLTA language teacher training programme and delivered simply go to https://icc-languages.eu and new tasks. On brain deterioration, Costa describes language and the advantages it gives the learner in development in quality assurance, especially for click on Webinars. two studies in Toronto and Hyderabad which indi- both their personal and working lives based on new member organisations. ICC-Languages also cated that bilinguals visiting doctors reported neurological linguistic research. He emphasises celebrates and looks forward to another year of ICC Quality Assurance symptoms of old age cognitive reserve up to four that further research is needed, particularly in the close cooperation with ECML (the European Cen- A key role of any educational organisation is to years later than monolinguals in the same age areas of emotion and empathy. It may also influ- tre for Modern Languages of the Council of provide a guarantee of quality assurance for its group. So, is it possible that bilingualism not only ence language policy in countries where lan- Europe). member institutions. Again, partly as a result of the makes you cleverer but can also prolong your life? guages are contested. He describes the research Following a series of successful webinars at the lockdown, ICC-Languages is updating its quality The final chapter starts with Nelson Mandela, into bilingualism and monolingualism and how it end of 2020 featuring Geoff Tranter’s highly enjoy- assurance criteria to ensure that its members can Nobel peace prize winner and president of South influences and sculps the brain and presents re- able Smiles and More examining the use of hu- offer high level standards of education both for Africa who spent 27 years in jail for opposing search exercises that teachers can try in their class- mour to help language teaching and learning, and teacher training courses and language teaching. apartheid (South Africa’s racial separatist policy). es. He also emphasises that much more research is Elizabeth Mickiewicz of the University of Coventry Expect more on this in our next ICC-Languages While in prison Mandela, a speaker of Xhosa and needed in how language and bilingualism influ- on COIL (Collaborative Online International and EUROLTA news. English, also learned Afrikaans, the language of the ences brain development and linguistic and atten- Learning) in language teaching, our first webinar Boer colonists of South Africa. Why? As he said, ‘If tional control. Above all, it makes the case for the of 2021 featured Kataryna Palcu of the VHS ICC-Languages and ECML you talk to a man in a language he understands it importance of the teaching of languages in schools (Deutsche Volkhochschule) in Augsburg, Germany, Finally, a key feature of ICC-Languages is its goes to his head. If you talk to a man in his own as a means of broadening the mind not just lin- on the Common European Framework of Refer- close link with ECML based in Graz in Austria. Su- language it goes to his heart’. The citation stresses guistically and culturally but also neurologically ence (CEFR) focusing on mediation. sanna Slivensky, Deputy Executive Director and the importance of the relationship between lan- and intellectually. Highly recommended for all re- Mediation is the latest buzzword in the teach- Head of Programmes of ECML, was keynote guage and emotion. searchers and language teachers. ing of languages but what exactly is it? Why speaker at our online international conference in should teachers teach it? How should they teach 2019 and ICC-Languages promotes access to ECML research and publications. ECML publishes AUTHOR INFORMATION: DOMINIQUE VOUILLEMIN it? How can teachers promote mediation and International House London | 16 Stukeley Street, WC2B5LQ London, UK plurilingual/pluricultural competence? The webi- a quarterly newsletter entitled The European Lan- [email protected] nar focused on the changes to the 2001 published guage Gazette. The latest issue can be accessed at CEFR and explored the concept of mediation and https://www.ecml.at/news/newsletter/gazette54/ its application in the language classroom. For tabid/4424/default.aspx. more background information please visit https:// ICC-Languages looks forward to ever closer col- icc-languages.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ laboration with ECML as the year progresses, par- CEFR-Companion-Volume-with-new-descriptors- ticular in the area of studying and working in Eu- 2018.docx.pdf. ropean language education.

102 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 103 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1-100-102 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021, pp. 100-102 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 rudn.tlcjournal.org ment of linguistic control in the brain. More signif- Emotion is significant in learning a new lan- icant is the difference between the neural process guage. I have known many people with bilingual of learning new words (vocabulary) and learning parents who refused to learn their parent’s mother how to combine them (syntax). Research done at tongue, partly, I suspect, because of some emo- News & Events University College London using neuro-imaging tional disconnect. I think Costa would endorse indicates that learning and use of a second lan- parents encouraging children to learn the language guage does not affect the brain representation of they learned at home as well as the mother tongue the first language but it does affect the effort re- of the country where the child is brought up if In March 2021, Geoff Tranter once again will quired for processing, especially when speaking. only because of its beneficial effects on brain de- ICC News inform and entertain us with A Comedy of Errors Chapter 4 deals with the ability of bilinguals velopment. Discussing bilinguals from an early Authenticity in by Barry Tomalin and Ian McMaster will talk about and multilinguals to multitask and also whether age and also second language learners operating Language and Leadership: What Is It and Do We brain deterioration in old age affects monolinguals at a higher level, Costa concludes that second lan- ICC Board Member Need It? in our April webinar. For dates and ab- or bilinguals first. Research done with children and guage speakers tend to approach issues from a less stracts of each talk please go to https://icc-lan- also with young adults indicates that bilinguals are emotional bias and analyse issues more lucidly. Webinars for Language Teachers guages.eu/webinars. ICC-Languages webinars are better at multi-tasking than monolinguals because They also find it easier to cultivate empathy. ICC-Languages goes from strength to strength open to everyone, not just members, and to view bilingualism helps develop an attentional system In summary, Costa’s findings emphasise the im- with a new series of webinars, publicity for its EU- our past webinars and future webinars as they are which encourages flexibility and adaptation to portance of learning and understanding a foreign ROLTA language teacher training programme and delivered simply go to https://icc-languages.eu and new tasks. On brain deterioration, Costa describes language and the advantages it gives the learner in development in quality assurance, especially for click on Webinars. two studies in Toronto and Hyderabad which indi- both their personal and working lives based on new member organisations. ICC-Languages also cated that bilinguals visiting doctors reported neurological linguistic research. He emphasises celebrates and looks forward to another year of ICC Quality Assurance symptoms of old age cognitive reserve up to four that further research is needed, particularly in the close cooperation with ECML (the European Cen- A key role of any educational organisation is to years later than monolinguals in the same age areas of emotion and empathy. It may also influ- tre for Modern Languages of the Council of provide a guarantee of quality assurance for its group. So, is it possible that bilingualism not only ence language policy in countries where lan- Europe). member institutions. Again, partly as a result of the makes you cleverer but can also prolong your life? guages are contested. He describes the research Following a series of successful webinars at the lockdown, ICC-Languages is updating its quality The final chapter starts with Nelson Mandela, into bilingualism and monolingualism and how it end of 2020 featuring Geoff Tranter’s highly enjoy- assurance criteria to ensure that its members can Nobel peace prize winner and president of South influences and sculps the brain and presents re- able Smiles and More examining the use of hu- offer high level standards of education both for Africa who spent 27 years in jail for opposing search exercises that teachers can try in their class- mour to help language teaching and learning, and teacher training courses and language teaching. apartheid (South Africa’s racial separatist policy). es. He also emphasises that much more research is Elizabeth Mickiewicz of the University of Coventry Expect more on this in our next ICC-Languages While in prison Mandela, a speaker of Xhosa and needed in how language and bilingualism influ- on COIL (Collaborative Online International and EUROLTA news. English, also learned Afrikaans, the language of the ences brain development and linguistic and atten- Learning) in language teaching, our first webinar Boer colonists of South Africa. Why? As he said, ‘If tional control. Above all, it makes the case for the of 2021 featured Kataryna Palcu of the VHS ICC-Languages and ECML you talk to a man in a language he understands it importance of the teaching of languages in schools (Deutsche Volkhochschule) in Augsburg, Germany, Finally, a key feature of ICC-Languages is its goes to his head. If you talk to a man in his own as a means of broadening the mind not just lin- on the Common European Framework of Refer- close link with ECML based in Graz in Austria. Su- language it goes to his heart’. The citation stresses guistically and culturally but also neurologically ence (CEFR) focusing on mediation. sanna Slivensky, Deputy Executive Director and the importance of the relationship between lan- and intellectually. Highly recommended for all re- Mediation is the latest buzzword in the teach- Head of Programmes of ECML, was keynote guage and emotion. searchers and language teachers. ing of languages but what exactly is it? Why speaker at our online international conference in should teachers teach it? How should they teach 2019 and ICC-Languages promotes access to ECML research and publications. ECML publishes AUTHOR INFORMATION: DOMINIQUE VOUILLEMIN it? How can teachers promote mediation and International House London | 16 Stukeley Street, WC2B5LQ London, UK plurilingual/pluricultural competence? The webi- a quarterly newsletter entitled The European Lan- [email protected] nar focused on the changes to the 2001 published guage Gazette. The latest issue can be accessed at CEFR and explored the concept of mediation and https://www.ecml.at/news/newsletter/gazette54/ its application in the language classroom. For tabid/4424/default.aspx. more background information please visit https:// ICC-Languages looks forward to ever closer col- icc-languages.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ laboration with ECML as the year progresses, par- CEFR-Companion-Volume-with-new-descriptors- ticular in the area of studying and working in Eu- 2018.docx.pdf. ropean language education.

102 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 103 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 rudn.tlcjournal.org

score is calculated based on the share of foreign Round Table Discussion on RUDN University’s University has managed to define its identity as a EUROLTA News faculty members and students, as well as publica- Contribution to the Training of International Spe- research-oriented global educational community. Highly qualified graduates of RUDN University are by Myriam Fischer Callus tions authored in collaboration with foreign schol- cialists ars. RUDN University has shown steady growth in The event commemorating the 61st anniversary in great demand on the international labour mar- EUROLTA Coordinator these groups of indicators – over the span of one of RUDN University was held online in February ket and are widely recognised in the academic year, the results increased by 3.7 and 5.6 points, and welcomed over 70 representatives of foreign community. Ongoing communication and joint EUROLTA Preparing for the Post-Pandemic Era respectively. embassies in Russia, the Federation Council, and teamwork involving students and alumni from oth- As well as running some of its courses online the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of er countries turned the university into a unique during the lockdown EUROLTA is embarking on a QS WUR by Subject 2021 the Russian Federation. centre that unites the ever so valuable expertise of publicity campaign to raise its profile in Europe QS WUR by Subject 2021 offers lists of the best Oleg Yastrebov, Rector of RUDN University: people of different cultural backgrounds’. and beyond. As well as using social media plat- universities in the world by subject. RUDN Uni- ‘We have this good tradition to celebrate our an- Petr Kucherenko, Deputy Minister of Science forms like Facebook and Google for marketing versity showed rapid growth in the areas of Mod- niversaries by looking at the outstanding achieve- and Higher Education of Russia: ‘RUDN University they are working through teacher associations and ern Languages (ranked 88), Linguistics (101-105), ments of RUDN University contributing to the on- is not just a leading university in Russia, but also a filming video interviews and sessions with EUROL- Mathematics (201-250), Economics and Econo- going development of its research potential and place of power. Its spirit remains unchanged – it TA trainees and language and cultural training ex- metrics (351-400) and Chemistry (501-550), and educational strength. The university passed the test rests in the diversity of languages, clothing styles perts to show how the programme works and how for the first time entered the list for Oil and Gas of the pandemic with flying colours and managed and even ethnic national cuisines. Over the past useful participants find it. As part of the campaign Business (101-150), Law (151-200), Business and to keep up the quality and pace of the educational years, the university has trained over 200 thousand EUROLTA is redesigning its website. In doing so it Management (451-500), Computer Science (451- services it set out to provide. In 2020, we didn’t specialists for more than 170 states, strengthening expects to reach many more practising teachers 500). Industry Rankings: Arts & Humanities just retain, but actually managed to increase the and developing the regions of Asia, Africa, the who need to improve their skills and achieve EU- (ranked 245 compared to 345 in 2020); Social Sci- rate of admission of foreign citizens with over 160 Middle East, Europe, Latin America and the CIS ROLTA language teaching certification. A brand ences & Management (ranked 256 compared to states sending their applicants to study at RUDN countries. Many outstanding alumni have become new online EUROLTA course in English is now 401-450 in 2020). University’. heads of ministries, governments and states’. available. For more information, visit https://icc- Konstantin Kosachev, Chairman of the Federa- Another focus of attention was RUDN Universi- languages.eu/eurolta or contact Ifigenia Geor- Working Meeting with Representatives of the tion Council Committee on International Affairs: ty’s volunteer movement. From the start of the epi- giadou at ifi[email protected]. ‘Resource Centres of Russian Education Abroad’ ‘Training of highly qualified staff for the world is of demic, the university’s volunteers have joined the Project in 2021 paramount importance today and is reaching a all-Russian campaign #WeAreTogether. Over 500 Meeting participants discussed the results of qualitatively new level. Russia is actively participat- medical students worked in Moscow hospitals. In project implementation in 2020 and discussed the ing in the race for talented international applicants. total, well over 1000 students have helped treat RUDN University tasks for the upcoming year. Larisa Efremova, Vice- The multidimensional strategy here includes a wide Coronavirus patients. Volunteers represented Rector for International Affairs at RUDN Universi- range of measures: from simplifying the visa regime African countries (40%), the CIS (30%), Latin News ty, noted that in the current situation aggravated to rebranding the country’s universities. RUDN America (20%), and European states (10%). because of the Covid-19 pandemic, various adjust- by Elena N. Malyuga ments needed to be put in place, including taking Editor-in-Chief TLC the studies online. Ekaterina Martina, Head of In- ternational Project Activities at RUDN University, RUDN University Is One of the Top 200 Lead- presented the tasks for the resource centres to be ing World Universities According to Times Higher addressed in the upcoming year. Because of the Education Emerging Economies University Rank- lockdown, the key task is to provide thoroughly ings 2021 managed online classes for students, as well as re- RUDN University scores increased in 4 out of 5 fresher courses for teachers. Other priorities ingroups of indicators. Headway is currently most clude holding the Time to Study in Russia contest, prominent in the areas of Research and Interna- consolidating the benefits for those entering Russ- tionalisation. Research indicators cover the num- ian universities upon completing their courses at ber of publications per one academic staff resource centres, promoting the centres abroad, member, income from research per one academi- developing a comprehensive brand identity, and cian, and research reputation. Internationalisation improving social media presence.

104 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 105 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1 Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5–1 Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 https://rudn.tlcjournal.org Volume 5 Issue 1, 2021 rudn.tlcjournal.org score is calculated based on the share of foreign Round Table Discussion on RUDN University’s University has managed to define its identity as a EUROLTA News faculty members and students, as well as publica- Contribution to the Training of International Spe- research-oriented global educational community. Highly qualified graduates of RUDN University are by Myriam Fischer Callus tions authored in collaboration with foreign schol- cialists ars. RUDN University has shown steady growth in The event commemorating the 61st anniversary in great demand on the international labour mar- EUROLTA Coordinator these groups of indicators – over the span of one of RUDN University was held online in February ket and are widely recognised in the academic year, the results increased by 3.7 and 5.6 points, and welcomed over 70 representatives of foreign community. Ongoing communication and joint EUROLTA Preparing for the Post-Pandemic Era respectively. embassies in Russia, the Federation Council, and teamwork involving students and alumni from oth- As well as running some of its courses online the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of er countries turned the university into a unique during the lockdown EUROLTA is embarking on a QS WUR by Subject 2021 the Russian Federation. centre that unites the ever so valuable expertise of publicity campaign to raise its profile in Europe QS WUR by Subject 2021 offers lists of the best Oleg Yastrebov, Rector of RUDN University: people of different cultural backgrounds’. and beyond. As well as using social media plat- universities in the world by subject. RUDN Uni- ‘We have this good tradition to celebrate our an- Petr Kucherenko, Deputy Minister of Science forms like Facebook and Google for marketing versity showed rapid growth in the areas of Mod- niversaries by looking at the outstanding achieve- and Higher Education of Russia: ‘RUDN University they are working through teacher associations and ern Languages (ranked 88), Linguistics (101-105), ments of RUDN University contributing to the on- is not just a leading university in Russia, but also a filming video interviews and sessions with EUROL- Mathematics (201-250), Economics and Econo- going development of its research potential and place of power. Its spirit remains unchanged – it TA trainees and language and cultural training ex- metrics (351-400) and Chemistry (501-550), and educational strength. The university passed the test rests in the diversity of languages, clothing styles perts to show how the programme works and how for the first time entered the list for Oil and Gas of the pandemic with flying colours and managed and even ethnic national cuisines. Over the past useful participants find it. As part of the campaign Business (101-150), Law (151-200), Business and to keep up the quality and pace of the educational years, the university has trained over 200 thousand EUROLTA is redesigning its website. In doing so it Management (451-500), Computer Science (451- services it set out to provide. In 2020, we didn’t specialists for more than 170 states, strengthening expects to reach many more practising teachers 500). Industry Rankings: Arts & Humanities just retain, but actually managed to increase the and developing the regions of Asia, Africa, the who need to improve their skills and achieve EU- (ranked 245 compared to 345 in 2020); Social Sci- rate of admission of foreign citizens with over 160 Middle East, Europe, Latin America and the CIS ROLTA language teaching certification. A brand ences & Management (ranked 256 compared to states sending their applicants to study at RUDN countries. Many outstanding alumni have become new online EUROLTA course in English is now 401-450 in 2020). University’. heads of ministries, governments and states’. available. For more information, visit https://icc- Konstantin Kosachev, Chairman of the Federa- Another focus of attention was RUDN Universi- languages.eu/eurolta or contact Ifigenia Geor- Working Meeting with Representatives of the tion Council Committee on International Affairs: ty’s volunteer movement. From the start of the epi- giadou at ifi[email protected]. ‘Resource Centres of Russian Education Abroad’ ‘Training of highly qualified staff for the world is of demic, the university’s volunteers have joined the Project in 2021 paramount importance today and is reaching a all-Russian campaign #WeAreTogether. Over 500 Meeting participants discussed the results of qualitatively new level. Russia is actively participat- medical students worked in Moscow hospitals. In project implementation in 2020 and discussed the ing in the race for talented international applicants. total, well over 1000 students have helped treat RUDN University tasks for the upcoming year. Larisa Efremova, Vice- The multidimensional strategy here includes a wide Coronavirus patients. Volunteers represented Rector for International Affairs at RUDN Universi- range of measures: from simplifying the visa regime African countries (40%), the CIS (30%), Latin News ty, noted that in the current situation aggravated to rebranding the country’s universities. RUDN America (20%), and European states (10%). because of the Covid-19 pandemic, various adjust- by Elena N. Malyuga ments needed to be put in place, including taking Editor-in-Chief TLC the studies online. Ekaterina Martina, Head of In- ternational Project Activities at RUDN University, RUDN University Is One of the Top 200 Lead- presented the tasks for the resource centres to be ing World Universities According to Times Higher addressed in the upcoming year. Because of the Education Emerging Economies University Rank- lockdown, the key task is to provide thoroughly ings 2021 managed online classes for students, as well as re- RUDN University scores increased in 4 out of 5 fresher courses for teachers. Other priorities ingroups of indicators. Headway is currently most clude holding the Time to Study in Russia contest, prominent in the areas of Research and Interna- consolidating the benefits for those entering Russ- tionalisation. Research indicators cover the num- ian universities upon completing their courses at ber of publications per one academic staff resource centres, promoting the centres abroad, member, income from research per one academi- developing a comprehensive brand identity, and cian, and research reputation. Internationalisation improving social media presence.

104 Training, Language and Culture Training, Language and Culture 105 TRAINING, LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

Published by Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Higher Education Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University) 17923, GSP117198, Moscow, Russia, 6 Miklukho-Maklay Str. [email protected] rudn.tlcjournal.org

Corporate contributor International Language Association (ICC) & ICC Press, International Certiﬁcate Conference – The International Language Association Postfach 10 12 28 D – 44712 Bochum, Germany Yorckstr. 58 D – 44789 Bochum, Germany [email protected] icc-languages.eu/tlcjournal March 2021 ISSN 2520-2073 (Print) ISSN 2521-442X (Online) Volume 5 Issue 1 doi: 10.22363/2521-442X-2021-5-1 The quarterly journal published by Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)