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V16n1 Content Parent and Child Perspectives on the Adoption Expperience: Risk and Protective Factors Professional Development: Journal: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education Parent and Child Perspectives on the Adoption Experience: Risk and Article Title: Protective Factors Author(s): Corinne Warrener and Hillary MMi‐Sung Kim Volume and Issue Number: Vol. 161 No. 1 Manuscript ID: 161034 Page Number: 34 Year: 2013 Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education is a refereed journal concerned with publishing scholarly and relevant articles on continuing education, professional development, and training in the field of social welfare. The aims of the journal are to advance the science of professional development and continuing social work education, to foster underrstanding among educators, practitioners, and researchers, and to promote discussion that represents a broad spectrum of interests in the field. The opinions expressed in this journal are solely those of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the ppolicy positions of The University of Texas at Austin’s School of Social Work or its Center for Social and Behavioral Research. Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education is published two times a year (Spring and Winter) by the Center for Social and Behavioral Research at 1 University Station, D3500 Austin, TX 78712. Journal subscriptions are $110. Our website at www.profdevjournal.org contains additional information regarding submission of publications and subscriptions. Copyright © by The University of Texas at Austin’s School of Social Work’s Center for Social and Behavioral Research. All rights reserved. Printed in the U.S.A. ISSN: 1097‐4911 URL: www.profdevjournal.org Email: www.profdevjournal.org/contact Parent and Child Perspectives on the Adoption Experience: Risk and Protective Factors Corinne Warrener and Hillary Mi-Sung Kim Every year over 110,000 children are adopted in Literature Review the United States. The U.S. Census Bureau report- ed 1.6 million adopted children in 2004, of which Some studies have shown the developmental 13% were internationally adopted; this comprises and adjustment issues that affect adopted chil- 2.5 % of all children under 18 years old (Child dren, such as trouble with identity development Welfare Information Gateway, 2004). For interna- (Soon & Reid, 2000) or mental development is- tional adoption, there was a three-fold increase in sues (Cohen, Lojkasek, Zadeh, Pugliese, & Kief- annual international adoptions from around 7,000 er, 2008). There may be difficulties regarding in 1990 to more than 22,000 in 2005 (U.S. Depart- being part of an adoptive family in both transra- ment of State, 2006). In tandem, recent years have cial adoption and international adoption. Lan- seen an increasing research focus in the area of guage barriers would be added to that in interna- adoption. Much of the existing literature and cur- tional adoption (Child Welfare Information Gate- rent dialogue about adoption focuses on adoptive way, 2007). Other adjustment problems include child outcomes. The existing literature on interna- bonding, attachment disorders, lying, stealing, tional adoption also primarily focuses on issues defiance of authority, and acts of violence (Smith, concerning the adopted children, with some grow- 2001) as well as suicide, psychiatric illness, and ing literature on exploitation of birth parents. De- social maladjustment (Hjern, Lindblad & Vin- spite continued efforts in understanding the aspects nerljung, 2002). On the contrary, some studies of adoption from the children’s and birth mothers’ evidenced that there were no significant differ- sides, there is a serious lack of information regard- ences in adjustment between adopted and non- ing the adoptive parents, such as pre-adoption fac- adopted children (Sharma, McGue, & Benson, tors for adoptive parents. Hence, the aim of this 1998; Thomson & Plomin, 1988). Conflicting paper is two-fold: (a) to begin gaining an under- findings may be due to a selection bias (regarding standing of the adoptive parents’ perspective, and such confounding factors as ages of adoption (b) to incorporate perspectives from the adoptive placement, types of adoption, parental character- parents and the adoptees. The purpose was to gain istics, and family structures) or various outcomes better insight into the adoptee and parental under- among adopted children. Mohanty and Newhill standing of the process and how this relates the (2006) also pointed out that little research atten- successful adoption for the adoptee as well as the tion has been paid to the factors that lead to posi- adoptive family. The themes that emerged from the tive or negative adoptee outcomes and call for dual perspective of this study contribute to the un- more research in this area. Given the conflicting derstanding of risk and protective factors for suc- findings, the presence of adoption related issues cessful adoption or adoption adjustment. We begin may not mean that adoption inevitably leads to by examining literature on the adjustment of the adjustment problems. Thus, the focus of research adopted children and explore aspects of adoption needs to be shifted towards describing factors that from the adoptive parents’ sides. influence within-group variability in adoption adjustment (Brodzinsky et al., 1998). Corrinne Warrener, PhD, MSW is an Instructor at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey School of Social Work.. Hillary Mi-Sung Kim, PhD, MA is an Instructor at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey School of Social Work. 34 Professional Development: The International Journal of Continuing Social Work Education Understanding positive and negative outcomes and ethnicity. Parents who have a connection to goes beyond intrapersonal factors of an individu- the child’s birth country and culture were more al, as there are other influences from other sys- likely to socialize the child to the culture tems. Theoretical basis of this study was (Johnston, Swim, Saltsman, Deater-Decker, & Brodzinsky’s (1990) stress and coping model of Petrill, 2007). Additionally, more frequent social- adoptee adjustment. This model holds three core ization is related to fewer externalizing problems assumptions: (a) that adoption is inherently asso- in adopted children, but not connected to internal- ciated with a variety of loss- and stigma- related izing problems (2007). Furthermore, preparing a experiences and hence is potentially stressful for child for potential bias or discrimination slightly children, (b) adjustment to adoption is mediated increased externalizing behavior (2007). It is like- by cognitive-appraisal process and coping efforts, ly that adoptive parents are increasingly aware of and (c) both biological and environmental varia- the importance of exposing the child to his or her bles influence person variables. Thus, adopted birth culture; however, they do not tend to contin- children who focus on their adoptive loss and ue post-adoption support for themselves (Lee et appraise their adoption in a more negative ways al., 2006). are believed to experience heightened stress, de- In the vein of parenting practices, open com- velop fewer successful coping abilities, and expe- munication is a critical aspect of adoptee out- rience more adjustment problems. On the other comes. David Kirk (1964) constructed the con- hand, adopted children who are more positive cept of “adoption open communication.” Open about their adoption and experience support and communication about adoption is characterized assistance within their family and community by the acknowledgement of the inherent differ- encounter less distress and demonstrate height- ences associated with adoptive family life from ened coping abilities. This model was believed to non-adoptive family life, which facilitates better be comprehensive enough to be used for this ex- adjustment in the adopted children than closed ploratory qualitative study in that it examines communication characterized by the denial of both contextual factors (e.g., social support, envi- these differences (as cited in Brodzinsky, 2006). ronmental factors) and intrapersonal factors (e.g., In support of Kirk’s notion, it had been found that subjective perceptions) of adoptee adjustment. In children between the ages of 8 and 13 years who addition, this stress and coping model may be reported more open communication about adop- expanded to explain adoption adjustment of the tion in their families had higher self-esteem and adoptive parents, as it provides a frame to exam- better behavioral adjustment (Brodzinsky, 2006). ine both contextual and intrapersonal factors of The similar findings were also reported in a study adoptive parents. As Brodzinsky’s (1990) stress of adolescents and young adults, in which open and coping model suggested, it is difficult to sep- communication about adoption was associated arate the adoptee’s adjustment from the adoptive with a more positive identity and higher self- parental factors and broader environmental fac- esteem (Levy-Shiff, 2001). However, it had been tors. These factors include parenting practices also suggested that the construct of open commu- such a cultural socialization, community influ- nication should be refined since a number of stud- ence, parenting stress, adoption factors, and ies (e.g., Kaye, 1990; Martin, Kelley, & Towner- adoptee characteristics. Thyrum, 1999) showed that an open style of com- Existing
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