A History of Hindi Literature

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T HE H ER IT AGE O F IN DIA

T n V . . Z A R IAH he Right Revere d S A ,

Bishop of D or na k al .

N F A A R . A . D . L IT T . Oxo n . . M J . R QU H , , ( )

bli A[rea dy pu she d.

a dd K . . M . A . The He rt of Bu hism . J SAUNDERS ,

A . M A . M . D . a . R . M . EV . H sok J MACP AIL , ,

I d P ain in . P rinc i al P W a a . n ian t g p ERCY BRO N , C lcutt

an . RI A a a . RE V . E P . CE B . . K rese Liter ture ,

‘ a A I H D . LIT 1 . a . . The S mkhy System BERR EDALE KEIT , A M . . . . P al a a ain . s ms of M r th a S ts NICOL MACNICOL , , D LITT

In Me press.

H n K N SB R and PH IL L IP . ym s of the T amil éaivite S a i nts . I G U Y S

K . . ar a i a a A . L H The m M m ms . BERRIEDA E KEIT , D LITT

‘ ' z S u b jects p roposed a nd volu mes u n de r preﬁ a m z on .

S ANSK R IT AN D PA LI LITE R AT U R E .

H n MA D N L L d . A . A . C O E fro d . . ym s m the Ve as Prof , Oxfor

A n P . L , DE L A L thology of M a hayana Liter ature . rof VAL EE

POU SSIN n . , Ghe t

M A . . i n fr U an ad F . . W . o . Select o s m the p ish s J ESTERN , , Delhi n Sce es fro m the Ramay an a . n Selectio s fro m the M ahabhar ata . P I I THE H LOSO P H ES .

A h n d d H and I n n P . . N . tro uctio to H i u hilosophy J FARQU AR ,

A a . OH N C Z M . J M KEN IE , Bomb y d The Ph ilosophy of the U p a nish a s . ’ A a ia M . P a . k a d n A . K . M aﬁ ra s a a . H S Ve t S AR A , t l ’ é d n R mé nuja s Ve a ta . dd The Bu hist System .

R F I NE A T AN D M U SIC .

I d A R . L . EWIN B . A ad a . n ian rchitecture . G, M r s d In ian Sculpture . A . POPL E Y B . A . d Indian M usic H , ” Ero e r c l P B ROWN a ino r t . P a . T he M iAr s in i p a ERCY , C lcutt “ A L u k n M . c o . d n o me . C. . w In ia C J BROWN ,

A B IOG R A PH IES OF EMI NENT IND I NS . A M . dd K . . . R n a a a . a n . G aut m Bu h J SAUNDERS , , goo ‘ Ré me muja .

M . A . F V . K a a . A kb ar . . SLAC , , C lcutt

Tulsi Di s .

a . E . . M M b indrané th H . A . an a . R a T gore J T O PSON , , B kur

A VE R NAC U LA R LITE R T U R E . A Kurra l. H . A . POP L E Y B . . d . The _ , , Ero e

. M ar . S . . M . A d H n A a ras . ym s of the lv s J HOOPER , M

’ ‘ an a in n a . i a Ra a G . . M . A Tuls D s s m y Mi i ture J DANN , . ,

P atna .

H n n a i S n . E . . H M M . A an ym s of Be g l i gers J T O PSON , B kura .

Guj arati Hym ns .

R . SIRA D H ns . P . U D IN m a nd . i a . R Suf y rof J , L hore , W

IL S N I. C . S a a an . W O , Der Gh zi Kh

I I F A A I A R H STO R ES O VE R N C U L R L TE R T U E .

A . M . a a . n a i . C . S . P Be g l ATERSON , , C lcutt

Guj arati . A M . . . a . . P na . M ar thi NICOL MACNICOL , , D LITT , oo A G B B . . an a . T am il . FRANCIS KIN S URY , , B g lore A adr ‘ . H M . as a nd R . P C EN CH IAH A H N Telu gu , . , M , JA B U JA GA

RAO . , Ellore

l alam T . K . OSEP H B . A . L . T nd M a ay . J , , Triv a rum . A nd H . S . P B . . a . n a . Si h lese ERERA , , K y

Urdu .

NOTABLE IND I AN PEO PLES

The R aj p uts .

S r an . K . C . AM M E N MAP IL L AI A The y ian Christi s M , lleppey .

The Sikhs .

VA R IOUS .

d m Fo lk a . W . M M A H . D Mo e T les NOR AN BROWN , . P

Phil adelphi a . I d a n n n ian Vill ge Gover me t . I d n n P . MR . N I L P a . oems by n ian Wome S MAC CO , oo Cla ic al a n a ss S skrit Liter ture .

d A . L T nd K . L B . . . a I . T PAU a . n ian Tem ple Lege s . , , , C lcutt EDITO RIAL P RE FACE

ina n a in are F lly , brethre , wh tsoever th gs true , a in are n a a n wh tsoever th gs ho our ble , wh tsoever thi gs are a n are a just , wh tsoever thi gs pure , wh tsoever n are a in are o o d thi gs lovely , wh tsoever th gs of g if an i and if a n report ; there be y v rtue , there be y ” a in o n n . pr ise , th k these thi gs

No sectio n of the popul a tio n of I ndi a c an afford to n an n eglect her cie t herit ag e . In her liter a ture , philo

art a nd a sophy , , re gul ated life there is much th t is wor thless , much also th at is distinctly unhe althy ; yet

a n nd a the tre sures of k owledg e , Wisdom , a be uty Which

n z n they co t ain are too precious to be lost . Every citi e

n a n is a of I di eeds to use them , if he to be cul ture d a n moder n I ndi a n . This is as true of the Christi ,

M Z . the uslim , the oro a stri a n as of the Hi ndu But , While the herit age of I ndia h a s be e n l ar g ely explored

nd a by schol ars , a the results of their toil are l id out for us in an n a their books , they c ot b e s aid to be re lly

a n are in avail ble for the ordi ary m an . The volumes

n n a and most ca se s expe sive , a nd are ofte n tech ic l

ifﬁ t n h as n d cul . He ce this serie s of che a p books bee

nn a n n a pl a ed by group of Christian m e , i order th t

a n a n m a every educ ted I di , whether rich or poor , y be ’ able to ﬁ nd his w ay i nto the tre a sures of I ndi a s pa st .

M n an a y Europe s , both in I ndi a and elsewhere , will

a doubtless be g l d to use the series . The utmost care is being t a ke n by the Ge ner al

in n n in a n an Editor s selecti g writer s , a d p ssi g m uscripts

are for the press . To every book two tests rig idly n nd n applied : everythi g must be schol arly , a everythi g

a n must be symp thetic . The purpose is to bri g the

an a m a best out of the cie nt tre a suries , so th t it y be k n n n and o w , e j oyed , used .

T HE HERIT AGE O F IN DIA SERIES

A HIST O RY OF

HINDi LIT ERAT URE

E E Y . K A M. A F . , .

r ( Ch u c h M is s io n a ry S o c iety , J u b b ulp o re )

AU T H OR OF ANCIENT INDIAN EDUCATION

AS S O CIAT IO N P RE S S 5 R U S S R A U A , SELL T EET , C LC TT

LONDON : OXFORD UN IVE R SITY PRE SS

N E W YORK , T OR ONT O , ME L B OU R N E , B OMB Y C L CUT T AN D M D R A , A A A AS IN AI H L M ISSION E PR TED T E WES EYAN PR SS ,

SORE 1920 . M Y CITY , CONTEN TS

PREFACE

( Inse t )

T H E HIN DI LANGUAGE AND ITS NEIGHB OURS

H I I . A GENERAL SURVEY OF IN DI LITERATURE

1 1 50— 1 400 I I I . EARLY BARDIC CHRONICLES ( )

B a kti P m s 1 400— 1 550 I V . EARLY h o ( )

T H E MU GH AL COURT AND THE ARTISTIC IN FL U EN CE — IN HIN DI LITERATURE ( 1 550 1800)

D 1 5 0— 18 00 VI . TULSI AS AND THE RAM A CULT ( 5 )

V T H E S OF B 1 550— 18 0 II. UCCESSORS KA IR ( 0 )

V T E H 1 0 - 1 00 I I I . H KRIS NA CULT ( 55 8 )

H 1 550— 1800 IX. BARDIC AND OT ER LITERATURE ( )

T H E MODERN PERIOD ( F ROM 1 800)

X SOM E F H N D 1 00 I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS O I I LITERATURE

XII P P OF HIN DI 1 04 . RESENT OSITION AND PROSPECTS LITERATURE

BI B LIOGRAPHY

INDEX 1 2 OF HINDI LITERATURE

and e ei r r n a v an a s P . r c ed lite a y culture , such for i st ce li In a a P rak rit s the l st st g e of the , before the moder n n - an an a I do Ary l gu g es developed from them , they are are k now n a s Ap ab h rarh sas . These the direct p are n t s n na a n of the moder ver cul rs of North I di a , namely ,

n P n M i . Hi di , u j abi , arath , etc , Which came i nto e xis 1 000 D n a A . . te ce somewhere bout , though the date f n a in a ff n dif ers co sider bly the c se of di ere t l an gua ges . The se moder n l an gua ges are no lo ng er sy nthetic but ana lytic . —I n H in d i . t is most import a t to u nderst and cle arly a an n i as n Wh t we me by Hi d , the word is ofte u sed n n a a ambiguously . It is ofte , for i st nce , pplied in a loose se nse to the ver n acul ar speech of the whole of North I ndi a betwee n the Pu nj ab and S indh o n the

n n a o n a . West , a d Be g l the E st But the philological a a ir ' e o r e rese arches of schol rs , such s S G g Grierso n, h ave show n th a t there are re ally four chief l a ng uages a na a a ni n n in this are , mely , R j stha , Wester Hi di , a E aster n Hindi , and Bih ari , e ch h avi ng a differe nt a i a n a p are nt a ge . Bih r re lly belo g s to group of Ian

n a - a n guag es of Which Be g li is other member . West nn in n e rn Hi ndi is closely co ected ori g i With P anj abi . The word Hi ndi is also ofte n used to de note moder n liter ary High Hindi in co ntr adisti nctio n to Urdu ; but n and as sh o n b e lo both High Hi di Urdu were , will be w w , i l c n developed from a d a e t of Wester Hi ndi . Hi ndustani ( o r Hindostani) is also a name used sometimes to de note ll n u n the ver na cul ars of a Hi d st a , th at is the cou ntry n a and n a nd n a is betwee n the P u j b S i dh Be g l , but also sometimes used to me an the simpler s peech Which is

' a ca n n a a nd the lz n g u a fr n of moder I di , of Which both re a n Urdu a nd Hi gh Hi ndi a liter ry developme ts . k — S c o p e o f t h is B o o . The liter a ture Whose histor y n a a ani Will b e described in this book Will i clude R j sth , n n a nd a i a Wester n Hindi, E a ster Hi di , Bih r liter ture m a at ﬁ rs t a but no t Urdu . I t y seem sig ht somewh t arbitr a ry to g roup tog ether the liter a tures of these l ang u ag es which are believed to have bee n disti nct in n n n n n an developme nt , a d Whe Wester Hi di , for i st ce , is THE HINDI LANGUAGE AN D IT S NEIGHBOUR S 3

nn in n P more closely co ected origi with unj abi, and n a i an Bihari with Be g l , th with the other l anguage s M here g rouped with them . oreover Urdu , whose

liter a ture is here excluded , is developed from a dialect n n u t iﬁ of Wester Hi di . But the j s c atio n for g roupi ng a in these liter tures together lies this , th at where a s P u nj abi a nd Be ng ali a nd Urdu h ave developed moder n a are n a o n o n n liter tures which proceedi g e ch its w li es , the l angu ag es whose liter ary history is co nt a i ned in this book h ave become closely co nnected in their n In a a liter ary developme t . the re s where they are spoke n High Hi ndi h as come to be a ccepted as a liter ar y l angu ag e by almost all those who do no t us e a nd na a r Urdu , though the older ver cul r s a e still used a n no t o ne for poetic l compositio s , of them is develop

in a a a a o w n . M g sep r te prose liter ture of its oreover , n a a s n thoug h co sidered by schol rs disti ct , they are closely rel ated l angu ag es which h ave mutua lly influ nc e d a a nd a a n n e e ch other , the liter ture of y o e of these ver nacul ars is to a l ar g e exte nt understood by

those wh o spe ak o ne of the others . These l a ngu ag es n are spoke n by over a hu ndred millio people . As the liter a ture de alt With in the followin g p ag es is re ally co nnected with disti nct thoug h co g n ate lan it i g u age s it is more accur ate to describe , as S r Geor g e n n M n na a Grier so h a s do e , as the oder Ver cul r Liter a n a n n n ture of Hi ndosta . But for the s ke of co ve ie ce and to avoid circumlocutio n it will ge ner ally be referred ” to here as Hi ndi Liter ature . The bulk of it is n n i writte n in Wester n Hi ndi or E aster Hi d . Bihari nd liter a ture is n o t very exte nsive a , except for the

id ati n o t an . a a n lyrics of V yap , very import t R j stha i

liter ature mostly co nsists of b ardic chro nicle s . Urdu as a liter ary l ang ua ge h a s an import an t poin t n of diff ere nce from Hi ndi i the metre s it employs . n and an These follow P ersia models , the subst ce o f n Urdu poe try is l ar g ely inﬂue nc e d by P ersi a themes . — re D ia le c t s . The chief di alects of a M i Me ati Ma a i a nd a i . O w , rwari , J ipur , lv these a a d Marw ri is the chief liter ary di alect . It is lso calle 4 A HI S TORY O F H IN DT LITERATURE

n a and in nn n n Di g l , this co ectio is disti g uished from P n a n a n in a an i g l , the me g ive R j put a to the Br aj Bhasha a n i a di lect of Wester n Hi d , which w s also used in this a a re a s a liter ary di alect . Wes te rn H indi h a s n a a n a a s its pri cip l di lects , B a g ru , to the we st of the Ganges in the highl a nds of the

- n a S outh E aster n P anj ab ; Br aj Bhash a, the l a gu g e n in M n n spoke uttr a a nd the surrou di g district , which is the chief di alect of Wester n Hi ndi for poetry ; ana i a n K uj ( very simil a r to Br aj Bh ash ) , which is spoke in the lower p art of the ce ntr al D o ab and the coun try n in n a a nd a to the orth Bundel i , Bu delkh nd good portio n of the Narbada v alley in the Ce ntr al P rovince s ; a nd another di alect spoke n in the nei ghbourhood of D a nd M D n a n elhi eerut . elhi bei g for lo g time the he adquarters of the Muhammada n co nquerors of North n a a s a I di , it w from the dia lect of this district th t the ' lz u a a n ng fr m ed of the Mugh al camp origi ated . A gre a t m any words of P ersi an and Ar abic ori g i n were i ntroduced i n to this di alect a s well a s those of P anj abi and a a n nd P an a a as R j stha i , a the ersi ch r cter w used “ ” n n for writi g it . The word Urdu liter ally me a s ” ”

a an . Muh am C amp . Urdu w a s the c mp l g u age a an n f r and a nd m d i flue nce exte nded its use a wide ,

n a a an a . M n i“t eve tu lly became a liter ry l g u ge oder Hi g h Hindi w as developed from Urdu by the exclusio n of P ersia n a nd Ar abic words a nd the n n an n a n substitutio of those of pure I di ori gi , S skrit or “ ”

226 . Hindi . The name Kh ari Boli ( pure speech ) is sometimes used by I ndi an s chol ars both for the na a D a nd M and ori gi l di lect of elhi eerut , for the moder n High Hi ndi developed by La llu J i L al ; but are n o t n a a n a in a they ide tic l , s will be sh ow l ter subseque nt ch a pter whe n the circumst a nces of the i forma tio n of moder n liter ary Hi nd are rel a ted . a a in d S The di lects of E ste rn H i , from North to outh A a h i f are a hh at t s a . O v dhi , B g heli , an d C i g r these the a i n in n chief liter ry di alect s Av adhi , spoke the cou try i n n as of Ay odhya ( Oudh) . Av adh is also k ow

B aiswari .

6 A HI STORY OF HINDI LIT E RATURE books c a n be found which do no t co nt ain some words P P a n n . S of ersi orig i ome ortug uese , and now adays a n n a a m y E glish words , h ve lso found their w a y i nto n the l a guage . — H in d i P ro s o d y . There is probably no l anguag e in which prosody h a s bee n more el abor ately developed i th an n Hi ndi . Its system is derived ultimately from the

n n S a n . no t pri ciples which gover skrit poetry I t does , n n o n a n like E g lish , depe d cce t , but , like the cl a ssic n poetry of Greece a d Rome , is based o n the quantity

a n . of the syll bles , lo g or short But rhyme is also n a a nd in n used almost u ivers lly , Hi di poetry a rhyme an a no t n a a a n me s th t o ly the l st syll ble of li e , but the a t o a a t a n l st w syll bles le st , correspo d with those of

a n n . other li e A g ood de al o i. liberty is allowed in respect of ortho g r a phy and eve n of gr amm atical c o n n a r structio , but the rules for the v rious metres a e very in n complic a ted . The result however the h a ds of a skilful poet is the productio n of poetry the form a nd rhythm of which h a s a wo nderful ch arm probably no t

surp a ssed in any l a ng uag e . The number of metres n z in n i a recog i ed book s of Hi d prosody is very l rg e . A fe w o nly of the pri ncip al o nes c a n be me ntio ned

’ ' a ob o r dom a a n here . A ei ( e? ) is couplet e ch li e of

‘ n a n n - m t r a s n an which co t i s twe ty four éz or i st ts , divided n a n a n z n up a g ai n i to feet ccordi g to reco g i ed pl a . A Métra de notes the le ng th of time occupied in

the utter ance of a short vowel . Lo ng vowels and

‘ diphtho n g s are reg arded a s co n sisting of t w o m cilm s . The (lo b e? is the most popul ar a nd fr e que nt of all om z/z n n a me tre s . The s c? is a i verted th t is the

’ ‘ seco nd h alf of e a ch li ne of the do/z cz ch an g e s pl ace

‘ ' c hau cii a n do/z with the ﬁ rst h alf . The p r ks with the ci n n a in popul arity . I t co sists of four li e s , e ch of which

' n tm s - are h a s sixtee mci . Other much used metre s

’ ’ ’ n a z c iza a z k év a sa va z a the k u d l yci , the /z pp , the y , the y

’ k a vz it a n are a in a nd the . Ma y metres speci lly used the compositio n of verse s which are i nte nded to be In a is n n n su ng . the se the s me rhyme ofte co ti ued

throug hout all the line s of the poem . T HE HINDI LANGUAGE AN D IT S NEIGHBOURS 7

- T h e F a m ily o f In do Ary a n L a n gua ge s .

( T he lang uag es whose l iterature 1 3 described in this book are ’ p rinted inithic k type ) ( M o de rn ‘ ( Ap a bhra ﬁz sas ) L anguages ) U n k now n Kashmiri U nk now n Kohistani U n k now n L ah ndi ( Western P a nja bi) Si ndhi Guj arati P anj abi We s t e rn Hi n di R djast hdni Av anti P ahari Ardh am ag adhi Ea s t e rn Hi n di B ih a ri Be ngali Ma adhi g Oriya Ass amese M ahara st n Marathi A GENE RAL SURVEY O F HIND I LITE RATURE

A F T E R the de ath of Ki ng H ar sha ( 646 or 64 7 h o h ad a a in n w built up l r g e Empire Nor th I di a , ther e as a n n n a nd w lo g period of co fusio disorder . T he unity of I ndi an Histor y is lost until the Muh ammadan co nque sts a gain restored a g over nme nt stro ng e nough D n to become a p ar amount power . uri g this period the R aj put cl ans ca me i nto promine nce a nd v arious Rajput prin cip alitie s took sha pe which were de sti ned to pl ay an a i a n impor t t p rt n subseque nt history . These ki ng

’ n at ar o ne an i doms were ofte w with other , but the n ro ads of the Muh ammadans from the West freque ntly

n . united them to meet the commo foe Althoug h K abul , n a a nd n h ad the P u j b , S i dh previously f alle n i nto t h e M a a a n n hands of the uh mm d i v aders , the re al conque st

a no t n 1 1 5 A . D of I ndi did be g i till 7 . whe n Muhammad n I 1 1 91 Ghori comme ced his a tt a cks . n the Muh am m adan prog ress induced the Hindu Kings to compose their quarrels and form a g re at confeder a cy u nder r a a P rith ira R i P P rithi aj ( lso c lled v j or a ithor a) , the n D Ch auha ruler of Ajmer and elhi . The Hindus were at in a a at T arain in ﬁ rs t victorious b ttle , but the following ye ar were defe a ted in the s ame pl a ce a nd P rith v iraj D n an w a s ca ptured a nd killed . elhi w as soo occupied d M a a an a an n n n Muh am the uh mm d dv ce co ti ued till , u der

- in- T u hlak in 1 40 a m ad b g 3 , it a tt ained its m ximum an n n and exte nt . But though m y Hi du ki gdoms fell , n m any stro gholds in R ajput ana were captured , the R ajput cl ans re asserted themselves and were never M n se completely subdued . any e w King doms were t GENERAL S URVEY DE HINDI LI TERATURE 9 u and a M a a an p , l ter uh mm d sovereigns ofte n found it more p ro fi t ab le to m ake alliances with the Raj put a n a mo narchs th to a tt ck them . It w a s duri n g this period tha t the moder n ver naculars n a a n a and of I di were t ki g sh pe , the e arliest moder n ver na cul ar liter ature of Hi ndustan a ppe ared in o f a n the form the b rdic chro icle s of Raj put ana . The stirring time s in which they lived produced ampl e a a nd theme s for the roy l b rds , a the liber al p atro nag e na n a of mo rchs e cour g ed their l abours . Though full an and an n an of p egyric embellished with m y le ge ds , d no t a n a s therefore to be t ke sober history , their poem s nevertheless are a stirri n g record of the desper ate struggle s betwee n the Hi ndu ki ngdoms and their M a a an n a a nd n uh mm d i v ders , of the heroism a d chivalry a which such a period c lled forth . The gre atest name in the liter a ture of this period is th a t of Ch a nd P h r n B ardai, the bard of rit v i aj. Co tempor ary with n a s a n ak m o u ar Ch a d w J g ay , while a fa s b d of the , m n n a S n a iddle of the fourtee th ce tury w s ar a g Dh r , n r who s a g the prowess of the valorous H ammi , n Pri ce of R anth amb h o r. a a a The rise of the worship of R m , which took pl ce n fi ft e e nth n a about the be g i ni ng of the ce tury , g ve One another gre a t impetus to ver n acul ar liter ature . br anch of V aishnav a s worshipped Vishnu under th e form of Krishna a nd this form of worship h ad lo n g n a n h e a bee popul ar . N o w , l r g ely owi g to t g re t infl ue nc nan a a a a n e of Rama d , others m de R m their pri i n in c p al object of wor ship . A l ater developme t , due a n influe nc e a nd in some me a sure to Muha mm da , which a a s in n K abir w as the fi rs t gre a t te cher , w the directio

- a of a n o n idol a trous theism . All these v rious move me nt s were p art of a g re at reli g ious revival which a nd all an w a s widespre ad amo ngst the people , beg to F u se the ver na cul ar for th e ir liter a ture . rom this time o n the ver n a cul ar liter a ture w a s mostly domi nated by relig ious ide als and almost e ntirely o n the li ne s a a a which h ad bee n l aid dow n by the V ishn v reformers . T his period be g i ns about 1 400 and i ncludes such 1 0 A HI S TORY O F HINDI LITERATURE

a s N amde a i id a ati M poets v , K b r , V y p , ira B 5 1 and Ma M a lik uh mmad . The e arlier bards of Raj put a na in a an n n a an a wrote time of tr sitio , usi g l gu ge which w a s P a nd still full of rakrit forms , this w as the

n an H indi t a period of the i f cy of Liter ture . But Whe n the poets of this next period composed their n works , the l a gua g e spoke n wa s pr a ctically the s a as na a - da nd me the ver cul r speech of to y ; a , as the a a in an a h e rliest uthors this l gu ge , they ad to feel their w a i y , for n usi ng the ver na cul ar for their poems n they were maki ng a g re a t ve ture . T his wa s the period of the youth of Hi ndi Liter ature . The g olde n a g e of the ver na cul ar liter ature of n u a M a Hi d st n begi n s about 1 550 . The ugh l soverei g ns no t n n o ly e st ablished a stro g rule , but were liber al a n n t n a 15 6 p tro s of liter a ture a d ar . U der Akb r ( 5 J ahangir ( 1 605 - 1 627 ) and S h ah J ah an ( 1 627 - 1 658 ) the Muh ammada n rule in I ndi a re ached its highest poi nt of o utw ard m a g nifi c e nc e and this w a s also the period of n h a the g re atest g lory in Hi di liter ature . I t s ofte n bee n poi nted out h o w it sy nchro ni z es with the E liz ab e a n a e n a a nd a at th g of E glish liter ture , th t this very time E ngl and and I ndi a fi rs t came i n to re al co nt a ct with a in r uc e ch other . This period w as m arked by the t o d nflu nce n a a n tio n o i. an artistic i e i to the liter ture , le di g ifi tio n a nd a nd to a g re ater polish in v e rs c a form , the first attempts to systema ti z e the art of poetr y by as s uch writers as Kesay D as and others . This w the ag e of the gre a test st ars of Hi ndi liter ature D s a nd a L al as as Tulsi a , S ur Das Bih ri , well o f other g re at writers like the Tripathi brother s , a s n D e v Kavi a nd S e nap ati . It w the period whe the S ikh Gra n t}: w a s compiled a nd whe n many ne w D a an i sects were formed , like the dup th s , which pro duc e d a g re a t de al of religious verse of a high order . u n n The e nd of the period however , d ri g the eightee th a ce ntury , coi nciding with the time of the dec y of the a n in Mugh l Empire , w a s a time of decli e the high and no t n a n a n qua lity of Hindi liter a ture , doe s co t i m y

- writers of ﬁ rs t r a te excelle nce . GENERAL S URVEY O F HINDI LITERATURE 1 1

At the beginning of the ninetee nth ce ntury a ne w influe nc e came i nto Hindi liter ature through co nt a ct with the culture of Europe . In the eig htee nth century the E ng lish h ad bee n strug g li ng in I ndi a with the F re nch a no for m stery , but w th at c o nflic t h ad bee n decided and the E nglish suprem a cy w a s further est ablished by the bre ak up of the old Mugh al Empire and the we ake ning a n i n of the M r atha power . E g lish nflue c e no w be g an a a nd in n a n a ffa a to m ke itself more more felt I di irs , nd a mo ng st other thi ng s the co nt a ct of I ndi a with the culture of the We st h ad the e flfe c t of stimul a ti ng m any ne w ide a s , while the se nse of security which freedom n na a n a na from i ter l disorder g ve , e cour ged the tive ni n a a n a ge us of I di to re sser t itself . He ce there beg n about this time a mighty liter ary re na sce nce in Indi a i At nn n which is still n prog ress . the be g i i g of this period

' L all ii J 1 L 51 1 l aid the founda tio n of modern Hindi prose a nd also cre ated the liter ary di alect which w as to be its

n a n - no a pri cip l medium . The pri nti g press w beg n to a f a n i spre d liter a ture ar a nd wide . The reviv l of Hi d a s a an a nd a poetry w led by H risch dr , a this period s w also the rise of the Hindi dr a ma . The principle adopted in this book in dividi ng up the F all liter a ture into periods is as follows . irst of the n an i nn a i f cy of Hi nd liter ature , co ected with the b rdic ni a a ne chro cles , is described ; a nd after th t w period is d a ted from e a ch poi nt where an important ne w influe nc e n be g ins to modify the liter a ture . These periods be g i 1 influe nc e ( ) about 1 400 , whe n the relig ious of the V aishnava movements be g an to a ffect Hindi liter a ture 2 5 50 influe nc e a ( ) about 1 , whe n a ne w a rtistic m kes a nd 3 a 1 8 00 n a itself felt ; ( ) bout , whe the liter ture beg an to be a ffected by the m o de rn influe nc e which came In a t h e from cont a ct with the We st . e ch period liter ature th a t shows the ne w Spirit in its ful ness will in n fi rs t of all be described a nd then the other forms tur , a nd somethi ng will be s aid as to h o w far e a ch g roup or e a ch writer is influe nce d by the ne w ide as . EARLY BARDI C CH RONI CLES ( 1150- 1400)

T h e rli s P —D E a e t o e t s . uri ng the time Whe n the a an a n R j put cl s were est blishi g their power , and while n a they were strug g li g w ith the Muh mm ad an i nvaders , every court h ad its bards wh o celebr ated in so ng the a a nd n n v lour heroism of their pa tro s a d their r a ce . a n a a These b rds belo g ed to guilds , which were lso c stes , a nd are a n h ara a B h a as there s id to h ave bee C n s , t , i r t S e v ag as and P anc h o l s . The Cha anas and B h a as a n n n both cl aimed Br ahm ic desce t . The l a g uag e used ﬁ t a t rs by these bards must h ave bee n the loc al P rakrit , but g r adually the P r akrit developed i nto the moder n a n e n ver nacul r . A umber of bards ar me ntio ed by tr adition as h aving composed poems betwee n 700 and

1 1 5 A . D . re u a r a d a 0 The chief of these a P s/zy ( o P n ) ,

‘ ’ e da r A n a n a D a a u d u tu b Ali n k a m K , y cis , M s , Q a d A m

’ a z z h as no t a nd F . Their work , however , survived it is therefore impossible to s ay whether the l ang ua g e they used is to be recko ned a s P r akrit or as the moder n n ver n acul ar . A poetic chro icle of the rulin g f a mily of

' ’ ’ M a a K /zu m s ew r , c lled the cm R a ci , Which dates from the n n a n n o n a sixtee th ce tury , is s id to h ave bee fou ded n in n n work writte the ni th ce ntury , but no fr agme t na a In 1 14 a n of the orig i l h s survived . 3 a cert i P al a n a a a Kumar bec me ki g of Guj rat , his c pit l t A nhil r n inﬂue nc e n a a . In 5 bei g w 1 1 9 , u der the of a n a e m a a a n and the J i schol r H ac h a ndra he bec me J i , a t a r a ther l ate da te H e m a ch andra wrote a romantic ' ’ ‘ ‘ in P a a z a An poem rakrit e ntitled K u maz r P al C/za r tr . an n a n a a na o ymous b rdic chro icle , c lled by the s me me , in the e arly speech of the moder n ver nacul ar is

1 4 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LIT ERATURE

9 2 n and fi tio n re in 1 1 . Le ge d c a mixed up with histor y ' ‘ z é in the P r t/z i R f R ciso . The repe a ted co nflic t s rel ated to h ave t aken pl a ce betwee n P rithi R aj and Sultan i ab uddin n S h h seem to be quite u historical , and the Mughals are brought o n the st a ge thirty ye ar s befor e a a a in n n they re lly ppe red I di a Histor y . I t is therefore doubtful whether t he docume nt in its e ntirety is a c o n a an a i tempor r y poem , but the l gu g e used , which s tr ansitio nal in char a cter and abounds in str a ng e forms a n n a which h ve lo g si ce ce sed to be used , make s it seem likely tha t the original core of the poem is certainl y n the work of Cha d B ardai , and that it is o ne of the in n i a e arliest poems Hi d which h ve survived . Owi ng to the diffi cult y of the l a ngu ag e it is a poem no t e a sy a n a h o to re d eve for schol rs , but those w h ave studied n n a it h ave a high opi io of its liter ry merits . I t is of imme nse v alue from the poi nt of view of linguistic study . The following li ne s are t ake n from the twe ntieth ’ u P m ti book of Ch a d s epic . The f air ad av a , d aughter P a a e n a n O n n P rithi R a h ad of d m S , ppo e t of j, he ard of n P rithira a s h ad a n the obility of j, he of her be uty , a d a a s a a n a whe n her marri ge w rr ged with nother , sh e se nt a me ss ag e by a parrot to P rithiraj to come and rescue P rith r a n her . i aj c me with a army to seiz e her as h is bride

n d n d W atchi g the ro a i the irectio n of Delhi , a w as n a n d H ppy she whe the p rrot retur e , a in n ad He r g the ews , g l were her eyes a d n w as a d i n The m i e el te w th the toke s of love , di d She tore off the rty clothes from her bo y , P i d and an in d a nd ad n d i ur fie , o te , or e herself w th robes , C a lled for priceless jewels ( for her perso n) from he ad to A a d n n rr ye with the toke s of the ki g of love . i n a d n a a F lli g gol e tr y with pe rls , n a a a d nd Lighti g l m p she w ve it rou , a n n da n i d aid n T ki g her co fi te w th her , bol ly the m e Goes as R u kmini we nt to meet Murari W in a i n San a orshipp g G ur , reveri g k r ; i a n n n C rcum mbul ati g a d touchi g their feet . n o n n n P rithira The seei g Ki g j,

d a d n a a . She smile b shfully , hi i g her f ce throug h sh me i n and in o n a Se zi g her h , putt g her horseb ck , EARLY BARDIC CHRONI CLE S 1 5

T n d a a he Ki g , the Lor of Delhi , took her w y. s i e ad a id i The rumour p th t , outs e the c ty , ar a n d v They e c rryi g off P a ma ati by force . a re a is add in and an Drums be t , there s l g of horse eleph t ,

ran a d in a ll di i n . They , rme , rect o s i i d a a i Se ze Se ze shoute e ch w rr or . R a d a nd i n g e possesse the heroes the r ki g . Whe n King Prithiraj w as going in fro nt Wi a ll a d th his rm y behi n him , There the horseme n adv ancing a rrived in in in a in d in a K g meet g K g , the w rriors jo e b ttle , W n P rithiré in n n he j the K g tur s rei ,

- a n and i d n a . The he ve s st st ll , the worl serpe t sh kes a nd a ll a as d a The chiefs heroes look ( wful ) e th , a d o n n E ger for bloo rushes the Ki g , n a The bows let fly cou tless rrows , d The de adly bl ades raw blood . a nd o n i d From the swe t of the wou s of the heroes the f el , A i a a nd d and th ck stre m flows , yes the s , A s a i b a rdt w rr ors of the smote , n d d d d n O the fiel fell he a s a n he a less tru ks of the foe . The foe fel l o n the fiel d of b attle nin a a d Tur g his f ce tow r s Delhi , a in wo n a n Prithira H v g the b ttle , we t j, A ll i ad the ch efs were g l . H e took P admav ati with him ' ” 1 R i n in Prithirzt . ejo ci g , K g j

’ Chand B ardai s so n J a lb a n is al so s aid to h ave bee n a poet a nd possibly some p ar ts of the R &so were com posed by him . ' n — a a J a g a y a k . J g nd y k or J a g m k ) w as a c o nt e mp o r ary of Ch and B ardai and a tte nded the court of P aram ardi arm l a h o a ( P a ) of M hoba in Bundelkhand, w w s a riv al P rit hir no of aj. His works h ave t survived , unl ess w e h ave in the Ma b o b ﬁ [0 141 11 4 ( o r Aliz a? which ’ h a s n a s a a n a bee described Spurious c to of Ch ud s epic , ‘ k a p o e m which w a s writte n by J a g nay a . This poem h as been h anded down by or a l tr aditio n and exists in m any rece nsion s which diff er from o ne another both in l angua ge a nd subj ect m atter . It is still sung by professio nal singer s in I ndi a and the l anguage is n z a alw ays moder i ed to suit the di lect of the reciter .

1 in . 38 a i n Mr. n a na Transl t o b y Joh Be mes , Vol of the Jour l of the

n a . 152 1 53 . Asiatic Society of Be g l pp , 1 6 A HI S TORY O F HIND I LITERATURE

The heroes of this poem are Alha and Udal ( o r n P n o ne n n a n n U da ) . ortio s of rece sio h ve bee tr a s n a M a n a r . a l ted i to E g lish b ll d metre by W terfield , under the title of The Nine - L a kh Ch ain or the Maro A fe anz a a F eud . w st s Will g ive some ide of this ’ a A a n J amb a p oem . I t rel tes lh s Victory over Ki g y

a a d a d and The w rriors st ggere , they sc ttere broke , In hope their lives to s ave ; n amb a saw d Whe J y they fle , he spoke , nd an n d d A his eleph t o w ar rave .

’ ’ M aho b a s a i n so n ch m p o , Devi s , Now settle thy c a use with me A d a o o ne live from the fiel sh ll g but , ” So turn by tur n strike w e .

I m a no t and law y strike , by the Ch el 0 n Do thou strike first , Ki g n a d re d ho did amb a d a The goo w J y r w , d d n A n fitte the notch to stri g .

aim w as d in did an The goo , the str g tw g , F ast did the arrow fly A ho wda Alha a n cross the spr g ,

A nd the sh aft we nt whizzi ng b y.

n his a e n as n a d The j v li f_lew e r they rew , Now how m ay Alba bi de ’ Q uee n S arada s c a re at his right h and there

She turned the spe ar asi de . ” a B ana har amb a a Now he r , p , J y sp ke , Twice h ast thou foiled my blow In pe a ce thy w ay to M a hoba t a ke ’ ’ t no t o For thrice thou sc ap s s .

A a a ad a But lb there his bre st m e b re , A nd did to the Raj a cry ’ a a K sh atri s ad No p rt of tr e it were , ” From the b attle trench to fly .

are in a n a nd ad all There homes he ve st re y for , To - morrow if no t to - day nd in a d a a A if M ro this ti e sh ll f ll ,

My n ame sh a ll l ive for aye .

ne an n a O ch ce is left thee , Ki g , to s ve , A nd see thou miss no more n d n in n a The rew the Ki g his sh i g g l ive , d A n thrice he smote full sore . EARLY BARDI C CHRO NICLE S 1 7

’ ’ o n A a d h a d No hurt lh s bo y pp , His shield w as lifted h ig h ’ At n d amb a sna d le g th the swor of J y pp , n i d a w as ni The w st he e th gh .

I a n d n ant i i ad h ve hew ow ele p h s w th th s bl e , A nd lopped their limbs aw ay ; ’ I a n d h as no w a d ts m ster s ee it betr ye , My life is lost to - day !

Ra a no w a Now , j . my stroke t ke thou , A nd his eleph a nt o n he drove ; H o wda ho w da to , tusk to tusk , a i n Close met the ch m p o s strove .

’ n A a a d dash d i d The lb forw r his sh el , With the boss he de alt a blow ; ’ ’ a n d i w as hurl d i d The eleph t s r ver to the f el , ’ A nd wave r d and he to fro .

n amb a d his da n The J y rew gger kee , Lo ng time their steel they plied ’ On A a d no w as n lb s bo y hurt see , d ” in i d . Now b the foe , he cr e

’ P ac hsaw ad whirl d i n a n his ro ch i , a d ho wda nd D s_he the to the g rou Soo n Alba li ghted o n the pl ai n n d A d f ast his arms b e bou n .

a n Dh a r. 0 1261 7 i S a r g , a bard Wh o ﬂo ur sh e d in n n a a the middle of the fourtee th ce tury , is s id to h ve

’ n n bee n a desce da t of Chand B ardai . H e is the reputed

‘ ' ‘ author of two poems k now n as the H a mmir R ascz a nd the H a mm r v a are n a i A ﬁ y , which chro icles of the roy l R ant h amb h o r a H m mir in house of . The v lour of a his

a a n Al - ud - din strug g le g i st the emperor a , a t whose

an a a . a a n h ds he received his de th , is very f mous S r g Dh ar is also the author of a n a ntholo g y of S anskrit ' nz r n a d/za ra a dd/za iz lyric st a as called the Sci g P , which in 1 6 w as published 3 3 . n n These e arly bards h ad a lo g li e of successors , some of whom will be me ntio ned l ater o n . Their n a s chro nicles are v alu able no t o ly as liter ature , but a record of the times in which they lived . Like the old

1 t ff a a R i . 63 . 414 . C lcut ev ew , Vol pp 1 8 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LITERATURE c hronicle s of other l ands they cont ain much th at is nd n a as lege ndary a u reli ble history , but the light which they throw o n the period in which they were writte n is a nevertheless of very gre t v alue . P r — O t h e r P o e t s o f t h is e io d . O ne or tw o other writers wh o are considered to belo n g to this period m ay also ' re B /z a z n . a fi l h o be me ntio ed These fi , w wrote at the n n and N a lla in it e nd of the thirtee th ce tury , S g , Mu llc? ' nd mir K u sro flo urish D e a d, a A h , who e d about the a a fourtee nth ce ntury . The l tter w s a P er si an poet to re a a whom Hindi verses a lso scribed . There is also a cert ain Go rak h nath wh o is re g arded as the fou nder of and as a a n order of Yo g is , the uthor of both S anskrit h as a nd Hi ndi works . S ome doubt bee n expressed as n a a n at all to his bei g historic l perso , but it seems d a a s an . likely tha t he w , th t he lived about 1 200 A . D n o n r The Hindi works , which i clude e in prose , a e n no t n almost cert ai ly writte by him . They are pro b ably the works of his followers . They h ave bee n pl aced by some as e arly a s the middle of the fourtee nth a at n as ce ntury , but their d te prese t must be rega rded v ery uncert ain . EARLY BHAKTI P O ETS ( 1400- 1550)

T h e Va is h n a v R e i — a v v a 1. A ne W developme nt in Hi ndi liter a ture w a s caused by the g rowth of the V a ishnav a n in moveme t North I ndi a . The Muh a mmadan c o n quest h ad bee n a time of g re a t difﬁ cult y for the Hi ndu

n . S a h ad n n relig io chol rs bee dispersed , idols broke , a nd a n temples c st dow . But though Hi nduism suffered a s no t a n severely it w destroyed , d a gre at impetus was n a to be g ive to the V ishna va form of the Hindu fa ith . The V aishnava relig ious moveme nts of North I ndi a at a n a a this time f ll i to three g roups , R m ite , Krishnaite , and deistic . But all the v arious sects h ave m any n in n . na o d h poi ts commo A perso l G , w o is full of a nd love pity for his devotees , is the obj ect of worship , and tow ards him devotio n is dema nded a s the most import ant requireme nt from those who would a n a obt i rele a se . The moveme nt as a whole w s a revolt ag ai nst the cold i ntellectu alism of Br ahm a nic philosophy as a nd the lifeless form alism of mere ceremo ni al . I t w n n a nd e sse tially a popul ar relig ious moveme t , this is a na a a an emph sised by its u se of the ver cul r , r ther th

a n in n a . S skrit , the v a st amou t of liter ture it produced This co n stitutes the import ance of the moveme nt from

the poi nt of view of Hi ndi liter a ture . ' — n a R a m a n a n d a s P re d e c e s s o rs . It is g e er ally g reed th a t it w a s Ramananda wh o g ave the gre a test impuls e

to the relig ious reviv al in North I ndi a about this time , but there were other s wh o were his predecessors and the ’ ’ ‘ A a z Gra m ﬁ h arbingers of the moveme nt . The of the n in 1 604 h as S ikhs , compiled by Guru Arju , preserved some of the e arliest Specime ns we possess of Hindi 20 A HI S TO RY OF HINDI LITERATURE

' éfia le iz n n poetry of the moveme t . Amo g those devotees ‘ ( b iza g a z s ) of whose compositio ns fr ag me n ts h ave n in Gra n t/z nd re an bee preserved the , a who a e arlier th ana n a are a na n a n t/z Ram d , S d a d N amde v . The Gr ’ ’ co nt a i ns a lso a fr a gme nt of a cert a i n J a z a ev wh o h as n ide ntifi e d a ad a a sometimes bee with J y e v , the uthor ’ ’ a n Gitd Go vz n a a a of the S skrit , who lived tow rds the e nd n ide nt ifi at io n of the twelfth ce tury . But the c is more th a n doubtful a nd the d ate and the circumst a nces ide r n n of this J a v a e u k ow n . a dn d ri h e nn n S , who probably fl o u s d about the begi i g fi fte e nt h n a a n n in of the ce tury , is s id to h ve bee bor n and a n k u di S i dh to h ve bee a butcher ( s ) . H e gave up a n m e n his tr de a d b e c a a devotee . O ly a couple of his n ar in a n /z hym s e preserved the Gr t . ’ N dm a ev belo nged to the Maratha country a nd w as a i o t h r fi H e a flo urish e d devotee of V th b aa P and a p r. prob bly n 4 00 n 4 0 B a as a a betwee about 1 a d 1 3 . y c ste he w t ilor , a nd a ccordin g to the lege nds preserved about him he a n in a a showed gre t devotio his boyhood , but fterw rds for a time lived an evil life in comp an y with a ba nd

a . H e n and a a a of d coits repe ted , however , bec me g re t e devotee . H is the author of a co n sider able number of Ma a n as a n r thi hym s , but he w oteworthy relig ious i n n a a a n an le ader n the orth of I di lso , d wrote m y A n a n n verses in Hi ndi . co sider ble umber of hym s a n N amde a composed by him are in the Gr tiz . v is most interesting ﬁ gure a nd probably o ne of the ﬁ rs t le aders of the ne w relig ious reviv al which beg an about n this time in North I di a . m 1 400 R a a n a n d a , who lived probably from about to 1 4 70 as a n a a a , w scetic who somewhere bout the ye r 1 430 be g a n to pre ach tha t the eter n al Go d should be n a a a a a a n worshipped u der the n ame of R m , th t R m lo e w a s the source of rele as e from the e vils of tr a nsmigr a n a nd n n tio , that this should be sought by ferve t devotio b /mk t i a h ad a a e n ( ) tow ards him . The w y lre dy b e n n prep ared by the pre a chi ng of others o simil ar li es , a nd Ramananda evide n tly met with such success th at he took up his reside nce in Be nares and m ade th at the

22 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LIT ERATURE

425 n 1 . O u a n n the ye ar becomi g disciple o f. Rama a da a n and a he a bdic ted his sovereig ty bec me a me ndicant .

' n a at is a a n i B ku , the J , s id to h ve bee n bor n 1 4 1 5 . S en b rb e r at w a s a a the court of the Raj a of Rewah . O f these three disciples of R amana nd a o nly a fe w hymns n in di a n /z a w n a nd h ave bee preserved the A Gr t . B ﬁ ﬁ , n a a n a other disciple , is the reputed uthor of an expl a tio n in Hi ndi of the Vedant a sy stem of philosophy in ’ ’ ‘ ' n a m n B r a z D s fourtee ch pters called the A t izei . R a

’ c lza m r n nd a n w a s the ci disciple of Ramana da , a a tt i ed a gre at celebrity as devotee . More than thirty of his

hymn s h ave bee n preserved in the Adi Gra nt/z . The n in d followi g , which he describes his rel a tion to Go , is a specime n

I art a i n I am a f Thou h ll , the Thy pe cock I art n n I am c h a k f Thou the moo , the Thy or; O Go d if T ho u a no t i I n t a i , bre k w th me , will o bre k w th Thee I I a i a I in f bre k w th Thee , whom sh ll jo I art a a n I am i f Thou l m p , the Thy w ck ;

I art a a i a n I am T h i i . f Thou pl ce of p lg rim g e , the y p lgr m I h ave joi ned true love with Thee nin I a i a ll Joi g Thee h ve broke n w th others . Wherever I go there is Thy service

no d O Go d . There is other Lor like Thee , ’ B y worship pi ng Thee De ath s noose is cut aw ay . ” R av Das in ain i 1 s geth to obt Thy serv ce .

— nan Ka b i r. The gre a test of the disciples of Rama da , a a s whether a s a poet or a religious le der , w the Muh a mmadan we aver K abir ( 1 440 Accordi ng a an to le g e nd he w a s re ally the s o n of a Br hm widow , n a a n a n wh o , in order to co ce l her sh me , exposed the i f t a a n n na a s in the L ah r T k e ar Be res , where it w dis i ﬁ a a n a a nd covered by N r , the Muh amm d we ver , his

n a s o n . wife Nima, a d broug ht up by them their w child A nother versio n g ives an e ntirely mir a culous a ccou nt e n a a n of his birth . Ev a s a boy he is s id to h ve g ive

offe nce both to Hindus and Muhammada ns . The former he ang ered by putti ng o n a s acred cord thoug h of lo w and a n n na Go d c a ste , the l tter by usi g Hi du mes for

1 ” Mac auliffe i R i i n . I . . 331 . , The S kh el g o , Vol V p EARLY BHAKT I P OET S 23

w as a M a a though he uh mm dan. H e w as t aunted also ’ n a n z u ra a o ne a u ru D with bei g g , th t is without g . esir ing to remove this repro ach he wished to become a d a anan a isciple of R m d , but fe ared that he mi g ht no t

a . H e h ad be ccepted therefore recourse to a str a t a gem . Lyi ng dow n upo n the ste ps of the g lut ? which he k new a anan a i R m d visited , he hoped th at n the dark the g u ru nd might stumble over him , a th a t probably the n no words would rise so re adily to his lips a s the ma n tra of a a his order . This hope w a s re alised a nd R m na nda ” a am R m R . uttered the words , K abir cl aimed th at he h ad n n a and a anan bee i iti ted R m da admitted the cl aim . After this i niti atio n K abir is s aid to h ave visited his g u ru a e n regul rly , but though a disciple of Raman anda h we t far n a in beyo d his m ster his te a ching . Whether he w as o na a M a a an no t n rig i lly uh mm d or , there is o doubt that M n n i uh ammadan i flue ce c a n be tr a ced n his ide a s .

H e w a s the founder of the deistic moveme nt in I ndi a . H e use s the na me Ram a for Go d ( a s well as other na a s n nd mes such H ari , Govi d , Allah , etc . ) a h as an a n n Ved tic ide s , but he rej ected e tirely the doctri e of n a na n a nd no n a n n e n i c r tio s , with u sp ri g voice co d m ed n idol atry and most of the Hi ndu ceremo nies a d rites . n a n n h as The i flue nce of K abir , both direct d i direct , bee n e n n a n ormous . Not o ly is the sect of K birpa this , which n n cl aims him as its fou der , still very umerous , but many other sects o we to him the le adin g ide a s of their n n n theology . Ma y of these sects will be me tio ed l a ter o n in co nnectio n with the liter a ture which their are an n no t le aders produced . There m y lege ds but very much reli able inform atio n about the life of K abir . His i ntere st in relig ious questio ns to the ne g lect of his we aving seems to h a ve brought him sometimes into n a co nflict with his f amily , but eve more trouble c me to him from the oppositio n of both Hi ndus and h o ff n in n a t Muh ammadans , w were o e ded tur his H e de nunci atio n of m a ny of their pr actices . seems to an a i have bee n persecuted by the Emperor S ik d r Lod , a fter being de nounced by both Hindus and Muh am n nd ﬁ nall a m ada ns as a troublesome perso , a y w s 24 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LITERATURE

’ na exiled from Be res by the Emperor s orders . n v at Ma a in G a H e we t to li e gh r the or khpur district , a where he e nded his d y s . a a re n The poems composed by K bir very umerous . I t is probable th at he him se lf d id no t commit them t o n a a nd a writi g , but th t they were remembered tre sured a up by his disciples . V rious collectio ns of poems a n u s a scribed to K abir h ve come dow to , but there is a stro ng probability th a t there is much in these c o lle c n tio ns tha t is no t his g e nuine work . O e collection is to n di Gra nik be fou d in the A of the S ikhs , which w as 4 n compiled in 1 60 . A other collectio n is co nt ai ned in ” “ B a /e a n a n - the ii (liter lly i voice , or ccou t book , or perh a ps a docume nt by which a hidde n tre a sure c an be This work w as produced in co nnectio n

with the K abir P a nth a fter the de ath o i. K abir probably ’ n as a book of instr uctio n . It is ofte s aid to h ave bee n ’ a D s o n compiled by Bh g o a , e of K abir s immedi a te 5 B u a a 1 70 . i k disciple s , bout the ye r The j is a collee ’ a m a z i tio n of verses in va rious metres . The R n s are ’ a b a a s ar short doctri nal poems . The S e simil ar but in

' /za u n s a n a differe nt metre . The C ﬁ ct is expositio n of the relig ious s ig niﬁ c at io n of the conso nants of the

a a a a . In th e thirt i ra N g ri lph bet ‘ y verse s of the V p m a lts ? an a tt a ck is m ade o n the orthodox sy stem of the

’ a b a r s a s a n ta s B l Br ahm ans . The K ci , V , e is ,

’ ’ B z rﬁa lis a nd H z n dold s are relig ious verse s in the metre s n n s o named . The collectio e ds With over four hundred i i a n n S k h s , or short a pophthegms , e ch co sisti g of a d /z d a nd a r B a lz P a d u sing le o , the d ii , which sums p the whole ma tter . Neither the verse s co nt ai ned in the ’ ’ A a z Gra n i/z no r those in the E ti a la c an be reg arded in their e ntirety a s the work of K abir . Besides these there are a very l arg e number of S ak his ( o f Which over ﬁ v e thous and h a ve bee n collected) and other verses a scribed to K abir which are still curre nt in t a a a I ndi a . A the K abir Ch aur , which is the he dqu rter s a i P n n a of the K b r a th at Be ares , there is s id to be a 1 a collectio n of the works of K abir , c lled the [( c lz n ff n Gra n t , which i ncludes about twe ty di ere t books . EARLY BHAKT I P OET S 25

Many of the se are evide ntly the works of disciple s or fe n successors , thoug h w of them h ave bee published . The di alect used in the compositio n s co nt ained in the i ak a a B j is the old Av dhi di lect of Hindi . The poetry a is and n and a d of K bir rough u polished , the style n an a a n o n l gu ge m ke it t alw a y s e a sy to u nderst a d . Words are ofte n loosely strung to g ether with very a a a a a a a nd n n s little reg rd to g r mm tic l ccur cy , the se te ce a re n a and ofte elliptic l full of colloqui alisms . The freque n t pl a y o n words and the obscurity of many of iffi in the simile s used i ncre a se the d c ult y . But spite of all this K abir must be g ive n a very high pl ace in n n n Hi di liter a ture . The amaz i g bold e ss with which a a a he tt cked the relig ious pr ctice s of his day , toler a ti ng no shams and dem andi ng re ality in all h o n a o d and those w were seeki g fter G , the mor al e ar ne st ne ss of his a ppe al to m e n to put the n o fi r t in an thi g s of G d s , would itself g ive his work n n a n n n outst a di g import ce . But beside s this the sti gi g a a t a n a nd a s tire which he h s a his comm d , his bility to n a n n produce striki ng epi g r ams , a d the f sci a ti g rhythm ll n a n of his verse , a combi e to g ive wo derful power to h as n a n n i his poetry . H e bee c lled the pio eer of Hi d n n liter a ture and the f a ther of all Hi di hym s ; but thoug h , in n n view of the predecessor s w e h ave alre ady me tio ed , is a n such a cl aim c a n h ardly be allowed , it cert i ly true to say th a t it w a s he more than a ny others before him wh o popul a ri z ed Hi ndi reli g ious liter a ture a nd va stly n a nd n a a exte ded it s influe nc e , Hi di liter ture of the s me ty pe subseque nt to K abir owes to him a g re at debt . Tr an sl a tio n s of his poems g ive very little ide a of a fe a the ch arm a nd force of his style , but w extr cts m ay help to g ive some ide a of the ki nd of liter ature he

‘ r ne t o S &k /z is a produced . Here a e o or w of the scribed to him Eve rything is from Go d and nothing from His serv ant ; H e c an ch ang e a musta rd- seed into a mou ntain and a mou nt ain ” ~ into a nnustard se e d . d s d a n as is a a a The house of Go i ist t , t ll p lm H a a n a is nd e who cl imbs to the top , t stes of he ve he who f lls grou ” in pieces . 26 A HI S TORY OF HI NDI L ITERATURE

n d a a i it a Co si er the p r ble of the s eve suffers the flour to p ss , but retai ns the husk ” 8 0 m en a a is d and a a is 1 let p ss wh t goo sw llow wh t useless .

’ The li nes below illustr a te K abir s theological st and p oi nt

I Go d i n n d d f be w thi the mosque , the to whom oes th is worl belo ng I Ram in i a i o u ind n i ri a f be with the m g e wh ch y f upo your p lg m ge , the n who is there to k now wh at h a ppe ns without a i is in a A a n H r the E st ; ll h is i the West . Look within you r a nd a i a nd Ri he rt , for there you will fi both K r m m All m en a nd n d are His i in the wome of the worl l v g forms . a i is i d A a a nd Ram H e is m H is K b r the ch l of ll h of y g uru , e ” r 2 my Pi .

One more extr a ct will illustrate the p oetical merit ’ o f K abir s verse

No o ne k new the mystery of th at we aver who c ame into the world d a and spre a the w rp . The e arth a nd sky are the two be ams the sun a nd moo n are two

filled shuttles . T ak ing a thous a nd thre ads he spre ads them le ngthw ays : to - day he w e av eth a d a i far- e nd still , but h r to re ch s the off . a nin a a a a n i n n Says K bir , Joi g K rm with K rm , wove w th u wove d d 3 thre ads sple n i ly the we aver we aves . ,

' a n K a m l The s o n of K bir , amed a , is also s aid to a a nd a n a i h ave bee n poet , his couplets to h ve bee m de n n a refut atio n of the s ayi g s of his f ther whom“ he seems n a to h ave O pposed . He ce rose the proverb , Ah unl ucky ’ i n s o n a . f amily w a s K abir s , which the K mal w as bor n — f an n N a n a k . O the m y moveme ts which owe their i nspir atio n to the te a chi ng of K abir no ne is more n impor ta nt than the religio of the S ikhs , which w as founded in the P unj ab by Nanak ( 1 469 It is

n n - n a s aid th a t Nanak , whe twe ty seve ye r s of a g e , met nd inﬂue nc e a n no t n in K abir , a the of the l tter is see o ly ’ the l ar g e number of K a bir s compositio ns a fterw ards Gra n t/z in i ncluded in the S ikh , but the doctri nes of are a a and Nanak , which very simil r to those of K bir ,

’ ” 1 n e stco tt a i and a i P an Transl atio s from W s K b r the K b r th ,

9 5 8 6 93 . p p . , , 2 ” ’ ” n Sir R ab indr nath a a P 69 . Transl atio by a T gore , K bir s oems , 3 ’ c am aini 28 . R . A ad a an a i n . E ij k . R ( ev hm Sh h s tr sl t o ) EARLY BHAKT I P OET S 27

n o e a a a u doubtedly w gre t de l to him , though Nanak n st a nds e arer to Hi nduism th an K abir . Nanak made jour neys in sever al directio ns a ccompanied by his Ma ana a disciple rd , who pl yed the rebeck while Nanak n a nd a n s ang . His hym s other poetic l utter a ce s were

in a mixture of Punj abi and Hi ndi . Althoug h he is no t

equal to K abir a s a poet , yet his ver se is cle ar and a nd no a n in a n . na pithy , a t l cki g poetic l excelle ce N k soon gathered a number of follower s and o ne of his most n J a a n f amous compositio s is the pi t , collectio of verses which he arr an ged for their d a ily use in pr aise a nd a n pr a yer . Besides this he composed a very l rge umber a n of other verses which a re i ncluded in the S ikh Gr t/z .

‘ The followin g is o ne verse from the J a zbfi :

’ There is no l im it to God s praises ; to those who repe at them i n i th e re s o l m it .

is no i i His a nd is no i i . There l m t to mercy , to His gifts there l m t

is no a Go d no i a He a . There limit to wh t seeth , lim t to wh t he reth

The l imit of the secret of His he art c annot be k now n . T he limit of His cre atio n c annot be k now n neither His ne ar no r H f d is ar si e c a n be discovered . n a n To k ow His limits how m y vex their he arts . His l im its c a nnot be ascertai ned d Nobo y k noweth His lim its .

sa a n aid . The more we y, the more there rem i s to be s

a is d and a d His a . Gre t the Lor , ex lte is se t d d His ex a lte name is hi gher th an the most ex a lte . W an o ne a d ere y else ever so ex lte , T he n H e would k now th at ex a lted Being n How gre at H e is H e k oweth Himself . ana G o d b esto e th o n H e i a and N k , w gifts whom looketh w th f vour

mercy .

T K is h — n n a h e r n l . a a a C u t The followers of R ma d , a s as n na n a a well those of K abir a d Na k , g e er lly g ve na a o d the me of Ram to the S upreme G , though other e name s were sometime s us d . The follower s of a an n a n n na n a n R m a da a ccepted R ma a s a i car tio , d a n n a na n a nd permitted idol try , but the doctri e of i c r tio the use of im ages were both rejected by K abir a nd ’ N an b lz a /e iz a a ak . It w as i ndeed still to R m which they

1 “ J a z XXI an a n Mac au liffe T Si R i i n py , V ; Tr sl tio by , he kh el g o , I Vol . . 208 . 28 A HI STORY OF HIND I LITERATURE

a a a a s n o d n pre ched , but to R m the i visible G , no t as a n a n a i c r natio . There w s however another group of V aishn ava s w h o worshipped Go d under the form of n n n na n a other i c ar na tio , mely Krish a . Like the Rama ite cult the worship of Krishna also h ad its nn n in n be g i i g s the ce turies before this period , but , a ne as bout this time received a w impetus , which w a a s a s m rked , well furthered , by the use of the na a it a ver cul r for s relig ious liter ture . S ometimes it w a s the child Krishna who w a s e speci ally thoug ht of a s a n a object of worship , but more ofte n it w as th t ’ a spect of Krishna s life which w a s co ncer ned with his rel atio n to Radha a nd the other Gopis tha t received a n n most tte tio .

' R adh a- Krishnaite verse g oes back to the S anskrit ’ G id G w n a a ade n and as r o d of J y v a in the twelfth ce tury , e arly a s the fourtee n th ce ntury Krishna hymn s a ppe ared in n n 1 a Be g ali . Betwee 450 a nd 1 48 0 there flourished

’ Guj ar ati poet named N a rs z ng /z Me /z td wh o wrote

' a a- a in a an e a R dh Krishn lyrics th t l guage . H is lso n credited with h avi n g composed simil ar v e rse s in Hi di . ' ' Vz d a z / /z u r h i i in yﬁ p t T c , w o lived at B sap the D arbh an g a district of Bihar in the middle of the ﬁ ft e e nth n o ne a a a ce tury , is of the most f a mous V ishn v a n n a H a n a poets of E ster I di . e w s the fou der of school of m a ster - sin g er s which a fterw ards spre ad all w a s n a . n n over Be g l Little is k ow of his life , but he a a an a the uthor of sever l S skrit works . His chief f me however rests o n his so nnets in the Maithili di alect of In Bihari . these he use s the story of the love which R adha bore to Krishna a s an alle g ory to describe the a n a rel tio of the soul to Go d. Many of these were fter w ards ada pted to Be n g ali a nd m ade popul ar by

a an a and i a t i a . Ch it y , V dy p a h a s h ad m any imit tor s His poems posse ss g re at liter ary merit and he h a s h ad a g re a t influe nce o n the liter a ture of the E a ster n p art of I ndi a . ‘ ' d ba at i U m / z z w a s probably a co ntempor ary of Vidyap , and also wr ote Krishnaite song s both in in Maithili n n a d in Be gali .

30 A HI S TORY O F HIND I LITERATURE

The sh arp arrow of His love h ath pierced my body through and 0 through , Mother . n I n it no t no w it ann nd d 0 Whe it struck me k ew ; c ot be e ure ,

Mother . I a n an a i n and d ain no t Thou gh use ch rms , i c t t o s , ru gs , the p will d a ep rt . I an o ne a ? I n n s n 0 s there y who will tre t me te se i the ago y ,

Mother . O G o d art n a art no t d an Thou , , e r ; Thou ist t ; come quickly to

meet me .

ai a d n a n - i d a i na S th Mir , the Lor , the mou t i w el er , who is com p ss o te n d d a 0 . h th que che the fire of my bo y , Mother The Lotus - eyed h ath e ntwi ned my soul with the twine of His ” 1 attributes .

h — Va lla b a c h a ry a . The spre ad of the worship of a ll h a h ar H Krishn , however , owed most to V a ab c ya . e w as the s o n of a Br ahma n from S outh I ndi a and w a s bor n na in 1 4 79 H e a t Be res . est ablished an im ag e of a a t a an in nd Krishn Gob rdh the Br aj country , a from this a s his he adqu arters spre ad the doctrine of his sect in an a n a i m y p rts of I di . H e wrote ma ny works n an n n in n i n S skrit , but othi g Hi d , thoug h the moveme t ni a h a H e he i ti ted s produced m any Hi ndi writers . di e d in 1 5 31 and w a s succeeded as le ader of the sect by i h l a his so n V tt a n th . 1 5 1 5 1 5 85 no t V who lived from about to , o nly became the le ader of the sect which his f ather h ad fou nded but is also credited with havi ng been a Hindi writer . Besides Hi ndi verses the ge nui ne ness of which i is doubtful , he s also s aid to h ave bee n the author of a short prose work called Ma n dem de aling with the a a and a o ne s tory of R dh Krishn , which must be of the a an n in n i n in e rliest ext t prose writi g s Hi d . It is writte F Br aj Bhash a. our of the discip le s of his f ather llab h ach ar a V a y , to gether with four of his o w n disciples became the celebr a ted A s/z t a wh o a re me n tio ned a in a l ater ch pter . n — D iv is io s o f t h e B h a k t i M o v e m e n t . Duri ng this period ‘ ' ( 1 400 - 1 5 50 ) the various biz a /e z z moveme nts of Hi ndu n 1 h o ism f all i to three groups , namely ( ) those w

1 ” an a i n Mac auliff R i n i . Tr sl t o by e , The elig o of the S khs , Vol

356. V I . EARLY BHAKT I POET S 31 wor shipped Ram a as an i ncar na tio n and pr actised 2 h o idol atry , ( ) those w worshipped Go d under the a a a n name of R m , but rejected idol try a d the doctri ne n a na n a nd 3 wh o of i c r tio , ( ) those wor shipped Krishna . In e ach group durin g this period Hi ndi liter ature came to be used and w a s o ne of the g re at f a ctors which a a n helped to spre d the v rious moveme ts , while they o n the other h and helped to stimul ate the g rowth o f A Hindi liter a ture . lmost the whole of subseque nt Hindi liter ature is impressed with o ne or another of “ a n these forms of V aishn v a doctri e . — n M a lik M uh a m m a d J a y a s i . The bardic chro icles h ad a much more local curre ncy th an the relig ious verse and a na n described above , outside R j puta co tributed n na a a little to the developme t of ver cul r liter ture , b ut o ne remark able poem of this period seems to show how eve n the poetry of the b ards h ad bee n affected by P a du m va i the reli gious reviv al . This wa s the d t o f

’ ‘ ‘ a lik zl/ u /z a mm a a J d a h o ﬂo ri h e d a M y sz w u s bout 1 540 . a as a M an Malik Muh amm d w uh amm ad devotee , as a a n n and n but w cqu i ted with Hi du lore , profou dly a n H e as affected by the te chi g of K abir . w much n a a h o a ho oured by the R j of Amethi , w ttributed s o n a a n nd the birth of a to the pr yers of the s i t , a his n a du tomb is still to be see at Amethi . Besides the P m va ti a a a ci , he wrote lso relig ious poem c lled the k ha w a du w A rci t . In the P m cf ﬁ he tells the story of a

a n a an e n h o a n a a o i. cert i R t S w , he ri g from p rrot the a a P adum a ati P admini n g re t be uty of v , or , jour eyed to Ceylo n as a m e ndic a nt a nd retur ned to Chitor with

i Ala- ud - din n n P dm in s . a a his bride , the ruli g soverei g a t D a a P adm ini nd n a elhi , lso he rd of a e de voured to n ca pture Chitor in order to g ai n possessio of her . n a an n as a n n H e w as u successful , but R t S e w t ke priso er H e as a a nd held as a host age for her surre nder . w fter w a rds rele ased from ca ptivity by the br avery of tw o c k e d n D e P al h o h ad a heroes . H e t h e n at t a ki g v , w m de i i n hi i i n n i nsulti ng p rO p o s als to P adm n duri g s mpr so me t . D e P al a an S e n w as a v W as killed , but R t , who mort lly n t o wou nded , retur ned to Chitor o ly to die . His w 3 2 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LITE RATURE

' P admini and an a s a ti a nd w ives , other , bec me for him , w hile this w as h appe ni ng Ala- uddin a ppe ared a t the and a s a n g ates of Chitor , though it w br vely defe ded , i t n ca ptured t . A the e d of the poem Malik Muh amm ad ll s n e xpl ain s it a a bei g a n a lle g ory . Chitor is the m a n a a n e n P a m ni is body of , R t S is the soul , d i is w

Ala- uddin n th e u ru dom , is delusio , p arrot is the g , o n a nd a n a nd so , thus relig ious char acter is g ive to ’ Ma M a a a o n the story . lik uh mm d s poem is b sed the nn a a fa cts co ected with the ctu l siege of Chitor , which a in 1 303 h a n a m o diﬁ e d took pl ce , but he s co sider bly nd a the det ails a borrowed lso from other stories . The poem is writte n in the ver nacul ar di alect of Ma lik ’ Muh ammad s time ti ng ed slightly with an admixture n n a na o f P ersi a words a d idioms . I t w s ori g i lly i P a n writte n n the ersi char a cter . It is a work of g re a t n and a a nd n a s o rig i ality poetic be uty , must be recko ed a e n o ne of the m sterpiec s of Hi di liter a ture . The following tr ansl ation of an extr a ct from Malik ’ Muh amm ad s descriptio n of Ceylo n will g ive some ide a of his excelle n ce a s a poet

’ n a man a a and tis as a a Whe ppro cheth this l , thoug h he ppro cheth

- d a a n a n . n a n o n K ail s the mou t of he ve De se m go g roves lie every si e , a a e xha le th rising from the e arth to the very sky . E ch t ll tree the d n a a a and a d d as o ours of mou t M l y , the sh e covereth the worl thou g h ’ a d a a n i its a a a e e n it were the ni ght . The sh e is ple s t w th M l y breeze ’ - d it as in the fiery mo nth of Jyest h a [M ay Ju ne] tis cool a mi st . It is thou gh nig ht cometh from th a t sh ade a nd as thou gh from it cometh the n a a in g ree nness of the sky . Whe the w yf rer cometh thither suffer g a in a nd from the he t he forgetteth his trouble _ his blissful rest , whoso ’ nd ad n n a ain a h ath fou th is perfect sh e , retur eth e er g to be r the

- s un rays . d d n e a I ann i So m a ny a n so e se ar these g roves , th t c ot tell the r a n a do a nd i as e nd . The whole six se so s of the ye r they flower fru t , n though it were a lw ays spri g . a an a n - a i and The ple s t thick m go groves be r fru t , the more fruit

a do ho w i ad . O n they be r , the more ( humbly ) the trees the r he s the nd a a n and m ai n branches a tru nks of the j ck trees , the j ck fruit ripe , khirni ri e neth f air a ppe a reth the b a rk a l to him who looketh . The p a a nd a d a a n sweet as mol sses , the bl ck wil plum , like bl ck bees ( mo g its a n n a nd ri e neth khu rhur n a s le aves ) . Coco uts ripe p the ; they ripe ’ a n ma hu d d thou gh the orch a rds were in I ndra s he ve . From the oth n d a n its a a nd n such sweet ess exu e , th t ho ey is fl vour , flowers its sce t ’ n a d n are d i d e at a nd in these pri ces g r e s other goo fru ts , goo to , whose EARLY BHAKT I POET S 33

- na I n no t . all a a i n a an and mes k ew They ppe r w th ect r like br ches , he n a a n n in who o ce t steth them rem i eth ever lo g g for more . A a and n all i are d d rec utmeg , fru ts , pro uce there luxuriantly . Ou id are i a a ind a a and every s e th ck g roves of t m r s , of p lmyr s , of date p alms . d i d in n in an n and in There well the b r s , s gi g m y to gues , sport g n - n A t d joyfully as they look upo n these ect ar bra ches . aw n the ho ney ’ are a an a nd - d nd suckers fr gr t , the turtle ove cries out Tis thou a o nly ’ - eka i t ﬁ hi . a d a i and thou ( ) The emer l p rroquets sport vely rejoice ,

- u nd - the rock pigeo ns cry k urk r a fly about . The h awk cuckoo crieth ' fo r its d and in a d t fi hifz k hi Kuhfi k u belove , the skulk g w rbler shoute . h12 in - a in a n n i . ever cr eth the cuckoo , while the k g crow spe keth m y to g ues ’ da hi da hi i a d - d w n Tyre , tyre [ , ] crieth the m lkm i bir , hile the g ree ’ a c r k iwi k p igeo n pl aintively telleth its t ale of woe . The pe cock s y fi fi

nd d e ar a nd d c aw . sou e sweet to the , lou ly the crows i n a d i i d a a a na and F lli g the orch r s , s tteth every b r th t h th me , ” 1 e ach praiseth the Cre ator in his o wn to ngue .

— O f O t h e r P o e t s o f t h is P e rio d . T W O other poets this — a 15 30 period m ay also be mentio ned N rotia m B et s ( 6 . ) ' ' ’ ' ‘ ‘ a z tr wrote the S u a cz mcf C/za r z z r a nd the D /zru v C/z r . These works are storie s in verse H e was also the author of det ached poems . ' 40 a s a a K r z p ﬁ R am (11 . 1 5 ) w the uthor of work ’ a a e ntitled H it T a m ﬁ g z ni writte n in Br aj Bh sh . Its import ance lies in its being the e arliest ext ant work and in Hindi de aling with the art of poetry , it shows h o w the w ay was being prep ared for the work of s 5 Ke ay D 3 .

1 - T Sir P a dumdvati an I I . 27 29 an a i n , C to ; r sl t o by and Pa ndit Sudhak ara Dwivedi in B ib lio the c a Indica of A s1 at1c So c 1e ty

n a i . 8 77 . I. 15 1 6. of Be g l ; New Ser es , No , Vol , TH E MUGHAL COURT AN D THE ARTISTI C IN F LUEN CE IN HIN DI LITE RATURE

( 1550- 1800)

T h N e In fl u n — e w e c e in H in d i P o e t ry . Althoug h th e an a M a a an as a relig ious l gu g e of the uh mm d s w Ar bic , the a an a in n a and an liter ry l gu ge they used I di , the l g uage a P an o f the court , w s ersi . This l anguage possessed a a h a l ar g e liter ture , which d alre ady developed a hig hly artistic ch ar a cter be fore the Muh amm adan power w as n M n n h est ablished i I ndia . a y Hi dus w o were co nnected a a n a a with the court c me to le r this l ngu ag e , nd whe n Urdu liter a ture developed it w as f a shio ned a fter n n P er sia models . Though Hi di developed o n its o w n a n infl ue nc P li nes , without y direct e from er sian, it seems no t u nlikely that the polished P ersi an verse with which many Hi ndus became a cqua inted m ay h ave sug g ested a higher artistic standard in Hindi liter ature At ll n than there h ad bee n before . a eve ts about the middle of the sixtee nth ce ntury there a ppe ared a ne w influe nc i n a artistic e n Hi di liter a ture , which w s

developed under e ncour ageme nt from the Mug h al court .

" Previous Muh ammada n rulers h ad e nc o urg e d liter a ﬁ r t n a na ture , but it w as Akbar who s exte ded p tro g e to h o in n n a 1 556 those w wrote Hi di . The reig of Akb r (

1 605) w a s marked by its brilli ance and sple ndour . Not o nly w a s he successful in w ar a nd in establishi ng a n nd o n n n stro g a , the whole , g ood g over me t , but he rch it c w a s also a gre a t p a tro n of art and liter ature . A e n a all e nc o ur ture , music , p ai nti g a nd ca lligr phy were a a g ed . The Emperor est ablished a l arge libr ry o f THE MUGHAL COURT HIND I LIT ERATURE 35

a an a n books of v rious l gu ge s , a d h ad tr ansl ations a S an n P an and m de from skrit i to ersi the ver nacul ar . P oets were p atro niz ed a nd rew arded with g re at liber m a nifi c e n a . c e a n lity The g of such reig , like th e glorious reig n of Quee n Eliz abe th in E ngl and which n a it no w as co tempor ry with , could t but exercise a n infl ue nc e o n all d stimul a ti g sides , an this w as fel t in ndi a a s as in Hi liter ture well other directio ns . Eve n those writers who lived far aw ay from th e influe nce of the court were helped by feeling th a t they could carry o n their l abour s in pe a ce under a gover n n n me nt stro g e ou gh to secure g ood order , and toler ant n a tow ards Hi dus as well as Muh amm da ns . Akba r pursued a deliber a te policy of protectio n and e ncour ag e n n n a na me nt of Hi du le ar i g . The p tro ge exte nded by a nd in n n a s him , others hig h positio , to Hi du well as to a a an a a a Muh mm d writers , stimul ted gre t outburst of

liter a ry a ctivity , and e ncour ag ed improveme nt in the n a art inﬂue nc e a s st a d rds of poetic . The w of course felt most by those writers who lived in close touch with

the court . ’ P o e t s a t Ak b a r s C o u rt F - Aleb a r himself is the reputed a fe in n in author of w det ached verse s Hi di , which he a sig ns himself Ak ab b ar R y . They were probably ’ composed in the Emperor s name by the court musici an ’ a k b r a ni a T n S e n . S ome of A a s g re t mi sters of st te a inﬂ ue nc e were also author s . I t w a s l r g ely due to the of Raj a Toda r Ma l ( 1 5 23 - 1 58 9 ) in making Hi ndus le ar n ' P ersi an th at Urdu w as developed and a ccepted a s a ‘ a n a n B /z d a w z a P u r d z a l an gu a g e . Be sides tr sl ti g the g z P an o ar Mal as a n i nto ersi , T d w the uthor of some Hi di iti a a B rb a l n a n . i verses , the best bei ng o mor ls ( ) R j

- a a n ( 1 528 1 58 3) w as a K ana uji Dube Br hman, d w as a t a ﬁ rst a poet a t the court of the R j a of J aipur . The a a l atter se nt him to the cour t of Akb r , where his bility H e a s no t n soo n broug ht him i nto f a vour . w o ly skilled n a n in busi ness so th a t he soo rose to high positio , but ar also possessed gre at musica l and poetic al t ale nt . Akb

‘ g ave him the title of K a vi R ay ( poet - l aure ate) and he e as a a s a fo r received r a pid promotio n . H w f mous poet ' 36 A H IS T ORY OF HIND I LITERATURE

his shor t verses of a witty and humorous ch ar acter . h as an No complete work by him survived , but m y are n n verses ascribed to him still curre t . Whe he re ached a high positio n he himself became a p atro n of a a Ma no lza r D ﬂ n other poets . R j &s ( . a other ’ ' a a a as a a . M n of Akb ar s courtiers , w lso poet ah r j a M ’ ’ z 5 5 - 1 61 8 a ne Ak r n a S z ng / ( 1 3 ) of J ipur , o of b a s g e er ls , a n a m e n nd w as a gre a t p tro of liter ry , a is reputed to have g ive n as much as a l akh of rupees for a single ’ ’ ‘ b u l F a z z o r F a z z as F a z verse . A ( i ) w brother of Abul l , ’ n - z - k b a e n wh o wrote the Ai A ri . Both w re frie ds of F a z as no t n a P a n Akbar . Abul i w o ly ersi poet but the n n author of m a y Hi di couplets . ’ The most skilled Hi ndi poet amo ng st Akb ar s gre at

' ministers of state was Ab du l R a lzim Khﬁ nk hci nci ( 1 553 H e w as the s o n of B airam Khan throug h aid a in h ad n a whose Akb r , his youth , bee est blished P r n n . H e as a a n a e o the thro e w cqu i ted with Ar bic , n an a nd n and n a si a , S skrit Hi di , besides bei g poet as a a a n a Gan himself w gre t p tro of poets , especi lly of g n a o n a K avi . His Hi di verses , especi lly those mor ls n i re a n ( i t ) a very much dmired , a d he w as a poet of a n high orde r . Amo g st the sever al works he produced is the Ka b im S a l S a t in which some of his best poetry is fou nd .

1 - dn en ﬂ . 560 1 61 0 n c o n T S ( ) of Gw alior , a Hi du a as n t vert to Isl m , w the most celebr a ted musici a a ’ and n a Ak b ar s court i deed of his a g e . After service t a s n i 56 nd other courts he w summo ed by Akbar n 1 3, a the ﬁ rs t time he performed Akbar is s aid to h ave g ive n a n n r him t wo l khs of rupees . Besides bei g a si g e he in n e n n also wrote poems Hi di . H lived o i to the n a an n are reig of J h gir . Amo gst his composit io n s

‘ ' a h t $67 a nd D s the S g i the R ay Mcz lcf . R am e of o c h al a ar D i s a s G p , the f ther of the g re a t poet S , w ’ n a n Ak b ar a a s a other g re t si g er of s court , re g rded n n T 21 11 e n n i seco d o ly to S . Amo ng other Hi d poets ’ who a tte nded Akb ar s court w e re the two frie nds K a rnes fo r K a ra n ) and The l a tter w as n a a r g ive by Akb r the title of M ﬁdﬁ cf t , the Emperor

38 A HI S TORY OF H INDI LITERATURE dedica ted to a f amous courtesan of those da ys named

’ ra m n R P tu ri h o a a P ay d , w w s lso the authoress of numerous short poems which have a gre a t reputatio n . ’ ’ The R ei m Clza n a r z lz d of Ke sav Das w a s i nscribed to i n o n Madh k a . Indraj t S i gh , s of u ar S h h It w as Kesay ’ a h o a i B irb al n D s w , through R j s i strume nt ality , got Akbar to excuse Indrajit from a he avy fi ne he h ad n a nd Di imposed upo him , Kesay s w as g re a tly ho noured ’ it a a a z k by Indraj . Kes y lso wrote the le ar ned R s ' P r iyd o n poetical compositio n ( s dfiz tya ) a nd the R fi m

' ‘ iz z a n a r o n A la ler im / i prosody . These works o n poetry and ki ndred subj ects were no t o nl y concerned with n a n a n g ivi g rules , but lso provided ori gi al illustr tio s , s o th at e ach work is a lso a collectio n of verse of gre at a poetic merit . The poetry of Kesay D s is no t e asy n no a re adi g , but there is doubt of his bei ng poet of a nd very gre at skill , his name is to be reckoned a mo ngst the foremost . Very many comme nt aries o n n a a n n a nd h as h a his pri cip l works h ve bee writte , he d

a . an a f n many imit tors The tr sl tio n of a e w of his li es , all a a a nl which is th t we h ve sp ce for here , c an give o y a very i nadequ ate ide a of his poetry :

Kesay s ays my [g rey] h airs h ave do ne to me wh at my e nemies c anno t do ; d n a n nan ai as n and i d M ai e s with cou te ce f r the moo , eyes l ke eer , no w c a ll me Baba [f ather]

Q Q t

Do no t em ploy a Bra hm an who is greedy of fees ; do no t m a ke a fool your frie nd Do no t serve an u ngr ateful m aster ; do no t praise poetry th at is

full of defects .

i ’

v a W n I a n n d i n o and Kesa s ys , he see g l ci g eyes my goo resolut o s g , the opi nio n of the world is no lo nger heeded d a n n a nd d a ll My ears become e f to i structio , my eyes close to discernme nt of ri g ht a nd wro ng T he ch ariot - l ike motio n o f the good i nte ntio ns of my mi nd becomes

stopped li ke a river th at h as ce ased to flow . a d fix o n May the Cre ator forbid th at such a wom n shoul her eyes me .

d a i a n u n ad ai a an is ‘ a a Avoi horse w th ste y g t , serv t who thief , nd a i nd i n i n a a mi which is fickle , fr e w thout i tell g e ce , m ster s who i a miser . T HE MUGHAL COURT HI NDI LIT ERATURE 39

’ T a in d in an d in in do - nn k g foo other s house , well g g ke els , a n in ain a n— in a y D tr velli g the r y se so these th gs , s ys Kesa as ,

g ive a lot of trouble . n an i nn s a an nd n Keepi comp y w th si er , wom u er the co trol of g — id a so n ill a are nd . Cup , of f me these hurtful to the m i o ld a e n a d an i — n Folly, g , sick ess , poverty , f lsehoo , x ety these thi gs ,

a K esav a re a n a . s ys , hell upo e rth

o t i D s — S o m e C o n t e m p o ra rie s ﬂ e sa v a . The brother f a Di s na as B a lb/z a d a o Kes y , whose me w m S n ’ ’ ﬁ a M z r a a n d d y s , wrote sever l works which i clude a ‘ a comment ary o n the B /z ci g a va t P a rana . His most f amous poem is a which is recog niz ed a s n a a a st a d rd work . This is a form of liter ture which is n n and i nn commo n amo g st Hi di writers , s closely co ected ' I a N a lz z with works o n the art of poetry . n k é lefz every

a n - p art of the body o f. hero or heroi e from the toe nail ( n a k /z} to the top - k not of the h air is desc ribed a as n n with illustr a tive verses . S uch work w i te ded to n b e used by other poets in w a t of ide a s . A similar

' ' ' ci a - a z ki nd of work is a work o n lovers , or a N y k N y k d ’ /ze a in a and ne B , which v rious ki nds of heroe s heroi s are described and c la ss iﬁ e d with a mi nuteness which is o n art o fte n pedantic and absurd . O ther writers the of

' ’ poetry o f this period were 8 5 1 Krz sfzqz a T r z p dflzi i 00 a d K at iz fl . ( fl . 1 6 ) n t ( the former of whom wrote a good prosody called R a s Art is t ic P o e t s o f t h e t im e o f J a h a n gir a n d S h a h — J a h a n . The e ffects of the encour ageme nt g ive n to a a a n a h i a Hindi liter ture by Akb r l sted lo g fter s de th . J ahangir ( 1 605 - 1 627 ) and S hah J ahén ( 1 627- 1658 ) very ’ n n k b r s n a l argely co ti ued A a policy of e cour g ing poets . D a a h uk o h s o n S a J a an a s a r S , the of h h h , w g re a t p atron of le ar ning and liter ature with a stro ng le aning in an tow ards Hinduism . Even the time of Aur g z eb ( 1 658 althoug h he w a s unf avour able to Hindu a vi E d n n le ar ning , the title of K y co ti ued to be given to deserving poets . 1 as a a an h o S u n da r ( fl . 1 63 ) w Br hm w held the v d t a a an title of K a i R y a the cour t of S h h J h . H e wrote a work o n poetical compositio n ca lled S u n da r

' ‘

rz iz d a a a a B hash . S g r , a nd wa s lso the uthor of Br j é 4 0 A HI S TORY " OF fH IN DI LIT ERATURE

’ n z n dsa n B a ttisi ver sio of the S g /z , which wa s afterw ards l ﬁ i l tr ansl ated into Urdu by L a l J1 L . ’ n d a z nd 649 S e ﬁ t w as bor n about 1 5 89 a died after 1 .

H e w as a K an auj i Br ahma n and a devotee of Krishna . ' ‘ n a s K a v z tz a R a tn d/ mr His pri cip l work w a the , which is a 1 649 a nd a a art d ted , de als with v rious spects of the H of poetry as well as other m atters . e excelled in n his descriptio n of nature , a d is especially f amous for his descriptio n of the six se ason s in which he is considered to h ave excelled all Hindi poets with x n the e ceptio n of D e v D att . A other work of ’ dv a a a ru his is the K ya K lp m . His poems were probably writte n a s det ached verses and collected a a n fterw rds . The followi ng is from his descriptio of spri ng ( b a sa 7z t) :

in i in 0 25 5 are in Dur g the sport ve spr g the 9 trees full bloom , with red a i a a i a n flowers , p rts of wh ch however ppe r from the r bl ck ess to a n di d n ink a a re in a h ve bee ppe i . Sw rms of bees go g to them to g ther d n n d n an ho ney . The mil south wind 18 blowing frag ra ce 1 the g ar e s d

. na a a In n n an in forests The poet Se p ti s ys , the spri g , by co st tly look g at these flowers the ide a of writi ng poetry h as bee n stro ng ly brou g ht r d a to my m ind . The e g low of the upper p art of the flowers cle rly a n n d i and a nin a i pourtr ys the bur i g es re ye r g of lover , wh le the a n a a i n and n d bl ck ess of the lower p rt , like f re bur t out com pletely tur e ” a a su ests the an a a n . to ch rco l , gg g p gs of sep r tio — T €1 i h e Trip a t h i B ro t h e rs . R at n k ar Tripath w as a K a nauji Br ahm an wh o lived at T ik v am p ur in th e all district of C aw npore and h ad four so ns , of whom a i fl urish d in bec me f amous Hi nd poets . They o e the reig ns of S hah J ahan and Aur ang z eb in the l atter h alf of the seve ntee nth ce ntury a nd amp lifi e d and developed ' iz z n d a the work o f Kesay Das . The eldest w a s C t m m T r i d zi ho n a a p fl , w w as p a tro ised by sever l rulers s a s a a a well by the Emperor S h h J ah n . H e is re g rded as o ne of the gre at authorities o n the subject of poetica l composition Amo ng his works are Cb /za n d ’ ' B z c/z dr dv a Vz ve/e K a vi- lz u l , a tre atise o n prosody , K y , ‘ ' a l a d aé t h K z a ru n a a k . H e as a e fi , a d K vy P r w lso d ’ author of a R mdya n in é a vz ita a nd other me tres . The name of the younge st brother was J ata S ank ar

’ ’ N l K a n d n a a and N il or i t]: T r z p ﬂzf . Both Chi t m ni THE MUGHAL COURT HINDI LITERATURE 4 1

K anth were excelled as poets by the other tw o B h sh a and M a brothers , ﬁ n ati R m .

’ B lzfi siza z T r z c t /zi z fi i visited the courts of sever al ki ng s , but his speci al p atro ns were Siv R aj ( o r S iv éji) of S a a a nd hh at rasal P a nni n o n a n it r C of . O e occ sio the l a tter mo narch helped with his o w n shoulder to carr y ’ a an n an i a a the poet s p l qui , d S v R j bestowed l vish a n n o n ne a n fi e n rew rds upo him , g ivi g o occ sio v eleph a ts and n - fi twe ty v e thous and rupees for a si ng le poem . The princip al work of B h fi sh an is the Siv R di B /z fi s iza zz which is a n excelle nt a ccount of rhetoric as used in and a fi ure a a poetry , e ch g of rhetoric is illustr ted by in n a a n verse ho our of S iv R j. It w s composed betwee 1 666 n h a a d 1 673 . S ome of the works of B hfi s an h ve

’ ' n z v d a r bee lost . But besides the S R i s a siz zz there a e ext ant other verses in pr a ise of S iv R aj and o f hh atras él h h n C . B ﬁ s an is co sidered to h ave excelled in a a nd a the tr g ic , heroic , and terrible styles , holds n H a very high r a k amo ngst Hi ndi poets . e is especi lly f a mous for his kee n i nterest in the pro g ress a nd glory n a n n a u of the Hi dus , d this is o e of the fe t res of his a s s poetry which is very much admired . I t w thi a t h e i nterest which att ached him so much to Siv ji ,

’ Ma a a a n r th hero , who did s o much to we ke the M a a an a an a n o ne uh mm d power . Here is tr sl tio of of his verses “ As I nd a d d amb ha as b drm) se a as r sub ue J , the fire overcomes the , Ra a nd a a Ra an as ind m ch a r overc me the hypocrite v , the w overpowers the a as Sa a d a s Ra a d a a n w ters , mbhu overc me Cupi , m , the Lor of Br hm s , a Sah asra Be ] as i a n a as a overc me , f re overcomes the br ches of tree , a d a d d as a n an as leop r overcomes her of eer , lio overcomes eleph ts , da n as i n a a an a so B hushan lig ht overcom es rk ess , Kr sh overc me K h , , ” a i n Siv Ra a adan . s ys , the l o j overcomes the Muh mm s

’ Ma ti R dm T r z p dtlz z lived fi rs t at the court of Mah a r aj a R § W B hafi S ingh of B andi and a fterw ards a t th a t of a a i I n fi rst Raj a S a mbhu N th S ul nk . n ho our of his ’ p atro n he composed a work o n rhetoric ca lled L a lz t

‘ ‘ L alczm a are an in . Amo ng the illustr tive ver ses m y

pr aise of his p atro n as well a s love verse s and others . His work is considered to give a very cle ar and e asily w as under stood account of the subject of rhetoric . It 4 2 A HI S TORY OF H INDI L IT ERATURE

' c a 1 4 a n ti omposed bout 66 . The C/zfi d S r P z nga l is a tre a tise o n prosody composed in ho nour of S ambhu a é N th . The R a s R f is a tre atise o n lover s con tai ni ng a ' ' N éyz le d B ize a a nd is co nsidered to be a very excelle nt M am . a R a a a a work ti lso composed the S t S i Ma ti R m . As a poet he is f a med for the purity and sweet ness of an a n his l gu g e , the excelle ce of his similes , and for his n Man d descriptio s of the dispositio ns of m e n . y of his do fz s a re n a a a co sidered equ l to those of Bih ri L l . — h r P § . O t e o e t s o f t h e t im e o f S h a h J a h a n . R jaS a mbhu a n a a 1 650 N th S i gh of S it r ( fl . ) was the frie nd and a n M a d p tro of ati R m an other poets . H e w as the ’ ’ a uthor of a N dy z k d B lze a and a N a /e fis z k b which are a a much dmired . The l tter is sometimes co nsidered to n n be the best work of its ki d exta t . a ra s va 1 650 s an S li fl . a a a na ( ) w Br hm of Be res , a n in a n At n a n le r ed S skrit compositio n . the i st ce of S a a an i h h J h he took to writi ng poems in Hi nd . His ’ ’ n a s K a w n a r d Xa l a L a d chief work of this ki d w the fi i , in which there are many poems in pr aise of h is p a tron as well as of prince D ara S huk o h a nd the Begam a a S hib . fl 5 T u ls . 1 6 5 a s n a i ( ) w o ly mediocre poet himself , but in 1 655 he compiled a n excelle nt a ntholo g y of a vi dld n poetry , called the K M , which i cludes poems

n - ﬁ e 1 443 1 6 by seve ty v differe n t authors from to 43.

' A nother writer of this period w as Ve dcing E dy P drsi P r k ﬂ . H e a a ds ( circ . w as the uthor of the , a n ann n n n work describi g the m er of cou ti g the mo ths , n a n n e tc . , by Hi dus d Muh ammada s , which w as compiled a an by the orders of the Emperor S h h J ah .

B ih a ri a l Ch u - i L a b e . The most celebr ated Hi nd ’ writer in co n ne ctio n with the art of poetry is B z fz dri dl C/z a u b e 1 60 a n L ( circ . 3 H e is s a id to h ve bee b or n in Gw alior a nd to h ave spe nt his boyhood in e n Bund lkh a d. O n his m arri a g e he settled a t Muttr a a a in the home of the Br aj Bh sh di a lect , which his are a a a ai n ver ses composed . His p atro n w s R j J S i g h ’ i iir f ci a a a a f a a o z . of J p , who g ve him a g old s/z r i for e ch ’ Bih ari L al s f ame a s a poet rests upo n h is S a t S a i T HE MUGHAL COURT HI ND I LIT ERATURE 4 3

which is a collectio n of a pproximately seve n n dalz d n m z d hu dred s a d so fl s . The m aj ority of the couplets t ake the sh ape of a morous utter ance s of a a and a a R dh Krishn , but e ch couplet is complete in ar n n itself . They e i te ded to illustr a te fi g ure s of a nd n n rhetoric other co stitue ts of a poem . As the verses do no t co nnect themselves into a story the order of their arr a ng eme n t c an be ch a nged a nd they h ave n in n come dow diff ere t rece nsio ns . The most f amous a a n z a a is th t m de for pri ce A m S h h , the third s o n of an z n n the Emperor Aur g eb , a d he ce called the Az a m a A S h hi rece nsio n . brie f descriptio n of this work will help to i ndica te the na ture of Hindi works o n a n poetics . The v a st mou t of liter a ture of this type s eems to i ndica te tha t in I ndi a the dictum th at a poet n n o a is bor n a d t m ade would h ve to be reversed . In the Az am S hahi rece n sio n there are fi rs t a fe w r a miscell aneous ver se s . The n there a e verses pplic able to e a ch of four kinds of hero followed by ne arly two hundred verse s which de scribe the v a rietie s and sub - v arietie s of heroi ne Next there are verses illustr a ting the v arious cons titue n ts m s n nd i e nsuant s of poetic style ( ) , its excit a ts a t s , a mo ng which verse s about a hundred and seve nty de al with the p ang s of love in sep ar atio n . The third section is a and e nds with ver se s descriptive n n In a of the six I ndi a se a so s . the fourth p rt there a re mor al a pophtheg ms a nd allusive s a yi ngs and a collectio n of ver se s illustr a ti ng se n time n ts appro a n In a a p riat e to v arious occ sio s . the l st p rt besides the co nclusio n a nd other verses there are ver se s illustr a tin g the differe n t style s ( m s ) of poetry , which ‘ are co nsidered in I ndi a to be n i ne in number . These ’ d k a ru d a m u a ra a re lz sya ( comic) , gz ( p thetic) , v m biz a dna k a ( furious) , i ( heroic) , y ( terrible ) ,

’ a db ﬁu t a a sdnta b z bﬁ a tsa (disg ustful ) , ( m rvellous) , '

nd srz ﬁ dra . n ﬁ rst ( quietistic) , a g ( erotic) O ly the in S a t S a as eig ht are referred to this p art of the t , the l ast ( srih g dm ) h ad alre ady be e n de alt with at le ngth in a n e arli e r p art of the rece nsio n . 44 A HI S T ORY OF H IND I LITERATURE

Bihari L al w as no t the ori g i na tor of this form of in an compositio n . S imil ar works h ad appe ared S skrit ,

’ ‘ o ne a a ia S a tz k ci S an of which is c lled S p , the skrit ” ' i n a a n n z . e . equiv ale t of the Hindi S l S seve ce turie s , of verse) Tulsi D as h ad writte n a S a l S a i befor e the

a L al as a n . time of Bih ri , well s other Hi di poets But Bihari L al u ndoubtedly a chieved very gre at excelle nce in a a n nd h a s h ad a a this p r ticul r li e , a his work l r g e number of comme nt a tors ( as ma ny as thirty in number) nd n 5 a a a . P ﬂ 1 77 m y imit tor s H ari r a sad ( . circ . ) of na i a Be res tr ansl a ted the S a t S a i nto S anskrit . E ch h ad in and in a couplet to be complete itself , yet such

small sp ace the poet must g ive an e ntire picture . n Co cise ness of style w a s therefore a n absolute necessity , and besides this all the differe nt artiﬁ ce s of I ndi an ad in rhetoric h to be illustr a ted tur n . The work of Bihari L al IS a triumph of skill and of felicity in expres n n sio . H e is perh aps at his best in his descriptio of na a n na as n n tur l phe ome , whe he describe s the sce t l ade n bree z e u nder the guise of a w ay - wor n pil grim n from the south . Natur ally a work of this ki nd abou ds in obscuritie s a nd o n a ccount of the peculi arity of its difﬁ cult a n n style is very to tr sl ate . In the followi g verse Bihari L al give s a riddle

At n a and i eve c me the rog ue , w th my tresses ’ ‘ ’ Toyed with a sweet a udace— with ne er 3 ple ase na d a d — n d a S tche ru e k iss the wooe me with c resses . ‘ ‘ Who w as it d a ? d a . , e r Thy love No , e r , the breeze

— d ' ‘ ’ J a s w a n t S in gh . Ma /z r ai a J a sw a m S z n g k of J odh pur (Marwar ) ﬁ gure s in history a s a n oppone nt of

H e s i 625 a nd in 1 68 1 . Aur ang z eb . w a bor n n 1 died In n 4 a n . I 1 63 , while still a boy , he c me to the thro e iz dslz d B lz sfia n liter ature his chief f ame rests o n his B fi , in d a s o n 261 d /z s . w a work rhetoric o This work , which o n a an h ad a a n founded S skrit o ne , h as l r g e umber of a a fi rs t a comme nt a tors . Though Kesay D s w s the gre t Hindi writer o n this subject he is considered heretical i n an h o n o say n some poi ts , d for those w do t follow Ke

1 an a i n ett e r o India . I I . 423 . Tr sl t o from Imperia l Gaz e f , Vol , p

4 6 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LITERATURE

n n nin sun d th mo th of November , the ful l moo , the mor g , the ays of e ” in a n ni s n — a ar n w ter se so , the ght of spri g Dev s ys these e most excelle t .

W it s n h e Art f P o t — La t e r r e r o t o e ry . The reig n o f Aur angz eb ( 1 658 - 1 707) w as marked by the be g inning

of the decay of the Mughal Empire . It w as also the n a a n in n time whe period of dec de ce Hi di poetry s e t in. This however w a s no t felt a t ﬁ rs t as is show n by th e

names me ntion ed above . But tow ards the e nd of ’ e n Aurang z b s reig n, a d still more a fter his time in the n n n eightee th ce tury , the decli e becomes evide nt . While the number of poets still co ntinues to be g re a t there are no names of such outst a nding import ance a s a and m arked the time of Akb r his immedi ate successor s , and most of the writer s are o nly imit a tors of gre a ter z poets who preceded them . The severe Aur ang eb as n a a a a nd n a nin w u f vour ble to the rts to Hi du le r g , but the court p atro nage of poets w as no t e ntirely a n nd n a n an withdr w , a m a y poets tte ded his court d also th at of his so n B ahadur Sh ah ( 1 707 The follow ing are some of the writer s o n the art of poetry and kindred subj ects from the time of Aur angz eb dow n to the e nd of the eig htee nth ce ntury ' ’ ’ u l a z z a 1 20 as a a K p t M s r (bor n circ . 6 ) w Ch ube a al Br ahman of Agr a and a nephew of Bih ri L Ch aube . He a tte nded the court of Maharaj a R am S i ngh of i 1 670 ﬁ r. a J a p His chief work , which is d ted , is the lz a a s R a s a o n . R y , a work poetics ' ’ ' R dm J i (bor n 1 646) w a s the author of a N dy z le a. ’ B ﬁea a s well a s other works . a n a a M rxia n (bor n of Bu delkh nd, wrote sever l

works o n poetical compositio n . ’ u le D v a a a n d S /z e Mis ra ( ﬂ . circ . of K mpil , tte de e a a Ga a s ver al courts . The R j of ur g ve him the title

’ K a w r d o n a of i . H e wrote works prosody , poetic l compositio n a nd other subj e cts a nd is co n sidered a poe t of very g re at merit .

N ew d a s a - a an wh o a t i ( ﬂ . circ . 1 700) w Br hm lived a nna H e w a s the Court of Raj a Ch h at ra s l of P a . the ’ author of a pl ay called the S a s ia ld N dia ls as well as n of m a y det ached verses . T HE MUGHAL COURT HINDI LITERATURE 4 7

' ' ’ ' ' alz a ci T rz vedi ﬂ K s ( . circ . of B anpura in t h e a s an a i D o ab , w for m y ye r s n a tte nda nce a t the court o f n z and a a Aur a g eb , fterw rds at th at of the Raj a of

J a a. H e n a n mb is co sidered to be excelle nt poet . n an a n Amo g other works he compiled tholo g y , c alled

' H a dra n a n i , which co t i s a thous and poems select e d from the work s of over two hundred poet s 1 4 2 1 1 8 from 3 to 7 . la 1 a a A m ( ﬂ . 703) w s Br ahm an who fell in love a M a a an an n a S R an re z i with uh mm d wom med hekh g n , a e w h o w a s a dyer by tr de . H e b came a Muh amm adan h ’ and a . S ize/e R a n rez z n a m rried her g lso wrote poetry . a w a s in M az z a S a Al m the service of u m h h , s o n o f n Aur a ng z eb . His poetry is co sidered to be very be autiful .

‘ a i 1 20 n n S riﬁ t ( ﬂ . 7 ) is cou ted a s o e of the a uthoritie s o n poetic al compositio n . His mo st famous work is the

év a S a r o . H e a a K y i wrote sever l other works lso . ’ a i z Sr a ﬂ n d M . a a m S ( of Agr , wrote comme o n a t a t a L a] and a o ne o n t ary the S S of Bih ri , lso the

’ ’ z d Kesdv d R a s z lz P r y of D s . H e also wrote works o n ' n n a k /z z leiz rhetoric a nd other subjects , i cludi g a N s . iz a a n . na s an h o G f ( fl o f Be res , wa a Br ahm w

‘ w as in the service o f Q am ruddin Kh an ( the V az ir of the Emperor Muh amm ad S hah ) who g ave the poe t t a n an an liber al rew a rds . A the orders of his p tro G j wrote a work o n poetics in which there are m an y n z n a ver ses i pr aise of the V a ir . I t is co sidered to be

work of g re at merit . '

a z n /z 1 7 4 a s a a . Gu ru D ft S g (fl . 3 ) w R j of Amethi n a H e wrote under the name of B iz afi a ti . His pri cip l work w a s a n excelle nt S a t S a t in imita tio n of that o f a Bih ari L l . ’ ’ ’ in raur in T os/z N z a fz z ( fl . 1 734 ) lived a t S g the a H e a nd district of All ah ab d . wrote the other works o n poetics i ncludi n g a which

are much admired . ' ’ d an and B a nsz d/z a r a a a n D a lp a i z R y , a merch t , , Br hm a t a a in ( ﬂ . both of whom lived Ahmed b d , wrote d d a s n d coll abor atio n the Ala h /e r R a tn lea f . It w i scribe 4 8 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LIT ERATURE

o a a J a a n a n t R j g t S i gh , of Ud ipur , a d is a ki nd of c ommentary o n the Bhasha B h ﬁ sh an of Raj a J aswant

S i ngh . ' ci 1 73 S omn i/z ( ﬂ . 7) w as a Br ahman who w as p atro n a a n ise d by a s o of the R j of Bhar a tpur . Amo ng other

‘ w orks he wrote the P iyfi sfi which is co nsidered a an a o n art to be st d rd work the of poetry . i R a s L n ( fl . whose re al na me w a s S a yy ad a a i a in Gul m N b , of Bil gr m , the district of H ardoi , w rote sever al works o n poetics which i nclude a ' sz le a A h D a r a n N a k /z /z c lled g fi . ’ ’ a /z T r z vea i fl n a i U d y t ( . of B a pur n the as so n a a D o ab , w the of K lid s Trivedi . H e w as the

- a a at a a p oet l ure te the court of the R j of Amethi , and n fi wrote o the subject of poetics . His s o n D Za /z ’ ’ z 1 50 a ivea fl . 7 o n a T r ( ) lso wrote the s me subject . ’ i 6 1 B a z r 5 ! fl . 768 o n ( ) wrote the subj ect of rhetoric . H is B /z ds/z d B il a ra n is co nsidered to be a st and ard work

o f gre a t excelle nce . ’ 1 68 n K z s/ wr ( fl . 7 ) was a excelle nt poet whose ' v arious det a ched verses are collected in the K z s/zor H e n S a h g m fi . is co sidered to be ver y successful in his n s ix a n descriptio of the se so s . ‘ 1 770 p m or D ev D a tz ( fl . circ . ) w as the author ‘ ' ‘ L cilz z a L a i a o n a o f the y d , work rhetoric which is s id ’ a lz t a ld a t o resemble the L L m of Ma ti R m . ’ cm a a n o C/z R y ( fl . 1 773) a tte nded the court of the a a H e an o n R j of Gaur . wrote m y esteemed works the ‘ e h ll a rt of poetry . H ad twelve pupils , a of whom

became successful poets . v 1 4 1 o n R a ia n K a i ( born circ . 7 ) wrote works ’ F a i /z /z /z P ra k d and p oetics , which include the e S d s the F a te]: H e is considered to be a poet of g re a t a a re in a merit . His ex mples mostly verses pr ise of his F a a p atron ateh S h h of B unde l .

' ’ a n dm z ra 1 h a n in ﬁ ft M i R M s ( ﬂ . 772 ) s g ive the y ’ ' s ix verses of his C/z/zcm a C/zka pp a m a very co ncise and

- w ell writte n a ccount of the art of poetry . This poem , n a w hich somewh at resembles the S a skrit S utr s , is c n o sidered to be very excelle nt . THE MUGHAL COURT HINDI LITERATURE 49

’ ' ‘ ’ - B oa lz d F iroz db cz a i ﬂ . 1 773 1 0 ( circ . 8 3) was connected a e with P ann . H w as the author o f the [slz q n dm d and a are a some det ched ver ses which much dmired . H e a s a and w poet of love , his ver ses were written mostly in a a an na a pr ise of courte s med S ubh n . J a n o dl 1 7 G p ( ﬂ . 76) w a s the author of the a ma rs dr a S , work which is s aid to be full of poetic

feeli ng . ' ’ D ev/ei N a nd a n fl - S rin dr ( . 1 784 1 8 00) g wrote the . , ' ’ ’ C/za r z tr a N d a - d z d a , which is y /e N y le B /ze , a nd other - a nn rt much pr ised works co ected with the a of poetry . T fidn R dm T fidn fl a a w as , or ( . Bh t, the

’ a o n D a l ! a /e d a uthor of work poetics called e P r s .

i - B an fl . 1 79 2 1 8 1 7 o n rh e t o ( ) wrote works poetics , H is ric , etc . best verses are s aid to be verse s of s atire . m B fia z fl . 1 794 a a a s in a ll ( Bh t , who w skilled the a a a gr ces of poetry , wrote in Br aj Bh sh works co nnected r with the poetic a t . ' B lzz le ciri D d 4 - 1 750 a a s ( fl . 1 73 ) w a s a K y sth of a P a a i n . e n a r t pg rh , n Bundelkh a d H e is more g er lly k no n b na d H is a n a s H indfi a ti w y the me of D s . p tro w p , a a i a brother of R j P rith v p ati. H e b o rro w e d phr ses , S b ut c o n from other poets , especi ally from rip a ti , is

s ide re d nevertheless to be an excelle nt poet . Besides many works co nnected with the art of poetry he also ’ tr ansl ated the Vz si mu P a rana i nto Hindi verse .

‘ ' ’ u m n i 44 n o f G cz M s m ( ﬂ . 1 7 ) a tte ded the court ' ’ ’ Ali a N a z s/z a a iz a Sri Akbar Kh n . H e tr ansl ated the of

H arsh a and wrote sever a l works o n poetics . a /zu /z n a s a R g t ( ﬂ . of Be ares , w the f ther a a s an a of Gokul N th , wh o is celebr ated the tr sl tor of P a /z db/z dm a a w a s a the [l ta i nto Hi ndi . R g hu N th o n n writer the art of poetry , his works bei g much n o n S a t 8 3 1 admired . They i nclude a comme t ary the a a of Bih ri L l . d n tt 6 as a Ku m r Ma i B lz a ( ﬂ . 1 74 ) w very skilled ’ o n e a R a s z le poet , who wrote a good work po tics c lled

R a sdl. ' a 49 a n s a mb/ m N mM z s ra ( ﬂ . 1 7 ) tte ded the court o f

a an R a a a a . H e Bh gw t y Khichi , R j of Asoth r wrote 4 5 0 A HI S T ORY OF HIND I LITERATURE s ever al much - admired works o n poetics and was th e I ' i r l n preceptor of S v A se a a d other poets .

Si ld fl . 0 v A rse ( circ . 1 75 ) wrote o n poetical com n n positio a d prosody . ’ i J a g a z S n g le ( 6 . cir c . 1 770) belo nged to the f amily of the Raj a of Gonda and Bhinga a nd w as a pupil o f l r e a. o n d Siv A s H e wrote prosody an rhetoric . leu r fl 1 50 a in th e c i ( . circ . 7 ) excelled especi lly ’ a va z a nd r i s y metre , a his works a e mostly n the eroti c d Sa ta le H e style . His most f amous work is the T/z /eu r . i a al also wrote a comme nt ary o n the S a l S a of Bih ri L . ' H a r z /z a ra n D d fl an C s ( . 1 778 ) w as a Br ahm , of rishn a arh a a o n K g ( M rw r ) . H e wrote comme nt aries the ’ ’ ' a vi P r z d a nd a z z d a a as K y R s le P r y of Ke sav D s , s well

' o n t he S a t S a a al an as i of Bih ri L , d w the author of other w orks also . T U L ST DAS AN D TH E RAMA CULT

( 1550- 1800)

i D — Tuls a s . The most celebr ated name in Hindi a n a T u lsi D d liter ture is u doubtedly th t of s , whose Hi ndi R dm dya n h a s h ad g re a t and deserved f ame no t n in n a o ly I di but throughout the whole world . The a a a n are det ils of his life , p rt from lege ds , very scanty . H e a a n n a 1 5 32 is s id to h ve bee bor bout , a nd his ’ ’ f a ther s n ame is g ive n a s Atma R am a nd his mother s i a s H ula s . o w n na a s a t ﬁ rs t a a His me w R mbol , but whe n he became a devotee he took the name of Tulsi a i i D s . a h s b rth is no n n The pl ce of t k ow with cert a inty . Accordi ng to some he w a s bor n at H a stinapur a n a n h i k ccordi g to others a t H jipur , e ar C t ra ﬁ t. But the tr aditio n which is most ge ner ally a ccepted i s a as n t a in an s th t he w bor a R jpur , the district of B d . H e w as a ana a a n a nd a a K uji Br hm , it is s id th t his u ru as N arh aridas a s in a g w , who w sixth preceptori l n a an i an a . H e a s n succe ssio from R m d himself tells , n n ama a the i troductio to the R y n, tha t he studied a t

a - n a n m an S ak r khet , or S oro n . Whe he w as you g it a nd o ne da is s aid th a t he loved his wife very much , y , ’ a whe n sh e h ad go ne home to her f ther s house , Tulsi D as w as gre atly troubled o n accou nt of sep ar a tio n a n a a from her . H e therefor e h ste ed fter her , lthoug h i it i nvolved crossi ng a swolle n river n the dark . His a n a n wife , however , rebuked him , s yi g th t if o ly n a a he would h ave a s gre a t devotio to R m a , the e rth a as a a would become g old . These words cted c ll to i a a a nd a a Tuls D s . At d aybre k he left home , bec me

a n a at na . devotee of R m a , t aki g up his bode Be res 5 2 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LITERATURE

T n a a here he spe t the gre ter p rt of his life , though a a as n a he lso visited other pl ce s , such S oro , Ayodhy ,

‘ hitrak ﬁ a a a n n a n C t, All h b d , a d Bri d ba . Many lege nds re a n n a told bout him , but scarcely a ythi g th at is a a D a d d a . s a a a l reli ble N bh , the uthor of the B le k l m ,

' i a n h i n a nd s s aid to h ve bee s frie d , S ar Das is a lso a H e s n s upposed to h ve visited him . w a o t directly nn a a Ma n c o ected with the court , th ough R j n S i g h and Abdul R ahim Khank hana are s aid to have befrie nded a nd no a f him , doubt he w a s fected by the artistic inﬂue nce in liter a ture which was char a cteristic of the in D a n a g e which he lived . Tulsi s died at Be are s

in 1 624 .

a a Das dmd c T he g re t m ster piece of Tulsi is the R y m. n a n a n n This is the me by which it is g e er lly k ow , ’ a R dm - c/z a rz t - mdna s but he himself c lled it the , the ” a a n i L ake of the deeds of R m a . It w s comme ced n n n in 1 5 75 , a ccordi g to his o w n st a teme t the prologue . The story of Rama h ad bee n told lo ng before by the n a h o a in S a skrit poet V lmiki , w lived prob bly the n B a nd h as n a n fourth ce tury . C . , it bee freque t theme n of I ndi an poets in the v arious l a gua ges of I ndia . The R dmd c D as n o t a an a n y mof Tulsi is , however , tr sl tio n o f that of his S a nskrit predecessor . The g e er al n a o utli e of the story is the s me , but there is a g re a t de al of differe nce in tre atme nt . It is o nly in the bro ade st outli ne tha t the two agree . Not o nly n in a n in are there differe t episodes e ch , but eve the mai n story the i ncide nts are diﬁ e re ntly p lace d and ‘ ofte n h ave quite a diff ere nt complexion . The m ain n n a and differe ce , however , betwee the work of V lmiki D a a th a t of Tulsi s is in their theolog ic l outlook . In ’ books II to VI of v almiki s poem Ram a a ppe ars as n a m n in o ne a a h a a m a n and o ly a , except p ss g e Which s

n n a n . ﬁ rs t bee i terpol ted i to the sixth book The book , in which Rama a nd his brothers are re g arded a s p arti al a na n n a a inc r tio s of Vishnu , is co sidered by schol rs s D a n . In s a l ater additio the poem of Tulsi , however , Rama a ppe ars throug hout a s an i ncar na tio n of the a n as S upreme Go d . The s ame theologic l positio tha t

5 4 A HI STORY O F HINDI LIT ERATURE

a . In o ne of the devotees of Krishn p a ss a ge , in which Tulsi Das h a s bee n expl ai ni ng wh y he c alls his poem “ ” ’ ” a o r n a a the L ke ( po d ) of R m s deeds , he s ays , S e n sual wretches are like the cr a nes and crows th a t h ave no part in such a po nd no r ever come ne ar it for are no n and here prurie t seductive stories , like s nails and o n a nd or frogs scum the w ater , therefore the and an lustful crow g reedy cr e , if they do come , are ” n a dis a ppoi ted . This cl im m ade by Tulsi Das w a s a o ne a nd a h just , it is this fe ture of his poem which as give n it s o much value in holding up a high mor al ide al

before its re aders . The di alect which Tulsi D as uses is the old B ais a i a a a n n a nd w r , or Av dhi , di lect of E ster Hi di , throug h his inﬂue nc e Ramaite poetry since his day h as ge ner

n in a . H e a n ally bee this di lect uses , however , m y a a a a a words from other di lects , e speci lly from Br j Bh sh . an a a n in a and Da His l gu ge bou ds colloqui lisms , Tulsi s in a n a a n h as little scruple lteri g word , or dopti g a n n a n a ﬁ t n corrupt pro u ci tio , to m ke it i to his metre or n an a a rhyme . Like other I di poets he m kes use of m ny n a n a co nve ntio al similes d stereotyped phr ses . The ’ m in n a and g e which is supposed to be the serpe t s he d , the mythical power of the swa n to sep ar a te milk from h s n a nd o n the w ater with which it a bee mixed , his c “ ” - r sta nt use of such phr a ses as lotus feet , a e exam are an a a ples . But there m y other p ss ges which show a nd n e th a t Tulsi D s w as a true observer a lover of atur . n a e a n D as a in a In o e pl c he spe ks of Ki g r th , his g re t n a ﬁ sh in a distress , writhi g like the scour of turbid ” Mr us z z a a a . G river , p ss g e which , rowse tells , pu led comme nt ators until someo ne discovered that this w a s D a ’ a true phe nome no n of n a ture . Tulsi s s love of n a ture comes out in m a ny such p ass a g es a s the n a n m n a K dnd followi g , t ke from the A y

The Lord we nt o n from there to the shore of the deep and be autiful l ake c a lled P a m pa ; its w a ter a s cle a r as the soul of the s a i nts with ch a rmi ng fli ghts of steps o n e ach of its four sides where d n nd a as d d n d be asts of iffere t ki s c me they liste , to ri k of the floo , like ’ nd its d n crowds of begg ars at a good m an s g ate . U er cover of e se lotus - le aves the w ater w as as difficult to disti ng uish as is the u nembodied TULS I DAS AN D THE RAMA CULT 55 s r i i nd i d i n up eme sp r t u er the ve l of elus ve phe ome na . The h appy fish all in a id at d d were pl c repose the bottom of the eep pool , like the ays o f a a n the righteous th t re p assed i pe ace . Lotuses of m any colours di a d i w as a n o f arrulo us spl ye the r flowers ; there buzzi g g bees , both ho neyma k e rs and bumble - bees ; while sw ans and w aterfowl were so noisy you would th ink they h ad recog nised the Lord and were telling nd n a nd d his praises . The geese a cr a es other b ir s were so numerou s a n in d i in no d d d th t o ly see g woul be bel ev g , wor s coul escribe them . The delightful voice of so m any be autiful birds seemed as an invitation t n d o the w ayf arers . The s ai ts ha built themselves a house ne a r the a i a ni n - all nd— c ham a l ke , w th m g fice t forest trees rou the p , the

’ mdls ari k a da mb a nd t a mdla é t ala k athal dha a d , the , the p , the , the k n n h d ts ne a nd t he m a go . Every tree a put forth i w le ves a flowers and was nan i a . A d i air and reso t w th sw rms of bees el ghtful , soft , cool a an w as e ve r' in d i i n and in fr gr t , elic ous mot o , the coo g of the cuckoos ’ w as a an a a ain di a n d n i so ple s t to he r th t a s t s me t tio woul be broke by t . ad n i i d nd a n The trees , l e w th fru ts , bowe low to the g rou , like g e erous soul whom every incre ase of fortu ne re nders o nly more humble th an ” 1 before .

n n a k en The story is divided i to seve ch pters , or ds , na B ail A od/z d Ara n a med respectively , y y , y , u n da r a de d a a L n a nd t r . f n S , , U t O these the seco d , which describes the sce ne s at Ayodhya th a t led up to ’ a a n R m a s b nishme nt to the forest , is co sidered the best . a n a nd an The ch ar acters are co nsiste ntly dr w , m y of the D as n ar . a s ce es e full of deep p a thos The grief of r th , fi lial n and n the piety meek ness , g e erosity obility of a n a a and R m a , the wifely devotio of S it , the cour g e n un e lfi sh ne s s a a e thusi a sm of Lakshm a n , the s of Bh r t , a nn a s the ge nius of Tulsi D as h a s described them , c ot but aw ake n a respo nse in the he ar t of the re ader . a in n The obj ect which Tulsi D s h ad mi d , h owever , w as no t merely to tell in be autiful ver se a wo nderful a n s tory , but to use it a s a vehicle for pre chi g the a i supr eme v alue of the worship of R ma . Thoug h Tuls a a a na a D s a ccepted , like other le ders of the V ish v a n an a moveme nt , the p a ntheistic te chi g of the Ved t , it Go d w as tempered by belief in a perso nal , whom he a a ide nt ifi e d with the i ncarna tio n R ma . His poem is p a s sionate a ppe al to m e n to devote themselves to a n the worship of this Go d. The theologic l digres sio s

1 an a i n F S . . T r sl t o by Mr. . Growse 5 6 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LIT E RATURE

Das a n which Tulsi sometime s m ke s , and the freque t n m a hymns he i sert s , y be to some exte nt a dr awback

' a a R amd a re to the liter ry v lue of the y ﬂ , but they a a excused by the pur pose which Tulsi D s h ad in view . In these hym n s the powers of Tulsi Das as a poet are and n m a nife st , eve those who do no t a ccept his reli g io us ide as cannot but admire the spiritu al e ar nest ness n a Which the hym s displ y . The following is from the

' 3 61 Kan d :

in a n all i n a i n in To the K g of he ve be glory g ve , refug e of cre t o di and a stress c re , ’ P i and in i ndin i i ndin r ests k e befr e g , hell s br ef tr umph e g , best ’ d a an da belove of L kshmi , Oce s u g hter f air . ’ a n and a d a n all m n d da He ve e rth s uphol er , who , th e bol er , res to sc an the secret of thy strang e mysterious w ay nd a nd in a in ma th a i s Ever ki lov g , humble souls pprov g , y y g r c ou a a no w I a f vour re ch to me , pr y . S i a ll- ad n n adin ai nd i a p rit perv i g , fleshly se se ev g , h l Muku mmort l , i n lord of bl ssful ess supreme . and n Ever pure holy , whom the Q uee of Folly h as no power to an in d - d d n d a t g le her worl elu i g re m . r nd n ain and Glory , g lory , g lo y, theme of e less story, su g by s ts n a v s ages in a ecs t sy of lo e . ai n a n o n a a in D ly , ightly g zi g the sig ht m z g , source of every d in a a n a . bless g , H ri , lor of he ve bove ’ T i n in a na i n at a a i n a n idin r u e c r t o , who e rth s cre t o , wert lo e pres g , and other aid w as no ne ; in a n a a nd ai n a 0 a sin Thou gh pr yer u ble , my f th u st ble , gre t

d a a an . estroyer , he r our h pless mo ’ i a a d n a ll d a in L fe s l rms ispelli g , is sters quell g , comfort of the ai no w f thful , be our succour A ll d i a in i n i n d the go s m plore thee , f ll g low before thee , w th u fe g e d i n a nd . submiss o of bo y , soul , vow d Go d B h a avana Ve d a nd P an a Sa ada and Seshna Lor g , eke ur , r g , and all a n n the s i tly thro g , ind a i n n a i a n n F the theme too sp c ous , o ly k ow thee gr c ous h ste the us in n to help our hour of wro g . ’ ’ In a ll a n a n d in ark o n da g r ce excelli g , Be uty s chose well g , life s rk an a ll oce , home of most sweet , o d a nd a n a nd a no w a tl in n na G s i ts s ges , this tempest r ges , y co ster ” 1 n a tio to cl sp thy lotus feet .

d d a The R m y n is u ndoubtedly a g re a t poem , worth y to r ank amo ng st the g re a t cl a ssical m a sterpieces of the ’ a n t n a world s liter ture . It is o i deed without its liter ry

1 F . S . . Transl atio n b y Mr. Growse TUL S I DAS AN D THE RAMA CULT 5 7

and n i as S ar D as m defects , other Hi d poets , such , ay h a ve e xcelled Tulsi Das in the polish of their verse n n n a d their h a dli g of metres . But the R dm dya zz of Tulsi Das will a lw ays hold its pl a ce as the work of n a g re at liter ary g e ius . The import an ce of it s in ﬂue nc e nn a a , too , ca ot be ex gger ted . Tulsi Das fou nded o nd n a n n n sect , a i deed dded othi g to the theology a n n of th t school of Hi duism to which he belo ged , but there is no doubt th at the R dméya a h as bee n the most pote nt f a ctor in m aki ng V aishn avism the a ccepted cult of the v a st m aj ority of Hi ndus in North I ndi a

- to day . A brief me ntio n must be m ade of the other liter ary i a works of Tuls D s . All of them h ave the object of a z n n d popul ri i g the worship of R ama . I the R m Gitdva li Tulsi Das tells the story of Ram a in verses

are a a n n . D ob va l D d which d pted for si g i g The ci i , or o/z dm d a a n dok ds nd R y ﬂ , is collectio of a is no t so much an ir epic poem as a mor al work . S Geor g e Grierso n thi nks th a t it is probably a collection of do/z ds from other Das a a a poems of Tulsi , m de by l ter h and . The ’ ’ ’ a m dva l a vz ttsa mb a n a lz a K tt i , or K , lso de als with th e

’ a nd n in k a w e story of R m a a is writte lm m tre . The ’ ’ Vz n a y P a tr z le d is a collection of hym ns to Ram a a nd

'’ a t a is a work which is ver y much admired . The S S z is a simil ar work to th at which Bih ari L al wrote ﬁ ft y a nn a a n a ye r s l ater , but is co ected with R m i ste d of with ’ a /z d n a n n n a o s . Krishna . It co t i s seve hu dred emblem tic 5 a a n a are I t is d a ted 1 8 5 . A g re t m y other works lso D as a n n a scribed to Tulsi , but with re g rd to the ge ui e

ess of some of them there is a gre at de al of doubt .

’ ’ Althoug h the R dm - c/z a rz t - m ana s is u ndoubtedly h is g re a test work his poetic powers are also exhibited in the other works which he composed . — a n T h e B h a k t a m a la . It m arks the gre t e ss of the a a n a an an achieveme nt of Tulsi D s th a t mo g st R m di s , or other worshippers o f ‘ R am a a s the i nca r na tion of the n i S upreme , there seem to be fewer Hi d works of out st anding import ance th an in other sectio ns of the and no t h e V aishnava moveme nt , this is doubt due to 5 8 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LIT ERATURE

’ na n inﬂue nce Da d omi ti g of Tulsi s s gre at work . are There , however , some writer s who must be m e n

‘ ‘ B iza k ia m cz ld as db d d t io ne d . The w the work of N fz D s h o n N dr d a d ﬂ . a s a n a s e as ( w w lso k ow y zz D s . H w h e a Das h o a n t disciple of A gr , w ccordi g to s ome w a s a allab h a n le ader of the V moveme t of Krishna worship , but by others is s aid t o h ave bee n a disciple of Rama a a n a a . a D as a D m a a nd N bh s w o by c ste , and it is s id th at whe n he w a s a child he w as exposed by his p are nts during a time of fami ne to perish in the woods . Das n a nd a A g r a fou d him brought him up . It w as t n a a a n the suggestio of his preceptor tha t N bh D s , whe h e a a t a B lza /ei a m cild a rrived m turity , wrote the , prob bly n 1 58 5 n 2 a a d d s omewhere betwee a d 1 6 3 . The B iz /e t m l , ” o r B h a at s a in n Roll of the g , is poem old Wester ' n a n c a a z Hindi , writte m inly i the /z/z pzb metre . It give s n a account of the pri ncip a l V aishnava devotees , a whether worshippers of R m a or of Krishna , though it a de al s c h ie ﬂy with those who were worshippers of R m a . a a a a a i N bh D s himself seems t o h ave bee n a R m na nd . n The style is very obscure and compressed . Ge er a o ne anz a n n a nd lly st o ly is g ive to e ach devotee , in this his chief ch ar acteristics are described in the ann a n ff n b riefest possible m er , with llusio s to di ere t n n in B lza k ia méld lege d ary eve ts his life . The holds a very import a nt pl ace in I ndia n relig ious history .

I t would , however , be almost u nintellig ible but for the a c omme nt ary which alw ays a ccomp anies it . This w s ’ ' ‘ ‘ i a v z d 1 2 writte n n the k tla metre by P r z ycz D s in 1 7 .

In this comme nt a ry further le g e nds are added . There a n a nd h ave lso bee other l ter comme nt a tors , a their w ork is ofte n pri nted together with the ori g i nal text db d d d o f N /z ﬁ D s and the g loss of P riy D s . The

’ B ka lz ta m ald h as bee n fully tr a nsl ated and ada pted in ll na a a the chief ver cul rs of I ndi a . — M a luk D a s . /Va lfi 1e D d in n s , who lived the reig of an z a s Aur g eb , w the founder of a sect which is closely c o nnected with the Ramanandis The Malfi k D asis worship Ram a as an incar nation of the S upreme and n a lso use imag es . The mai n differe nce betwee this TULS I DAS AN D THE RAMA CULT 59 sect and th at of the Ramanandis seems to be th at the a Malfi k D a are no t a te chers of the sis scetics , but , like tik a n a n . Mal D their fou der , l yme s was a tr ader by a n a nd is a a n n occup tio , s id to h ve bee bor at K ara, in a a a and a the district of All h b d , to h ve died a t J ag an a na n th . Mo steries of his followers at Kara a nd other re in n pl aces a still existe ce . The works a scribed to — “ Malfi k D as i nclude the followi ng z D a s R a ina ( The n e e ls B fia le ta va tsa l r T e J w , which de als with K is h ’ n a s a R a tn a - k héna re g rd for his devotees , which is a n o n disser t a tio the soul and Go d . H e is also the reputed author of a l arg e number of deta ched verse s and apophthe g ms which are still quoted a mo ngst the a o ne an a a n people . A f mous is tr sl ted s follows , a d n a a n t 26 h as bee comp red with the te chi g of S . Ma tt . vi .

T n d no i no r a air a d he pytho oth serv ce , b th the fowl of the uty to perform ( to e arn its l iving ) ; h alﬁ k Das a ll d Ra a id i dai Q uoth , For oth m prov e the r ly bre ag

The ide a of the couplet is ba sed o n the belief curre nt in I ndia th a t the python ( a fa g a m ) is u nable to hunt h as it n for its food , but to w ait with s mouth ope for i t s prey to w a lk i nto it .

O t h e r Wo rk s c o n n e c t e d w it h t h e W o rs h ip o f R a m a . a a s a n an A disciple of Tulsi D s , who w lso his co st t ’ d ﬂ e an n da lz a v s . H comp io , w as B ent M D ( is s aid to h ave writte n a bio g r a phy of his m aster called ' d n /z a r z t a Gos i C r , a nd w a s a lso the uthor of other

' ’ n n a z leb R dm ci a w orks , i cludi g a N k /zs . Besides the y n

' ’ (o r R am - c ﬁa r z i- m dn a s) and other works of Tulsi Das a a a a de aling with the stor y of R m , there ppe red duri ng this period sever a l other works co nnected with '

T r z d ﬁi ﬂ . wh o the s ame subject . p f ( is me ntio ned in_the previous ch apter as a writer o n the ’ ‘ r a a R dmd a n in k a vz z ta a nd a t of poetry , lso wr ote y

other metres . d d a a n M n D s ( bor n of Br j , wrote Hi di poem

’ d ‘ n o n S an e ntitled R mcﬁa m z r , which is fou ded two skrit ' d d a ﬂ a l mi/e z a nd H a nu man works , the R m y of the it [Vc a /e a . 60 A H I S TORY OF HINDI LITERATURE

’ ' sfiw a ri P ra sda rz d z 1673 d I T p gf/ i ( fl . ) wrote the R m ' ’ ' B z lds R dmd a z y z , which is a tr ansl atio n of Valmiki s poem . 6 1 6 2 8 1 A li ( 6 . circ . 9 ) w as the author of t wo work s ’ both in pr aise of Rama and S ite a nd e n titled N ekfim k ds

" ' ' ’ nd 151 cim D /z dnm a h d a 5 2 R y fa r z . J n/e R a sz k i S a ra n ( fl . 1 703 A va d/z d a a in ) wrote the S g r , which is poem a lz a d n . B 1 5 0 ho our of R ma g w a nt R y ( fl . 7 ) was the a in F ruler of Asoth r , the district of a tehpur , a nd for sever al ye ars resisted the att a ck s of the Mugh al 0 in 1 76 . Emperor , till he w as killed by tre achery e a a d d a n H w s the uthor of a R m y zz . A other work de aling with the story of Rama wa s the R am 8 27 5 3 of Sa mbi m N am T u lsi S am ( 1 763- 1 84 3) a s s o n a a P n as um w the eldest of the R j of oo a, but w n n H willi g to succeed to the thro e . e therefore left his n and n n and n a ki gdom re ou ced the world , becomi g n w a deri ng a scetic fi nally settled in H athr a s . Besides an n a Giz a ; m y hym s , he wrote a work c lled the dm d a n H R y . e cl aimed that in a previous birth he a nd w a s n one other th an the g re a t Tulsi D s himself , a

in lza t - dmd a n as h ad that birth composed the G R y , but it aroused a g re at de al of Oppositio n it w a s no t published ’ to the world but the R dm - clza r z t - m dna s w as substituted a f n and an a in its pl ce . His work di fers i style l gu g e , a a s well a s in subject m a tter , from th t of his more n n na a nd n in re ow ed me sake , is decidedly i ferior

ch a r acter . ’ d da ” ﬂ . h M a a fzu S a D s ( . cir c w o w a s a a poet of co nsider able merit , w s the author of the ’ d s - s acriﬁ c e R ma w me a lz , in which he describes the horse a D a a s m ade by R ma . Like Tulsi s he w a devotee of a a nd a a R m , a his poe try re sembles th t of the gre t

m a ster . ' ’

z n /z r fl . . Ma m yd r S g , also c alled Yﬁ ( circ

w a s another devotee of Rama who w a s a skilful poet .

n . n H e w a s a Ksh atriy a , of Be are s His works i clude

' a u n da a L a ha r u n da r/eﬁ n a nd the S ry i , the S d, the ’ a b b z a H a nu mﬁ n C/zb is , all of which de l with some of a the le g e nds reg arding Ram a a nd H a num n .

TH E SU CCE SSO RS O F KABTR

‘ n — T h e Ka b irp a t h is . The gre at inﬂue nc e which t h e te a ching of K abir exercised is shown by the l arge number of sects which o w e their orig i n to the ide a s a which he promul g ted . These sects h ave their

a in na la . a i an liter ture the ver cu r The K b rp this , wh o n a i a t o tr a ce their direct orig i to K b r , h ve w divisio ns . ne h as n a t a i - a a in na O its ce tre the K b r ch ur Be res , and a a Ma a a i is also ssoci ted with gh r where K b r died . The other h as its ce ntre in Chh attis g arh in the Ce ntr al a n P rovi nce s . E ch of these divisio s is ruled by a ’ a a m and a h as a . m ﬁ , e ch its liter ture The desce nt of th e

' m a lza n ts a a a a Be nare s is tr ced b ck to S ur t GOp l, and tha t hh at tis ar m a izcm is D a D a of the C g h to h rm s . These are sometimes s aid to h ave bee n perso nal disciples o f

a a a . K abir , but prob bly lived little l ter Although t h e K abirp anthis have a s a whole kept free from the n inﬂue nc e as in worship of images , Hi du h various wa ys a found its w ay back i nto the sect . K bir rejected the n n n n n doctri e of divi e i car atio , but he himself is ofte n s a n n a na n no w re g arded a i c r tio of the S upreme . n n n s Hi du pr a ctices which he co dem ed , such a the use

n n . of the ros ary , h ave bee i troduced Except the work s a scribed to K abir himself the l ar g e amou nt of liter a ture belo ngi ng to this sect h as bee n scarcely exami ned by B a /e a a n n those outside the sect . The ii , lre dy me tio ed in nn a s a a co ectio n with K abir , w prob bly compiled bout ft n n ﬁ y ye ar s a fter his de ath . Two other works belo g i g r la to this sect m ay also be me ntio ned . These a e the S a iz which probably belo ngs to about the middle o f THE SU CCE S S OR S OF KABIR 63

n n and Am a r M l the eightee th ce tury , the a , which is a a s a as 1 8 00 prob bly l te . A K abirp anthi who ﬂo urish e d

' about 1 800 and wrote some pithy verses in k u n da lz ya ’ a l d z me tre w as P mS ﬁ b . T h — h e S ik s . It h as alre ady bee n me ntioned in a a a n previous ch pter th t the religio of the S ikhs , founded ana w as a inﬂue by N k , gre tly nce d by the te achi ng of ana as K abir . N k w followed by ni ne g u ru s most o f

. a whom were poets The s cred book of the S ikhs , ’ a Gra n t/ S dﬁz b o r di a c lled the z ( sometime s the A Gr n t/z , ' ” t e . na G an n . Ori g i l r th , to disti guish it from the l ater Gra n t}; of tile T en th Gu ru a ) , w s compiled in 1 604 by Guru Arju n ( 1 5 63 who was the sixth Guru of th e

' n a n n a S ikhs . I t co t i s the compositio s of Guru N na k , ’ Guru A h a a Guru Am a d s Guru dm d r g , , R D s , Gu u Arfz m, ' Guru T eg B a / c a u r ( the ninth Guru ) and a couplet o f ’ vz n d in }; n Guru Go S g ( the te th Guru ) . The com positio ns of these l a st two Gurus were added a fter th e

r a . ﬁ s t compil tio n Be side s the writing s of these Gurus , the Gra n t]: also co ntai ns p ane g yrics of the Gurus by the bards wh o a tte nded o n them or admired their a a an n a biza a t a ch r cter s , d h ym s of sever l g s , such s amde a i and a n c o rro b o N v , K b r others , whose te chi g s r a ted th a t of the Gurus . The hymns are no t arr anged in the Gra n t/z a ccording to their authors but a ccording

- o ne R a s a a to the thirty g , or music l me sure s , to which a they were composed . All the Gurus , except the l st , a At adopted the name of N nak a s their n om de ﬂ a me . J a i h the beginni ng of the volume is pl a ced the pi , Whic an a nd n S o - D a ru w as composed by N ak , the follow the , ’ - b a a n o z ld are a the S o p a rla , d the S ﬁ , which extr cts from in l ater parts of the books . All these piece s were n and a a t te nded for devotio al purposes , therefore pl ced R d s at e nd the beginni ng of the book . After the g the n n c o n of the volume is the B lzo g , or co clusio , which ’ a t ain s s lolea s a nd p ane g yrics . The whole forms a n a n n le ng thy volume , the ide s which it co t i s bei g r a repe a ted in e ndless vari a tion . F o the S ikhs it is hymn - book and pr a yer - book as well a s a m anual of a in f n a b ut theology . The l anguage v ries dif ere t p rts , 64 A HI S TORY O F HINDI LIT ERATURE

for th e most p art the hymns are writte n in old dialects o f Hi ndi with some admixture of P anj abi . A hym n of ana a s n in a Guru N k w give a previous ch pter . The following is o ne of the hymns of Guru Arjun

O u wa i ann n d the y where the m les c ot be cou te , The name of Go d sh a ll there be t hy provisio n u wa da n O the y where there is pitch rk ess , The name of Go d sh a ll accom p any a nd li g ht thee On wa e n d n the y wher obo y k oweth thee , The name of Go d sh a ll be there to recog nise thee is a a nd a n n Where there very terrib le he t gre t su shi e , There the name of Go d sh a ll be a sh adow over thee T s aith ana the name o Go d a a n n a o n here , N k , f sh ll r i ect r thee .

’ ’ n n a s G vz n a The te th Guru , whose ame w o a h o held o ﬁi c e from 1 675 to 1 708 . It w s he w devel o ped the S ikhs i nto a g re a t milit ary order ca lled the

' an M Khalsa and org iz ed them to re sist the uh ammadan s . U nder him m an y Hindu ide a s were i ntroduced i nto the n n n religio n of the S ikhs . Govi d S i gh composed m a y in n a a ver ses mostly Hi di ( Br aj Bh sh ) , but some also nd n a i in Persi an a P a j b . The se works , tog ether with ’ the tr an sl a tion s and other verse s of some in the Guru s in 1 7 4 n employ , were collected the ye ar 3 , a fter Govi d ’ a a M n n n S i ngh s de th , by Bh i a i S i g h i to o ne volume , which is called the Gra n tiz of tile T en t/z Gu ru to disti n di a n guish it from the A Gr ilz . I t is used for the n promotio n of v alour a d other purpose s , but it is no t reg arded by the S ikhs a s h avi ng the s ame authority J a dz Gra n iiz . n i a s the A Besides the ﬁz z , or hym s , n o d and an pr aise of G , m y other religious verse s , it ' ' n z c/z z ir a /e an a n co nt ai s the V t , which is ccou t nd n n n of the life a missio n of Govi d S i gh , a d other poems calcul a ted to stir up the martia l v alour of the

S ikhs . h i — T h e D a d up a n t s . The founder of the se ct of D adﬁ p anthis w a s D ada ( 1 544 wh o w a s bor n at

a a e n h is in a a na . Ahmed b d , but sp t most of life R j put Accordi ng to commo n rep ort he w a s a cotton - ca rder a by caste , but the tr aditio n of his followers th t he

1 ” an a i n Mac auliffe T i R i n . I I I . 202 . Tr sl t o by , he S kh eli g o , Vol THE S UC CE S S OR S O F KAB TR 65

w as a Br ahman is probably correct . His spirit of forgive ness and kindness ( da yd) w a s so g re a t that he D D a n w a s called ada ay al . His te chi g is very simil ar no t to th at of K abir , but is s o much affected by a n Muh mm ad a ide a s . Much of the Hinduism a g ai nst Which D ada protested h a s fou nd it s w ay ba ck i nto the D a a n n n sect . d rej ected , for i st a ce , the te achi g of the an a a a nd Ved t , c ste , idol atry , but some of his modern

ar an an n - n follower s e Ved tist s , d o ly twice bor n Hi dus are a a B n a nd h as n o llowed to re d the a i , the sect ' n t l M Da ﬁ B ani a a a l a . d s de li gs with outc stes oreover , ’ a e n is wor shipped with idol a trous rites . D da s t achi g

f - n w a s Spre ad by ﬁ t y two disciples . His doctri es a re n a n in B é ni a a ﬁ e co t i ed the , book of bout v

n n - n thous a d verses . I t is divided i to thirty seve ch apters de aling with such subj ects a s the D ivi ne n a n M n Te a cher , Remembr a ce , S ep r a tio , The eeti g ,

M n F a P a . The i d , Truth , The Good , ith , r yer , etc The verses of D ada are very a ttr a ctive and h ave a musical a nd n are n a n rhythm , hym s which i cluded mo g st them are s e t to music and used both for public a nd private n n a n a fe w worship . The followi g is a tr a sl tio of of ’ D ada s verses R eceive th at wh ich is perfect into your he arts to the exclusio n of a ll id a a nd n a ll in Go d i ada bes es ; b o th gs for the love of , for th s D declares is the true devotio n . a id and a ain d i a i is d id C st off pr e , become cqu te w th th t wh ch evo

sin . A a Ra a is in and ad of tt ch yourselves to m . who s less , suffer the thre d of your me itatio ns to be upo n him . A ll t in a a a i o wn h ave i their power to t ke w y the r lives , but they c annot rele ase their souls from pu nishme nt ; for Go d a lo ne is able to

a d n d His . p r o the soul , though few eserve mercy n ad ni n Go d and a no t Liste to the mo tio s of , you will c re for n no r i n a no r d e i a d hu g er for th rst ; either for he t , col ; y w ll be bsolve from the im perfectio ns of the flesh . a nd i in and d di a it Go d Dr w your mi forth , from w th , e c te to ; a f d i i n e i in n bec use i ye sub ue the mperfect o s of your flesh , y w ll th k o ly d of G o . I e a n Go d e i a d im erfec f y c ll upo , y w ll be ble to sub ue your p i n and i n na i n ind i d a t o s , the ev l i cli t o s of your m w ll ep rt from you ; but they will return to you ag ai n whe n ye ce ase to c all upo n him Dada loved Ram a incess antly he p artook of his spiritu al

n nd n n a in d i i was i n him . esse ce a co st a tly ex m e the m rror , wh ch w thi 66 A HI S TORY O F HINDI LITERATURE

He d d i i n and sub ue the mperfect o s of the flesh , overc ame all ‘ i in ina i n d im ro e r desire ev l cl t o s he crushe every p p , wherefore the light ” n n him 1 o f Ram a will shi e upo .

The sect which D ada fou nded h as a very l ar ge ’ Dadfi s t o n a in n . liter ture Hi di w so s were poet s , and all his fi fty - tw o disciples are reported to have com a s n a posed verses , a s well m a y l ter followers. The most import a nt poet a mo ng st his disciples w as S u n da r d 1 620 D s the you nger ( fl . who is also called D adfi a nt his a B a sa r . B y the p he is re g rded as o ne of n a n the best Hi di poets , worthy to r k mo ng st the a “ n highest names in Hi di liter a ture . H e w as a volumi n nous writer . Amo g st his most admired works are his

’ ’ S a va z y a s ( sometimes called the S u n da r B z lds ) a nd the ’ ’ ’ d a m u d ra N z éc fia l D a D a n n S . s a a Gy , l ter dup a thi poet , an a n t e ac hin o f i ntroduced Ved tic ide s i to the g the sect . — ' T h a l D a s is . L dl D ds h o in 1 648 e L , w died , was the n n n i a n fou der of a sect k ow as the L l D sis . H e belo ged a and a a a to Alw r , c me from pred tory tribe called the M a n n eos . Like other te cher s whose doctri es c a b e ’ tr aced to K abir s influe nc e he emph asiz ed the v alue of n n a e the repetitio of the ame of R m a . His t a ching and n e n a n in a 6722 hym s ar co t i ed a work c lled the 8 . The members of the sect ofte n sing the hym ns t o music . T — 51 h e S a dh s . The sect of the 8 t wa s founded in 1 658 8 77 3 2 6771 a nd n c hie fl in by , is fou d y the upper an a a p art of the D oab . Bir Bh cl imed t o h ve received his doctri ne s from a superhum an in structor in t h e form of ver ses a nd couplets These

‘ ’ ' ' were collected into a volume c all e d the Adz U pa a esa ” n ( Origi al These ver ses , to g ether with a a ana and Da a those of other te cher s like K bir , N k d , are recited at the meetin g s of the sect . — i d n in 1 656 an D h a rn i D a s . D /za r 7z D s w a s bor d a a lived at the vill ag e of M nj hi in the district of Chh apr .

a a nd a a . H e w a s a K y a sth by c ste , a bec me devotee e i H e fou nded a sect which still survives . H s the

1 d na A a an a i n G R . d n in Tr sl t o by . Si o s , the Jour l of the si tic

S i n a . VI. 1837 oc ety of Be g l , Vol ( ) THE S UCCE S S ORS OF KABIR 67

a n reputed uthor of two Hi di works , the S a tya P ra k ds a nd P rem a ds the P r k . m P — S o e S ufi o e t s . A Muh amm ada n wh o wrote Hindi ' ’ verses w a s Ydri S dﬁ z b ( 1 668 H e seems t o a n a S ﬁ fi a nd and a at h ve bee , lived t ug ht Delhi. S a n ome of his disciple s lso wrote Hi di verse , such as

’ ’ K es a v D ds and B u ild S d/z z é , both of whom fl o urishe d 730 a a d a a 1 . S w as Gu l l hib bout A disciple of Bull hib S , ' ’ a nd a h ad a a B fii/e fi a dk z b the l tter disciple c lled S . Both of these flo urish e d in the l a tter h alf o f the eightee nth n a nd re a ce tury , both a the reputed uthors of Hindi n m verse . T wo other Hi di writers who ay h ave bee n nn a a co ected with the s me , or simil ar moveme nt , are

’ ' ’ D a rz d S d/z z b a and D a r z d Ma a y of Bih r , y of rw r . Both of these were Muh a mm adans and fl o urish e d in the fi rs t n n n M h alf of the ei ghtee th ce tury . A other uh am m adan writer of Hi ndi verse who also lived in the fi rs t a B u lle mm n h lf of the eightee nth ce ntury w a s 5 , a d was probably a S fi fi .

T — n a - 1 h e C h a ra n D a s is . Char a D s ( 1 703 78 2)belo nged ‘ B a n z a A 1 0 to the /z ﬁ sa r ca ste of B y s . bout the ye ar 73 n he fou ded a sect at D elhi , which still exists . H e d n i a n nd h a m a y disciples who spre ad h s te chi g , a he n n admitted as disciples no t o nly m e but wome also . a n a a a i and His te chi g is very simil r to th t of K b r , emphasi z es such doctri nes as the v alue of the repetitio n n an of the ame of Go d, the import ce of the word n M a t ti a nd ne c e s the need of devotio ( ) , the s it m a as n n y of h avi ng a g u . Idol tr y w de ou ced by

a an D a h as a n . Ch r s , but crept b ck i to the sect The g u ru holds a very importa nt pl ace in the sect and is a h as a a reg arded a s divi ne . Like simil r sects it l r g e a o n liter ature in Hi ndi , and gre at stress is l id this S an n amo ngst its members , the use of skrit bei g an a n in n i discour a g ed . The sect possesses tr sl tio s Hi d ’ d ana and B k a a va a Gt of the B ﬁ g a w ta P a r the g , n a a t a in which are s a id to h ave bee m de , le st a a an D as a p art , by Char an D s himself . Ch r lso com posed m any other Hi ndi works which are much n e steemed by his followers . Two of his wome 68 A HI S TORY O F HIND I LITE RATURE

7 disciples were poetesses . These were S a /za io 8 5 and d di are a D ay B . They s id to h ave bee n sisters and to n a a as a an a have belo ged to the s me c ste Ch r D s . Their re n a a nd verse s a of co sider ble merit full of devotion .

’

a ti B od/z D a s. B 61 as in 1 5 1 The B y of y w composed 7 .

' ' N ra i — z v a é T h e S iv a y a n s . S N r ya zz wa s a R ajput n a G a z In 1 34 wh o lived e r h ipur . 7 he founded a sect Go d a s a a n which wor ship s Br hm without a ttributes , Si a a a a nd rej ects idol at ry . v N r y n is himself regarded n t io n a s an i ncar a by his followers . Outw ard c o n formity to the O bservan ce s of Hi ndus and Muhamm adans is permitted a nd people of all ca stes are admitted a s a a members . It is s id th t the Emperor Muh ammad

a 1 719 - 1 748 a a S h h ( ) bec me member of the sect . The fou nder w a s a v o lum 1 no us writer a nd is credited with n n n h avi g composed sixtee books of Hi di verse . — i d T h e Ga rib D a s is . The g u ru of Ga r b D s ( 1 71 7 1 8 2 a a n a a 7 ) is s id to h ve bee K bir , which , lthough an a a nachro nism , seems to show th t the sect he founded

n a i an i . Spr a g from the K b rp th s This sect , which ’ i n n n s da lz is still n existe ce , co sists o ly of ﬁ s , wh o must

- belo ng to the twice bor n c astes . The book which he ' Gu ru Gra n fi z dlz z b n composed , called the S , co t ai ns zi di f d nd c/ mu s . s /e/ s a p O these , however , are said d i D a to be s /e/z s of K abir. Garib s lived at the vill ag e of i a P n a Chh urani n the Roht k district of the a j b . — a i T h e R a m S a n c h is . The sect of R m S ane h s w as fou nded by R dm C/z a ra n (bor n wh o lived in e a s at fi rs t a n a R aj put a na . H w idol ter , but g a ve up the wor ship of idols and fou nded the sect of R dm a n /zi L overs of R dm no re re S e s , or , The sect is w p ’ daiz se nted merely by a n order of s fi s . His s a yi ng s n 6 7 a nd hym n s h ave bee n collected i to a 3 72 . The n a D u l/z d R dm third le ader of the sect , med , who a n hi in 1 6 a became a R m S a e 77 , composed bout ' ’ 24 d H e in 1 8 . s a b a a s and s k /z is . died

- T h e S a t n a m is a n d J a giiv a n D a s . The sect of the S a t namis seems to have bee n founded before the n c irc u t a n m iddle of the seve ntee nth ce tury , but the m s

ces of its ori g i n are u nk now n . I t was reor g anised

7 0 A HI S TORY O F HINDI LITERATURE

dn ta a nd ( s m s ) . Much of their verse is smooth rh yt h nd e n c e s h ad mical , a the artistic inﬂ u which come into Hi ndi liter ature were no doubt felt by them to a cert ain a s a exte nt . But their in terest w relig ious r ther th a n nd f n a n n liter ary , a e w of them r a k high mo g st Hi di poets . r an a I f their verses a e less rugg ed th those of K bir , they are also ofte n l acki ng in the vigour and ch arm which a a i ch r acterise his work . The subjects de lt with n these n voluminous works are n o t very extensive . The eed of a u ru n a g a d the respect due to him , the v lue of the n na o d s a n repetitio of the me of G , the upreme import ce n m a d of devotio n the delusio s of y , the v alue t h e n a a nd of truth , duty of livi g rig hteous sober life , these a nd a fe w ki ndred topics are repe ated over and a a n in ff n a at n na e n over g i , di ere t w ys , i termi bl le gth , in a manner which to the ordi nary re ader is a p t to be are an n tedious . Nevertheless there m y striki g p as s age s to be found which are full of be auty a nd i n culca te n v aluable lesso s . D uri ng the g re a ter p art of this period the North of I ndia wa s p a ssing throug h a time n of g re a t political cha ng e . The reig of Aur a ngz eb ( 1 658 - 1 707) w as a lo ng struggle a ga i nst disintegr a ti ng

a nd . forces , a fter him the political disorder grew worse n n I nter neci e strife a d rebellio n were freque nt . The i nv asio ns of Nadir S hah (1 739 ) and a fterw ards of Ahmad a an 1 56 r S h h Durr i ( 7 ) we e a time of terrible disaster . The Maratha s a lso were con st antly att acki ng the Mugh a l n a Empire , which by the e d of this period ce sed to in n as a n exist except ame . I t w time of freque t , “ n ann n cal amity , of persecutio n a d tyr y but duri g this period m any thoughtful m e n soug ht pe a ce of he art in a nd a in an piety a nd quietism , it w s such circumst ces tha t much of the relig ious verse referred to in this In no t ch a pter w a s produced . these poems the writers o nly expressed their o wn a spir a tio n a nd feeli ng a fter a n a Go d, but g ave forth m y be utiful thoughts which in a nd a n were a sol ace to others times of distress , i nce ntive to them to live nobly and to seek a fter the e a in hig h e st e nds . The sects whos liter ture is described n a in a this ch a pter all o we somethi g to K bir , some c ses THE S U CCE S S OR S OF KABIR 71

the inﬂue nce bei ng direct and in others i ndirect . They ll n in at a a no n- a a sta d , theory le st , for idol trous theism , a nd a gre a t m a ny of their the o logica l conceptio n s are

a a a . the s ame as , or simil r to , those which K bi r t ught VIII .

THE KRISHNA CULT

( 1550- 1800)

T h e As h h — all hac h ar a an t a C h a p . V ab y d his so n alnath h n n in V itth , w o have bee me ntio ed a previou s chapter a s the e arly le ader s of the V allab h ach ari sect a an n a M a h d a t Gob rdh , e r uttr , e ach a four disciple s , all of whom were Hindi poets . They are known as the k a 6712 5 5 a D ie s t am s A s f 7 , or the Eight S e ls , or p , bec ause the poems they produced are reg arded a s st a ndard s a n n in for th at di lect of We ster Hi di which they wrote . a a s a a a na a This di lect w the Br j Bh sh , med fter the in n a M a and n a district which they lived , mely uttr Bri d d n b an a n the surrou nding country . S i ce their time a lmost all Hindi poetry co nnected with the Krishna n n a a and Cult h a s bee composed i Br aj Bh sh , it h a s al so come to be looked upo n a s the poetic di alect of a r exce llence Das and Hi ndi b , thoug h Tulsi most of the a n n worshippers of R ma wrote in E a ster Hi di . T h e disciple s of Vallab h ach ary a wh o are i ncluded in the

' ’ ta /z /z a 7 D d ish a D as P a Aiz éri A s/z g C p were 5 12 s , Kr n y , ’ d d d i h al P a rm na n a D s and Ku mb ha ” D s . Those of V tt Clza tu rb u D d C/zﬁif S wa mi N a n ci D ds nath were /z i s , , ’ ’ m n a D d ﬂ uri h e d a and Go s . All the se o s bout the middle

or seco nd h alf of the sixtee nth ce ntury .

’ ’ K rz s l ma D ds P a y Aﬁ a ri seems to have bee n a rival

a in a . of S ar D s , thoug h no t equ al to him poetic l merit a and H e w a s , however , the writer of g r ceful melodious a P re m stanz a s . His be st known work is c lled the

’ a a wh o s a ttva m rﬁ p . Krishna D s h ad sever l pupils ne as became poets . According to some o of them w THE KRI S HNA CULT 73

i h Agr a D s ( 6 . w o w as in tur n the preceptor of a a D a a N bh s , uthor of the a nd D ds n ur a N holds , ext to S D s , the highest pl ace a s a poet a mo ngst those who are i ncluded in the Asl

/z fid . H e a s a a an n C p w Br hm , a d some have believed a a D a him to be brother of the g re t Tulsi s . There is a a a A u r a b a r é a nd proverb bout him which s ys , s g iy , N ' ' ‘ D ds a rz ci are f n j y , All others simply o u de rs ( o r melters) but Nand Das is the ar tificer (who j oi ns the pieces of n a met al i to composite whole ) . H e w as the author a a a of sever l l r g er works s well a s of det ached ver ses . O ne of his compositio n s is a poem in imit a tio n of the ' ’ a n Gild Gov z n a a a P a ncfi dd d i S skrit , c lled /zy y . — S ur D a s . a all ta fi d h o The gre te st of the A s /z C /z p , w 2 d a s 5 1 7 D s . a r ever , w The p articul rs of his life a e very n n an sca nty a d u cert ai n . I t is s aid tha t he w as a Br ahm and s o n a a R am D a a n at the of B b s , who w s a si g er the At court of the Emperor Akbar . the ag e of ei g ht he n his a n M a nd we t with p re ts to uttr , a became the pupil

' A a tl G a of a devotee . fterw rds he removed to Ga h t , n a and M a a betwee Agr uttr , where he bec ame disciple ll hac a a n of V a ab h ry . In the comme t ary which he him self wrote to some of his emblem atic ver se s he s ays th at n ai he w as a desce da nt of the f amous b ard Ch and B ard , ’ a a na as R am an a a nd a th t his f ther s me w Ch dr , th t his

a n a a a ndr a at a . S g r df ther , H ri Ch , lived Agr ome , n a a an and a th e however , co sider him to be Br hm re g rd verse where this in form a tio n is g ive n a s spurious . His a t O c h nd d n n s i f ather lived G p al a h a seve so s , x of whom i H e a n were killed n ba ttle with the Muh a mm adans . lo e , l and blind ( either liter ally or fi gura t iv e y ) worthless , d n n a a n . H e h a a a s he s ays , rem i ed alive visio of Krish , n m a a nd there after all w as dark ess to him , which y n at a and me a n he became bli nd . H e we t to live Br j , t d a n a hi s became o ne of the A sfi a Cfifz p . Tr ditio pl ces in 1 563 a birth in 1 48 3 and his de a th , but these d te s a n a as are u ncert ai n . All the tr ditio s gree to his a a blindness , either from birth , or from l ter period of a nd n a s n a d his life , he is ofte referred to the bli d b r ” o f Agr a . 7 4 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LIT ERATURE

a n S ar D s excelled in ma y styles of compositio n . A l arge number of episodes and p a ss a ges from the B ﬁdg a w ta P u rdz m were reproduced by him in exquisite and a verse , he w s the writer of a gre at number of lyrics a a in co nnectio n with the worship of Krishna and R dh , which were collected tog ether in the S ar S dg a r and ’ dva S d/z z t a la a n a the S a r li . The y /z ri conta i s emblem tic verses for which S ar D as himself wrote n a na n a in n i a expl tory comme t ry . H e also wrote Hi d N a la a n d D a a a the story of m y n ti . Altog ether he is

credited with h aving composed as m a ny as ver ses . a S S ﬁ r D s holds a very hi g h pl a ce in liter a ture . ome I ndi an authorities would give him the foremost pl ace n o e t s t h o h a mo ngst Hi di p , ug most perso ns would reserve i a th at honour for Tuls D s . An ofte n quoted couplet n n a r sun i referri g to Hi di poetry s ys , S h is the , Tuls n ay D as a the moo , Kes is cluster of st ars , but the poets o f to - day are like s o m any g low - worms givi ng light ” r a here a nd there . S h D s is undoubtedly a poet of H all g re at power . e is co nsidered to excel in his use of the or name nts of style reco g ni z ed by the authorities o n An Hi ndi poetry a nd in his us e of images and similes . ’ a no nymous poet of Ak b ar s court s aid with reg ard to ’ an in nn nd a in lea vz lta him , G g excels so e ts a B irb l the ’ ’ Ke a s a n n S ar metre s v me i ng is ever profou d , but n p ossesses the excelle cy of all three . A fe w specime ns of his work are give n here

All days are no t a like ; O ne day Ki ng H arisch andra had in his power we a lth like Mou nt Meru n d n anda] and The ext ay he we t to live in the house of a Ch , d in - nd remove clothes from the bury g grou . O ne da a m an a d a nd d a ida an y is bri egroom , tte e by br l com p y, and in every directio n fl ags a re pl aced T n da h as in and he ext y he to live the forest , there stretches forth and nd h s a legs . One d ay Sita is cryi ng in a very terrible forest

n da a n - n d and a The ext y h vi g become t e u ite with Ramch r , both o n g about i a b a lloo n of flowers . One day Raj a Yudhisht hir was reigning with Sri Bh agwan ( Krishn a ) as his follower n da D rau ad ad na d a nd D usasan The ext y ( his wife ) p i is m e ke , a a a t kes w y her clothes . T HE KRI S HNA CULT 75

T d in i a a 0 i nd i he o gs of the former b rth ppe r ; fool sh mi , g ve u p anx1 e ty Sﬁ r Das a far c an I d a ? are s ys , How escribe the qu l ities True letters wri tte n by the Cre ator ( o n the forehe ad)

i a n W thout Gop l these bowers become like e em ies . In da n w as d those ys ( whe he here ) these creepers seeme very cool , a a Now they h ve become a he p of fiery fl a mes . In ain River amuna in a nd d i v the ﬁ J is flow g , the bir s tw tter In a n are n a nd a v i the lotuses bloomi g , the bl ck bee hums Sﬁ r Das a n d m a red s ys , Looki g for the lor , y eyes h ve become hun l ike the g ghc hi seed .

Night and day my eyes shed te ars I i s a a a n n in a m n a S a a . t lw ys the r i y se so with me , s ce y we t w y i d no t a o n m m and and The collyr um oes st y y eyes , y h s my a da cheeks h ve become rk , T d n dr a a in he cloth of my bo ice ever g ets y, bec use the he rt the id it m st of is ru nning l ike a stre am of w ater . M a i i d and i d a y eyes h ve become r vers , my limbs t re , the f xe st rs re mo v1 n a g aw ay . Sﬁ r Das a a is no w in d ln a s ys , Br j be g submerge ( te rs ) , why do yo u no t del iver it

T h a ura s i V — n h e C a rt a . A h import a t work Which n C/z a u rdsi 671 6 ( o r b“elo g s to this period is the V Eig hty - four T ales reputed to h a ve bee n writte n n d /z itth lna t o n a th . by Gok u l ( ﬂ . the s of V I t is in a n a a mdld a nd a e arlier d te tha the B iz k i , where s the B /z a k ta m dld co nt a ins a ccou nts of devotees of v arious

' a n a a /za u cisi Vdrid V ish v sects , the C r is devoted exclu n a s iv e ly to stories , mostly le g e d ry , of the followers l ab h a h a a a o n of V a l c ry a . I t l a ys a g re t de l of stress n F the erotic side of the Krish a le g e nds . rom the poi nt o f view of the liter a ture it is very import a nt as bei ng n in is o ne a writte prose , of which it of the e rliest nd a n . n in a a a specime s I t is writte very cle r e sy style , a nd a lthoug h writte n three hundred a nd ﬁ ft y ye ars a g o the l angu ag e used differs very little from the moder n

Br aj di alect . — O t h e r e a rly Va lla b h a c h a ris . Two or three other e arly member s of the Vallab h achari sect wh o were B / m w dn i Hi ndi poets must also be me ntio ned . g H t 4 a n a ( ﬂ . circ . 1 5 7 ) is s aid to h ve bee disciple of 7 6 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LITERATURE

i h na H e V tt al th . w as the author of some Krishnaite k ’’ n a . a cz lyrics of co sider ble merit R sk n ( fl . 1 61 4 ) w a s a Muh ammad an at fi rst and his n ame w as the n a a a H S yy d Ibr him . e became a worshipper of Krishna and wrote verses in his hon our which are s aid to be n a nd n a full of devotio sweet ess . A disciple of R a sk h n ’ ’ w as &a z r B a le s/z a Q , who lso wrote Hindi poetry . T h e R a h - V l h — d a a l a b is . A ne w sect wa s founded in ’ n a an a 1 5 85 n n a da d- a a b i Bri d b bout k ow s the R fi V ll k s .

’ In this se ct Radha is pl a ced above Krishna as an object

’ ’ n n a a z a m a of devotio . I ts fou der w s H r V s ( also called ' H it H a r z b a n s i I t , or H t ) . His f ather w a s a Gaur Br ah m an n a V as a h o as i med y , w w n the service of the M a n uh mm adan Emperor . H ari V améa wrote in S a s ’ ’ krit the R da fz d- su d/z ci which co nsists of 1 70 coup n in a d i a d lets . His pri cip al work Hindi is the Cﬁ u r s P ’ o r re mla z d ( P ) . The erotic side of the Krishna cult is Very promi ne nt in th e se works and they are full of n a a rn e a se suous im gery , but H ri V a sa poss sses gre t a a n skill s p oet a d holds a high pl ace in Hindi liter ature . A few st anz as are here give n

Wh atever my Beloved doeth is ple asing to me ; a nd wh atev er is

a n a d d . a I d ple si g to me , th t my Belove oeth The pl ce where woul be ’ is in my Beloved s eyes ; and my Beloved would f ai n be the a pple of

. d a an d a nd my eyes My Love is e rer to me th bo y , soul, or life ; my

d a and . R e S ri a a n Love woul lose thous lives for me ejoic , Hit H ri V s in a o ne da o ne a are i n us the lov g p ir , rk , f ir , l ke two cyg ets ; tell who c an sep arate w ave from w a ter ? O d h as a n ? is a a my Belove , the f ir spoke this surely be utiful ’ n n d d in d 0 nd night the light i g is fol e the lusty clou s embrace . frie , where is the wom a n who could qu a rrel with so exquisite a prince of , a an R S ri a an d a Radhika a n d g ll ts ejoice , H ri V s e r he rke e with ’ her e a rs and with voluptuous emotio n joined in love s delight .

Rad a n n o ne a a n has Come h , you k owi g , your p r go of lovers ’ d dan n n a u a f starte a ce o the b a k of the J m n s stre a m . Bevies o damsels are da nci ng in all the ab ando nme nt of delight ; the joyous

d - a in n . a an i b at a pipe g ives forth stirr g sou Ne r the B s , sweetly pretty air a d i n spot , where the spicy bre thes with elic ous soft ess , where the

- n d a n d n a an h a lf ope e j smi e fills the worl with overpoweri g fr gr ce , n a a ad a n a n a n a d be e th the cle r r i ce of the utum l full moo , the milkm i s a d are a n o n d all a i with r pture eyes g zi g your g lorious lor , be ut ful from ’ ad a n . Put a a he to foot , quick to remove love s every p i your rms bout

7 8 A HI S TORY O F HIN DI LITERATURE

a all n in n da n da ch mber , goes for oth g whe the rk ess of your l ast y ” 1 draweth ni gh .

H ari D as w as succeeded as le ader of the sect by ' ‘ ' ’ ’ ’ z /za l z u l and a B z fi dr z m 0 6 V fl V p , the l tter by 3 . Both n B ih arini Das n these were Hi di poets , bei g a very volu In n min ous o ne . his umerous verses he uses the most n erotic l an gu age to expres s the i te nsity o i. his religious i S ta l fl . wh o w as a a devotion . ( le der of the sect , ' S a l mc/z a r z S a r a n . 1 6 w as als o a skilful poet ( fl . 7 3) als o a bel ong e d to the H ari D sis . Among s t h is works is the ’ ’ a z i P ra k ci n a n a n B a D a L l s , which co t i s s yi g s of ri s , the founder of the sect . ’ i rs f Kris h n Ve r — a a d z O t h e r W r t e o a s e . G D / a r B ha i? 565 as a na n n ( fl . 1 ) w Krish ite belo g i g to the sect of Ch aitany a a nd wrote verses o f consider able merit ’ ’ B z lz d i L dl a u b n a n . r Ch e in Krish s ho our , whose work h a s bee n described in a previous ch apter as a writer o n as a nn the art of poetry , w lso co ected with the Krishna M in a a ai Cult . ost of the verses his f mous S t S de al a with some ph se or other of the story of Krishna . Other writer s o n the art of p oetry a l so wr ote Krishn aite verse . d fl o urish e in fi rs a T i , who d the t h lf of the seve n n as a M t e e nth ce tury , w the wife of uhamm ad an , but h w as a worshipper of Krishna . S e wrote s ome much admired verses in his honour . i 650 an a a B iz slz m a ( fl . circ . 1 ) tr sl ted the f mous te nth

'' ' B /z cz a va ta P u r cin a n n ch apter of the g i to Hi di verse , 5 n d ild u nder the title 3 ] Mu k u L . i h d 2 a a r ﬂ . 1 73 as a a a P nna B k ﬁs/z H s i ( ) w K y sth of a , H e S a ne/z d a r wh o w a s a skilful poet . wrote the S g , n and a which is a n a ccou t of Radha Krishn a , as well s some other works . 6 a an R a a in 1 761 a an M 72 , a Br hm of iswar , wrote tr s

’ da z a a il l a tion of the Krishn a Klz a n e ntitled Kr s/zn K a] . A famous work in co nnectio n with the Krishna ’ Cult is the B ra j 8 2 s It w as the work of d i D ds n an a nd n a n a n B ra j B s , of Bri dab , co t i s descriptio

1 ’ M at ura . 10 n Mr. F . S Gro wse s h 2 . Transl atio from . , p THE KRI S HNA CULT 79

’ a n n at of Krishn s life duri g his reside ce Bri ndaban . a a i Das n V allab ha Br j B s belo ged to the sect of charis . . ' ’ n a t fi 65 1 S a d r K u w a r z 8 ( fl . 760 to 1 798 ) was a n a a and a pri cess of the R thor f mily , d ughter of R aj n Ma a a a R fi na ar and Krishn r S i gh , h r j of p g ag a h . S he as a B al a a S n M a w m rried to Bh dr i gh , ahar j a o f

R a h av arh . Man a g g y of her f mily were poets , and this l ady wrote a l arge number of poems full of religious n an are in n devotio , m y of which ho our of Krishna . ’ 11 Ma nC/z z t . . n n ( circ of Bu delkh a d, was ’ u rb/zia dnlild i the author of S , which s a n a ccoun t of t he

' ’ na and K rz sb n ci mz childhood of Krish , y , which is a life of n r n Krish a . His poems a e co sidered to be of a very n high st a dard of poetic excelle nce . i i R a ta n K u ﬁw dr na a n B b , of Be res , w s bor about 4 h e as an a a 1 8 2 . S w i a the g r dmother of R j S v Pr as d , wh o helped to develop Hi ndi liter a ture in the nine In P rem R a i n a h t e e nt h ce ntury . the s e h as g ive n an n n i accou t of the devotees of Krish a , a nd n additio n sh e t h e an w a s authoress of m y other verses . r n — Ge n e ra l R e m a k s o Kris h n a it e Lit e ra t ure . A gre at de al of the poetry co nnected with the Krishna Cult de als with the a mour s of Krishna with the Gopis a n a ( milkm aids ) of Br j , a d especi ally with Radh . T h e ’ gre a t Hi ndu te achers of blz a lelz threw a mystical n gl amour over these stories . Krish a w as to them the D ll n S upreme eity , from whom a cre atio w as but n n nd a i a sportive ema atio , a who w s full of love to h s a a an devotees . R dh d the other Gopis stood for human a a iﬁ e d souls , of whom R dh especi ally t yp the devotee , f In re ady to of er her whole self in devotio n to Go d . “ the liter a ture co n nected with this form of the Ma t h moveme n t the writers ofte n use the most erotic l angua ge ’ a n and se nsuous im gery to describe the soul s devotio , ’ under the picture of Radh a s self - abando nme nt to h e r M n no t an a beloved . a y of the ver se s could be tr sl ted n o f i nto E g lish . Yet the writer s of these lyrics p assio nate devotio n were ofte n m e n of re al relig iou s in e ar nestness , quite free from any impure motives n h as composi ng them . Th a t liter ature of this ki d , “8 0 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LIT ERATURE

an n n h h owever , a very d gerous te de cy a s too ofte n b n n in n a ee show the history of the Krish moveme n t . Many of the writer s me n tio ned in this ch a pter a w ere poets of very hig h merit . The rtistic influe nc e s which h ad come i nto Hi ndi liter a ture are to be see n i in a a n . M very m rked de gree their work ut tr a , n n w hich w a s the ce tre of the moveme t , w as in close M a a nd fi r a proximity to the ug h l court , S D s is s aid b y tr aditio n to h ave h ad some co n nectio n with the a ann infl e n c ourt . But , throug h wh tever ch el the u c e no a a c ame , there is doubt th t the poets of Br j felt very s tro ng ly the te nde ncies tow a rds the per fectio n of the r n n a nd a p oetic a t , a d th e excelle cy f me of their poetry w a s s o g re at tha t from their time o nw ards Br aj Bhasha came to be re g arded a s the chief poetic dialect of i Hi nd . BARDI C AN D O TH E R LI TE RATURE

( 1550- 1800)

M r — B a rd s o f e w a . The successio n of bards in the v arious kin gdoms of R ajput an a and other p arts of n a n w as n n n n H i dust co ti ued right dow to moder times , and Mewar w a s o ne of the st a tes where g re a t e n c o ura g e m e nt w a s g ive n to them . A chro nicle of the ana J a a S n M a time of R g t i gh , of ew r , who reig ned from

’ 28 1 654 a J a a l B z lds w a s 1 6 to , c lled the g , writte n by a n

n n n a . J a a n a a u k ow b rd The successor of g t S i gh , R n R aj S i ngh ( 1 654 who w as the f amous oppo ne nt n z w as a a a n e of Aur a g eb , g re t p tro of po ts . The n e a R é P ra k ds chro icl of his time , c lled f , wa s a lso t h e writte n by a n ano nymous bard . A t sug g estio n of

a a a n e - a dn n a M ﬂ . R R j S i gh his po t l ure te , (

’ R d D e v B z lds wrote the i , which describes the strugg le a n betwee n Aur ang z eb and R j S i gh . A nother poet who

’ ’ a ddsz v lived a t his court w a s S ( ﬂ . who wrote his ’ d a n d a r T h e o p atro n s life under the title R i R t /z . s n of R aj S i ngh w a s Rana J a i S i ng h ( 1 68 1 - 1 700 ) a nd he h a lso w as a p atro n of p oets . A work which he ad

’ t a J a z D e v 8 27 65 writte n by poets a his court w s the , which is a series of lives of the king s whom he h ad co n qu e red . A n other author of a bardic chro nicle of a n R é P a itcm d w a s R a n Clz/zor Mew r , e titled f , , whose d a te is doubtful . — n a a a na B a rd s 0 1 M a r w a r . I M rw r also g re at p tro g e 0 Ma a a a ar n a in w a s g ive n to poets . h r j S S i g h is s id o ne day to h a ve distribute d s ix l akhs of rupees to s o n Ga n w a s a six poets a t his cour t . His j S i g h lso

a s a n n a S n . a p atro n of poets , as well his g r dso Am r i gh 6 8 2 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LITERATURE

Amar S i ngh qu arrelled with his f a ther and w as H e n th e a exiled . we t to court of the Em peror S h h an in n a J ah , but reve g e for sli ght he attempted to a a murder the Emperor , nd w s cut dow n after killin g A n a number of courtiers . mo g the poets p a tronised a n B a n wdri L dl by Am r S i g h were , wh o wrote a “ n a n and R a /zu (i d p a egyric of his p tro , g N lk R y , both ri h e 1 6 a ﬂ o u s d a 34 . Ma a n of whom bout h r j a Ajit S i gh , of J o dh p ur in Marw ar ( 1 681 h ad a work writte n ‘ e ntitled the R 5 7 which co nt ai ns a h ist o ry of his f amily from the comme nceme nt of the sol ar r a ce 24 a ra n a s t o 1 7 . K w the poe t a nd bard of J odhpur a t the time of Mahar aj a Ab h ay S i ngh ( 1 724 s o n of

’ In a ds n . a r a P ra k Aji t S i gh his poem , c lled the S y , he wrote a history of the period from 1 638 t o 1 731 in ' ’ ' ' Ma a a a Vz a z S z n iz li nes . h r j z g , wh o reigned at J o dh p ur 1 75 3 1 784 w as a n a h ad from to , himself poet , a d he lso n n a work writte , e titled the V which g ives an account in couplets of the w ar betwee n Vij ai a nd his n R am S ingh cousi S i ngh . — h ad r B a rd s a t O t h e r C o urt s . Other courts also thei n o f a a S n M a a n poets . The rebellio J g t i g h , of how , g i st S hah J ahan w as celebr at e d by a bard named Ga mb/z ir

’

n n R av a a n ﬂ . R dy ( ﬂ . I ho our of R t (

- a a a n an a n n gre a t g r a ndson of R j Ud y S i gh , o ymous ’ d d d J a z b ard wrote a history called R v R a ta n R ys .

’ z n a w di a n 1 699 w a s no t S g k S , of J ipur ( rei g ed only a p a tr on of poets but wrote his o wn aut o b io ’ ’ J a z in ]; K a l a a ru m J ai S n g r a phy , e ntitled S g p i g h ’ ’ ’ i - - d a lz dv a a un S awa s broth e r in law , B a R , R j of B di , n J od/zr d w a s als o a poet and a p a tro of poets . i an H a mmir K dv a ( ﬂ . 1 728) w as a Br ahm , who wrote the y a a a a s at the orders of the Mahar j a of Nimr n , which de l with the s ame i ncide n ts formerly described by the bard

a n in n n . S r a g D h ar , who lived the fourtee th ce tury d 1 68 0 a n o f Gizem Sy m Su le la (ﬂ . circ . ) tte ded the cour t a in a H e a o the R j a of Rew ah and wr ote his pr ise . ls H is a tte nded the court of the Raj a of Be nares . ’ H a rz k esiz poems are considered to be of gre a t merit . a a hh at rasal o f ( ﬂ . 1 731 ) atte nded the court of R j C , BARD I C AN D OTHER LITERATURE 8 3

P anna. H e x in e celled the heroic style . S a da ”, 1 50 as a a an (fl . 7 ) w Br hm , who w as p a tronised by a a Mal a s o n Ma a a a S r j , of the h r j of Bh ara tpur . H e ’ S u dn Ck a rz tr wrote the i , which is an account of th e in a a Mal ba ttles which S r j took p art . S fi da n is c o n s ide re d an n n a a to be excelle t rr tive poet , especi ally in a n a a n a a his ccou t of the prep r tio s for b ttle , b ut h e w as no t equal to L al K avi in his description o f A a the ba ttle itself . b rd who wrote in the Ma ithili “ a a a s L dl J i m di lect of Bih ri w ( 6 . o ne of the mos t a u Mith ila a f mo s poets of . H e w s t h e author of a poem a K a na r i GM L a rdi c lled fi ; , which is a description of a Ka nar i a in the b ttle of p Gh t , which his p a tro n Mah a a a a n a n D a an a a r j N re dr S i gh , of rbh g , w s victorious .

a l K i — 5 5 a L a v . At the court of R 5 Chh a tras l ( 1 646 wh o ruled at P an na in Bundelkh and and wa s a n a himself poet , much e cour g eme nt w as g ive n to m e n of letters . The most f amous of these w as

" d a! a v i L l n a n n a s L K . , ge er lly k ow His full name

' ' a z n was Gorel l P u roﬁ t . Beside s writi g a tre atise o n in a a a lovers , he wrote Br j Bh sh verse a celebr ated n /z /za lm m cis‘ n work e titled C P /e . I t g ives a a ccou nt of the w ars and order of successio n of the ancie n t Raj as n an and hh at ras al and of Bu delkh d, the life of C a a th t of his f ather are rel a ted with gre at det ail . L l a a a n s a na a K vi chieved g re t excelle ce a rr tive poet , i especi ally in h s descriptio n of a ba ttle . The follow ing is the a ccou nt in the Ckka lm P ra k ds of Raj a ’ Chhat ras al s br avery at the battle of Deo g arh

Ra a Chhatrasal a an in w ar d ad in a a d fo r j , v li t , re ful b ttle , f me i a n a i and as a n hero c chieveme ts , ct ve , vigorous , powerful tig er , pe e ’ t ra te d into the midst of the Deog a rh Raja s army while thous a nds of i and b a lls a nd arrows disch arged at him fell like rai n a rou nd . F rm nda n d d n s a a d n u u te , re oubli g his effort he furiously tt cke the umerous n i di a din a a nd troops by whom he was surrou nded . E t rely sreg r g b lls ’ in d and i d nd in n an . bullets , he flicte rece ve wou s the e emy s r ks The as n nd d d a a d at the fi htin a a foe w co fou e . The go s were m ze g g of Chh tr sal and n a a and a nd a n ; , while repelli g the tt ck of thous s , sc tteri g

- d a and d n a nd a i d d d da n . e th estructio rou , K l eli ghte to see his swor ce n d as n as a n a n a ni h ad His progress no o e coul stop ; for , soo t go st a d d Chh at rasal d n d a nd r ise his swor , , by superior exterity , i flicte wou a a d his and he was equ ally sk ilful in the use of the spe ar . Sep r te from 8 4 A HI S TORY OF H IND I LITERATURE

and nd d w a o ne an troops , surrou e by foes , he fought his y from fl k of

a . W n d Disr their rmy to the other herever he we t , victory followe . e a din nd n d a a n i g r g severe wou s , he re ewe the tt ck , fighti g w th such i and a n n Kal R d a m petuosity fury , th t the e emy , believi g him to be u r ,

i and a and n d d . Chh at rasal a n d a in took to fl ght , b o e the fiel obt i e l st g a and n n : n d d f me re ow for the e emy fle like eer from a ti ger . The - d nd d ain i and B ahadﬁ r an d d kettle rums sou e str s of v ctory, Kh or ere d ” 1 the c am p to be pitche .

f — O t h e r Lit e ra t ure o t h e P e rio d . Besides the liter a ture we h ave alre ady me ntio ned in this a nd the n a an precedi g ch pters , there were m y other writers o n n r a v ariety of subjects dur i g the period . There a e a n an works de li g with the philosophy of the Ved t a , nn n n works co ected with the J ai relig io , works o n ni i nd n mor als ( t ) , comic verses , a a g re a t m a y other

n n - o n as topics , i cludi g text books such subjects lexi r h a a n a nd na c o g ap y , g riculture , stro omy , veteri ry sur m a n n gery . A few of the authors y be me tio ed here i /z a vi b . n a t K ( who dwelt Br j , wrote n poems o n the se aso ns a d other subj ects . d l a in Mu é m /e A i (b . of Bil g r m the district of a a s a a a n H rdoi , w the uthor of l r g e umber of short

verses which are still curre nt .

' ' iz c z 6 . a as a a N r ( before of A g r , w vers tile poet of co n sider able f ame whose verses are very n n n ar popul ar a d ofte quoted , though m a y of them e

s aid to be i ndece nt . d i d 15 86 as a B a n rs D s ( b . ) w follower of the J ai n H e at aun ur a nd a r elig io n . lived J p died sometime fter 4 are a n and 1 6 1 . His works full of relig ious te chi g he In is much admired as a poet . his most f amous work he g ives an a ccoun t of his o wn life . ’ i a ana as a a S r D ha r (b . of R jput , w the uthor of

‘ a w cini lzfic md work in ho nour of Dur g a a nd e ntitled B lz C . d i d 1 62 a a n a Gfi s R m ( fl . circ . 3) w s poet of co sider ble

o n a a nd . merit , who wrote love , mor ls other subjects /za k a r 6 4 a a n P u ( ﬂ . 1 3 ) w s a K y a sth who lived duri g an H e as in n the time of J ah gir . w priso for some a ia n offe n ce and while there composed the R a s R .

1 an a i n . R . P n A H is t o r o th e B o on de las . Tr sl t o by W ogso , y f

8 6 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LITERATURE

’ ’

Gz r z D /za r b . D a ( of the o b , wrote ver ses o n ’ mor als ( nit z ) and occa sio nal pieces which are much

’ H e lz a admired . used the k u n da y metre of which some critics co nsider him to be the gre ate st ma ster . His verses abound in colloqui alisms and many of them h ave become proverbs . a a r 0 1 72 a s Ma a a a a S m N g z D 5 (11 . 3) w h r j of Krishn i a n a n a ana . a na a s a g rh R j put His re l me w S v t S i gh , but a a d he adopted the name of N g ari D s as his n om e b la me . H e w a s a poet of co nsider able merit beside s being a n a ki g of gre t v alour . N a r Mu ha mma d w a s the author of the ' ’ [ndr dva t zﬂ I t is a love story simil ar to the P a du m a va iz Ma lik Mu ha a d n a of mm . I t is co sidered to be well n writte poem . ’ '' ' a n b o a lz J cz a n n as B lzola n J /z ci M /z ( ﬂ . lso k ow , an a a s o ne of the district of D arbh g , w of the most a H e celebr a ted poets in the Maithili di alect of Bih ri .

' ’ wrote a versio n of the H a r z w msa of which o nly t e n

n . are s ectio s have bee n preserved These , however ,

very popul ar . ’ ’ ' ' d a d d z 1 754 a N z a lz n and D y N z /z ( b . ) e ch w rote a tre a tise o n veterinary sur g ery u nder the title ' ‘ dlz lzo z S r . ’ R dm C/za n a ra w a s a Br ahman Who ﬂ o urish e d at the a in e nd of the ei g htee nth ce ntury . H e wrote work P a a n ﬁ v e books in ho nour of the feet of rv ti , e titled ' /z a ra a z ci is n a C zz C/z n dr le . I t co sidered to be work of a g re t poetic merit . THE MOD E RN P E RI OD ( F rom 1800)

A N E W inﬂue nc e came i nto Hindi liter ature at the be g i nning of the ninetee nth ce ntury throug h co nt act with the culture of the West . The ei g htee nth ce ntury h d n a a a a a bee l r gely time of liter ry de rth , but a re na s

n no a n . a n a a n ce ce w beg The E st I di Comp y , which h ad n a in n a a a comme ced it s c reer I di s a tr ding comp a ny , h ad no w come i nto possessio n of a v ast Empire and w as be g i nni ng to feel its respo nsibilitie s towards those

Whom it w a s called upon to g over n . This res ponsibility w as bei ng conti nu ally ur g ed by m any in the British n re S o ns ib ilit ie P arli ame nt . Amo g st other p s th a t were recog nised w a s the duty of fostering and helping the culture and educa tio n of the peoples u nder the rule of

n n - the Comp any . The i troduction of the pri ti ng press helped to di ff use liter ary culture . The spre ad no t o nly of ver nacul ar but of E ng lish education could no t but have a v a st e ff ect upo n the life and thou ght of Indi a . Just a s in the ca se of the revival of le ar ning in Europe the s tudy of the L a tin and Greek cl a ssics no t only led to a

stimul a tio n of thought , but also helped to revive the an a s o a in n liter ature of the Europe ver na cul rs , lso I dia the study of English h as bee n a ccomp anied by a gre at a n re na scence of the vern cul ar liter a ture of I dia . The pe a ce and security which the British rule brought to n n n n n I ndia , a fter the lo g period of i ter eci e strife a d h ad n a n disorder through which the cou ntry bee p ssi g , a lso g ave the genius of Hindi liter a ture the O pportunity a nd n fro m a of re a sserting itself , of recoveri g the dec y

into which it h ad f alle n in the eightee nth century . This 8 8 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LITERATURE

period is marked by the cre ation of a ne w Hindi liter ary a an di lect d of Hindi prose . ll — t n n L a u J i L a l . A the comme ceme t of the ni netee nth ce ntury the he ad of the F ort William Colle g e at '

a n . C lcutt a was D r. J oh Gilchrist With the help of u an o fﬁ c e s e the other E rope r of the Colle g , such a s

a P . a n a W. a C pt i Abr ah m Lockett , rofessor J T ylor ,

and D r . n a a Hu ter , he g ave g re t impetus to the

- cultiv a tion of ver na cul ar liter ature . Text books suit able o ffi c ials for the study of the Europe an were collected , and a g roup of ver nacul ar schol ars g a thered tog ether an n d a ne M o i. e cour g ed to produce w liter a ture . ost nn an a the work w as in co ectio n with the Urdu l g u g e , b ut L a llfi J L dl and S a da l i , who also wrote Urdu , ' Mz sm n a a s n n , did for Hi di wh t w bei g do e by other a schol rs for Urdu . The works which they produced , if no t fi r t in a n a r the s prose works those l gu g es , we e the fi rst a and a as a liter r y st andards , est blished prose

’ n ltl 1 L a] as a reco g ised form of liter a ture . L al 1 w r h m n n u a a B a a wh o se f amily h ad come orig i ally from G j r t , h ad i n n but lo ng bee n settled n North I di a . U der the n n and a a M s a directio of Dr . J oh Gilchrist he S d l i r ” ” n Man were the cre ators of modern Hig h Hi di . y a a s e a n n in di lects of Hindi were , w h ve see , spoke n a n North I di a , but the vehicle of polite speech mo g st

n P an a s . those who did no t k ow ersi , w Urdu Urdu , a a however , h ad a vocabul ry borrowed l r g ely from the P an a an a a ersi nd Ar a bic l gu g es , which were speci lly a an a co nn ected with Muh ammadanism . A liter ry l g u g e for Hindi - Spe a king people which could comme nd itsel f and more to Hi ndus w as very desir able , the result w a s produced by t akin g Urdu a nd expelling from A a n and it words of P er si an or r bic ori g i , substitut n ing fo r th e m words of S a nskrit or Hi ndi orig i . The

' name K ﬁa r i B olz pure Speech is sometime s us e d n M w a s for the dialect of Delhi a d eerut , which the a s as l a nguag e from which Urdu spr ang , well for the e n mod r Hindi lit e r ary dia lect . I t seems to be implied tha t L allﬁ 1 1 L 21 1 w a s o nly restori ng the D elhi and Meerut di alect to it s ori g i nal purity a nd using it for

9 0 A HI S TORY O F HINDI LITERATURE

t h e a n i S criptures , C rey a d h s colle agues also printed n n na editio s of ma y ver cul ar works , amo ngs t them

’ n d ci a n b ei g the R m y . Most of these editions perished in a fi re which destroyed the prin ting - press at S er am 1 2 1 1 p ore in 1 8 . In 8 8 C arey be g an to publish a n a in n a a fi r ewsp per Be g li , which w s the s t newsp aper n in a n n a a n a a n pri ted y orie t l l gu ge , d w as the fore runner of the m any newsp a pers no w issued from the n ver acul ar press . All this work of C arey and his c o w orkers helped gre a tly in the developme n t of verna cul ar l iter ature . P — R a ja S iv ra s a d . The ne w liter ary dialect which L allfi L al h as no t n Ji produced bee without its critics . As it i ncludes ma ny S an skrit words it is a speech no t e a n a n sy to be u derstood except by the le r ed . I t te nds n a a to f all i to the s ame extreme a s Urdu . R j Siv P ra s dd (1 8 23- 1 895) is especially remembered as o ne wh o tried to popul arise a liter ary Speech midw ay betwee n

P an - n and an - the ersi ridde Urdu , the S skrit ridde n Hig h n n a Hi di , which he believed to be e rer the colloqui al n S peech of the people . The co troversy is by no a i a me ans settled yet . R j S v P r as d w a s the gr a nd a n n s o n of the poetess Bibi R at Ku war . In his youth Ma a a he w as V akil to the h r j a of Bhar a tpur , but a fter n H e w ards he e ntered the E glish service . rose to the positio n of N ar Mun shi and became a n I n spector in the

D ep artme n t of P ublic I nstruction . H e w as eve ntu ally a a g r anted the heredit ary title of R j . Besides tr a ns all l a t io ns and other works , of which show the moder n

n a a a a an - influe ce , he w s the uthor of gre t m y text books f o r schools . - Dr s — a n n T h e P rin t in g e s . The outst di g fe ature of the developme nt of Hi ndi liter ature in moder n time s h as bee n the productio n of a very l ar g e number of works h as n a a in prose . This bee very much f cilit ted by the

- s t use of the pri n ti ng pr e ss . It w a a the Colle g e press a t F ort Willi a m that pri nti ng w a s ﬁ rs t used for Hindi at ﬁ rs t th e n n work s , but expe se hi dered its r apid n nd n a a a develo pme t , a the u gr ceful ch r cters of the

type were no t re g arded with f a vour . The work THE MO DERN P ERIOD 9 1 o f C arey a nd others at S er ampore h as alre ady bee n me ntioned . In 1 8 37 a litho gr aphic press w a s s e t up

‘ t D and a elhi , from that d ate o nw ards the p ub lic atio n o f in n i h n books Hi d a s bee n i ncre a si g co n tinually . The i ntroductio n o f litho gr a phy w a s soo n followed by the a n n i nd a n public tio of Hi d newsp apers a m gaz i es , o f Which are no w a a n a there l rge number . All ki ds of books h ve — bee n tur ned out from the press tr ansl atio ns of E nglish books , books and p amphlets de aling with relig ious a nd a n n a na - soci l questio s , ovels , educ tio l text books , and books o n many other subj ects but it c annot be s aid with re g a rd to most of them th at a hig h liter ary a n a h a s n nd n a n st d rd ye t bee re ached , a experie ce lo e will show h o w m a ny of them are worthy to r a nk a s st a ndard n a works o f Hi di liter a ture . Hi ndi prose liter ture is

n w a n n a a re no t fi xe d. still feeli g its y , a d it s st a d rds yet O ne book which h as h ad probably a g re ater circul a tio n than a ny other Hindi work in moder n times (whether a s a whole or in portio ns ) is the Hi ndi tr an sl a tion of the a nd n n a Bible , owi g to it s l a rg e circul atio n is bou d to h ve a n import ant infl ue nc e o n the life of the people . The prin ti ng - press h as a lso bee n used to produce m any of are no w the older works of Hi ndi liter a ture , which a ccessible to the g e ner al public in a w ay which w a s before impossible . — i ue nc e H a ris c h a n d ra . Th at the ne w nfl from the West revived r ather th a n checked the cultiv atio n o f ' Hi ndi poetry is illustr a ted in the c a se of B ab fi H a m s ’ c /za na m ( 1 8 50 na n a “ of Be res , who is ofte c lled B harat e ndu ( The moo n of H e w a s edu ’ n and w a s a ro lifi c c a t e d at Quee s Colle g e , Be nares , p a n a n a nd successful writer of poetry in m y styles , h vi g n H e comme nced to write at the a g e of sixtee . wrote altog ether about a hundred and seve nty - fi v e difi e re nt n are n a and a s works . Amo g these ei g htee pl ys , H ri ch a ndr a wa s the re al founder of the moder n dr am a in

I ndi a . In his pl ays some of his best work is to be n and a fou d , they exhibit his g re t desire for the progress of I ndi a a nd the developme nt of its i ntellectual freedom . 9 2 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LITERATURE

H arisch andr a wrote also o n v arious subj ects i nclud in a n a n lo g history , p triotism , relig ious devotio , d Ve . H e an w as al so the author of m y humorous verses . His a n K u su m historic l works i clude the , or ' a nd a z dw i history of K a shmir , the C/z r t l , a series of m n n a n n n lives of g re at e both I di a d Europe a . Next to his pl a ys his love poems are co nside red to be nd re the best p art of his work . Love a mirth a pro n n a mi e t ch r acteristics of his poetry , which is full of H e n n power . must be recko ed a mo g st the g re at n a H e ch i ﬂ a writers of Hi di liter ture . used e y the Br j a a a a n a a a Bh sh di alect . H risch dr l so did much to cultiv te n a a i tere st in Hi ndi poetry . T o ccomplish this he st rted ' ' a a az n a e H a ri cﬁa n dr z le é in e m g i e c ll d s , which he publish d H a number of old texts with much other m atter . e also produced antholo g ies of Hi ndi poetry such as the ' ' ’ ’ u n da ri z Za /e n a n in sa va z ci S T , which co t i s poems the y

- n n a nd K a v i metre from the works of sixty i e poets , the ’ B a cﬁa n u a lz d a n a n S , which is collectio of poems de li g

With the r a iny se a so n . A s an example of the poetry of H arisch andr a the followi ng tr ansl a tio n is g ive n :

0 a i a n o n a a i i and fl w rr ors , h vi g put your rms , r se for the f ght , y the fl ag of victory

a d a a d and in a . Dr w your swor from the sc bb r , Jo the b ttle a n d d n a H vi g g ir e u p your loi s , put your rrow to your bow P ut o n your s a ffro n coloured g a rme nts a nd the bracelet of b attle ( as sig n of a vow to co nquer or die ) I A a n n d a nd in o w n di n f the ry s be u ite , th k of their g ity , a a n and They will g ive up qu rrels mo gst themselves , support the n ho our of their r ace .

The n the stre ngth of the me an Amirkh an c annot be g rea t . W n a n i s d c an a do and 1 n a a a n him he lio rouse , g st b ttle g i st n an a nt d d a n insi Eve tra m ple u n erfoot bites , lthou g h it is o ly g f ni ic ant . t nese are n n . \ visible e emies , woe to those who ig ore them $o e n A an a a are to those who , bei g ry s , h ve love to those who a a b rb ri a ns .

W o e to those who h ave a ny de a li ngs with them . W a a a nd a n o n a ll a n n n rriors , rise , h vi g put your we po s , plu ge i to a the b ttle . Write with a p e n of steel the stre ngth of the Arya ns o n the he art of both ( co nquerors a nd co nquered)

9 4 A HI S TO RY O F HINDI LITERATURE

poets . I t is a very volumi nous work a nd was compiled

' ' a a a n na K rz s/z n ana nd ds D v by Br hm med Vy e , a nd i 1 4 completed n 8 3 . ’ a s Ckmz dro a a The R y , which is a collection of poems

n and - by two hu dred forty two poet s , w a s compiled in ’ d u r a da i dtlzi 1 863 by Tiz /e P r s T r p . ' T h e D z g w as compiled in the ye ar 8 69 a a a B aliram ur in 1 by K y sth , of p the district of d ’ n Gok u l P m a . n n Gonda , amed s It co t ai s selection s

a n and n n - fr om the of hu dred i ety two p oets . , works ’ The S i?) S z a g /z S a roi w a s compiled fr om former i i h a n antholog ies by S v S ng }; S e g r . The seco d edition a a s in 1 8 8 of this very v lu able work w published 3 . — a e n n d Go k ul N a t h . A f mous work b lo gi g to this perio Ma a a a a n n w as the tr a nsl a tion of the h bh r t i to Hi di verse . ‘

n Gok u l N dz iz ﬂ . e na This was beg u by ( of B res , t n an a a a a an bei ng u ndert ake n a the i st ce of R j Udit N r y , a as a of Be n ares . Gokul N th w the uthor of other works , ’ ’ ’ ’ i ncludin g the Gov z n a S u k ﬁa a B z fz dr and the 67161 Cha n d

’ r z le ci in a h a s a , the l tter of which he described the f mily a a n na as history of R j Chet S i gh , of Be res , who w his a n w a s p atro n . His g re ate st chieveme t , h owever , the a a In a tr a nsl ation s of the Mah bh r at a . this work h e w s ’ d a z z v a ssisted by his so n Gob i N i/z and his pupil M z D e . — T h e P a t ro n a ge o f C o urt s . The moder n inﬂue nc e o n n o t a all at n a nd in an Hi ndi liter a ture did Spre d o ce , m y pl aces the old st a te of aff a ir s still con ti nued for some

o f n n - no t n a e time . The work the pri ti g press did pe etr t ll n a and t o i nto a re g io s immedi tely , poets still looked the rulers of st a tes to help them by their p atro na g e . a i in n an At the courts of P anna a nd Ch arkh r Bu delkh d, i h e lk a a na of Rew ah n B ag h nd, of N g pur , Be res , a a nd n a a nd a e Ayodhy , other pri cip lities , poets b rds wer and a e still welcomed a nd e ncour a g ed , sever l ruler s wer d M a a M n S in }; o f. J r themselves poets . ah r j a g odhpu 1 8 1 0 a s a a ch ie ﬂ in ( ﬂ . ) w the uthor of v rious works y ' a an a n d a a B ci e i 1 798 - 1 8 75 Wh o R j a sth i . Ch r Sele/z r ip y ( ) a s at D a n a o dh ur a nd P a a a w the courts of arbh g , J p ti l , excelled in the erotic a nd heroic styles and w a s the

Ma a a a. author of the H a mm ir H a t}; and other works . h r j THE MO D ERN P ERIOD 95

Hindu at i P a nna wa s a n Mok a n B lza p , of , the p tro of tt , a s as R a S ai mand K a w n ﬂ i well of p ( . c rc the latter n a o n art bei g writer the of poetry . Moh an Bh att

n - atte ded other courts also . His s o n w as a well k nown na P a a a a s e e poet med dm k r Bh tt ( below) , who also visited

’ a a a a a v rious courts . The R j s of Ch rkh ri , named Khuman S n a S a a nd a a n S n i gh , Vikr m hi , R t i gh , were all g re at ’ ’ ik a a 1 - p atro ns of poets . V r m S b z ( 78 5 1 8 28 ) w as himsel f ' a . n his a S a t a i successful poet Amo g works is S , in ’ a n a a a imit tio of Bih ri L l s gre t work . The poets who

' a n n B a ird] an d tte ded his cour t i clude , M , and B l D e v ’ ' ’ all fl . B z lz dri L dl A va a lzes B dv R dn d Go dl ( , , , fi , ' ’ ‘ am D n T r z d fi all 4 0 n R i fi t i ( fl . 1 8 ) atte ded the court o f a a a an n . r a a lia R j R t S i gh S fi y M ( fl . who w a s at a a B fi ndi n the court of the R j of , wrote a lo g work a B a ns B lz ds/ea 7 in c lled the , which the form of illustr a a n a n n tive ver ses g ives ccou t of the Ki gdom of B andi . In B a h e lk h a a t a g nd, the court of Rew h , poets were als o ’ ’ n a M a a J a z z n /z - e cour ged both by ah r j a S g ( fl . 1 764 1 8 34 ) ' and his so n Vz éva n di/z S in g ] : ( 1 78 9 Both these ki ng s no t o nly p atro nised poets but were themselve s i nath n in a n a n n a . d uthors V sv a S i g h wrote S skrit Hi di . In Hindi he composed comme nt aries o n the B ii a /e ' ’ a n o n z n a a tr z k d Da of K abir d the V y P of Tulsi s , as ’ ' n d a n a i a w dri T h well as a work e titled R m Clz m le S . e poetical tr adition s of this roy al f amily were als o m a i n ’ taine d i anath a a R a /zu R d by V sv s successor , R j g i ’ - in 1 5 z n 1 2 1 8 9 h n 8 8 . S g /z ( 8 3 7 ) , w o came to the thro e H e w as the author of a much admired tr ansl ation of th e a va a u ; a d n an a n B fi g a t P n a d of a history of H um ,

u n da r a ta /e a n . e ntitled S S , beside s m y other works a a a m a as an r Mah r Ja M n S g lz ( fl . of Ayodhy , w othe monarch wh o w as both a poet a nd a p atro n of p oets . f P r — n a n T h e Art o o e t y . Ma y of the poets wh o tte ded n art the courts of ki g s were writers o n the of poetry , and this p articul ar form of composition con tinued t o ’ i d Gu m P fl e fl . 1 8 03 receive gre a t atte ntion . n d ( ) wr ote ’ an excelle n t work o n the s ame line s a s Ke sav D as s ' ’ ’ i i d i a a an d n a v n fl . K a vz P r z y . B a P r B ifiey ( Br hm is n of Luck n ow , whose poetry full of excelle t verses , 9 6 A HI STORY OF HINDI LITERATURE

a nn a r w rote sever l works co ected with the t of poetry . O ne of the most f amous of writers of this period w a s a d d/e a B las 1 75 3 an a P m r t; ( of B d . H e atte nded the courts of v arious rulers a nd wa s richly rew arde d for

h is poetry . H e is the reputed author of about seve n n n n art ar w orks , mostly co cer i g the of poetry , which e n n n v ery much pr aised . O e of his outs ta di g qu alities n is his skilful use of alliter a tio . His best work is ’ ' ’ c on sidered to be the J a g a a v z no a ( 1 8 1 0 ) At the e nd of

h is d ays he is s aid to h ave devoted his life , to the n n a n w orship of the Ga g es , a d wrote book e titled d i dd a lz a a n L a / a r . i n n Ga D /z r B G g z H s g r a dso , tt

a t a nd o n . ( ﬂ . w s also a poe wrote rhetoric A contempor ary a nd riva l of P admak ar w as

f M a h o o n art . o uttr , w wrote works the of poetry d a a i A His most fa mous work is the Ya mu n L /z r . bout the s ame time or a little l ater ﬂ o urishe d also R dm a / d D ds na a nd P a n es S z y of Be res , f of

P an na. h o as a n a The former , w w poet of co sider ble ’

a al . P r a td S dfi z merit , took Bih ri L a s his model fi 1 8 28 a a a nd a ( fl . ) w a s a devotee of R m the uthor of In s ever al works co nnected with the art of poetry . the clever n es s of his l an gu ag e he is s aid to re semble

’ ’ ‘ a d i d at/zi fl 1 8 40 n B z fi r L l r z . Ma ti R m . T fi ( ) belo g ed an n to a f amily which h a s produced m y poets , bei g a ’ a a ai 4 2 N n fl . 1 8 d esce nd ant of Mati R am Trip thi . ( ) n n w rote sever al works of hi gh st a dard o p oetics . ’ ’ h d - Ga es/z P ra s fia F a ru /z iz db a i ( fl . 1 84 7 1 8 77 ) w as a a a F a a a a a nd K y sth , of rukh b d , who wrote

’ ’ d 1 843 a s a Gz rz D /za r D s ﬂ . w o ther works . ( ) the f ther ’

a s n n a a s Go dl Cfia n a ra . of H ri cha dr a . His re a l me w fi ’ S a r a dr 1 845 H e wrote about forty di ff ere nt works . ( na dr é a n R d fl o urish e d in of Be res , a nd N y y the

n n . s eco d h alf o f. the n i netee n th ce tury The former a n art w s the author of sever a l works o the of poetry , ’ i ncludi n g comme nt a ries o n the works of K es em D ds ' nd o n a i al a nd a n a a the S t S a of Bihari L , comme t ry a o n some of the emblem a tic couplets of S ar D s . The ' S rz n dr a h a S a a a g S g r /z , a nother poem of rd r , is a n all an p opul r work o n rhetoric , de ali g with br che s of

9 8 A HI S TORY OF HIND I LITERATURE s how th a t all notio ns of Go d and m an are f all a cies a nd a a th t nothing exists . There were sever l works also nn a 1 n 1 co ected with the R ma cult . 7mi ( fl . 8 03) w as the author of the R am R dv a n Yu dd/z and other works a L a Za d a n a . /e D fl de li g with the stories of R m s ( . o f n S a dk /z dn the Luck ow district , wrote the iyofi y , which rel a tes the e arly life of Ram a from his birth to a dmd a in M a . R a his m rri g e The y n the ithili dialect , ’ C/z a n a ra J iz d h as a a n n n composed by , lre dy bee me tio ed . S a /za i R dm (bor n who lived in the district of S a a a R dm d a n a it pur , lso wrote y zz which is a tr a sl tio n o f the S a nskrit R a g /z uva méa and of the H a nu m dn d a I N k a . n n n f n the l atter half o f. the i etee nth ce tury

” R a b a N di/z D ds a a an A a g , Br hm of yodhy , wrote n n in n a a hu dreds of hym s ho our of R m , of whom he ’ w as a in a J dn/ei a s da devotee , while the s me period P r , a o f the district of R e B areli , wrote sever al poems de ali ng with the story of Ram a which are co nsidered n to be very excelle nt . Comme taries also were writte n D as d a n a o n the works of Tulsi , such as the M na s S k

' v a li B a ndem P a z a k na a of ﬁ , of Be res , which is n a o n R ama a d a va comme t ry the y n, and the R m T it , ‘ ' ' d/z a ni iv P ra k a z n /z B o of S s S g , which is a comme nta ry ' ' z a a z d o n the V n y P tr k . These appe ared in the l atter ho h alf of the ninetee nth ce ntury . O f writers w were d evotees of Krishna the followi ng m ay be me ntio ned

’ ’ z vz n d fl h r a le Go . o a e R s ( w wrote works , which a all nn n m uch pr ised , co ected with the Krishna lege ds , ’ ’ i 1 6 a nd L a lz t [( z sfi or ( fl . 8 0 whose works are also co nnected with Krishna and full of merit as works of p oetry The spre ad of the Christi an f aith in I ndi a h as also n bee n a ccomp anied by the productio n of Christian hym s . Many of these are tr ansl ation s of E ng lish hymn s n in n a n writte E g lish metres , which , judg ed ccordi g to

n n n n . I ndian st a dards , sou d barbar ous a d u couth But e a n n in n a l ar g number h ve a lso bee writte Hi di metres , a nd m any of these h a ve a popul arity far beyo nd the n n o ne bou nds of the Christia Church . Curiously e oug h , of the most f amous writer s o i: Christi an hymns in THE MO DE RN P ERIO D 99

' ' Hi ndi metre w a s a Europe a n named J o/ m C/zr z szz a n (died about His most f amous work is the Ma t ti Mu /e tdva li a in , life of Christ verse . n n n n T hus , while the i etee th ce tury w as a period of g re at ch ang e ch ar a cterised e speci ally by the develop n n me t of prose liter a ture , a d the applica tion of it to a a n ne a l rge umber of w subjects , liter ture of the older n n type still co ti ued to be produced , thoug h it ge ner ally n o n in exhibited little or ovelty its themes . The h as n a a n n and i period bee l rgely time of tr a sitio , n Spite of it s m an y p as t g lories Hindi liter a ture still aw a its its more complete developme nt . No a ttempt is here m ade to give an accou n t of the writers in prose a nd poetry of the l a st thirty or forty ye ars . Man y of the se writers are still livi ng , and time alo ne will show h o w much of their work will h ave a l asti ng f ame a nd prove of re al v alue . SO ME GENE RAL CHARACTERISTI CS O F HINDI LITERATURE

H AVING no w tr aced the history of Hindi liter a ture a n from its e rliest times to the prese t day , it m ay be helpful to me ntio n in this chapter some of its g e ner al char acteristics eve n a t the risk of some repetitio n of n a a n n poi ts lre dy me tio ed .

1 . ﬁ rst n a a n The striki g fe ture is th t , duri g the time whe n it g rew and ﬂ ourish e d through its o wn n original force , Hi di liter ature w as dominated by a

relig iou s in teres t . P robably much more tha n half of ' the liter ature directly spri ngs from the blza /e tz move

n n n a . a a me t i _ o e or other of its spect s A g re t de l of

‘ the remainder is co ncer ned with the art of poetry ; n in and eve these works the illustr a tive verses , which form the gre at e r p art of them are ofte n co nnected with a o ne or other of the v rious relig ious moveme nts . The n and a bardic chro icle s , some other p arts of the liter ture , i i are secul ar n char a cter , but eve n n these the relig ious

i nterest is no t quite out of sight . 2 n nn n n n n n . U til the be g i i g of the i etee th ce tury pr actically the whole of the liter ature w as in verse . a There are i ndeed a few exceptio ns . The works scribed to Go rak h nath ( though almost cert ainly no t by him) and a as i nclude o ne in prose , if this is correctly d ted belong i ng to the fourtee nth ce ntury it is the e arliest n Ma n a ” Hi ndi prose work ext a t . The n we have the d

’ of Vitth alnath a nd the C/z a m ' dsi V a rld of Gokul Nath ’ n n nd Da a D a a n a n in the sixtee th ce tury , a mod r s s tr sl tio of the M dﬂ e a zz deya P a r ana in the seve ntee n th ce ntury . and n a acc o m Besides these , the comme t ries which

“ 111 HIST QRY OF HINDI LITERATURE

n a a n c d a ight the e ger w iti g of the ﬁ t k bird , wh o is n n a n supposed to dri k o ly r i drop s , for the begi nning of a n a n c/za /eor the r i y se so ; the bird , th at is never h appy except whe n gaz i ng o n the moo n ; the swan that k nows h o w to sep ar ate milk from the w a ter with which it h as — bee n mixed these a nd m any other stock met aphor s are n n a n in co ti u lly recurri g Hi ndi poets . But m any a n be utiful similes , dr aw from a true observatio n of na at ﬁ rs t a n re n ture h d , a also fou d no t o nly in th e Da works of Tulsi s , but also in the verse s of other

poets . 5 n n n i i . A other thi g to be oticed in Hi nd poetry s Me limita t ion of file ra n e i u b c a g of ts s fe t m tter . Not n n n n in o ly is the religious i terest domi na t , but ev e co nnectio n with this the subjects de alt with are c o n

ﬁ ne d - a to well wor n grooves . The stories of R ma a nd of Krishna form a very l arge p art of the subject m a tte r a nd have bee n told over a nd over a gain by poet afte r are f n in a n a e poet . There dif ere ce s tre tme t , but the s m a re n a n det ils a consta tly ppe ari g a g ai n and agai n . Those religious poets wh o avoid these themes are very l argely occupied With such subjects a s have alre ady bee n noted in a a na u ru previous ch pter , mely , the v alue of the g , ’ n biza le z n the import a ce of t , the evils of tr ansmigr atio , md d an n n the deceit of y , the tr sitori ess of the world , a d

suchlike subjects . O ne misses also the p oetry of pure human love . There is i ndeed a good de al of erotic n a n p oetry of a very u he lthy type , but owi g to the

- a a n g e ner al pr actice of child m rri ge , a d the secluded n n an positio occupied by wome , the rom tic period of no t e youth , which is the time of courtship , doe s com n m n n i n a a nd i nto the lot of you g e a d wome n n I di , he nce whe n love is described in Hi ndi poetry it is t o o n n n ﬁ de lit ofte n in con ectio with the courtes a . But the y a i n e a nd of P adm v at , the wifely devotio of S it , some t o n other stories of the s ame type must no , the other

n . as a a n n h and , be for g otte There w lso te de cy to look n and to previous writers for themes of poetic i nspira tio , i n as if a gre at poet a chieved success n a y subject , he w sure to h ave a l ar g e number of imit ators . Thus there S OME GENE RAL CHARACTERI S T I C S 1 03

are whole re alms of human thought in co nnection with n a n n n a n which Hi di writers h ve co tributed othi g , d gre at h a n na n as their work s bee , the origi l a d stimul ating thoughts which Hindi liter a ture cont ai ns are c o nﬁ ne d withi n a somewh a t narr ow a re a . in a n n a 6. Yet Spite of its limit tio s Hi di liter tur e n h as m any excelle cie s , and is worthy of much gre ate r h a r study than it h as yet received . I t s t uly bee n

described a s a g arde n of delights . I t posse sses a r iﬁ c atio n h as system and v ariety of v e s which seldom , d a and if ever , bee n excelled , an be utie s of thought a a nd n n and n phr se , expressio s of deep feeli g oble

a n . as n n a aspir atio n, bou d It w moreover ge ui ely popul r , i a n a nd being writte n n the di lects of the people , a d ofte n as a tacit revolt ag ai nst the liter ary exclusive nes s n a a of the S a skrit schol ars , it appe led to the he rt of the Man a a n . people , and re ached very wide udie ce y of its thoughts and expressio ns h ave become closely bound up a nd a a a n an with the life of the people , close cqu i t ce with the ver nacul ar liter ature is mo st import ant for all

wh o would fully under st and the people s of I ndia . P RESEN T P OSI TI O N AN D P ROSPE CTS

WIT H such a sple ndid record of p a st a chieveme n ts w hat is the prese nt positio n of Hi ndi liter a ture P Wh a t

a re its prospects of developme nt ? A brief. a nswer to these questio ns is all th at c a n be attempted in this a p rese nt ch pter . In the ﬁ rs t pl ace it is to be noted tha t Hi ndi n difﬁ cultie s liter a ture h as to fa ce ma ny prese t , n n a s ome of which it shares with other I ndi a ver acul rs , no a nd some of which are peculiar to itself . This is t ' the pl ace to discuss the questio n whether E nglish or the ver na cul ar should be the medium of i nstructio n in n a h igher educatio n . But it is cert a i ly true th t most educa ted I ndi an people would be very sorry tha t their s o ns should surre nder the O pportunity which a k nowledge of E nglish gives no t o nly of becomi ng a cquai nted with a n a n n a n o n the v st stores of Wester le r i g , but of c rryi g i ntercour se With educa ted people from other p arts of I ndi a wh o possess a diff ere nt ver nacul ar from their

o n . is a a w I t , however , almost unavoid ble th t such a st ate of aff air s should put Hi ndi somewhat at a a an a a a a a dis dv t g e , for if writer wishes to ppe l to widespre ad educa ted audie nce it is natur a l for him to us e E nglish r ather th a n the verna cul ar to express his a n n a n n ide s , a d he ce there is sometimes te de cy to n a nd despise the ver acul ar a s a m e dium of liter ature , to re g ard ver nacul ar productio ns as more inte nded for the n a n a n n u le r ed th an for the educated . This is co ditio n in a nd of thi g s every w ay to be deplored , it is to be h n oped tha t , Without lesse ning the opportu itie s for

1 06 A HI S TORY OF HINDI LIT ERATURE

These disadva nt a ges to the prese nt developme nt of ndi a are n n Hi liter ture , however , bei g cou ter acted by m n a a y f vour able circumst an ces . The spre ad of educa n tio , with the prospect tha t the da y is no t far dist ant n a at a whe it will be m de compulsory , le st for boys , is helping to i ncre ase r apidly the number of those who c an

a . M n n re d oreover , the moder n te de ncy to exte d the a n a nd n a n fr chise , to give i cre sed politic al respo sibility to l arge numbers of the people of I ndi a will also m ake it necess ary to a cqu a i n t them with v arious a spects of

n a a n . moder politic l , soci l , relig ious , and other questio s I t is impossible with incre a sing education and e nlighte n me nt th at a l angu age which c an be u nderstood by over a hu ndred millions of people should n o t eve ntually a a n m a no t develop g re t moder liter a ture , thoug h it y be e a sy to foreca st the exa ct li nes of it s developme nt . The existe nce of societies for the exte nsion and improveme nt of Hi ndi liter ature is also a sign of g re a t

‘ ’ N ci a r P ra c/z cir z n a b/z d h e ad uar hope . The g ? i S , whose q

are a t na n . ters Be res , is doi g most useful work I t n a a a a n and co ducts system tic se rch for old m uscripts , an publishes m y g ood editio ns o f. the older works n of Hi ndi liter a ture . I t also issues ma y useful n books in which a hig h st andard is aimed a t . It e c our ag es Hi ndi writer s to produce orig i nal books and also to tr a nsl a te importa nt books from Europe an n h a s n l a nguages . Amo g st other works it u der t ake n the publicatio n of a st andard Hi ndi dictio n i a Man a are ary n sever l volumes . y others lso n n a publishi g the works of various Hi di uthors , whose an works up till no w h ave existed o nly in m uscript , and h ave ofte n bee n h ardly k now n outside the an p articul ar sect to which the authors belo nged . Tr s latio ns of m any E ng lish a nd other works are bei ng in a n n n produced g re t umbers , maki g it possible eve for those who are u nacquai nted with E ng lish to

g ai n some k nowledg e of the culture of the West . o n nn Moreover , books subjects co ected with politics , a nd n are s cie nce , philosophy , mor als , history , relig io a a bei ng co nst antly issued from the press . A g re t de l P RE S ENT P O S IT ION AN D P RO S PE CT S 1 07 o f wh a t is produced m ay no t h ave g re at v alue as a all n a a nd n a liter ture , but it is helpi g to cultiv te e l rge the resour ces of the l angua g e to mee t the needs of

- n h to day . A Hi di society which as it s he adquarters ' a a a S diz z t a S a mmela n a t All h b d is the y , which co nducts exami natio ns in Hi ndi of a very hi g h st andard and a n a a nd n a gr ts diplom s , is tryi g to est blish purely in all a i Hi ndi schools p rts of North and M d I ndia . Amo ng st other societies th at are doi ng much to exte nd Hindi liter ature the N orth India T r a ct S ociety an n n a nd other Christi societie s hold a import a t pl ace . Through the age ncy of these societies a gre at de al of Hi ndi liter ature h as bee n produced no t o nly of a directly na a a na reli gious ture , but lso stories , biogr phies , educatio l n o n a books , a d books soci l a nd other subjects . I ndi an people themselve s are ofte n l ar g ely unaw are h o w much e n of the n w moveme ts for political freedom , soci al n an emancip atio , d reli g ious reform are re ally inspired by n as Christi an ide als . I di a h see n the visio n of a future glory for herself and her children g re ater eve n th an her

n n a a n . N e p ast a chieveme ts , excelle t s these h ve bee w n and and ide als of righteous ess of duty , of brotherhood a n a n of service h ve come before her , and i spir tio for these h a s bee n very l ar g ely due to the life and te achi ng h o in a in an a of Christ , w this s so m y other w ys is the fulﬁ lm e nt of all th at is noble and excellent in I ndi an a life . The ide s of the old mytholo g y , which formed so are o n l arge a p art of the themes of writer s in the p a st , and a an the w ane , the p a st ide ls with re g ard to m y other are n n a a n a n m a tters u der g oi g ch r g e . I di is seeki g out a a a a an h a s a fter l r g er , fuller , more complete life th she na a lived in the p ast . In this developme nt the ver cul r liter a ture is bound to h ave a most import an t p art to n n all pl ay . The respo nsibility resti g upo writers , re a where such gre a t issues a at stake , is very gre t , but the situ ation is o ne which should call forth the very best and noblest work from all wh o are co ncer ned in

the production of liter ature . BI B LIOGRAPHY

H is t o r o f h e L i e r re e y t t a tu . t c .

Mo dem Vern a cu la r L iter a tu re of H indu sta n T he . Sir

A . n 8 89 d b 1 . P A George Grierso . ublishe y the siatic Society of

Be ng a l ( C a lcutt a ) . ’ n d u in d 3 A h a n in nd M23 7 6! B a /z V o . ( vols . ) ccou t Hi i of the a a a liter ture , with ex m ples of the work of the chief uthors , by the d Mi sra brothers . Publishe by the Hi ndi Granth P rasara k M a nda li ( Kh an dwa and A ll a h ab ad)

‘ a va a n a A n a n in ndi a a H in di N r z . ccou t Hi by the s me uthors of

n n a ndi viz . i Das Sﬁ r Das a i e gre t Hi writers , , Tuls , , Dev , Bih ri La] B hﬁ sh an say Das a i Ram and a dai and , , Ke , M t , Ch B r ,

is and P as a . H ar ch ra . ublishers bove ’ d d i Ra a a . 1 . z a u u d B m i . a i K a v i K m . y N resh Trip th Vol e ls w th a d n o i no t n d n a s a nd a the liter ture ow to the time , but i clu i g , H ri ch r , a nd co nt a i ns a n accou nt of 8 9 poets a nd gives copious extracts from

. I I . s n t d hi a S i o . Sa t amm l n their work . Vol yet publishe ( y e a A d a a a . Office , ll h b ) 5 h 6 72 a r a /l . n ain a 5 61 72 1 7 S g . ( 2 vols ) Co t s e xtr cts from the works

- t ndi i n . d a of thir y five Hi reli g ious poets , w th otes ( Belve ere Ste m in A d P n P a a a . ri t g ress , ll h b )

’ ’ d n XI X - z a z a i i . . I I I . . 483 49 1 E ncyc lo ﬁ B r ta n n ica . E tio Vol p p .

Imper ia l Ga z e lieer of I I .

‘ A n Co n n u z s z z c S u rve y o f [n dz m Sir Georg e . Grierso . n n nd d tai s much useful i nform atio n as to the l a g u ag e a ia lects .

’ ' ’ n c n ains T 126 E yc lob e a z a of R e lig z o n cm a E lﬁ z cs . Co t a rticles o n severa l of the differe nt sects whose l itera ture 1 3 described

in this book .

T ra n s la tio n s . O nly a sm a ll portio n of the v ast qu a ntity of H indi literature has n a n d n n n a re a n a n bee tr sl ate i to E g lish . The followi g some of the tr sl tio s no t a a n ad a nd in ( the list is exh ustive ) which h ve bee m e , which most nd c ases co nt ai n a lso i nform atio n as to the authors a their work . d d B F T ra ns la tio n of Me R mdya n of T u lsi D s . y . S .

Growse .

I N D E X

B I U L Ra i Khankha na B anarsi Di s 8 h m , , 4 A‘ 336 f 5 2 anda n Pa a 98 B th k , A ai 36 ani o f ada bul F z , B ( D ) , 65

Adi an 1 9 ii 63 f. ani o i Lal Di s 66 Gr th , B ( ) , di U ades 66 ani o i Ram a an 8 A p , B ( Ch r ) , 6 A a Di s 58 73 ans a a 95 gr , , B Bh sk r , a a a 1 2 B ansidhar 47 Ak r m F iz , ,

A a 1 0 34 ff. 45 73 f. an a i Lal 8 2 kb r , , , , B w r ,

A k h arav at 31 a d 9 1 ff. 8 1 ft 94 , B r s , , 2 , a 47 na 3 f 0 4 44 47 A l m , Be res , 2 3 2 f , , A lafi kar R atnak ar 47 49 52 60 6 8 9 1 94 , , , f 2 , 2, , , A a and 1 5 96 98 105 lb Kh . , , A a Di s 63 ni 49 m r , Be ,

a n 13 8 1 t . ni Madhav Das 59 Am r Si gh , , Be , A i 1 8 ni P a in a i 95 m r Khusro , Be r v B j pey , a 22 B h a av ad i a 67 Amrit Dh r , g G t ,

A nan a Da s 1 2 f. a a a a P i n a 3 39 67 y , Bh g v t ur , 5 , , , A ad 63 74 78 89 9 5 n g , , , , An D ar a n 48 a an 75 g p , Bh g w Hit , n i 93 a an Ra 49 0 A tholog es , Bh gw t y, , 6

f. A r un 19 63 B hak tamala 52 57 f. j , , , , , a a 30 72 Bh akt avatsal 9 A sht Chh p , , 5 n 39 1 43 f 46 f 8 1 a f 67 70 A a 19 f. 27 30 3 ur gzeb , Bh kti , , , , 5 , , dh es 94 9 A v a , 79 , 9 , 100 , 1 02 A ad i 4 25 54 89 an a ha 93 97 v h , , , Bh u N th J , , d Sa ar 60 B haratendu 9 1 A y a h g , , A d 4 52 5 5 69 94 1 98 a a a an 48 yo hya, , , , , Bh sh Bh r ,

a 43 45 a a B hfi shan 44 f. 47 Az am Sh h , , Bh sh , , a n 49 Bh u , A A U R S a 46 B hawanand 22 B H D h h , , a i 8 a] 48 a ani Chhand 84 B ir , Bh w , a i 4 54 a i Das 49 B aisw r , , Bhikh r , a 85 9 5 i i a i 67 B ait l , , Bh kh S h b , P a i i 89 B h shm a 78 B aital ch s , i , i H a nsra 78 B ho lan ha 8 6 B akhsh j, J , a a 97 B hfi a Das 8 5 B akht w r , Dh r , Ali 60 B hu ati 18 47 B al , p , , dra 39 B hfi shan i a i 4 1 B alb h a , Tr p th ,

B al 95 i 89 f. Dev , B ble , The , nd i a 78 a i if 28 83 86 93 97 B a] Muku L l , Bih r , 2 , , , , i n a T a i 39 i a i Lal 95 B a] Kr sh rip th , B h r , I ND EX 1 1 1

B ilsari La] a 10 42 tf. a ] Prak as 49 Ch ube , , , , D le ,

46 f. 49 f. 57 78 89 9 D a l ati Ra 4 , , , , , 6 p y, 7 i a i La] i a i 96 a da Di s 8 5 100 B h r Tr p th , D mo r , , B iharini Das 78 a a Shu ko h 39 42 , D r , ,

Bi ak 24 f. 62 95 a an a 28 8 3 86 94 97 j , , D rbh g , , , , , i a 35 38 74 a i a a 7 B rb l , f , D r y S hi b , 6 Bit an 66 Das 49 Bh , , i a 13 D as R a na 59 B s l Dev , t , d a Firo z ab adi 49 a a B 5 1 8 Bo h , D y , 6 a a i Di s 78 93 a a d 8 Br j B s , , D y Bo h , 6

a a a 4 29 f. 33 39 42 a a N idhi 8 6 Br j Bh sh , , , , , , D y , 45 49 54 64 72 75 8 3 85 89 i 4 8 13 31 67 88 9 1 , , , , , , , , Delh , , , , , , , a i a 78 ana a i 5 Br j B l s , Dev g r , inda a n 52 72 78 a a i 1 0 40 Br b , , , Dev D tt ( Dev K v ) , , , nda an i 97 4 93 Bri b J , 5 , dd Rav 8 2 a 48 Bu h , Dev D tt , a a i 67 i Di s 69 8 Bull S h b , Dev , , 5 a 67 D e vki a ndan a i 48 Bulle Sh h , N Tiw r , ’ nd an 42 46 49 79 83 a a Pra atl c h 45 93 Bu elkh d, , , , , , Dev M y p , , 8 5 94 ana 22 , Dh , a D3 3 62 Dh rm , A REY Wi ia 8 9 a ni Das 66 C , ll m , Dh r , ai an a 28 77 Charitr 33 Ch t y , , f. Dhruv , andan Ra 48 Das 77 Ch y, Dhruv , a nd a dai 9 13 if a 4 Ch B r , , 73 Di lects , and a a 98 Di - ai B hﬁ sh an 94 Ch r Jh , g Vij , a nd a S a a a 6 43 f 57 Ch r ekh r B j peyi, 94 Doh , ,

a an and i a 8 a a 1 1 93 f. Ch r Ch r k , 6 Dr m , , a an Das 67 Drisht akfi t 74 Ch r , , Charitava li 92 Dfi lah i di 48 , Tr ve , Das 7 a n Das 69 Ch aturbhuj , 2 Dul , an ai 6 68 D u lha Ram 68 Ch p , , , a a i P ad 76 Ch ur s , a a i ans 75 1 00 AST I ndia an 8 7 Ch ur s V , , Com p y, and a 94 Chet Ch rik , Chh and a 40 Bich r , — A Eh N haf nd h an 48 TEH } , Chh a Ch ap p i, E a S a Praka s 48 Chhand Sat Pifi a] 42 F teh h h , g , FOI‘ t Wi ia 88 90 Chha ai 6 8 ll m Colleg e , , pp ’ , 5 a a 8 5 Chh tr , a a P ra kas 8 3 A A a a 78 96 Chh tr , G D Dh r Bh tt , , a a Sal 4 1 46 69 8 f. a i Ra 8 2 Chh tr , , , , 2 G mbh r y, hh attis arhi 4 an 61 C g , G esh , Chhit a i 72 an P a ad Faru khab adi 96 Sw m , G esh r s , n a an a i 40 59 an a a a i 96 Chi t m i Trip th , , G g L h r , ' i a n n 99 an a P a 8 5 Chr sti , Joh , G g ti , i ian a 98 107 an a P a ad an a i Chr st Liter ture , , G g r s ( G g K v ) ,

36 f. , 74

an 47 . DU 4 ff . an A , 6 G j , Dadﬁ anthis 1 0 64 ft a i Di s 68 p , , G r b , 1 1 2 A HI S TORY OF HI NDI LITERATURE

a i P arin a 93 - G ur y, ARYA an a 1 7 INDO N L gu ges , , a 85 . Indrav t 8 Gh gh , a i , 6 an S a 5 a 82 Ish nam 9 Gh y m ukl , q a , 4 a i Ram 84 I a i P a ad i a i 60 Gh s , shw r r s Tr p th , a Rama an 60 Gh t y ,

i . n 88 A ADVIN OD 9 Gilchr st , Dr Joh , G , 6 i a 8 6 a i a 8 1 Gir Dh r , J g at B l s , a D5 3 93 a a in 47 50 8 1 f Giri Dh r , J g t S gh , , , .

i a inda 20 28 73 a i an D5 8 68 f. G t Gov , , , J gj w , a 49 75 94 1 00 a n‘ ak a nik 9 15 Gokul N th , , , , J g ay ( J g ) , , d P a a 94 a an i 10 36 39 84 f. Gokul r s , J h g r , , , , a 9 5 ai and 97 Gop l , J Ch , a and 93 aidev 0 Gop l Ch , J , 2 a Ram 93 ai i a 8 1 Gop l , J Dev B l s , i a 94 ain 84 8 5 97 Gop N th , J s , , , G o ra k hnath 18 100 a n Sa a 8 5 , , J i t k , a n Charitr 59 ai in 95 Gos i , J S gh , nd Di s 72 ai in K al adrum 8 Govi , J S gh p , 2

nd in 63 f. ai in a ai 8 2 85 Govi S gh , J S gh S w , ,

nd Su kh ad a 94 a 35 f. 42 46 8 2 8 5 97 Govi Bih r , J ipur , , , , , , a n o i n a a i D5 3 69 Gr th the Te th Guru , J l l ,

63 f. a an 1 5 J lh ,

a n a i 10 19 26 f. an al 49 Gr th S h b , , f , J Gop ,

63 f. an i P rasad 98 J k b a sa 67 an R a i S a an 60 Gul l hib , J ki s k r , an s a 49 a i 27 63 Gum Mi r , J pj , , dim Pan 95 ﬁ i 64 Gur de , J pi . a n 47 a n Sin 44 47 Guru D tt Si gh , J sw a t gh , f an sa 68 a a S an a 31 Guru Gr th hib , J t k r a 96 a ib ilas 45 Gw l , J t , an P ra kas 69 a ad v a 20 28 Gy , J y e , , an a d a 66 d 44 8 2 94 Gy S mu r , Jo hpur , , , o dhra 82 J j, AMMIR a 94 H th ,

H ammir a a 1 7 8 2 A BIR 9 f. 22 ff. 31 62 K vy , , K , , , , f mm R5 55 1 7 9 a ir ff. 0 H , 66 , 7 , 5 an an Chha isi 60 a i an i 23 6 i 68 H um pp , K b rp th s , , 2 a n an Nfat a k a 59 98 ida H a aré 47 H um , , Kal s j , a a an Das 50 a da i di 47 48 H ri Ch r , K li s Tr ve , ,

a Di s 77 f. a a] 26 H ri , K m , H arik esh 8 K a nar i a anai 8 3 , 2 p Gh t L , a P a ad 44 a an 36 8 2 95 H ri r s , K r , , , a is a nd a 1 1 9 1 93 96 a n 36 H r ch r , , f , K r es , H ariv arh sa 76 8 6 a i 92 , , K shm r Kusum , a a ha 93 97 asi a 39 H rsh N th J , , K N th ,

ndi ff. 88 f. a a i 93 Hi g h Hi , 2 , Kasi N th Kh ttr ,

ndi 2 ff. 34 8 8 1. a an d 9 Hi , , K avi B ch Su ha, 2 H arib ans 76 a - a a - a 40 Hit , K vi kul K lp t ru , H ito adesa 89 a i a e 42 p , K v M l , Hit T aran ini 33 v ndr a abs} 42 g , K a i a K a lp L ,

1 1 4 A HI S TORY O F HI ND I LITERATURE

a in a 28 P uha k ar 8 4 N rs g h Meht , , N ask e to a kh an 89 P i i a 9 p y , uroh t Gop N th , 3

a a i . 8 4 P a Pun da 1 N th K v ushy ( ) , 2 in 96 N av ,

- a a N a ika d 39 42 f. A I R a 7 N y k y Bhe , , , D B khsh , 6 a i 8 4 46 49 Q A li 1 N z r , [ , Q utub , 2 h rakas 60 N e p , wa 46 93 A A 8 4 4 ft N e 2 3 7 . j, , DH , , ,

id an 8 6 Rad a- d a- nidhi 6 N h , h su h , 7

- N ilkant h i a i 40 Rad a Vallab his f. Tr p th , h , 76 N isc hal D5 5 66 R a a 49 , ghu N th , I nd a a S 1 07 R a a D5 5 98 North i Tr ct ociety, g hu N th , N ﬁ r a ad 8 6 R a h 'a R a 8 2 Muh mm , g u N th y, R a n R ﬁ ak 97 g hu ath p , A A A R a 95 96 R a Ra n 95 P DM K Bh tt , , ghu j Si gh , P admav ati 1 4 1 02 R a huvamsa 98 , , g , P adumav ati 31 8 6 R a a e 36 , , g M l ,

P a ne s 96 R - Sa aro d h a R a - a a j , ag g b v g K lp P a ltfi a 63 R a i Sat Sai 3 d 93 S hib , h m , 6 [ rum , P anc hadh a i 73 R ai Das 9 y y , , 22, 2 P an a an a 89 R ai P a 8 13 ch t tr , ithor , , P anna 4 1 46 48 78 83 94 96 Ra a ani ft 8 5 89 94 , , , , , , , j sth , 2 , , P a anand Di s 72 R a i a 8 1 rm , j Dev B l s , Pa i P ra kas 42 R a niti 89 rs , i , Pa s a P an 85 R a P a an 8 1 r v ur , j tt a, Phatfi ri Lal 97 Ra tana 8 1 0 31 64 68 8 1 , j pu , , , , , , , P n al 4 84 8 6 i g , , Pi e 21 R a R atnak ar 8 1 p , j , Pi fi sh N idhi 48 Ra R u aklakh at 8 y , j p y , 2

1 0 9 8 47 8 f R ff 1 ff. P 2 3 6 78 . a a 9 20 23 27 . 5 oetesses , , , , , , m , , , , , , P rab hav ati a an 93 97 97 1 0 H r , , f 2 rab o dh Chandro da 93 R am A lankriman ari 8 P y, j , 3

ra i 1 10 1 f. 93 Ra ananda 9 19 if 7 5 1 8 P kr t , , , 2 , m , , 2 , , 5

P n a 69 R anand 21 57 f. ra N th , am is , , P a a a i 96 R am svame dh 60 r t p S h , é , a a an 69 R am an 40 5 1 ff 60 89 98 Pr th m Gr th , ay , , , , P a in Ra Pa i 38 R am i 60 r v y tur , B las , Premc handrika 45 Ram a Rama a 60 , Bil s y n, Premlata 76 Ram and a ki Sawi ri 95 , Ch r , P Pra kas 67 Ram and i a 38 rem , Ch r k , P R a na 79 Ram a an 68 86 rem t , Ch r , ,

- P R atnak ar 85 R am a ana 5 ft. rem , Ch rit M s , 2 P a a 89 R am Charitr 59 rem S g r , , Pre msattva nirﬁ 72 R am Di s 36 63 73 p , , , , P n n P 90 R am Din a i 95 ri ti g ress , Trip th , P rithi Ra 8 13 R am Gitavali 57 j, , , Prithi Ra R 5 9 5 1 3 Ram i 46 j , J , P a D 5 58 am R a an Yuddh 97 riy 5 , R v , P 30 8 5 89 1 97 100 105 R am Saha Di s 96 rose , , , , y ,

P d 6 37 ff. 95 ft 1 01 R am anc i 68 roso y , , , S h s , IND EX 1 1 5

R am T a v a B o dhani 98 Sa a a i 4 tt , r sv t , 2 R an 29 8 1 Sa da 96 Chhor , , r r , h Sarra R anthamb o r, 9 , 1 7 fi , 5 as 43 0 Satnamis 68 R , , 7 , 1. R as i a 45 Sat Sai 42 if 47 49 57 8 B l s , , , f , 7 , R as and i a 39 Sat Sai a i Ram 4 89 9 f Ch r k , M t , 2 [ , 5 . R as Chandro da 93 a a Prakas 6 y, S ty , 7 R a i ind 98 Sat o akh an 98 s k Gov , y p y , R a i P i a 38 47 50 Saundar a a a i 0 s k r y , , , y L h r , 6 R a i R a a 49 Savai a 6 50 66 s k s l , y , , , R 1 3 k e Pad 77 a ad a a i 8 , S yy Gul m N b , 4 R as an 76 Se n 21 Kh , , R as Lin 48 na a i 1 0 40 , S e p t , , R as R a has a 46 a 8 9 y , Ser mpore , R as R a 42 a a an 1 0 39 f 8 j, Sh h J h , , . , 42 , 2 R as R a an 8 4 R aﬁ re z in 47 t , Shekh g , R a an a 48 i anda d 23 t K vi , S k r Lo i , R n n a 9 90 a a 7 26 63 f. t Ku w r , , Sikhs , , R atnak ana 59 Sin hasan B attis 40 89 h , g i, , ay ana 94 Site R R , , 5 1 if 102 R av R a an R a sa 82 i a 78 t y , S t l , R a 22 8 2 95 i e R m Dh anman a 60 ew h , , , S t a y j ri ,

R ﬁ Sa i 95 Arse la 49 f. p h , , iv , Siv ara an 8 N y , 6 A A in 8 5 Siv Pra kas n 98 S B L S gh , Si gh , ab das 24 66 f. iv P a ad 79 90 S , , S r s , , Sa a 89 iv Ra 41 bh Bi las , S j, ‘

ada is a 88 f. iv R a B hti sha 4 1 S l M r , S j n, Sadasiv 8 1 iv in a 94 , S S g h S roj , Sadharan Siddhant 77 Siv in Seh r 9 , S gh g a , 4 Sadhs 66 na 48 , Som th , Sad 0 S rat na, 2 o hﬁ , 6, 43 Saha Ram 98 ri a 8 4 , S Dh r , j , Sahac h ari S a an 78 S ri Hit inda an Das i r , Br b J Sah a o Be t 68 S ri a a i D 5 86 a j , N g r 5 , [Chach , 77 Sahit alah ari 74 rin ar an a 96 y , S g S g r h , Sahit a S amm e lan 107 in a D6 9 9 y , Sr iv s , 3

Sakhis 4 f. 66 68 S i a i 47 49 , 2 , , r p t , , S n a a N atak 46 93 Sudami Charitr 33 aku t l , , , Sﬁ dan Saliho t r, 86 S 9 Sudhanidhi 47 am arsar, 4 , a 60 an Charitr 83 Sa mbhu N th , Suj , a s a 49 s a 4 S ambhu N th Mi r , Sukh Dev Mi r , 6 mb hu N a in 42 S id an 62 Sy th S gh , ukh N h , an i a 78 S nda 39 S eh S g r , u r , Saﬁ it S t 36 nda a 66 g a , Su r Bil s ,

n i 1 5 19 if 28 30 35 f. nda Di s 66 S a skr t , , , , , Su r , nd Kuft ari Ba 9 43 f. 48 5 59 67 73 76 S a i w t 7 , , 2 , , , f u r , 90 93 9 97 1 05 nda i i a 92 , , 5 , , Su r T l k , sa an a 9 1 7 82 Sundarkand 60 r g Dh r , , , 1 1 6 A HI S TORY OF H INDI LIT ERATURE

nda 3a a 95 tl rdu 35 88 f. Su r t k , _ , , nda Srin ar 39 U a a an 93 Su r g , sh H r , m1 sa 97 S u r , a i s a 4 AISHN AVAS 9 19 8 S ur t Mi r , 7 , , , 2 , f Sﬁ rf wali, 74 57 . , 75 la 9 a a s ft 8 Surb hidanli , 7 Vallab h c h ri , 72 . 75 , 7 ﬁ r D6 3 10 13 3 52 allab hac har a 30 7 f 75 S , , , 6 f , V y , , 2

ft 8 0 96 a i 5 59 f. 72 . , V lm ki , 2, ' S r a a 74 dan R a 4 t1 S g r , Ve g y, 2 Sﬁ r a P ra kas 82 dan a 23 45 55 65 y , Ve t , 22, , , , Sﬁ r a a a 95 8 4 8 5 y M ll , , t a ak 64 Vic hi r N t , A 78 Vid a ati a 10 28 93 T ] , y p Th kur , , , T e n Sen 35 f. id a nda 93 , V y Su r , T e a ad 63 Vi n i a 37 g B h ur , gya G t , a 50 ai Muktavali 85 T h kur , Vij , a P a a d T i a i a in 8 2 T h kur r s r p thi, 94 V j i S gh , a a 50 a e 8 5 95 T h kur sat k , Vikr m S hi , , i n Ra m 49 ina P a ika 57 9 5 98 Th , V y tr , , ,

T o ar M a] 35 V sala - d a 13 d , i ev , T a R am 93 n P an a 49 ot , Vish u ur , N idhi 47 Visva nath in 95 Tosh , S gh , i a i 10 40 ft Vitthalnath 30 72 75 100 Tr p th Brothers , , . , , , , i 4 V tt hal i 78 Tuls , 2 i V pul , i Das 10 37 4 Tuls , , , 4 , 5 1

72 ff. 95 98 102 ST R indi 2 if 58 , , , WE E N H , , i a i 60 Tuls S h b ,

AY a i di 48 A U A a a i 96 U D N th Tr ve , M N L h r , Uma ti 8 Ya i Sa i 67 pa , 2 r h b ,