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Nuclear Energy and Environment In Memoriam of Alain Bugat Alain Bugat, Honorary President of the National Academy of Technologies of France, former General Administrator of the Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique (CEA) and a staunch defender of nuclear energy, initiated the three-Academies collaboration on Nuclear energy. He had invested much time and effort in shaping this report, bringing together experts from the three academies and giving it credibility and excellence. To our great grief, he passed away in January 2019 at a time where the report was already at an advanced stage of completion. The memory of his energetic and charismatic personality rests in our minds. Nuclear Energy and the Environment A COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMME BETWEEN FRENCH and CHINESE ACADEMIES May 2019 Foreword This report on nuclear energy and the environment is jointly released by the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of Technologies of France and the French Academy of sciences. It is a second collaborative study of the three academies on nuclear energy matters. The first report, issued in August 2017, covered many aspects of nuclear energy and offered joint, mostly technical, recommendations for the direction of nuclear energy in the future. It was an attempt to provide an objective overview of many scientific and technological issues on nuclear energy (its position in the future energy mix, benefits, strengths and weak points, research and development perspectives, technology and safety, engineering etc.), as well as societal issues (education, training, risk perception, public awareness etc.). But it was admittedly far from being exhaustive. Environmental issues were not considered in sufficient depth in the previous report despite their being crucial for the future of this industry, and the Academies felt it necessary to pursue their cooperation and further address these important issues. They decided to focus the joint effort on the environmental impacts of nuclear energy in normal and accidental situations, including waste and provide a comprehensive analysis of these issues which are essentially similar in France and China. However, the economics of energy production, which also constitutes an important factor for the future, is determined by local and regional conditions, which are fairly different between these two countries, and it was deliberately decided not to address this issue in this joint study. The first chapter of the present report provides a more detailed presentation of its contents and structure (§ 1.4 Outlook of the report). - 1 - Table of Contents Foreword ....................................................................................................................................... 1 SYNTHESIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 5 1. Impacts from NPPs and nuclear fuel cycle facilities under normal operation ................... 5 1.1. Nuclear energy and global impacts on the environment .......................................... 5 1.2. Nuclear energy and local impacts on the environment ............................................ 5 2. Impacts from NPPs and nuclear fuel cycle facilities in accidental situations ..................... 7 3. Impacts from radwaste management ................................................................................ 7 4. Nuclear and radiation safety/security as a tool to prevent impacts on the environment . 8 CHAPTER 1 - Introduction............................................................................................................ 10 1.1. Trends in Energy Demand ........................................................................................... 10 1.2. Decarbonization commitment and CO2 emissions by various energy options ........... 11 1.3. Environmental protection as a requirement to make nuclear energy sustainable .... 12 1.4. Report contents and organization ............................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 2 - Environmental impacts during normal operations of Nuclear Power Plants and fuel cycle facilities ....................................................................................................................... 15 Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 15 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 15 2.1. How to measure impacts of nuclear energy on the environment ............................... 15 2.1.1. Main impacts of nuclear energy to the environment .......................................... 15 2.1.2. Releases ................................................................................................................ 16 2.1.3. Assessments ......................................................................................................... 16 2.1.4. Methodology ........................................................................................................ 17 2.2. Effluents, radiological impacts of nuclear energy and solutions .................................. 17 2.2.1. Effluents and radiological impacts of NPPs ........................................................... 17 2.2.2. Effluents and radiological impacts of nuclear fuel cycle ...................................... 19 2.2.3. Radiation monitoring and surveillance ................................................................ 21 2.2.4. Biological effect of ionizing radiation ................................................................... 22 2.2.5. Transportation of radioactive materials .............................................................. 22 2.2.6. Participation of stakeholders ............................................................................... 23 2.3. Environmental impacts of nuclear energy compared to other sources of electricity 24 2.3.1. Land occupation ................................................................................................... 25 2.3.2. Materials used for construction ........................................................................... 26 2.3.3. Water withdrawal and consumption ................................................................... 27 2.3.4. Conventional waste from decommissioning ........................................................ 30 2.3.5. Critical materials ................................................................................................... 30 - 2 - 2.4. New technology perspectives...................................................................................... 30 2.4.1. Reducing Carbon emissions of burnt fuels ........................................................... 30 2.4.2. Transmutation technologies ................................................................................ 31 2.4.3. Other advanced technologies .............................................................................. 33 2.5. Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 33 Appendix 2.1: More specific considerations about the Chinese situation ............................. 35 Appendix 2-2: Large scale epidemiological studies around nuclear sites (examples and results) .................................................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER 3 - Spent fuel and radwaste management .................................................................. 39 Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 39 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 39 3.1. Principles, strategies and framework of radwaste management to prevent environmental impacts ........................................................................................................... 40 3.1.1. Principles of radwaste management ..................................................................... 40 3.1.2. Strategies of radwaste management ..................................................................... 40 3.1.3. Framework of radwaste management with respect to the environment ............. 42 3.2. Specific characteristics and classification of radwaste ................................................. 44 3.2.1. Spent fuel or reprocessing radwaste. .................................................................... 45 3.2.2. Specific characteristics of radwaste versus the environment ............................... 46 3.2.3. Classification of radwaste versus the environment ............................................... 47 3.3. Processing and discharge of radwaste .......................................................................... 48 3.3.1. Minimization of radwaste ...................................................................................... 48 3.3.2. Discharge of effluents ............................................................................................ 49 3.4. Disposal of radwaste ..................................................................................................... 50 3.4.1. Very low-level waste (VLLW) .................................................................................. 50 3.4.2. Low and intermediate short-lived waste (LILW-SL) ..............................................
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