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BLOOMSBURY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POPULAR OF THE WORLD VOLUMES VIII– XIII: GENRES

VOLUME IX GENRES: AND

EEncyclopediancyclopedia ..indbindb i 11/14/2014/14/2014 33:50:15:50:15 PPMM Principal Editors

David Horn , Institute of , University of Liverpool

John Shepherd , FRSC, Carleton University, Ottawa

Founding Editor

Paul Oliver , Oxford Brookes University, Oxford

International Advisors

Christopher Ballantine, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Peter Manuel, City University of New York, USA South Africa Portia Maultsby, Indiana University, USA Nimrod Baranovitch, Haifa University and Richard Middleton, University of Newcastle, UK Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Toru Mitsui, Kanazawa University, Japan Rafael Jos é de Menezes Bastos, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil Svanibor Pettan, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia Th eo Cateforis, Syracuse University, USA Paolo Prato, Pontifi cal Gregorian University, Rome Jan Fairley, University of Liverpool, UK† Motti Regev, Open University of Israel, Israel Juan Pablo Gonzalez, Universidad Alberto Hurtado Raquel Z. Rivera, affi liated scholar, Center for Puerto SJ, , Rican Studies, Hunter College, City University of New York, USA Dai Griffi ths, Oxford Brookes University, UK T. M. Scruggs, University of Iowa, USA Jocelyne Guibault, University of California, Berkeley Chris Stapleton, London, UK Bruce Johnson, University of Turku, Finland; Macquarie University, Sydney; University Martin Stokes, University of Oxford, UK of Glasgow, UK Jim Strain, Northern Michigan University, USA Steve Jones, University of Illinois, USA Will Straw, McGill University, Canada Dave Laing, University of Liverpool, UK Paul Wells, Middle Tennessee State University, USA

EEncyclopediancyclopedia ..indbindb iiii 11/14/2014/14/2014 33:50:16:50:16 PPMM BLOOMSBURY ENCYCLOPEDIA OF POPULAR MUSIC OF THE WORLD VOLUMES VIII – XIII: GENRES EDITED BY DAVID HORN AND JOHN SHEPHERD

VOLUME IX GENRES: CARIBBEAN AND LATIN AMERICA

EDITED BY DAVID HORN, HEIDI FELDMAN, MONA-LYNN COURTEAU, PAMELA NARBONA JEREZ AND HETTIE MALCOMSON

LONDON • NEW DELHI • NEW YORK • SYDNEY

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ISBN: HB: 978-1-4411-4197-2 ePDF: 978-1-4411-3225-3

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Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain Nueva Canción Chilena

Yupanqui, Atahualpa. ‘ Caminito del indio. ’ Odeon culture and the minimal presence of Amerindian 00001. 1936 : . infl uences in Chilean , two elements highly Yupanqui, Atahualpa. ‘ Basta ya.’ Basta ya. Chant du appreciated by NCC . Monde LDX 74457. 1971 : France. Another way in which NCC diff ered from many other popular music genres in Latin America was that Discography instead of developing from a long, marginalized and Barroco Andino. Barroco Andino. Alba ALD 040. anonymous historical process, its existence was predi- 1974 : Chile. cated on the work of specifi c authors living in Santiago Jara, V í ctor. El derecho a vivir en paz. Dicap JJL-11. and had become recognized as such within a few years 1971 : Chile. of its inception, ca. 1966. As such, it had to generate Jara, V í ctor. La població n . Dicap JJL 14. 1972 : Chile. its own production system. Because of this, NCC may Los Folkloristas, and Amparo Ochoa. El cancionero be seen not as a genre so much as a musical move- popular . Discos Pueblo 1006. 1975 : . ment, in which an innovative trend in -making Los Jairas. Los Jairos. Evasion Disques LPE 110. 1970 : developed and was disseminated alongside social and France. political trends that were also innovative and progres- Parra, Violeta. Recordando a Chile . Ode ó n EMI 36533. sive. Th is was a folk-rooted musical practice based on 1965 : Chile. (Includes ‘ Qu é dir á el Santo Padre. ’ ) a political and social platform that had more to with Parra, Violeta. Las ultimas composiciones. RCA Vic- propagation or propaganda than with broadcasting tor. CML 2456. 1966: Chile. (Includes ‘ Gracias a la and artists. It placed ideological intervention vida. ’ ) above market concerns. Reyes, Judith. Cronica mexicana . Chant du Monde. NCC received its name in 1969 aft er the fi rst of LDX74421. 1980 : France. three annual festivals of the nueva canció n organized Silvio Rodrí guez en Chile with Chucho Valdé s, Irakere, by disc jockey Ricardo Garcí a in Santiago, but the y su Grupo. Fonomusic. CD 1109-1110. Latin American musical blending that was one of its 1991 : Spain. basic features had already been developed by Violeta Yupanqui, Atahualpa. Atahualpa Yupanqui en sus Parra (1917– 67), beginning in the early 1960s in her primeros añ os, 1936-1950 . Take-Off TKF 2915. work in Paris, Santiago and Concepci ó n. For example, 2003: Japan. Parra ’ s famous song ‘ ’ (Th anks to Life) is based on the sirilla , a 6/8 genre of Hispanic origin Filmography from the south of Chile, but it was composed and per- Che , dir. Steven Soderbergh. 2008. USA. 134 mins. formed on the Bolivian (a small -type Drama. instrument prevalent among indigenous and mestizo JAN FAIRLEY musicians in the ) which became ’ s trademark instrument at the time. Nueva Canció n Chilena A second fundamental characteristic of NCC pres- Nueva canci ó n chilena (Chilean New Song) is a vocal ent from its early stages was its engagement with and instrumental genre that emerged in Chile in the social content, which was given a political impulse mid-1960s in the context of movements for social and by the election of the left -wing government of Sal- political change within the country and beyond. Part vador Allende in 1970. NCC’ s political orientation of a widespread development which saw similar musi- developed in the early 1970s with the support of uni- cal trends develop in Argentina, and versities, political parties and the government. With in the 1960s, nueva canci ó n chilena (hereaft er NCC) the military coup of September 1973 and the advent diff erentiated itself from those trends by integrating of a right-wing dictatorship under General Augusto infl uences from other Latin American countries to a Pinochet, NCC musicians went into exile, develop- greater and wider extent. NCC articulated infl uences ing careers in supported by an international from the vast Andean territory, from Argentinian movement that sympathized with the Chilean cause. nuevo cancionero , Uruguayan c anto popular , Cuban With the return of democracy to Chile in the late nueva and the folk music of Colombia, Venezu- 1980s, the exiled musicians also returned, giving back ela and Mexico. In this way, NCC musicians not only to the country all the experience and recognition they manifested the ideal of Latin American integration achieved abroad, but also fi nding a country with dif- that was widely present in the 1960s, but also refl ected ferent social priorities and a new generation with dif- the need felt by Chilean musicians to compensate ferent musical interests, more oriented toward rock for the lack of African-derived elements in Chilean and pop.

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Historical Background and Early Development Latin American songs had arrived in Paris at a time When folk music of Hispanic origin was absorbed when the French capital was becoming the European by the incipient musical industry of the 1920s, a center for Latin American music. When Violeta Parra mainstream Chilean genre, later called mú sica tí pica and her children Á ngel and Isabel were living in Paris (typical music), was born. Th e upper classes sup- from 1961 to 1965, they became familiar with this ported m ú sica tí pica because it represented the West- repertoire and took it back to Chile upon their return. ern, Catholic and white heritage that they wanted to Also, the recording, broadcasting and stardom indus- impose in the country. As urban immigration in Chile tries of the Southern Cone, which had already been increased by the mid-twentieth century, m ú sica tí pica interconnected for two decades, placed at the disposal came to evoke the ‘ lost paradise ’ of the countryside. of the new mass-mediated folklore a network of busi- Meanwhile a new trend in folk music was being devel- ness people, radio stations, labels and record distribu- oped in Chile and elsewhere, a revival of old genres tors. Th ese bolstered the circulation of repertoire and and repertoire from folklore, called in Chile proyec- local practices throughout the region, but with some ció n folkló rica (folk projection). diffi culties within Chile (see below). Th e incorporation of remote genres into urban Th e fi rst NCC ensembles appeared in 1965, at a music practices in the proyecci ó n folkl ó rica of the late time when the interest in neofolklore among Chilean 1950s introduced fi gures from rural and marginalized youth was at its peak and the music was receiving areas of Chilean society who were previously distant good press and support. In this envi- from the concerns of performers and listeners. Per- ronment, the folklore boom served to foster the early formers began to favor references to these types of development of NCC ensembles. However, as these subjects rather than focusing on autobiographical groups developed more explicit political agendas, narratives or references to the listener. Such subjects and as the political climate within Chile became more were also absorbed into mass culture in the early polarized, with the country divided in three thirds – 1960s by neofolklore, a musical trend based on vocal right, center and left – the media and much of the developed by the recording industry music industry ignored them in the late 1960s, leaving to modernize folk music for a new youth audience. NCC musicians to seek to base their continued devel- In presenting such fi gures, oft en characterized by opment on an alternative to the mainstream industry. quaint, even strange customs, neofolklore revealed a Meanwhile, by 1968 the folklore boom in Chile had social dimension with which Chilean popular music passed its peak, and the balada rom á ntica (romantic had hitherto only rarely engaged. NCC songwrit- pop song) and songs in English had reached their ers elaborated upon this dimension in songs such as apex of popularity, with Italian, French, Spanish and ‘ Yo canto la diferencia ’ (I Sing the Diff erence) (1960) Argentinian singers touring the country. and ‘ La carta’ (Th e Letter) (1963) by Violeta Parra; ‘ El Aware of the obstacles to mass-market penetration, arado ’ (Th e Plow) (1966), the fi rst of V í ctor Jara ’ s epic members of NCC groups maintained their status as songs; and Sue ñ o Americano (Latin American Dream) university students and in this way received support (1966), ’ s conceptual . from their academic and political environment. Both Th e movement for the integration of the Latin the expansion of NCC and the university reform pro- American continent, infl uential throughout the cen- cess were fed by the expectations of change aroused by tury at political, economic and cultural levels, mani- the program of ‘ Revoluci ó n en Libertad’ (Revolution fested itself strongly in the 1950s and 1960s. Th is in Freedom) of the Christian-Democrat government heightened the dissemination and adoption in Chile of Eduardo Frei (1964– 70). Th ese expectations were of music from other parts of Latin America and expressed by the defense of Latin American cultural increased exposure in Chile to songs from all over independence against the cultural uniformity per- the continent, especially those of Argentinian, Uru- ceived to be encouraged by the United States during guayan and Cuban cantautores (singer-songwriters), the Cold War. such as Atahualpa Yupanqui, and NCC proved itself too radical for Chile ’ s media and Silvio Rodr í guez, who were themselves engaged in music industry, which at that time had settled into the renewal of the popular repertoire and traditional a pattern of loyalty to repertoires that had become song-making of their countries. Venezuelan songs entrenched, such as m ú sica tí pica , or to new phenom- were also in circulation, and the impact of the move- ena that originated within the music industry, such ment to update Brazilian song through bossa nova and as neofolklore and the trend of the up-and-coming MPB (Brazilian Popular Music) (new wave). For these reasons, NCC not only received also began to be felt. low coverage in the specialized press of the 1960s, but

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also attracted little airplay on radio and television, Judging by the accounts of people who remember the despite having its own label, Dicap ( Discoteca del Can- peak period of NCC and by media reports of the day tar Popular), which was created by the youth section (Gonzá lez, Ohlsen and Rolle 2009, 110– 11), Dicap of the Chilean Communist Party in the late 1960s, and had built up a constant fl ow of production and a wide being well represented by EMI Odeon and the local distribution network by the early 1970s. In this way, label Demon. because NCC was primarily disseminated through However, even the handful of stations sympathetic live performance and in cultural and political circles to NCC could not ignore the immense popularity (rather than through commercial means), enjoyed of the balada rom á ntica in Chile, another obstacle little radio and television airplay and eschewed the to the dissemination of NCC within the country. By star system in favor of the songsmith, it did not fi t well 1971, around 100 of the 134 radio stations in Chile into the concept of popular music as it had been con- were keeping their distance from President Salva- ceived in the twentieth century. Instead, it was more dor Allende ’ s Unidad Popular government, an ally akin to folkloric and art music, which were similarly of NCC. Th is further restricted the dissemination of restricted at the level of distribution. NCC, which was compelled to fi nd its own way. It did Th e catalyst for the consolidation of NCC as a so by developing new performance spaces, such as the movement was provided by disc jockey Ricardo pe ñ as folkl ó ricas (folk clubs); continuing to establish Garcí a, who decided to quit hosting the Festival de record labels; organizing song festivals; and obtain- la Canci ó n de Vi ñ a del Mar (1960) because he was ing funding from government and universities. Th ese unhappy with its commercial nature and its poor accomplishments were achieved with the support of engagement with folklore. In 1969 Garcí a obtained left -wing sectors of society, as well as that of the uni- funding from the Department of Cultural Activities versity environment, where NCC’ s most loyal artists, at the Universidad Cató lica de Chile to organize the fans and promoters could be found. In the early 1970s fi rst NCC festival. Th ere were two programs on sep- the fan base widened to include the working classes; arate stages, one in the gymnasium of the Catholic later, during Chile’ s period of political exile (1973– 88), University and one in the Chile Stadium. Th is festi- it was to extend to a broader audience across Latin val, which took place on three occasions up to 1971, America, in the United States and in Europe. was not associated with the music industry or the Th e pe ñ a folkl ó rica provided an intimate space in press, was not sponsored by any radio station, label which the distance between the performer and the or publication, and did not have industry representa- audience was minimized, as in Parisian cabarets of tives to vouch for it. Th ese factors enabled the festival old. Pe ñ as folkl ó ricas were managed by the musicians to break with the prevailing idea that song festivals themselves, as were the Chilean casas de canto (song ought to be competitive and commercial. Instead, it houses) of the early twentieth century. Th ey also existed created an alternative platform for the professional- at the universities, which resulted in the institution- ization of this music, which helped consolidate it as alization of the guitarreo, a common student activity a movement that was to prove of central importance of getting together around the guitar to sing and play. in the subsequent history of popular music in Chile Th e informal nature of the pe ñ a folkl ó rica meant that and Latin America. musicians could interact with their audiences and try out new songs that might later be recorded. Ensem- Musical and Lyrical Characteristics bles would also visit the pe ñ as in search of new reper- NCC ’ s development included input from both toire, approaching the directly to ask them solo artists and instrumental groups. Th e solo art- for songs that may have been debuted that very night. ists composed their own songs and later came to be Some important pe ñ as included the Peñ a de los Parra known as cantautores (singer-songwriters). Th ey also in Santiago (1965), the Pe ñ a de Valpara í so (1965) and performed each other ’ s as well as songs by additional the Peñ a de la Universidad Té cnica del Estado also in Chilean and Latin American singer-songwriters and Santiago (1966). from folklore. Chilean cantautor í a (singing-song- As of 1969, Dicap was also selling its releases at per- writing) of the 1960s had its roots in rural peasant formances of its artists at pe ñ as folkl ó ricas , universities song and poetry, drawing from the Argentine and and labor unions, thus setting up an alternative dis- Uruguayan cantautor í a of the time but also devel- tribution system that had no intermediaries and oping its own characteristics based on many dif- functioned parallel to the established record indus- ferent infl uences, local as well as from a number of try. Two years later, the label IRT (the nationalized Latin American countries, as we have seen. Along form of RCA) began following the same model. with Violeta Parra, the most important artists were

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Patricio Manns (1937), who was also well known the fi rst time, radio shows – still active in Chile in the as a writer; V í ctor Jara (1932 – 73), who was also a late 1960s, but with a format related to the star system theater director and artistic director of NCC groups; – were not an option for a Chilean . Rolando Alarc ó n (1929 – 73), a school teacher and Th e histories of each of these groups were inter- a folk researcher; Isabel Parra (b. 1939) and Á ngel twined with that of the NCC and involved permanent Parra (b. 1943), children of Violeta Parra and active dialogues with the cantautores in terms of aesthetics, promoters of NCC; and from the port city of Val- ideology and production. NCC groups were sup- para í so, Osvaldo ‘ Gitano ’ Rodr í guez (1943 – 96) and ported by the professional cantautores, who served as Gonzalo ‘ Payo ’ Grondona (b. 1945). their artistic directors and taught them to play Latin Violeta Parra and V í ctor Jara came from diff er- American instruments and songs, and by composers ent creative spheres but shared a common interest who wrote and arranged for them. Some of the groups’ in imbuing popular music with Chilean and Latin members were music students, placing an emphasis American folklore, experimenting with language and on the development of the instrumental side of the intertwining music with drama and . Violeta music and the arrangements and constantly pursuing Parra took the fi rst step in the late 1950s with her innovation and diversity. Group members managed fi ve ‘ Anticuecas ’ for solo guitar, which incorporated their own artistic careers, placing political and artistic a modern harmonic language, and her 12-minute- interests above commercial ones. long ‘ El gavilá n ’ for guitar and voice. Ví ctor Jara took Th e NCC groups injected new energy into folklore- the second step with ‘ Doncella encantada’ (1962), an based popular music in Chile, taking neofolklore’ s innovative dance piece for two . use of the guitar to new levels and adding many Latin In their songs, Chilean cantautores made little use American instruments to their ensemble, with a clear of local folk genres, instead delving into wider Latin Andean primacy. Th ey used cordophones such as the American repertoire to fi nd new genres that they Bolivian charango (ten double-string ), Colom- could blend with total freedom. Familiar with the bian tiple (guitar with four triple strings), Venezu- hegemonic 6/8 ϩ 3/4 pattern from Chilean folklore, elan cuatro (small guitar with four single strings) and they adopted genres that had a similar meter, such as Mexican guitarr ó n (large guitar with six single strings the Argentine , the Paraguayan guarania and used as double bass) ; aerophones such as the Andean the Mexican . Another characteristic fea- (end-notch fl ute) and zampo ñ a (double pan- ture of their songs was the use of Dorian, Aeolian and pipe) and Ecuadorean rondador (single panpipe); and Mixolydian modes, also present in folklore. In addi- and from all over Latin tion, the links between Chile and Cuba in the 1970s America. allowed the cantautores to learn about Cuban genres, Th ough the Andean region encompasses a wide such as the son and the , and incorporate variety of local cultures and languages, the Andean these into their songs. Both the Chilean cantautores mountains themselves have served as a natural path to and the NCC groups also broadened their repertoire integrate that diversity. Th is fi rst happened during the with songs from the Mexican Revolution and the (1438– 1533), which built roads to link Spanish Civil War. its expansive territories; and then during the Span- While Chilean cantautores supported and collabo- ish colonial era (1533 – 1810), whose rulers used the rated with one another and, because they lived off their same Inca roads to administer their own empire. In work, were able to establish NCC as a professional time, these roads would also allow interaction among option, NCC ensembles by contrast were student dominated Andean cultures. Th e Inca and the Span- groups who only turned their work into a profes- ish thus transformed the Andes into the dorsal spine sion aft er they went into exile. Th e main ensembles of of , through which both Quechua and NCC were Quilapayú n (formed in 1965), Inti-illimani Catholic infl uences spread. Th ese infl uences come (formed in 1967 at the Universidad Té cnica del Estado from the common threads of the music and culture during the reform process), Aparcoa (1966), Amer- of a vast region, which covers the north of Chile and indios (1969) and (1970) from . Argentina, most of , and Ecuador, and Most of their names are in indigenous languages as the south of Colombia. As a consequence, throughout an expression of empathy with the native peoples of this whole area we fi nd descending pentatonic scales, Latin America. All of them wore ponchos, a distinctive predominant binary rhythms, speeding cadential clothing of the native people of the Americas. Th ese tempos, common indigenous, mestizo and Western groups participated in a circuit of university folk instruments, the practice of Carnival, and the worship clubs, university theaters and political meetings. For of the Virgin Mary and patron saints.

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Th e features of running through within the country and endorsed a new movement NCC symbolized social and cultural unity in Latin in Chilean music that would work toward this goal. America and the championing of indigenous expres- Manns called for songs to exhibit greater depth sion. For international audiences, Andean music and meaning, but without compromising the new acted as a major signifi er of Latin America in general opportunities created by the commercial success of and little by little it came to be adopted by the NCC neofolklore. Singers were admonished to turn their groups. A charango , a bombo (Argentinian bass ) gaze to their surroundings in order to take up topics and a quena were all that was needed to play a vast rep- specifi c to Chile. ertoire that drew nations together and demonstrated Th e emphasis on the poetic quality of the songs solidarity with those excluded from modernity. What encouraged NCC musicians to set existing Chilean is more, Andean music served as the central core of and Latin American poetry to music, but also to write Latin American music as a whole in terms of its per- of poetic content themselves. Th ey continued formance in Europe or the United States to a public the focus on rural and marginalized fi gures who had interested in the traditions of the continent. been a central feature of neofolklore, but placed greater Th e vocal ensemble of NCC was more robust and emphasis on details of their marginalized condition. had a more homophonic texture than that of neofolk- Th e setting of the song moved to the extremes of the lore since it did away with the soloist, in this way cre- country, a land of inclement weather, and into the out- ating a collective and cohesive sound that refl ected the skirts of the city. In those extreme settings, a working- concept of unity of the people promoted by the NCC class or a mestizo subject was presented struggling for groups. Just as neofolklore groups such as Los Cuatro better living conditions. NCC musicians also wrote Cuartos and Las Cuatro Brujas from the early 1960s love songs, articulating love and social commitment, became known for their vocal arrangements, NCC and songs engaging with the political issues of their groups became known for their instrumental arrange- time. ments. Th eir members not only played the many dif- ferent Latin American instruments named above, Relationships they also used them in two ways: by following tradi- Th e NCC movement was also involved in theater tional practice and by exploring new uses and sonori- and the visual arts, developing its own progressive aes- ties. In this way, the ensembles – following the lead thetic within mass culture. Graphic design acquired of Violeta Parra and V í ctor Jara – developed fusions new social meaning with the development of posters of Latin American practices, genres and instruments that became collectibles within youth culture, incor- to produce the distinctive sound that constituted an porating references to Californian hippie culture and important aspect of NCC ’ s legacy. Cuban political pamphlets. In Chile, one important Jara ’ s instrumental work ‘ La partida’ (Th e Fare- graphic arts workshop was that of Vicente and Anto- well) for instance, recorded by Inti-illimani in 1972, nio Larrea, who, between 1967 and 1973 produced is scored for quena , charango , two tiples , two stan- approximately 120 record covers for Dicap, 300 poster dard guitars, bombo , , maracas, claves and designs and numerous photographs of NCC artists, tubular bells, mainly instruments of Andean, Creole giving expression to their new style of design. Th is and Caribbean origins. Jara also uses this unusual style incorporated elements of Pop Art, Psychedelic blending of instruments from diff erent cultural set- Art, Social Realism and high-contrast photography, tings in a non-idiomatic fashion. In this work, we as well as local infl uences including political mural- fi nd harmonic pedals and chromatic harmony, and ism, primitive xylographic designs and historical pho- the use of harmony as instrumental color. Th is mod- tography. ernist impulse in the development of a popular music As part of its mingling with the artistic world, a with folk roots is another central feature of NCC thor- central element to understanding the NCC phenom- oughly developed by groups such as Quilapayú n in enon was the relationship that it established between the 1980s. popular musicians and conservatory-trained compos- As early as 1966, Patricio Manns, in his position ers, be it in the form of mutual learning opportunities as writer and analyst of the Chilean musical scene in or ideological commonalities. Th e focal point of this the press, took on the task of elucidating the princi- intersection was the Escuela Musical Vespertina (Ves- ples that were NCC ’ s main source of inspiration, and pers ) of the (1966– published a sort of manifesto in the youth magazine 73). People of all ages with no prior musical education Ritmo. In his text, Manns proclaimed the impor- could attend classes given by the main composers of tance of improving the quality of songs being written the time. Material that normally took long years of

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study at the conservatory was taught intensively at ideologies of the 1960s, attracted the attention of the Escuela Musical Vespertina, in accordance with intellectual circles, both within Chile and abroad. popular musicians’ ability to learn quickly and with In this way, even though NCC did not achieve mass their status as mature students. acceptance in the way m ú sica tí pica did, for example, Eager to broaden their audiences and incorporate with the passage of time it became the source of more elements into their music that would link them with written discourse and refl ection than any other popu- society in a more direct manner, three Chilean com- lar . posers of the mid-twentieth-century generation – Gustavo Becerra (1925 – 2010), (1935 – Scholarship 2004) and (1938 – 2003) – entered into From the book by Fernando Barraza (1972) to productive relationships with NCC. In the late 1960s this Encyclopedia, several articles, dissertations, and these composers began producing large-scale popular autobiographic, journalistic and academic books have works, oft en in collaboration with NCC groups. Th e been published in Chile, France, Great Britain, United performance of these works allowed for new levels States, Spain, Italy and elsewhere on Chilean New of interaction between the oral and the written and Song and its artists. , history, sociology, between the creative process and performance, estab- cultural studies, literature and journalism have joined lishing a new means of working that has continued to in an eff ort to elucidate the musical, literary, social, be used in Chile into the twenty-fi rst century. political, cultural and historical features of NCC. Fig- Th e preferred format for these works was the ures such as Violeta Parra and V í ctor Jara have been revived Italian secular cantata of the end of the sev- the most studied both in Chile and abroad during the enteenth century – with its arias, duets, recitatives exile and aft er the return of democracy. and choral textures – which had been brought back A comprehensive study of the life and musical by Neoclassical composers of the 1920s. Th us, at the style of V í ctor Jara was published in a collective book end of the 1960s, a process began that brought an (Acevedo et al. 1996), while some articles published antiquated , already revived by concert by Revista Musical Chilena since the 1990s include music, closer to popular music, using it to relate his- musical analytical approaches to the work of Vio- torical events and pay tribute to well-known fi gures leta Parra. Books on the other NCC artists, such as within the artistic and political worlds. Th e fi rst of Quilapayú n (Carrasco 1988), Inti-illimani (Cifuentes these works, and the most important because of its 1989) and Isabel Parra (Parra 2003), are mostly auto- staying power and subsequent infl uence, was the can- biographical. A musical study of the features of NCC tata Santa Mar í a del (1970) by Luis Advis and was published by Luis Advis (1998) and studies on its the group Quilapayú n. Other major works included relation to art music, rock and folklore were published Canto general (1970), a setting of texts by Becerra (1985), Salas (2003) and Gonzá lez et al. by the group Aparcoa; La fragua (Th e Forge [1972]) (2009) respectively. Studies on the industry that sup- by Sergio Ortega; and Canto para una semilla (Song ported NCC are found in Bravo et al. (2009), Castillo for a Seed [1972]) by Luis Advis, based on texts by et al. (2006), Gonz á lez et al. (2009) and Larrea et al. Violeta Parra, performed by Inti-illimani and Isabel (1997). Parra. Within this climate of affi liation with art, popular Later Developments musicians moved decisively toward the creation of Th e military coup of 1973 led to the death of Ví c- instrumental music with high levels of sophistication. tor Jara as a prisoner in the Chile Stadium of San- Th ree factors came together in the rise of instrumen- tiago (a gymnasium, since 2004 called Ví ctor Jara tal music within the context of NCC: the existence Stadium) and the exile of all other NCC artists. Until of instrumental music in Andean culture, which fed the late 1970s, these artists engaged in political activ- strongly into the NCC movement, as we have seen, ism abroad and fully expected to return home. New and appeared in the work of Violeta Parra and V í ctor groups were created, but they did not last long. By Jara; the use of instrumental music as incidental music the early 1980s, the exiled NCC artists, especially the for theater and dance; and the exploration of the pos- Parra brothers and Quilapay ú n in France and Inti- sibilities of the guitar, NCC ’ s central instrument. illimani in Italy had begun to ‘ unpack their bags’ and Because of its receptiveness to songs from all integrate into the European circuit. In this way, they over Latin America and its affi nity with the world of continued to work on the project of developing and art, NCC acquired cultural and learned overtones. renewing folklore that they had begun in Chile, and in Th is, along with its links with oppositional political so doing reached high levels of artistic development.

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During their exile in Europe (1973– 89), Inti- fed by a mediated and universal folklore. With this illimani and Quilapayú n continued the process of generation, roots began to be a personal choice rather extending folk roots, begun in Chile in the early 1960s, than a collective heritage, generating social networks by incorporating Mediterranean infl uences, especially of personal choices that fi nd in music its most eff ec- from Italy and Spain, into the mix. Th is unexpected tive medium to knit communities from margins and expansion of Latin American roots, emphasizing the divergence. search for universals of folklore (something that eth- nomusicology had already tried to systematize in the Bibliography 1970s), needed to be justifi ed only to the musicians Acevedo, Claudio, et al. 1996. V í ctor Jara. Obra themselves and not to the far-away Chilean public. musical completa [V í ctor Jara: Complete Musical Both Inti-illimani and Quilapayun augmented their Works]. Fundació n Ví ctor Jara, Santiago: Ocho own repertoires, inviting classical and popular musi- Libros Editores. cians to create, perform and record with them. Th ese Advis, Luis, C á ceres, Eduardo, Garc í a, Fernando and groups achieved full recognition in the European Gonzá lez, Juan Pablo, eds. 1998. Cl á sicos de la scene of the 1980s, doing so with the support of an mú sica popular chilena. 1960-1973 Raí z folkló rica international audience base that sympathized with [Classics of Chilean Popular Music: 1960– 1973 the Chilean political cause, and to which the musi- Folkloric Roots], Vol 2. Santiago: Publicaciones cians off ered their synthesis of Latin American music SCD and Ediciones Universidad Cat ó lica de Chile. and highly professional performances. Th e theme of Barraza, Fernando. 1972. La nueva canci ó n chilena exile entered their repertoire in songs such as ‘ Vuelvo ’ [Chilean New Song]. Santiago: Quimant ú . (I ’ m Coming Back) by Inti-illimani, ‘ Ni toda la tierra Becerra, Gustavo. 1985. ‘ La mú sica culta y la nueva entera’ (Not Even the Whole Earth) by Isabel Parra, canció n chilena’ [Art Music and Chilean New ‘ Cuando me acuerdo de mi pa í s ’ (When I Remember Song]. Literatura Chilena. Creaci ó n y cr í tica My Country) by Patricio Manns and ‘ Vuelvo para 9(33 – 4): 14 – 21. vivir ’ (I ’ m Coming Back to Live Here), by Illapu. Bessi è re, Bernard. 1980. La nouvelle chanson chilienne With the end of Pinochet’ s dictatorship in 1988, en exil [Chilean New Song in Exile]. France: Edi- most of these exiled artists returned to Chile, where tions d’ aujourd ’ hui. they were warmly received by their home audience Bravo, Gabriela and Gonzá lez, Cristiá n. 2009. Ecos del and reintegrated into Chile ’ s cultural life. However, tiempo subterr á neo: Las pe ñ as en Santiago durante new social, cultural and political scenarios and the el ré gimen militar (1973– 1983) [Echoes of Under- changed musical orientations of the new generation ground Times: Th e pe ñ as in Santiago During the (more toward pop-rock) left NCC singer-songwrit- Military Regime]. Santiago: LOM. ers and groups without the media coverage and the Carrasco, Eduardo. 1982. La nueva canci ó n en public attention that they deserved. Th e new century Amé rica Latina [New Song in Latin America]. San- brought an unexpected situation for the two main tiago: Ceneca. NCC groups: a division due to internal confl icts. One Carrasco, Eduardo. 1988. Quilapay ú n: La revolució n part of Quilapay ú n remained in Paris and the other y las estrellas [Quilapay ú n: Th e Revolution and the in Santiago. All Inti-illimani musicians remained in Stars]. Santiago: Las Ediciones del Ornitorrinco. Chile, but they too were divided, in two groups: Inti- Castillo Espinosa, Eduardo, Larrea, Vicente, and Lar- illimani and Inti-illimani histó rico (Historical Inti- rea, Antonio. 2006. Cartel chileno . 1963 – 1973 [Th e illimani). Chilean Poster: 1963– 1973]. Santiago: Ediciones B A new way of understanding folk roots was to Chile. mark the renewal of the national music scene in the Cifuentes, Luis. 1989. Fragmentos de un sueñ o: Inti- fi rst decade of the twenty-fi rst century, continuing the illimani y la generaci ó n de los 60 [Fragments of a trend of Chilean musicians and public of incorporat- Dream: Inti-illimani and the Generation of the ing into their practice and consumption. 1960s]. Santiago: Ediciones Logos. Th ose responsible were a third generation of Chilean Fairley, Jan. 1985. ‘ Annotated Bibliography of Latin- singer-songwriters, who came on the scene in the American Popular Music with Particular Reference 1990s, such as Francisco Villa (b. 1967), Manuel Gar- to Chile and to Nueva Canció n. ’ Popular Music 5: cia (b. 1970), Chinoy (b. 1983), (b. 1985) 305 – 56. and Camila Moreno (b. 1985), among others. For Fairley, Jan and Horn, David, eds. 2002. I Sing the Dif- these cantautores, folk roots do not need their own ference: Identity and Commitment in Latin American particular land or soil; rather they are hydroponically Song; A Symposium in Honour of Robert Pring-Mill.

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Liverpool: Institute of Popular Music, University of Parra, Angel. 2006. Violeta se fue a los cielos [Violeta Liverpool. Went to Heaven]. Santiago: Catalonia. Franco-Lao, M é ri. 1967. Basta! Chants de té moignage Parra, Isabel. 1985. El libro mayor de Violeta Parra et de r é volte de l ’ Am é rique Latine [Enough! Songs [Th e Grand Book of Violeta Parra]. Madrid: Edi- of Testimony and Revolt in Latin America]. Paris: ciones Michay. Franç ois Maspero. Parra, Isabel. 2003. Ni toda la tierra entera [Not All Godoy, Alvaro, and Gonzá lez, Juan Pablo, eds. 1995. the Whole Earth]. Santiago: Chabe producciones. M ú sica popular chilena. 20 a ñ os, 1970 – 1990 [Chil- Pring-Mill, Robert. 1990. Gracias a la Vida: Th e Power ean Popular Music: 20 Years, 1970– 1990]. Santiago: and Poetry of Song. London: University of London, Divisi ó n de Cultura del Ministerio de Educaci ó n. Department of Hispanic Studies, Queen Mary and Gonz á lez, Juan Pablo. 1996. ‘ Evocaci ó n, modern- Westfi eld College. izació n y reivindicació n del folklore en la mú sica Rodr í guez, Osvaldo. 1984. Cantores que refl exio- popular chilena: El papel de la performance ’ [Evo- nan: Notas para una historia personal de la nueva cation, Modernization and Reclamation of Folk- canci ó n chilena [Singers Who Refl ect: Notes for a lore in Chilean Popular Music: Th e Role of the Personal History of Chilean New Song]. Madrid: Performance]. Revista Musical Chilena 50(185): Ediciones Lar. 25– 37. Salas, Fabio. 2003. La primavera terrestre: Cartografí a Gonz á lez, Juan Pablo. 2009. ‘ Th e Chilean Way to the del rock chileno y de la nueva canció n chilena Andes: Music, Politics and Otherness. ’ Diagonal: [Spring Earth: Mapping of the and Journal of the Center for Iberian and Latin Ameri- the Chilean New Song]. Santiago: Editorial Cuarto can Music, University of California, Riverside, Propio. vol. 2. Online at: http://cilam.ucr.edu/diagonal/ Torres, Rodrigo. 1980. Perfi l de la creaci ó n musical en la issues/2006/index.html. nueva canció n chilena desde sus orí genes hasta 1973 Gonz á lez, Juan Pablo. 2011. ‘ Posfolklore: Roots and [Profi le of the Creation of Music in Chilean New Globalization in Chilean Popular Music.’ In Musik Song from Its Origins to 1973]. Santiago: Ceneca. – Kontexte. Festschrift fur Hanns– Werner Heister , Torres, Rodrigo. 1985. ‘ La urbanizació n de la can- eds. Th omas Phleps and Wieland Reich. M ü nster: ció n folkló rica ’ [Th e Urbanization of the Folk- Verlagshaus Monsenstein und Vannerda. loric Song]. Literatura chilena. Creació n y crí tica Gonz á lez, Juan Pablo, and Fairley Jan. 2003. ‘ Dicap. ’ 9(33 – 4): 25 – 9. In Th e Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. Vol. 1. Media, Industry and Society, eds. Discographical References John Shepherd et al. London and New York: Con- Aparcoa. Canto general . Phillips 6458017-8. 1971 : tinuum, 709– 10. Chile. Gonz á lez, Juan Pablo, Ohlsen, Oscar, and Rolle, Clau- Illapu. ‘ Vuelvo para vivir.’ Vuelvo amor, vuelvo vida. dio. 2009. Historia social de la m ú sica popular en EMI Odeon 7-95065-2. 1991 : Chile. Chile. 1950 – 1970 [A Social History of Popular Inti-illimani. ‘ Vuelvo. ’ Canci ó n para matar una cule- Music in Chile: 1950– 1970]. Santiago: Ediciones bra . Movieplay 17.1501/4. 1979 : Spain. Universidad Cat ó lica de Chile. Inti-illimani and Parra, Isabel. Canto para una semi- Jara, Joan. 1983. Victor: An Unfi nished Song. London: lla . Dicap JJLS 16. 1972 : Chile. Cape. (Spanish ed. published as Victor, un canto Jara, V í ctor. ‘ El arado. ’ V í ctor Jara . Demon LPD- inconcluso . Santiago: Fundaci ó n V í ctor Jara, 1998.) 034-X. 1967 : Chile. Larrea, Antonio, and Montealegre, Jorge. 1997. Ros- Jara, V í ctor. ‘ La partida. ’ El derecho a vivir en paz. tros y rastros de un canto [Faces and Traces of a Dicap JJL-11. 1971 : Chile. Singing]. Santiago: Ediciones Nunatak. Jara, Ví ctor. ‘ Doncella encantada.’ Presente . Dicap Manns, Patricio. 1986. Violeta Parra: La guitarra ind ó - DCP 109. 1975 : France. cil [Violeta Parra: Th e Unruly Guitar]. Concepció n: Manns, Patricio. Sue ñ o Americano. Arena, LPD-036. Ediciones Lar. 1967 : Chile. Morris, Nancy. 1986. ‘ Canto Porque es Necesario Can- Manns, Patricio. ‘ Cuando me acuerdo de mi paí s. ’ tar: Th e New Song Movement in Chile, 1973– 1983. ’ Canció n sin lí mites. Movieplay. 1977 : Spain; Le Latin American Research Review 21(2): 117 – 36. Chant du Monde LDX 746598. 1977 : France. Oviedo, Carmen. 1990. Mentira todo lo cierto. Tras Parra, Isabel, and Castillo, Patricio. ‘ Ni toda la tierra la huella de Violeta Parra [On the Trail of Violeta entera. ’ Vientos del pueblo. Zodiaco VPA 8216. Parra]. Santiago: Editorial Universitaria. 1974 : Italy.

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Parra, Violeta. ‘ Anticuecas. ’ Composiciones para gui- Quilapay ú n. Tralal í tralal á . Path é Marconi 1728581. tarra. (EP.) Odeon MSOD/E 51020. 1957 : Chile. 1984 : France. Parra, Violeta. ‘ Yo canto la diferencia.’ Toda Violeta Quilapay ú n. Survario. Sonodisc Klan 231. 1987 : Parra. El folklore de Chile vol III. Odeon LDC France. 35344. 1960 : Chile. JUAN PABLO GONZÁ LEZ Parra, Violeta. ‘ Gracias a la vida.’ Las ú ltimas composi- ciones . RCA Victor CML 2456. 1966 : Chile. Nuevo Cancionero (Argentina) Parra, Violeta. ‘ La carta.’ Canciones reencontradas Th e Movimiento del Nuevo Cancionero (New Song- en Parí s. Dicap/Pe ñ a de los Parra DCP-22. 1971 : book Movement) originated in Argentina in the early Chile. 1960s, leading to the creation of music that was widely Parra, Violeta. ‘ El gavil á n. ’ Violeta Parra presente, disseminated in subsequent decades to the rest of Latin ausente. Le Chant du Monde. (2 LPs.) LDX 74572/3. America and the Caribbean. Th e movement was initi- 1975 : France. ated by a group of poets and musicians, joined later Quilapay ú n. Cantata Santa Marí a del Iquique. Jota Joa by singer-songwriters and folklore-oriented groups. (Dicap) JJL 08. 1970 : Chile. Movements with similar characteristics appeared Quilapay ú n. La Fragua by Sergio Ortega, Dicap JJLS in Uruguay and Chile ( nueva canci ó n chilena ); in 17. 1973 : Chile. Paraguay, and Mexico there emerged the so-called canci ó n testimonial and in Cuba the nueva Discography trova. All these movements shared an opposition to Inti-illimani. Inti-illimani. Odeon LDC 35254. 1970 : musical production that followed the logic of pure Chile. commercialism and expressed a left -wing ideological Inti-illimani. Autores chilenos . Dicap JJL-13. 1971 : posture within the historical context of revolutionary Chile. movements in Latin America during the twentieth Inti-illimani. Palimpsesto. Alerce. 1981: Chile; Plä ne century. 88 299. 1982 : Germany. In Argentina, the historical context in which the Inti-illimani. De canto y de baile . Alerce. 1986: Chile; nuevo cancionero movement developed was marked Messidor 115934. 1986 : Germany. by the ideological struggle between diverse social Jara, V í ctor. Pongo en tus manos abiertas. Jota Jota groups with opposing views about the country ’ s eco- (Dicap) JJL-03. 1969 : Chile. nomical and political future, a struggle which crossed Jara, V í ctor. La població n . Dicap JJL-14. 1972 : Chile. over into the intellectual and cultural spheres. It was Manns, Patricio. Entre mar y cordillera . Demon. 1966 : also a period in which, internationally, the eff ects of Chile. the Cold War had repercussions in Latin America. Manns, Patricio. La hora fi nal . CBS. 1969 : Chile. In the mid-1970s in Argentina, the political struggle Parra, Á ngel. Canciones de amor y muerte. Peñ a de los resulted in a violent escalation, ending in a new coup Parra VBP 297. 1969a : Chile. d’ état that brought to power a right-wing military dic- Parra, Isabel. Cantando por amor . Dicap/Pe ñ a de los tatorship, which ruled from 1976 to 1983. During this Parra DCP 1. 1969b : Chile. period, the majority of the musicians who represented Parra, Isabel. De aquí y de allá . Dicap/ Pe ñ a de los the nuevo cancionero movement and were involved in Parra DCP-27. 1971 : Chile. political activities suff ered from systematic censorship Parra, Violeta. Toda Violeta Parra. El folklore de Chile and persecution, which led them to exile in various vol III . Odeon LDC 35344. 1960 : Chile. European countries. Parra, Violeta. Las ú ltimas composiciones. RCA Victor CML 2456. 1966 : Chile. The Goals of Nuevo Cancionero Parra, Violeta. Canciones reencontradas en Par í s . In 1963 in the town of Mendoza, a group of Argen- Dicap/Pe ñ a de los Parra DCP-22. 1971 : Chile. tinian musicians, poets and composers wrote and Quilapay ú n. Por Vietnam. Jota Jota (Dicap) JJL 01. published the Manifi esto Fundacional del Movimiento 1968 : Chile. del Nuevo Cancionero (Manifesto for the Foundation Quilapay ú n. Basta. Jota Jota (Dicap) JJL 07. 1969 : of the Nuevo Cancionero Movement). In this docu- Chile. ment they articulated their position in favor of the Quilapay ú n. Umbral. Pathé Marconi 2C070 14812. defense of freedom of expression and formulated the 1979 : France. basis for the renovation of popular music, exhort- Quilapay ú n. Alentours . Path é Marconi 2C070 63688. ing artists and intellectuals to work together to fi nd 1980 : France. better means of aesthetic expression. Th e Manifi esto

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