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Comparison of Intravenous Anesthetic Agents for the Treatment of Refractory Status Epilepticus

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Comparison of Intravenous Anesthetic Agents for the Treatment of Refractory Status Epilepticus Journal of Clinical Medicine Review Comparison of Intravenous Anesthetic Agents for the Treatment of Refractory Status Epilepticus Michael E. Reznik 1, Karen Berger 2 and Jan Claassen 1,* 1 Department of Critical Care Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; [email protected] 2 Department of Pharmacy, Weill Cornell Medical Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-212-305-7236; Fax: +1-212-305-2792 Academic Editors: Gretchen M. Brophy and Paul M. Vespa Received: 13 April 2016; Accepted: 16 May 2016; Published: 19 May 2016 Abstract: Status epilepticus that cannot be controlled with first- and second-line agents is called refractory status epilepticus (RSE), a condition that is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Most experts agree that treatment of RSE necessitates the use of continuous infusion intravenous anesthetic drugs such as midazolam, propofol, pentobarbital, thiopental, and ketamine, each of which has its own unique characteristics. This review compares the various anesthetic agents while providing an approach to their use in adult patients, along with possible associated complications. Keywords: status epilepticus; refractory status epilepticus; IV anesthetics 1. Introduction Refractory status epilepticus (RSE) is defined as ongoing seizures that cannot be controlled with first- and second-line agents and has an incidence ranging from 9% to 43% [1–6]. Some patients fail to respond to third-line therapy, and are considered to have super-refractory SE (SRSE), the true incidence of which is unknown. Both of these are associated with progressively-increasing morbidity and mortality, and expert guidelines advocate early initiation of intravenous anesthetic agents to maximize the chance of seizure cessation while minimizing the risk of long-term sequelae [7]. Despite guideline recommendations, the optimal approach to management remains controversial due to a lack of evidence from high quality clinical trials. The most commonly used continuous infusion intravenous anesthetics (cIV-AEDs) include midazolam, propofol, and pentobarbital, though the use of ketamine has also been increasingly described. (Note that outside the U.S., thiopental, rather than pentobarbital, is often the barbiturate of choice, especially in Europe.) This article provides an overview of their use in adult patients and the available clinical evidence. A summary of their pharmacologic properties is provided in Table1. J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5, 54; doi:10.3390/jcm5050054 www.mdpi.com/journal/jcm J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5, 54 2 of 10 Table 1. Pharmacology of Commonly Used CI Anesthetics for RSE. Half-Life Half-Life Drug Examples of Drug-Drug Mechanism of Action Metabolism Active Metabolite Adverse Reactions (Hours) Considerations Interactions Interactions Duration prolonged in Phenytoin and phenobarbital 1-hydroxy-midazolam CYP 3A4 ­ Hypotension Midazolam GABA agonist Hepatic 2–7 renal failure and with (CYP 3A4 inducers) Ñ lower (renally eliminated) substrate ­ Respiratory depression extended duration of use midazolam concentrations Duration may be ­ Hypotension GABA agonist; NMDA Propofol Hepatic N/A 0.5–7 prolonged with extended N/A N/A ­ Respiratory depression PRIS antagonist properties duration of use ­ Ò Triglycerides Valproate (decreases ­ Hypotension barbiturate metabolism) Ñ ­ Respiratory depression Duration may be May increase pentobarbital ­ Paralytic ileus GABA agonist; CYP 2A6 Pentobarbital Hepatic N/A 15–50 prolonged with extended concentrations Lamotrigine ­ Immune suppression Barbiturate inducer duration of use (CYP 2A6 substrate) Ñ ­ Hepatic/pancreatic dysfunction pentobarbital lowers ­ Ó Body temperature lamotrigine concentrations ­ Propylene glycol toxicity ­ Hypertension Norketamine Phenytoin and phenobarbital CYP 2C9 & 3A4 ­ Hypersalivation Ketamine NMDA antagonist Hepatic (hepatically 2.5 N/A (CYP 2C9 inducers) Ñ lower substrate ­ eliminated) ketamine concentrations Hallucinations ­ Emergence reaction PRIS = propofol-related infusion syndrome. J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5, 54 3 of 10 2. Approach to cIV Anesthetic Use Most practitioners using cIV AEDs aim for a goal of seizure suppression or burst suppression, but even more aggressive management including suppression of all background activity has been proposed. [7] This has not been investigated in a systematic way, as the heterogeneous nature and relative rarity of the disease process makes conducting large randomized controlled trials challenging (as evidenced by the difficulty in enrolling patients in the only RCT attempted to date [7,8]). Often, total seizure suppression cannot be achieved without inducing a therapeutic coma with a burst-suppression pattern on electroencephalography (EEG) or, at times, even a completely isoelectric EEG. A meta-analysis of cIV-AEDs for RSE found that titration of treatment to EEG background suppression was associated with a significantly lower frequency of breakthrough seizures than titration to seizure suppression, but was also associated with a significantly higher frequency of hypotension; meanwhile, neither titration goal nor choice of anesthetic infusion (between propofol, midazolam, and pentobarbital) was associated with a change in overall outcome [9]. There is also no consensus on the optimal duration of anesthetic infusions for RSE, though guidelines traditionally recommend seizure control for 24–48 h, followed by a gradual wean of the infusion [7]. Seizures that occur during weaning of the anesthetic are labeled as withdrawal seizures, though there may also be later SE recurrence. Both of these necessitate resumption of the anesthetic infusion, potentially at a higher dose and/or addition of another antiepileptic. It is important to keep in mind that, while RSE carries a significant risk of poor outcome, multiple retrospective studies and case series have shown the possibility of meaningful functional recovery even when SE resolution required weeks or months, suggesting that there is no clear duration of SE or number of failures to wean IV anesthetic infusions that should be considered futile [10–14]. Note that there is even less agreement in treating SRSE, when cIV-AEDs fail to control seizures. The management of SRSE is outside the scope of this review, but combination therapy involves adding another treatment that is often non-pharmacologic, like hypothermia [15] or ketogenic diet [16], to ongoing treatment with cIV-AEDs. A relevant point worth noting, however, is that the use of hypothermia leads to a decrease in overall metabolism, which may lead to an increase in the half-life of the IV anesthetics referenced here. 3. Benzodiazepines: Midazolam Midazolam administered as a continuous infusion has been a preferred treatment for RSE since the 1990s, with multiple case series and meta-analyses describing its successful use [9,15–20]. Its popularity stems from its favorable properties, including a fast onset (1–5 min) and relatively short half-life (in the range of 1–6 h) when used as a bolus or short-term infusion [21,22]. It also does not contain propylene glycol, unlike lorazepam and diazepam, which obviates any concern for toxicity from propylene glycol accumulation. Propylene glycol has been associated with hypotension, in addition to more severe cardiac dysfunction and metabolic acidosis, though midazolam itself can cause hypotension. Note that although midazolam has a relatively short half-life after a single dose, case reports have demonstrated a significantly increased half-life after prolonged infusion, due to an increased free fraction and volume of distribution and accumulation of its active metabolite, leading to a longer than expected time to awakening after stopping an infusion [23,24]. Prolonged infusion can also lead to tachyphylaxis, necessitating progressively higher doses to achieve the same effect. Midazolam cIV causes respiratory depression, requiring intubation for the duration of therapy. As with other benzodiazepines, midazolam potentiates the inhibitory action of gamma- aminobutyric acid (GABA) via binding to the gamma-subunit of the GABAA receptor [19]. It undergoes hepatic metabolism via hydroxylation from CYP 3A4 and 3A5, which forms the active metabolite 1-hydroxymidazolam that is renally excreted [25]. As a cytochrome P450 substrate, levels of midazolam are affected by AEDs and other medications that are inducers or inhibitors. When using midazolam for RSE, a loading dose of 0.2 mg/kg at 2 mg/min is recommended, with repeated boluses of 0.2–0.4 mg/kg [7] until seizures have stopped. A continuous infusion should J. Clin. Med. 2016, 5, 54 4 of 10 be started at 0.05–0.2 mg/kg/h and titrated up to 2 mg/kg/h as required, although rates as high as 2.9 mg/kg/h have been described [26]. Fernandez et al. compared high- and low-dose midazolam treatment protocols (if needed, as high as 2.9 mg/kg/h and 0.4 mg/kg/h, respectively) and found that the group treated under the high dose protocol had fewer withdrawal seizures after weaning off the midazolam infusion and had a significantly lower discharge mortality with no difference in hospital complications (aside from a higher incidence of hypotension, which did not affect outcome). However, though the study showed that these higher doses were probably safe, the median maximum doses in the high- and low-dose groups were 0.4 mg/kg/h and 0.2 mg/kg/h, respectively, with only half of the patients in the high-dose protocol group receiving doses higher than 0.2 mg/kg/h; meanwhile patients
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