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TRENDS & ISSUES in crime and criminal justice A U S T R A L I A N I N S T I T U T E O F C R I M I N O L O G Y

No. 274 March 2004

Police and Community Responses to Youth Rob White

Although there are no national data on youth gangs in Australia there is a perception that youth gangs are an emerging problem. This paper draws largely on overseas attempts to deal with related activity and the extent to which they have been successful. The most successful interventions have some combination of coercive and developmental measures. A key issue for both policy makers and practitioners is the weight given to particular measures within the context of an overall strategy. While for tactical purposes, coercive force may occasionally be necessary, positive approaches to gang issues also require developmental strategies and active community involvement.

Toni Makkai Acting Director ISSN 0817-8542 ISBN 0 642 53832 8 There is a widespread public perception that ‘youth gangs’ are a major and growing problem in Australia. This perception is strengthened by media images of youth violence and anti-social youth group behaviour (Collins et al. 2000; Sercombe 1999). The perception is further ‘confirmed’ in frequent negative pronouncements by politicians about particular GPO Box 2944 youth groups, and by the introduction of measures such as anti-weapons legislation ACT 2601 (Lozusic 2003). Australia There is very little in the way of empirical data that tell us how many ‘gangs’ actually exist, who Tel: 02 6260 9221 belongs to them, and what they do. Research undertaken in , and Fax: 02 6260 9201 (White et al. 1999; Collins et al. 2000; Foote 1993) has provided some indication of the social dynamics of youth group formation, and the tensions and inequities associated with social marginalisation. Current research by members of the OzGang Research Network, of which the author is a member, will hopefully provide further qualitative and quantitative information about diverse youth group formations in the future. For a complete list and the full text of the papers Regardless of the ‘realities’ and ‘myths’ surrounding youth gangs in Australia today, three in the Trends and issues intervention issues nevertheless stand out. First, the perceptions that youth gangs exist and in crime and criminal are a danger to the community will almost inevitably generate action on the part of justice series, visit the authorities, regardless of what is happening at the grassroots level. Secondly, analysis AIC web site at: suggests that the political and economic conditions for potential growth in gang-related http://www.aic.gov.au behaviour presently exist, and that action is required now in order to forestall future problems (White et al. 1999; White 2002). Thirdly, the discourses of ‘gang’ have largely been racialised in most places around Australia, with ethnic minority youth the main subjects of such public discourses (Collins et al. 2000; Poynting, Noble & Tabar 2001; Disclaimer: This research White et al. 1999). These observations require that we be sensitive to the implicit and paper does not explicit social issues that inevitably accompany any consideration of police and community necessarily reflect the policy position of the responses to gang-related behaviour. Australian Government A U S T R A L I A N I N S T I T U T E O F C R I M I N O L O G Y

The question is not whether anti-gang Police powers Weapons strategies should be developed (given The policing of gang-related behaviour The issue of weapons is prominent in that this is already occurring); rather, and of groups of young people any discussion of gangs and gang- what kinds of strategies look most perceived to be gang members can related behaviour. There are several promising and least harmful from the take many different forms. A variety of ways that this issues may be point of view of overall (and specific) intervention measures may therefore addressed: community relations and youth rights. be drawn upon for the purposes of • conduct community education A major source of consternation about gang suppression, regardless of campaigns to discourage young young people, and the key site where original intent. For instance, while the people from carrying offensive gang activity and youth group legislative basis for action varies from implements; formations occur, is the street. state to state, the general trend Dealing with gang formations and around Australia has been for police to • to enact and enforce laws that gang-related behaviour has generally be granted extensive powers in prohibit the carrying of offensive involved a combination of coercive and relation to young people (Blagg & weapons and that allow for the developmental approaches. These are Wilkie 1995; Mukherjee, Carcach & confiscation of knives that are used in varying ways, with differing Higgins 1997). These range from clearly being carried for unlawful emphasis and under changing casual use of ‘name-checks’ (asking purposes; circumstances (Cunneen & White 2002). young people their names and • assure young people in policy and practice, especially those who feel American evaluations of youth anti- addresses), ‘move-on’ powers (the vulnerable to attack from other gang programs (Howell 2000) have right to ask young people to move groups, that they will be protected indicated that the approaches deemed away from certain areas) and search for prohibited implements, through to by the police and therefore do not to be most effective from a law enhanced ability to take fingerprints need to arm themselves in self- enforcement perspective included: and bodily samples of young alleged defence; and (a) community collaboration offenders. • negotiate with communities about (information exchange or gang The removal of young people from the presence and place of weapons awareness education); public spaces has also been among young people and the (b) crime prevention activities accomplished through specific community generally, with a view to (modification of environments and legislative measures. In 1997 the discouraging parental approval and opportunities); and Children (Protection and Parental encouragement of weapon carrying. (c) suppression tactics (street sweeps). Responsibility) Act was proclaimed in How weapons issues are dealt with in Different approaches are seen to be . The Act allows the practice has major implications for effective in chronic or long-standing police to remove young people under police-youth relations, and for 16 years of age from public places versus emerging or more recent gang consolidation of group identities. For without charge, if the police believe problem cities. Thus, for example, the example, as with similar cases that the young people are ‘at risk’ of provision of social opportunities is overseas, the lack of police protection committing an offence or of being seen to be more effective in places can lead some young people to adopt affected by a crime, are not under the with chronic gang problems, whereas the stance that ‘self-defence is no supervision or control of a responsible community mobilisation of resources offence’ and thus to arm themselves adult, or if it is believed the young to specifically address gang problems against racist attacks (Edwards, person is in danger of being physically is seen as the most effective way to Oakley & Carey 1987). Concern about harmed or injured, or abused. The Act deal with emerging gang problems does not specify the sort of offences the carrying of weapons not only (Howell 2000: 45). which might be committed; but if an justifies even more intense police offence were actually committed, the intervention, it feeds media distortions Gang suppression and police police would not be detaining the about the problem of ‘ethnic youth intervention young person under this Act. gangs’. Gang suppression takes a number of In the first six months of 1999, 145 The enforcement of anti-weapons laws different forms, from explicit anti-gang young people were removed from can affect large groups of young targeting by police through to adoption public places in the four local people in negative ways. For instance, of measures that, while not particularly government areas where the the Crimes Legislation Amendment linked to gang control, may have an legislation was operational. Of these, (Police and Public Safety) Act 1998 indirect impact upon gang activities. 90 per cent were Aboriginal children commenced in July 1998 in New (Chan & Cunneen 2000: 53). South Wales. The Act made amendments to the Summary

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Offences Act 1988, to make the have been targeted for aggressive Curfews and anti-loitering custody of a knife in a public place an street policing. In Dallas, Texas, for laws offence, permit police to conduct instance, three main suppression At a legislative and policy level, searches for knives and other strategies were employed (cited in attempts to restrict the street dangerous implements, and enable Howell 2000: 24): presence of gangs have taken the form police to give reasonable directions in • saturation patrols/high visibility of youth curfews or anti-loitering public places to deal with persons patrols in target areas. The patrols statutes. Curfews are used extensively whose behaviour or presence stopped and searched suspected in the USA, although the specific constitutes an obstruction, gang members and made arrests features of each curfew vary harassment, intimidation or causes as appropriate; considerably in terms of times, fear. The Act was monitored by the • aggressive curfew enforcement. In activities, target populations and NSW Ombudsman over the first 12 the USA, many local jurisdictions enforcement. There has also been a months of its operation. have enacted youth curfew laws, recent extension of the scope of youth The Ombudsman found that people and where these were in effect, curfews in the United Kingdom (Walsh from 15 to 19 years of age were much ordinances were strictly enforced 2000). Evaluation of curfews has more likely to be stopped and whenever suspected gang members indicated that their success is best searched for knives than any other age were encountered; and guaranteed when coercive measures group. The most common age group are accompanied by opportunity • aggressive enforcement of truancy to carry knives were 17 year olds. The enhancement measures such as laws and regulations, that involved proportion of productive searches was leisure and recreation, educational close collaboration between relatively low for teenage suspects. In activities, musical forums and so on schools and police. other words, there was a particularly (Bilchik 1996). Issues remain, high number of knife searches of Aggressive street policing and zero however, with regard to the overall young people in which no knife was tolerance approaches have been effectiveness and purposes of curfews, found. It was observed that a high criticised, however, for unduly the negative implications they hold for number of teenagers were given restricting the rights of young people, human rights and freedoms, and directions by police under the terms of being linked to racist assessments of whether they may inadvertently the Act. Significantly, it was also who gets targeted for intervention, for criminalise youth behaviour that is in pointed out that ‘the proportion of creating resentment amongst young and of itself not illegal or criminal people aged 17 years or younger people toward authority figures, and for (Simpson & Simpson 1993; Jeffs & affected by the directions power is sending the wrong message about Smith 1996; White 1998; Walsh 2000). higher than for the knife searches’. how best to resolve social conflicts In the context of anti-gang strategies, The police data indicates that 48 per (Dixon 1998). a number of attempts have been made cent of people ‘moved on’ were aged Nevertheless, critics agree that in the USA to strengthen anti-loitering 17 years or younger, while 42 per cent selective use of coercive measures is legislation to specifically target street of people searched were juveniles’ warranted in specific situations and is gangs. In many cases, these laws (NSW Ombudsman 1999: 37). The an appropriate tactical measure when have been struck down by the Ombudsman recommended that the applied judiciously (White 1998; Supreme Court as being New South Wales police service Mitchell & Wong 2002). For example, unconstitutional. It has been observed, closely monitor the use of these a shopping centre in Cairns was however, that where governing bodies powers, and be aware of the adverse experiencing major problems with a enact ordinances or laws that are impact this activity might have on small group of teenage boys who directed a specific kinds of loitering police relations with the general frightened patrons and caused (e.g. that which blocks city footpaths) community or sections of the persistent damage to the premises. or specific kinds of behaviour (e.g. community subject to such activity. For a short time only, the particular gang-related activities), then management worked with police and anti-loitering legislation may pass Coercive force security guards to ‘stamp out’ the constitutional scrutiny (Santos 2001). In specific circumstances, it may be offending group, and with it the Nevertheless, such measures are seen necessary to institute coercive offending behaviour. Afterwards, the to be ‘weak’ tools in the overall struggle measures to deal with groups or management strategy no longer relied to diminish gang membership and situations that have got out of hand. In upon coercive threat, but much more activity. Much greater faith is put in the USA, for example, specific city friendly and interactive forms of social community involvement and community sites [hotspots] and specific youth regulation (White, Kosky & wide strategies, since these go to the group formations [identifiable gangs] Kosky 2001). heart of the gang problem.

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Community responses to programming based upon an It is recommended that each youth gangs appreciation of the diversity of youth community undertake a systematic formations, as well as the dynamics of needs assessment so that it can One of the limitations of street-based opportunity structures and communal make informed decisions as to what coercive approaches to gang activity is relations (especially in relation to can be done with the resources that very often gangs occupy a rather ethnic minority groups). It is clear that available. This would involve the steps ambiguous position within local the prevention of criminal youth gangs outlined above, and include a profile of communities (Soulliere 1998; Howell must be broad-based and current youth activities and community 2000; Collins et al. 2000). This is so developmental in orientation, rather services in a neighbourhood, as well for several reasons: than simply coercive. as establishing planning teams, • there are frequently close ties setting priorities among needs and between gang members and other A problem-solving model developing a consensus regarding members of their community, Methodologically, addressing what ought to be done. whether through family, religious or perceived gang problems requires In the light of the connections between cultural linkages; adoption of a problem-solving model. community circumstances that give • gang members do not simply and Understanding gangs and gang rise to gangs and community relations solely engage in criminal activities, problems is ultimately about what that sustain them, it would appear that but in a wide range of conventional people can do at a local level to community processes are also most activities that bring them in close provide local solutions. The problem- likely to provide the best opportunities contact with other people in the solving model applied to gang for their transformation. Community local community; problems has four steps. based approaches have a number of • gang membership (however loosely dimensions that include both direct defined) may be a continuous A gang problem-solving service provision and efforts to build feature of some communities, and model pro-social relationships at the local thus have a measure of traditional Scanning — this is a process of level. Some are directed at youth legitimacy attached to it; searching for and identifying gang specifically; others are designed as • gang-related activity may tap into problems, and narrowing the whole-of-community strategies that underground or criminal community’s view of a general gang benefit people across the local area in economies that can result in problem to more specific problems a variety of ways. some residents in poorer working (such as graffiti, drug sales, violence). class neighbourhoods becoming Specific community Analysis — this involves investigating dependent on illegal sources of strategies the specific gang problem in greater income; and detail, by considering what form the An example of youth-oriented strategy • gang membership may be viewed problem takes, who is harmed and how, is the employment of detached youth by adult members of a community and when the problems occur. and community workers to provide as an important way in which to supervised recreation and leisure Response — this involves an effort to protect each other, and to activities and after-school programs. conceptually link specific problems with maintain a particular social These workers go to where the young specific local responses, and to survey identity important to the people are, and they intervene in a low- potential approaches and projects that community as a whole (visible key supportive fashion that is founded might provide insight into how best to expression of ethnic pride and upon trust and mutual respect. address this specific issue in this strength). specific community context. American research has demonstrated Policy development and formulation of the importance of detached youth Assessment — this involves an intervention strategies at a community worker programs in influencing evaluation of the effectiveness of the level is a complex task. The starting individual gang membership and group strategies, whether or not the problem point, therefore, should be a careful processes (Howell 2000). Significantly, has been diminished, or whether the analysis of what precisely ‘the some of this research has shown that problem needs to be redefined, and problem’ is. Canadian researchers the intervention of practitioners can the development of appropriate criteria such as Gordon (2000) and American itself lead to gang cohesion by regarding community safety (United criminal justice agencies (Bureau of fostering joint activities, common States Bureau of Justice Assistance Justice Assistance 1997, 1998) identification and overall group 1997, 1998). emphasise the importance of local cohesiveness (Klein 1995). Whether it community-based anti-gang be welfare or suppression programs,

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the inadvertent effect of direct measures. Urban renewal projects and local social environments is ultimately intervention with street groups is to community empowerment programs, what counts, and this means engaging increase gang cohesiveness. This is for example, are meant to increase and involving young people and their problematic in that ‘the more cohesive work opportunities for, and civic communities in finding solutions to gang usually is the more criminally participation among, local residents. their own problems, with the support of involved’ (Klein 2002: 247). In regards The intention of such interventions is expert advice and contributions by to the development of groups such as to change the material situation and each tier of government. Also essential the ‘Glenorchy Mafia’ in Tasmania, infrastructure of specific sites and to this task is giving particular this observation provides an important neighbourhoods (e.g. by building a attention to those young people who cautionary warning to practitioners. skateboard ramp), and to change are particularly at risk of becoming What was once a sports team for perceptions and attitudes among gang members or who are presently ‘disadvantaged kids’ that was jokingly residents and non-residents about gang members, so that they too have referred to as the GM, has over time these areas (e.g. by fostering a meaningful role to play within the evolved into that which was being participatory activities such as sports regeneration of their neighbourhoods. mocked—namely, a publicly identified or card-player clubs). Low Initiatives that have built upon many of ‘youth gang’. Youth and community neighbourhood attachment, economic the principles and practices outlined detached work is most strategically deprivation and adversity, and low above have recently been instituted in effective when merged with wider community organisation are implicated Sydney (Mitchell & Wong 2002). In community development types of in the constitution of crime-prone addition to coercive tactical measures interventions and citizen participation. areas, so any solution will have to targeting particular gang members, Another example of an anti-gang address these kinds of issues. police and community members have initiative is having youth facilities The development of pride in one’s intervened in Bankstown and Campsie available that provide young people place can be important in changing through an Innovative Models of Police with safe places in which to hang out, negative attitudes and anti-social and Community Training (IMPACT) while simultaneously providing an behaviours into more positive, pro- Project since 1999. The project opportunity (through adult and youth social directions. Community identified a number of local issues, mentors) to develop an alternative reputation, especially if accompanied particularly those centering on an sense of belonging, identity and self- by stigma associated with gangs, escalation of tension between police worth compared to the ‘gang’. This is crime and anti-social activities, has a and Arabic speaking youth. After a a youth service approach, in which the dramatic impact on life within series of consultations, the following young people come to the centre particular locales. Young people who four stages of the project were (which, to attract a diversity of youth, live in stigmatised areas are more developed and implemented: must cater to their specific needs and likely than others who do not, to suffer • community induction for interests). the consequences in the form of probationary and new constables With regard to services for youth, reduced job opportunities and through visits to community and whether intended to be youth-specific difficulties in moving out-of- government agencies, mosques, or for the community as a whole, it is neighbourhood. A ‘bad’ community youth centres, etc; reputation may occasionally translate also important to cater to particular • a two-day intensive training course into a gang mentality based upon social differences within communities. for all police on local and cultural defensiveness and re-assertion of For example, specific spaces and issues, and how to provide culturally worth in the face of a hostile ‘outside’ facilities should be reserved, perhaps competent service delivery to ethnic world. Enhancing the community’s at designated times, exclusively for minority communities; certain young people (e.g. swimming reputation through communal • mediated small group discussions pools, rooms that could be used for development is one way in which to between police and young people to prayers), in order that religious and address these issues. increase greater understanding of cultural practices be acknowledged An essential principle underpinning each others’ perspective and to and respected in a dignified and this type of intervention is that foster support; and inclusive manner (White et al. 1999). investment in people is the best way • community information forums on to reap social rewards Community-based approaches also policing issues, community (Wolverhampton Crime & Disorder Co- include those that involve large-scale, expectations, crime prevention and ordinating Group 2001). Changing and often non-youth specific public safety.

5 As a result of the adoption of these Mukherjee S, Carcach C & Higgins K 1997. References Juvenile crime and justice: Australia. Canberra measures, the climate in the Bilchik S 1996. Curfew: an answer to juvenile Australian Institute of Criminology community improved significantly delinquency and victimization? Washington New South Wales Office of the Ombudsman DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency (Mitchell & Wong 2002) with, among 2000. Police and Public Safety Act Sydney: Prevention NSW Office of the Ombudsman other things, a noticeable reduction in Blagg H & Wilkie M 1995. Young people & Poynting S, Noble G & Tabar P 2001. Middle violent confrontations between police police powers. Sydney: Australian Youth Eastern appearances: youth gangs, moral Foundation and Arabic youth, and an increase in panic and media framing. Australian and New Chan C & Cunneen C 2000. Evaluation of the Zealand journal of criminology 34(1) 67-90 police morale and job satisfaction. implementation of the New South Wales Police Santos J 2001. Down on the corner: an Service Aboriginal strategic plan. Sydney: analysis of gang-related anti loitering laws Institute of Criminology Conclusion Cardozo law review no 22 269-314 Collins J, Noble G, Poynting S & Tabar P Sercombe H 1999. Boots, gangs and One of the important features of the 2000. Kebabs, kids, cops & crime: youth, addictions: youth subcultures and the media. ethnicity & crime. Sydney: Pluto Press leading comprehensive community- in R White (ed) Australian youth subcultures: on Cunneen C & White R 2002. Juvenile justice: the margins and in the mainstream. Hobart: wide intervention model in the USA youth and . Melbourne: Australian Clearinghouse for Youth Studies (Howell 2000: 34) is that it places Oxford University Press Simpson B & Simpson C 1993. The use of curfews to control juvenile offending in great importance on dual forms of Dixon D 1998. Broken windows, zero tolerance, and the New York miracle Current issues in Australia: managing crime or wasting time? intervention. Namely, intervention must criminal justice. 10(1) 96-106 Current issues in criminal justice 5(2) 184-199 not be exclusively coercive (through Edwards J, Oakley R & Carey S 1987. Street Soulliere N 1998. Youths and gangs: various views, random and varied strategies. Ottawa: increased supervision and suppression life, ethnicity and social policy in G Gaskell & R Benewick (eds) The crowd in contemporary Research Centre Canadian Police College of youth), but must also involve Britain. London: Sage United States Bureau of Justice Assistance provision of services and opportunities Foote P 1993. Like, I’ll tell you what happened 1997. Addressing community gang problems: a from experience…Perspectives on Italo- model for problem solving. Washington DC: (through education and job programs) Australian youth gangs in Adelaide. in R White Office of Justice Programs, USA Department of that make attractive pro-social (ed) Youth subcultures: theory, history and the Justice Australian experience Hobart: National alternatives to gang membership and United States Bureau of Justice Assistance Clearinghouse for Youth Studies 1998. Addressing community gang problems: a engagement in gang-related behaviour. Gordon R 2000. Criminal business practical guide. Washington DC: Office of Justice Programs, USA Department of Justice This is perhaps the key message of organizations street gangs and ‘wanna-be’ groups: a Vancouver perspective. Canadian Walsh C 2002. Curfews: no more hanging gang research—that police and journal of criminology January 39-60 around. Youth justice 2(2) 70-81 community responses to gangs must Howell J 2000. Youth gang programs and Whelan J 2001. The dynamics of community combine several different kinds of strategies: summary. Washington DC: USA reputation: a case study, sociology honours Department of Justice, Office of Justice thesis. Hobart: School of Sociology and Social measures, in ways that enhance the Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Work University of Tasmania Delinquency Prevention participation and social inclusion of White R 1998. Curtailing youth: a critique of young people generally. Jeffs T & Smith M 1996. Getting the dirtbags coercive crime prevention. Crime prevention off the streets: curfews & other solutions to studies no 9 93-113 juvenile crime. Youth and policy no 53 1-14 Another lesson to be drawn from White R 2002. Understanding youth gangs. overseas research and program Klein M W 1995. The American street gang. Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice New York: Oxford University Press no 237 Canberra: Australian Institute of implementation is the importance of Klein M W 2002. Street gangs: a cross-national Criminology evaluation. Particularly in the context of perspective. in R Huff (ed) Gangs in America White R, Kosky B & Kosky M 2001. MCS rd interventions that are frequently 3 ed Thousand Oaks California: Sage shopping centre youth project: a youth-friendly Lozusic R 2003. Gangs in NSW. Briefing paper approach to shopping centre management. Hobart: experienced by young people as 16 Sydney: NSW Parliamentary Library Australian Clearinghouse for Youth Studies racially-based and anti-youth, evaluation Mitchell M & Wong D 2002. Police and gangs: White R, Perrone S, Guerra C & Lampugnani of any tactic or strategy is essential. a ‘moral panic’ or simply a practical problem for R 1999. Ethnic youth gangs in Australia: do policing? Paper presented at the Australian they exist? Overview report Melbourne: and New Zealand Society of Criminology Australian Multicultural Foundation conference 3 October 2002 Wolverhampton Crime & Disorder Co- ordination Group 2001. Wolverhampton youth safety strategy: building safer communities. United Kingdom: Wolverhampton City Council

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Rob White is Professor General editor, Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice series: of Sociology, in the Dr Toni Makkai, Acting Director School of Sociology and Australian Institute of Criminology Social Work at the GPO Box 2944 Canberra ACT 2601 Australia Note: Trends and issues in crime and A U S T R A L I A N I N S T I T U T E University of Tasmania criminal justice are refereed papers O F C R I M I N O L O G Y